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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XV
ITALY to KYSHTYM
NEW YORK
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY
1911
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XV. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS,! WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
A. A. H AiTinm Anthony Macdoneix, M.A., Ph.D. f
" ■ - - - .J
Bodcn Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford. Keeper of the Indian J tteMAmw*
Institute. Fellow of Balliol College; Fellow of the British Academy. Author of | n " wra w '
A Vedk Grammar; A History of Sanskrit Literature; Vedic Mythology; &c I
A. B. D. Rev. Andrew B. Davidson, D.D. f . . ,. .*
See the biographical article: Davidson, A. B. \ *°* <** P **.
A. C 8. Algernon Charles Swinburne. J v*.h t: n Aar {\
See the biographical article : Swinburne, A. C. I *^ v "^ ''
A. D. Henry Austin Dobson, LL.D. f Rgnflnuum, Ancellea.
Sec the biographical article: Dobson, H. Austin. \ ■^•■■""■•"■h ««•«•«••
A. B. 8. Arthur Everett Shipley, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. f
Master of Christ's College, Cambridge. Reader in Zoology, Cambridge University. < Klnorhynehs.
Joint-editor of the Cambridge Natural History. I
A. F. P. Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc.
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls*
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dkuonory of National Biography, 1893-
fooi. Lothian PriumaA (Oxford), 1892; Arnold prizeman. 1898. Author of
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.
Jewri, Join.
Juvenile Offenders (in part).
A. 0. Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths (d. 1008).
H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 187&-1896. Author of The Chronicles of Newgate;'
Secrets of the Prison House; &c-
A. Go.* Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A. J Jork;
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \ KnippeidoOulCk.
A. G. D. Arthur George Doughty, C.M.G., M.A., Litt.D., F.R.S. (Canada), F.R.Hisr.S. f
Dominion Archivist of Canada. Member of the Geographical Board of Canada. J j i v <j e Lotblnlim.
Author of The Cradle of New France; &c. Joint-editor of Documents relating to | v **
the Constitutional History of Canada. I
A. H. 8. Rev. Archibald Henry Sayce, Litt.D.. LL.D. / Kissltas.
See the biographical article: Sayce, A- H. I
A. H.-S. Snt A. HoutumSchindlkr, CLE. /S nm; Kw ? i f ;
General in the Persian Array. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Khorasan; Kfshm.
A. H. Sib. Arthur Hamilton Smith, M.A., F.S.A. f
Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. J JewellT
Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue ] ''
of Creek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c. I
A.M.C. Acnes Mary Clbske. S v»*u*
See the biographical article: Clerks, A. M. \ ******
A. ML Alfred Ogle Maskell, F.S.A. - f
Superintendent of the Picture Galleries, Indian and Colonial Exhibition, 1887. J Ivory*
Cantor Lecturer, 1906. Founder and first editor of the Downside Review. Author |
of Ivories; &c I -
Jablrn; Jtctmtr; Jacani; '
A. I. Alfred Newton, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: Newton, ALFRED*
A. T. L Alexander Taylor Innes, M.A., LL.D. .
Scotch advocate. Author of John Knox; Law of Creeds in Scotland; Studies in • Knox, John.
Scottish History; &c.
1 A complete Hst, stowing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume.
J - v
Jackdaw; Jay; Kakapo;
Kestrel; KUldeer; King-
Bird; Kingfisher; Kinglet;
[Kite; KM; Knot
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. W. H.* Arthur William Holland. r
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, J Jacobite.
A. W. W. Adolphcs William Ward, LL.D., D.Litt. f Wmimmmm , «^
See the biographical article : Ward, A. W. \ J0B »"» ■«•
B. P. 8. B.-P. Major Badem F. S. Baden-Powell, F.R.A.S., F.R.Met.S. f
Inventor of man-lifung kites. Formerly President of Aeronautical Society. Author < KHa-flying (in pari).
B. W. B. Rev. Benjamin Wisner Bacon, A.M., D.D., Lrrr.D., LL.D. , lmwmmm Wmtm4Mm .
Professor of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis in Yale University. Formerly J *»»•»#■*»«• ©R
Director of American School of Archaeology, Jerusalem. Author of The Fourth 1 Jam, The General EpJgUB OL
Gospel in Research and Debate; The Founding of the Church; &c
of Ballooning as a Sport; War in Practice; &c
<{
CD. 0. Rev. Christian Davtd Ginsburg, LL.D. /_ ... ... , ^
See the biographical arrfcte: Ginsbvrc, C. 1% * \ KnbfcWl impart).
C. EL Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.O., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r
Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College. Kashgar (in pari);
Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East < Khazaji (in parti *
Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-Ceneral at Zanzibar; Consul-Genera! for ichiv* lit *^ r t\ '
German East Africa, 1900-1904. I IOl,v * ** **">'
C.E.D.B. C. E. D. Black. J_ . ,.
Formerly Clerk for Geographical Records, India Office, London. 1. wBgtr (|» part).
C. H. Ha. Carlton Huntley Hayes, A.M.j Pb.D. f
Assistant Professor of History tn Columbia University, New York City, Member -J John XXL: JoUnj H.
of the American Historical Association. ^
C. H. T.* Crawford Howell Toy. / ,_ h ,. AjtmA
See the biographical article: Toy, Crawford Howell, \ * ou * m ***'•
C. J. J. Charles Jasper Joly, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. (1864^1006). f
Royal Astronomer of Ireland, and Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the Uai- J *■+**&******
. vcrsity of Dublin, 1897-1906. Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. Secretary of the 1 "■W'WW-
Royal Irish Academy. I
C. J. L. Sir Charles Tames Lyall, K.C.S.I., CLE., LL.D. (Ediii.). f
Secretary, judicial and Public Department. India Office. Fellow of King's CoHege, j
London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-1894. i Ktbtr*
Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations
of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c L
C. L. K. Charles Lethdridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc., F.S.A. f „
Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor \ Kempt.
of Chronicles of London* and Stow's Survey of London, [
C. Ml. Chedomille Mijatovich. r
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- I KMtftorg*;
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 190a- 1 Kamjfeh.
1903. I
C. M. W. Sir Charles Moore Watson, K.C.M.G., C.B. r
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Deputy- Inspector-General of Fortifications, 1896-1903. J JerosaJam (in part).
Served under General Gordon in the Sudan, 1874-1875. [
C. R. B. Charles Raymono Beazley, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.Sj, F.R.Hist.S.
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow I
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. < JonUnuj.
Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of
Henry the Navigator; The Down of Modern Geography; 8tc
C. S. C Caspar Stanley Clark. / g^, (i ^*fl
Assisunt in Indian Section, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. \ ***** vn» |w#/.
C. Wo. Cecil Weatherly. / .
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College. Oxford. Bamster-at-Law, Inner Temple. "j Knlgniliooo: Uraers of.
C W. W. Sir Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1816-1907).
Major-Gcneral, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary ■u—.e-um r;« hnrtX-
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- v"|~.. \inman),
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General ") Jordan (w part);
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of Kurdfsttn (in part).
Lord Cthe; Ac [
D. 0. H. Davtd George Hogarth, M.A.
Keeper of the Ashmolcan Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford.
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphot, 1888; Naucratis, 1899
and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut. 1906-1907. Director, British School at
Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.
D. H. David Hannay. f J™?* J 1 "**
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal < Keith, Viscount;
Navy, 1 31 f- 1688; Life of Bmilio Castelar;Ac. I KeppeL VfcooanL
E.B Edward Breck, M. A.. Ph.D. r ._, ,. A _
Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New Yorh Herald and the New Yarh Times. \ Klte-fljlnf (m part).
Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia; &c [
Jebell; Jordan (in part);
Karamanla;
KhariRt; JConia.
B.TB.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES l»
1. Br. Ernest Barker, M.A. f
Fellow and Lecturer in Modern History, Sc John's College, Oxford. Formerly -j Jordan** (in part).
Fellow and Tutor of Merton College. Craven Scholar, 1893. I
I. F.I. Edward Fairbrother Strange, (town: Art (in tart)
Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum. South Kensington. Member of VJZ?' £"1/ F '
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects; Joint-editor ' „""». ~?. 1
of Bell'* " Cathedral ' f Series. [ Kyostl, Sho-Fu.
1. 0. Edmund Gosse, LL.D. / Jaeobsen, Jens Peter;
See the biographical article: Goes*, Edmund. \ KaJewala; Kyd, Thomas.
B. Gr. Ernest Arthur Gardner, M.A. f !««*.
See the biographical article: Gardner, Percy. \ ^^
I. He. Edward Heawood, MX fKenva*
Gonville and Caiua College, Cambridge. Librarian of the Royal Geographical i £„£-.««..-
Society, London. ^ Kllimanjaio.
I. H. B. Six Edward Herbert Bunbury, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1805). .
M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography ; *| Italy: Geography [in parti.
-{■
B. H. H. Ems Hovell Minns, M.A. f i vnAtl .
University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian i «-SI™l—
at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. L £asnuoas.
U H. Eduard Meyer, Ph.D., D.Litt. (Oxon.). LL.D. f
Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des \ Kavadh.
A tier tk tons; Geschichte des alien Aegyptens; Dte JeraeHten und ihre Nachbarstantme. I
E 0.* Edmund Owen, MB., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. f
" - * ~ i!,I
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, J Joints: Diseases and Injuries;
Great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery in the Universities of Cambridge, | Kldnev Disaasaa (in hnrt\
Durham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students. I ***™J yBHW vm J "''
Rev. Etheireo Luke Taunton (d. 1007). f m mmmUm ,. . *
Author of The English Block Monks of St Benedict; History of the Jesuits in England. \ J*™ V*» part).
F. By. Captajn Frank Brinkley, R.A- .,..„.. „ ...— -. f
Foreign Adviser to Nippon Yusen Kaisha. Tokyo. Correspondent of The Times
in Japan. Editor of the Japan Mail. Formerly Professor of Mathematics at ] — *— ■
Imperial Engineering College, Tokyo. Author of Japan ; &c [
F. C C Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A.. D.Th. (Giessen). r
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. 4 Jfcooblte Church.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c. [
F. G. M. B. Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. f
Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. | Kent, Kingdom Of.
F. 0. F. Frederick Gymee Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Tnst. r
Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on! i„t«*«. j mMtMm .„
Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. 1 JotttI - Anatomy.
Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. I
F.LL Lady Lugaro. / Kant;
See the biographical article: Lucard, Sir F. J. D. \ tr^g wm,
F. LL 0. Francis Llewellyn Griffith, M.A., Ph.D. (Leipzig), F.S.A. r
Reader in Egyptology. Oxford University. Editor of die Archaeological Survey J VaMtAV
and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 A** 11 ***
German Archaeological Institute. {
F. B. C. Frank R. Cana.
Author of So*
ft. Sy. Friedrich Schwally.
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. JKharga.
mprfv JJCHWALLY f
Professor of Semitic Philology in the University of Giessen. j Koran (in pari).
F. 8. P. Francis Samuel Phtlbrick, A.M., Ph.D. r
Formerly Teaching Fellow of Nebraska State University, and Scholar and Fellow J Jefferson. Thomas,
of Harvard University. Member of American Historical Association. [
F.f.H. Baron Friedricb von Hugel. r*Afi. tl* jw»
Member of Cambridge Philological Society; Member of Hellenic Society. Author I J ™' J** **?~5
of The Mystical Element of Religion; &c | John, Gospel of St.
F. W. B. # Frederick William Rudler, I.S.O., F.G.S. r
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. J
President of the Geologists* Association, 1887-1889. |
0. A. Gt George Abraham Grierson, CLE., Ph.D., D.Litt.
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 1873-1003. In charge of the Linguistic Survey
of India. 1808-1902. Gold Medallist, Royal Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President
of the Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of
The Languages of India; Ac.
0. st Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer. 1909.
Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa-
tion of Literature.
0. F.B6. Rev. George Foot Moore. /jehoiik.
See the biographical article : Moore, George Foot. \
Jacoba,
VtM INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
G. G. Co. George Gordon Coulton, M.A. f
Btrkbeek Lecturer in Ecclesiastical History, Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of \ Knighthood and Chivalry.
Medieval Studies; Chaucer and his England; From Si Francis to Dante i &c I
G. H. Bo, Rev. George Herbert Box, M.A. f j onn the RantM-
Rector of Sutton Sandy, Beds. Formerly Hebrew "Master. Merchant Taylors' J i^J/rv-I^r , a
School, London. Lecturer in Faculty of Theology, University of Oxford, 190a- ] I ?** f™ r«teaie«0;
1909- Author of Translation of Book of Isaiah ; &c. ,[ JnbUe* Year Ol (»n porQ
G. K. Gustav Kruoer. f
Professor of Church History in the University of Giessen. Author of Das Papsttum ; -j Justin Martyr.
G. ML Rev. George Milugan, D.D. ( ]Mmtm ,«_ r#rf/f- _A.
Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism in the University of Glasgow. Author \ «~T^ , !L* wk,wcw '»
of The Theology of the Eptstle to the Hebrews; Lectures from the Creek Papyri; &c. I Jttwt ttaanot.
G. 8a. Georce Saintsbury, LL.D., D.C.L. S i«t*«ttu,
See the biographical article: SainTSBURT, G. E. B. *£ JOinvuje.
G. S. L. George Somes Layard. / v — - n..^. e
Barrister-atLaw, Inner Temple. Author of Charles Keene; Shirley Brooks; Sec \ *****' *■■»■ ■•
G. 8. R. Sir George Scott Robertson, K.C.S.I., D.C.L., M.P.
Formerly British Agent in Gikjit. Author of The Kafirs of the Hindu Kush;-\ Kafltfclfn-
ChitroJ: the Story of a Minor Siege. M.P. Central Division, Bradford.
H.C.R.
H.De.
H.M.C.
H.M.R.
H.M.V.
H. W. C. D.
H.W.8.
H.T.
•{'
G. W. T. Rev. Grifpithes Wheeler Thatcher, M.A./B.D.
Warden of Camden College. Sydney. N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
JlhJi;
Jarir Rm Atfyya ul-Khatfl;
Janharl; Jawillql; Jurjani,
Kham Ibn Ahmad; Khansft;
Kndl; Kumalt Ion ZafcL
H. A. W. Hugh Alexander Webster. f
Formerly Librarian of University of Edinburgh. Editor of the Scottish Geographical \ Java (in part).
Magazine* i.
H. Ch. Hugh Chisholm, M.A. f
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition -j Joan o! Arc (in pari),
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the 10th edition. {,
H. CL Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, K.C.M.G.
Colonial Secretary, Ceylon. Fellow of the Royal Colonial Institute* Formerly
Resident, Pahang. Colonial Secretary, Trinidad and Tobago, 1903-1907. Author •{ Johor.
of Studies in Brown Humanity; Further India; &c. Joint -author of A Dictionary
of the Malay Language.
H. C H. Horace Carter Hovey, A.M., D.D.
Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological
Society of America, National Geographic Society and Socicte de Speleologie (France). , Jtoobs CavefD.
Author of Celebrated American Caverns; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky
&c
Sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, Bart. f tn^i.*.- >• j, ^
See the biographical article: Rawlinson, Sir H. C. \ K 1 ™"* 11 t*» P***)*
Hippolyte Delehaye, S.T. r januarlQS. it:
Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Anakcta BollandtanaJ V iti. n c?
and Acta sanctorum. ^KJlian, St
Hector Munro Chadwick, M.A. r
Librarian and Fellow of Clare College, Cambridge. Reader in Scandinavian, J Jolos.
Cambridge University. Author of Studies on Anglo-Saxon Institutions, \
Hugh Munro Ross. f
Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford. Editor of The Tims* Engineering \ Kelvin, Lord (til port).
Supplement. Author of British Railways. [
Herbert M. Vaughan, F.S.A. f James: the Pretender:
Kcble College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici < K in*»« Evil
Popes; The Last Stuart Queen. ^lUnfffiVU.
Henry William Carless Davis. M.A. r John. Kin* of 1
Fellow and Tutor of Batliol College, Oxford. Fellow o* All Souls* College, Oxford, < .-u- « H#xh*m.
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. [ mwu w «w»n«u»»
WiotHAic Steed. fw.i« »• , /i?\
Correspondent of The Times at Vienna, Correspondent of The Times at Rome, -j WJT! atstory \p.h
i897-i9oa I
Sir Henry Yule, K.C.S.I., C.B.
See the biographical article: Yule, Sta Henry.
L A. Israel Abrahams, M.A.
Reader in Tatmodic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge.
Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short
History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; <Stc.
Kublai Khan.
Jacob ben Asher;
JeWnek;
Jews: Dispersion to Modern
Times;
Joel;
Johanan Ben Zaceia;
Josipaon; Kalisch, Haxaua;
KroehmaL
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
LLB.
J.A.H.
J.A.B. .
J.A.1
J. Br.
J.Bt
J.B.A.
J.FwE.
J.O.C.A.
J. Q. St.
J.Hn,
J.H.A.K
J.H.F.
J.H.B.
J. BLR.
J.Ja.
J.J.L*
I. It.
J.I.K.
J.P.P.
J.P.Pi.
Isabella L. Bishop.
See the biographical article: Bisbof, Isabella.
urn of Practical Geology, London. Author of
son, D.D.
le British Academy. Hon. Fellow of Christ's
rofeisor of Divinity in the Univeafcy. Author
lAc
John Addinoton Symonds, LL.D.
See the biographical article. Symonds, Jobs Akhnotoh.
Right Hon. James Biyce, D.C.L., D.Lrrr.
See the biographical article: Brycb, James.
James Baxtlett.
Lecturer on Construction, Architecture. Sanitation. Quantities, 4c. at King's
College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior
Engineers.
Joseph Beavincton Atiinson.
Formerly art-critic of the Saturday Renew. Author of 4» 4rf 7V«r in the Northern
Capitals of Europe-, Schools of Modern Art in Germany.
James Ftkmaurice-Kelly, Lrrr D., F R.Hist.S.
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University.
Norman McColf Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy.
Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of
AlpbonsoXII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature; Soc,
Jqhn George Cum Anderson, M.A.
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church. Oxford. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College;
Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Coniflgton Prizeman, 1893.
Snt James George Scott. K.C.I.E.
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma,
The Upper Burma Gautteer.
Justus Hashagen, Ph.D. ^ m .
Privatdozent in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bona. Author of
Das Rheinland uuter die franwbsische HerrschafU
John Henry Arthur Hart, M.A.
Fellow, Theological Lecturer and librarian, St John's College, Cambridge.
John Henry Fkebse, M.A.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge,
John Horace Round, M.A.. LL.D. (Edin.). ........
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peer** mid Family Hutory; Peerage and
Pedigree,
John Holland Rose, M.A., Lrrr.D.
Lecturer on Modem History to the Cambridge Ui
Author of Life of Napoleon /. ; Napoleonic Studies; The
Nations; The Life of PUt;**
Joseph Jacobs. Litt.D.
Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Semii
Local Lectures Syndicate.
of the European
Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York.
Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. G>rre#ponding
Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin
England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; &c
Rev. John James Lias, M.A. ,.*..,
Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly HukjatA Lecturer in Divinity and
Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge.
James MorrATT, M.A., D.D. ,„..,„ ^ . ^
Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. Author of Htstoftcal New Testament; Ac
John Neville Keynes. M.A., D.Sc.
Registrary of the University of Cambridge. University Lecturer in Moral Science.
Secretary to the Local Examinations and Lecture* Syndicate. Formerly Fellow
of Pembroke College. Author of Studies and Exercises t» Formal Logic; 4c.
John Pctcjval Postgate, M.A., Litt.D.
Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool. Fellow of Trarity College,
Cambridge. Fellow of tbe British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly.
Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latemwum; Ac.
Rav. John Punnett Peters, Ph.D., D.D. ...
Canon Residentiary, P.E. Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew in
the University of Pennsylvania. Director of the University Expedition to Baby-
lonia. 18S8-1895. Author of Nippur, or Explorations and Adoenlures on the
Euphrates,
Korea (in pari).
Joints (Geology);
Jurassic; Keupar;
Italy: History (C).
Joinery.
Juan Kennel, Dob.
Karen;
Karen-Hl; KengTlftg\
John, King of Saxony.
Jews: Greek Domination.
Josephns.
(in pari).
Knight-Service.
Italy: History (D.);
J«
J. B. B. John Rose Bradyord, M.D., D.Sc, F.R.C.P., F.R.S.
Physician to University College Hospital. Professc
Physician to University College Hospital. Professor of Materia Medica and J
Therapeutics. University College. ' London. Secretary of the Royal Society.
Formerly Member of Senate University of London.
Jew, Tbe Wandering.
KetteJtr, Baron toil
John, BjpisOes ot
Jews, WIQuun Stanley.
Jvfenal (mi ^ari).
Kerbela;
Kerknk;
Khorsabad.
Kidney Diseases (in parti-
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. T. Be, /ohm Thomas Bealby.
Toint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical
Magaeine. Translator of Sven Hedln's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c
Kan; Kazan; Koran;
Khtofin; Khiva; Khrtand;
Kbotani Kiev;
Kronttadt; Ktthaft;
Ktaen-Lnn; Karat; Hutakw
J. T. 8.* James Thomson Sbotwell, Ph J). / Inmn ^ /^ (iu harti
Professorof History in Columbia Udversity, New York Oty. ^©anoiJira unpart).
{•
J. V. # Juus Viard.
Archivist at the National Archives, Parts. Officer of Public Instruction. Author i JlQSflMCU), At.
of La France sans Philippe VI. de Voids; Ac
J. W. Ha. James Wvcum Headlam, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary £
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at ■
Queen's Coir * ^ --.---♦ - - - - - _^.. l
Empire; Ac
K. Baron Datroeu Ktkuchi, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D. f
President of the Imperial University of Kyoto. President of Imperial Academy of J •_„_. -« «.»,,, / . - -
japan. Emeritus Professor, Imperial University, Toldo. Author of Japanese 1 iaDtm: Tke Clam of Japan.
Education; &c. I
X* 8. Kathleen Schlestncer, flaw's Han* Kettledrum*
Editor of the PorlfoKo tf JfosYaf Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of He < £ri~i * nw *" onuB '
OrdscsJr«;&c. I Kajboard.
L. Count Lutzow, Litt.D. (Oxon.), D.Ph. (Prague), F.R.G.S. f
Chamberlain of H.M. the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia. Hon. Member I _
of the Royal Society of Literature. Member of the Bohemian Academy. Ac. { Jaromt Of FrufOS.
Author of Bohemia, a Historical Sketch; The Historians of Bohemia (ilenester I
Lecture, Oxford, 1904) ; The Life and Times of John Hus; &c [
L. F. V*H* Leveson Francis Vernon-Haecourt, M.A., MJnst.CE. (1839-1007). (
Formerly Professor of Civil Engineering at University College. London. Author of j • aM _
Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; CtoU Engineering as applied in Cm- | 4BU v*
structian; 9cc [
L. J. 8. Leonard James Spencer, M.A. f
Assistant in the Department of Mineralogy. British Museum. Formerly Scholar I AMd| ^ , ,
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkneas Scholar. Editor of the Minera- \ *«"»*»•»
logical Magaeine. (.
L. C Rev. Lewis Campbell, D.C.L., LL.D. f _~
See the biographical article: Campbell. Lewis. ^JtWBtL
L. D. # Louis Duchesne. /John XDL;
See the biographical article: Duchesne, L, M. O. t Julius L
L.V.* LUIGl VlLLARI. f
Italian Foreign Office (Enugratirt Department). Formerly Newspaper Corre-
spondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Phua- .
delphia. 1907; Boston, U.5.A., 1907-1910. Author of Italian Ltfe in Town and
Country; fire and Sword in the Caucasus; Ac
at. Lord Macaulay. SiuhnsinL tumumL
See the biographical article: Macaulay, Baron. | ,w "" 1 ™ ™"
M. Br. Margaret Bryant. J Keats (in parti,
M. P. Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., D.CX., D.Sc. LL.D., F.R-S. f m , llt . i .
See the biographical article: Foster, Sir M. 1 nWllBWi
a1.Bl.Bh. Sir Mancherjxe Merwamtee Bhowmaocres. f
Fellow of Bombay University. M.P. for N.E. Bethnal Green, 1895-1906. Author \ JeeJeebhOY.
of History of the Constitution of the East India Company; Ac [
M. 0. B. 0. Maximilian Otto Bismarck Caspari, M.A. r
Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer ia Greek at Binning- J Justin XL
Italy: History (E. and G).
ham University, 1905-190*.
at P.* Uon Jacquei Maxime Prtnet. f *Wfc <P**h)i
Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. AnxDsary of the Institute ■{ Jojiuaa;
of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). I J«fa, ""
K. B. Norman McLean, M.A. f JMot of 1
Lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge University. Fellow and Hebrew Lecturer, Christ's \ Jacob of 8ar8gh;
College. Cambridge. Joint-editor of the larger Cambridge SeptuaginL [ Joshua tht fffrflit.;
X. V. Joseph Marie Noel Valois.
Member of Academie des Inscriptions et Beues-Lettres, Paris. Honorary Archivist _ . __,_
at the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire de- John XXUL
France and the Societe de I'Ecok da Chartes. Author of La Franca et le grand
eckisme d*Ocddent; Ac
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
O.H. - Otto HfiwBR, F.I.C., F.C.S. f
. Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts. Vice-President J » Mm _ --a j-nu-
of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Author of works On batter 1 * WB * ■ ,MI * wn *»»
analysis; Akohd TabUs; Ac I
5iJ!A^ ......... ... f . . „
Korea {in pari).
P. A. Paul Daniel Alphandery. r
Professor of the History of Dogma. £oole pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonnt. J JoaeMm of Florlf;
Paria. Author of Us Utu morales chex Us bilhodaus latinos au dibut du XW j John TCT.
P. A. A. Pinup A. AsHWorra, M.A., Doc. Juris, r
0. J. R. H. OSBERT JOHK RaDCUTTE HOWARTH. M.A. f J«» tim hnwti*
Christ Church. Oxford. Geographical Scholar, tool. Assistant Secretary of thel -** V*. *"*)*_
British Association- L
New College. Oxford. Barristerat-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History \ JharlDC
of the Kntfuh C on stitu tio n . | ^
P. A. K. PifmcE Pent Alkxhvitch Kropotkin.
Seethe biographical article: KaoroTfcnf, P. A.
Kabnock; Kaluga;
Kamehatka; Kara-Kaaft
Kaxaft; Kerch; KbJngan;
Khokand; Kie?; Kronstadt;
Kubafi; Kuan-Lou;
Karat; Kntals.
iio-JK.
P. GL Petes Giles, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.Dc
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo-
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology.
P. 0. T. Peter Guthrie Tatt. J mr-^*
See the biographical article: TaiT, PeTIR GuTHtlt, \ 9umu
P. La. PbIuf Lahe, M.A., F.G.S. , f
Lectursr on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge university. Formerly J r BMll . n^J^mm
oftne Geological Survey rf India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian | 49>VUk ' <"*ff.
TrUobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparatm Ceology. I
P. L. 0. Philt* Lytteltoh Gell, M.A. f
Sometime Scholar of Balliol College. Oxford. Secretary to the Clarendon Press, \ Khazan (in Pari).
Oxford, 1884-1897. Fellow of King's College, London. t
P. VL Paul Vinocradott, D.C.L., LL.D. f , -
See the biographical article : Vinoorapott, Pauu \ *■■-■— — *»
R.A. # Robert Anchbl. Ivmw^m
Ardbtvist to the Departement de I'Eure. ^ Hawaii.
B. A4. Raewrr Aoahsow, LL.D. / ww a- a^\
See the biographical article: Adamsou, RoamaT. \ X** 1 (** pan)*
R. A. 8. H. Robert Alexander Stewart Macalwtrr, M.A., F.S.A. f j otmm .
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explore* A V™??
tionFund. l*era*>
R. A. W. Robert Alexander Wahab, C.B., C.M.O., CLE. f
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly H.M. Commissioner, Aden Boundary De* I Knwft.
Hmitatfon, and Superintendent, Survey of India. Served with Tirab ExpedttsMary | AUV * k
Force, 1897-1898; Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission, Pamirs, 1895; Ac I
R. F. L. Rev. Richard Frederick Lrtleoale, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. (1833*1800). f , ,, ^
Author of ReUtious Communities of Women in the Early Chunk; Catholic Ritual 1 JSSOJfc (t» pan
in tnaCen^ck of En^and; Why RUuatisUe^ net become I
R.G. Richard Garnett. LL.D. ficmsawAi
See the biographical article; Garnbtt, Richard. \ aaawwaai.
R. H. 0. Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A.. D.D., D.Lm. (Oxdo.).
GrinficJd Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford and Fellow of Mertoo
College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity
College. Dublin. Author and Editor of Booh of Enoch ; Booh of Jubilees ; Assumption
of Moses-, Ascension of Isaiah', Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs; &c
R. L P. RftGnfAfiD InHE* POCOCX, F.Z.S. l utmmAmh
Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. L **—*r**™*
B. J.E. "WAi^ogiMtMn^M^ ^^ f M« >i« Baron;
Jeremy. EpfaHo of,
Jubilees, Book of;
JwUtiwTneBookoL
nald John McNeill, M.A. f Jetreys, 1st Ban
Christ. Church. Oxford. BarristeWLt-Law. Formerly E(fitor of the St James's i w*ith- Fn-Uv
Gasette, London. ^awn. r»v;,
Rosea? Kennaway Dotjglas. f .
Formeriy Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum, and J J
Professor of Chinese, King'* College, London. Author of The Languace and Ltiera- 1 J
ture of China; &* I
SARD Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. r ,
Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874*1882. Author of J J
CeMntut of Fossil Mammals. RefisUs and Birds in the British Museum; The] I
Deer of all Lands ; The Came Animals of Africa'. Ac i 1
R. K. D. Sot Roacu Kennaway Douglas. _ , j^ ^ im JKhMn .
ture of China; &Q.
R.L.* Richard Lydekker^ FJR.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.^ • ! J boa-
1 Kangaroo (in pari).
xu
R.I.B.
R.P*.
B.F.8.
B.B.&
S.A.O.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
sto.
S.H.
T.Aa.
T.A.I.
T.A.J.
T.F.C.
T.H.
T.H.H*
T.K.
T.K.C.
lk.1. -
T.Sa.
T.Wo.
T.W.R.D.
W.Ab.
ROBERT NlSBET BAIN (d. lOCO).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia, the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, iftj-iooo; The First Romanovs,
i6i3~J7»<s ; Slavonic Europe, the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460
to 1796', Ac
Rene* Poupardin, D. is L.
Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliotheque.
Nationale, Paris. Author of Le Royanme d$ Provence sous Us Carolingiens; Ruueil "*
des ckarles de Saint-Germain ; &c
R. Phen£ Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College,
London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's
History of Architecture. Author of Architecture : East and West ; Ac
Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Lrrr. (Cantab.).
Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester.
Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects.
Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.
Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College.
Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Examiner in Hebrew and
Aramaic, London University, 1904- 1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic In-
scriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old
Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; Ac
Jehoram; Jehoshaphat;
Jehn; Jephfhah;
Jerahmeel; Jeroboam;
Jews: Old Testament History;
Jezebel; Joab; Jotsh;
Joseph: Old Testament;
Joshua; Josiah; Jodah;
Judges, Book of ;
Kabbalah (in pari),
Kenltes; Kings, Books oL
Viscount St Cyres.
See the biographical article: looBSLEiCB, isr EarL op.
Simon Newcoub, D.Sc., D.C.L.
See the biographical article: Nbwcomb, Simon.
Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.LrrT. (Oxon.). rtMv n,»~ n *>L**-A c/„^.v~
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ [ ,a JJ: ™ f £'!V *** SUUuticr »
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow,. 1807. Conington Priseman, 1906. Member oH History {p.);
Che Imperial German Archaeological Institute. [ IfTSft.
Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D. r_ .. ^ M
Trinity College, Dublin. | JmyooIIs Oflenders (m for/).
Thomas Athol Joyce, M.A. r
Assistant in Department of Ethnography,. British Museum, Hon. Sec., Royal. Kavlrondo.
Anthropological Institute.
Theodore Freylxnchuysen Collier, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor of History, William* College, WUUamatown. Mass., U.S.A.
Thomas Hodckin, D.C.L.. LL.D.
See the biographical article: Hoocbun, T.
Iran L-VL; \
John VOL : Sobieski;
JueLJens; JoeL Neils;
KAnnan; Kerneny, Barao;
Kbfaludy; Kollonta];
Konlegmlskl; Kosdussko;
Kurakin, Prince.
John, Daks of Burgundy.
Jseobean Style.
Italy: History (A.).
/ Jupiter: Satellites.
Sn Thomas Hungerjord Holdich, K.C.M.G.. K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent Frontier Sun
Julius in.
Jordanes (in pari).
Surveys. India. 1891- f *■*■* ****• Kandakar;
1808. Cold Medallist. R.C-.S. (London), 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the Perso- - Kashmir; Khyber Pass;
Beluch Boundary. 1806. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; Ac [ Kunar; Knshk.
D. r
Socialism; Primer of Socialism; Ac j Julian (in part],
"■» S-P- f Jeremiah; Joel (in party,
.Jonah.
Chkynb, T. K.
e: Noldeke, Theodor.
V*P*rt).
Jute.
<ecturer In History, East London and Birkbeck C
Itanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor _
iography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson,
History of English Literature; Ac
Thomas Wooohousx.
Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee.
Thomas William Rhys Davids, LL.D.. Ph.D. f
Professor of Comparative Religion, Manchester. Professor of Pali and 'Buddhist I .„__.
Literature, University College. London, 1882-1904. President of the Pali Text I ,-tTL.
Society. Fellow of the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of Royal i •«■«■•
Asiatic Society, 1 885-1902. Author of Buddhism; Sacred Books of the Buddhists; "'"" '" w *
Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; Dialogues of the Buddha; Ac I
William Anderson, F.R.C.S. r
Formerly Chairman of Council of the Japan Society. Author of The Pictorial Arts]
of Japan; Japanese Wood Engravings; Catalogue of Chinese and Japanese Pictures']
m the British Museum; Ac I
Art (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
xiil
W. A. B. C Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidce, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern). |
Fellow of Magdalen College. Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's J
College, Lampeter. 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in \
Nature and in History; &c Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-1889.
W. A. P. Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; Ac
W. B.* William Burton, M.A., F.C.S.
Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of
English Stoneware and Earthenware; &c.
W. Ba, William Bacher. Ph.D.
Professor of Biblical Studies at the Rabbinical Seminary. Buda-Pest.
W. Be. Sir Walter Besant.
See the biographical article: Besant, Sir Walter.
W. F. C. William Feilden Craies, M.A.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law at King's College,
London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading, 23rd ed.
W. P. D, William Frederick Denning, F.R.A.S.
Gold Medal, R.A.S. President, Liverpool Astronomical Society, 1877-1878.
Corresponding Fellow of Royal Astronomical Society of Canada; Ac. Author of
Telescopic Work for Starlight Evenings; The Great Meteoric Shower; Ac
W. G. William Garnett, M.A., D CX.
Educational Adviser to the London County Council. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer
of St John's College, Cambridge. Principal and Professor of Mathematics, Durham
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Author of Elementary Dynamics; Ac
W. G. S. William Graham Sumner.
See the biographical article: Sumner, William Graham.
W. H. Be. William Henry Bennett, M.A., D D., D.Litt (Cantab.).
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London.
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; Ac.
W. H. DL William Henry Dines, F.R.S.
Director of Upper Air Investigation for the English Meteorological Office.
W. H. F. Sir William H. Flower, LL.D
See the biographical article: Flower, Sir W. H.
W. L. F. Walter Lynwood Fleming, A.M., Ph.D.
Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Author of Documentary History
of Reconstruction , Ac.
W. L.-W. Sir William Lee-Warner, M.A., K.G.S.I.
Member of Council of India. Formerly Secretary in the Political and Secret
Department of the India Office Author of Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie;
Memoirs of Field-Marshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman; Ac
W. H. R. William Michael Rossetti.
See the biographical article: Rossetti, Dantb G.
W. H. Ra, Sir William Mitchell Ramsay, LL.D., D C.L.
See the biographical article, Ramsay, Sir W. M.
W. P. J. William Price James.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. High Bailiff, Cardiff County Court. Author of
Romantic Professions; Ac
W. R. 8. William Robertson Smith, LL.D.
See the biographical article: Smith, William Robertson.
W. W. F. # William Warde Fowler, M.A.
Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1 881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
Edinburgh University. 1908. Author of The City-State of the Greeks and Romans;
The Roman festivals of the Republican Period; Ac.
W. W. H.* William Walker Rockwell, Lic.Theol.
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
W. T. sV William Young Sellar, LL.D
See the biographical article* Sellar, W. Y.
Jenatseh, Georg;
Jungfrau;
Jura.
Jteoblns;
King; KrlembJld;
KrQdener, Baroness vol
Kashl (in part).
|jonah,RabW;Klmhl.
[jefferiet,
Jury.
Jupiter.
Kelvin, Lord.
I Jackson, Andrew.
\ Japheth.
-[ Kite-flying (t* £art).
J Kangaroo (in part).
Knights of the Golden Circle;
Ku Klux Kan.
Jong Bahadur, Sir.
- Kneller.
•T Jupiter (in party.
- Kipling, Rndyard.
/Joel (in part);
\ Jubilee, Year of (in part).
I Juno;
1 Jupiter (in part).
-I Jerusalem, Synod ot
/ Juvenal (in part)*
If*
Jaundice,
Ju-JuHs,
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Jumping.
Juniper.
Kaffirs.
Kent
Kentucky.
Kerry.
Ketones.
Kiidare.
Kilkenny.
Know Nothing
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XV
ITALY (Italia), the name 1 applied both fa ancient and in
modern times to the great peninsula that projects from the mass
of central Europe far to the south into the Mediterranean Sea,
where the island of Sicily may be considered as a continuation
of the continental promontory. The portion of the Mediterranean
commonly termed the Tyrrhenian Sea forms its limit on the W.
and S., and the Adriatic on the £.; while to the N., where it
joins the main continent of Europe, it is separated from the
adjacent regions by the mighty barrier of the Alps, which sweeps
round in a vast semicircle from the head of the Adriatic to the
shores of Nice and Monaco.
Topofrapky.— The land thus circumscribed extends between
the parallels of 46° 40' and 36* 38' N., and between 6° 3c/ and
18 s 30' E. Its greatest length in a straight line along the main-
hod is from N.W. to S.E., in which direction it measures 708 m.
m m. direct line from the frontier near Cburmayeur to Cape Sta
Maria di Leuca, south of Otranto, but the great mountain
peninsula of Calabria extends about two degrees farther south
to Cape Spartivento in lat. 37° 55*. Its breadth is, owing to its
configuration, very irregular. The northern portion, measured
from the Alps at the Monte Vlso to the mouth of the Po, has a
breadth of about 270 m., while the maximum breadth, from the
Rocca Chiardonnet near Susa to a peak in the valley of the
bonso, is 354 m. But the peninsula of Italy, which forms the
hrgest portion of the country, nowhere exceeds 150 m. in breadth,
vhue it does not generally measure more than 100 m. across. Its
southern extremity, Calabria, forms a complete peninsula, being
suited to the mass of Lucania or the Basillcata by an isthmus
only 35 m. in width, while that between the gulfs of Sta Eufemia
and SquHlace, which connects the two portions of the province,
does not exceed 20 m. The area of the kingdom of Italy, exclusive
of the large islands, is computed at 91,277 sq. m. Though
m^^ the Alps form throughout the northern boundary of
mtmt Italy, the exact limits at the extremities of the Alpine
chain are not dearly marked. Ancient geographers
appear to have generally regarded the remarkable headland
which descends from the Maritime Alps to the sea between Nice
and Monaco as the limit of Italy in that direction, and in a
purely geographical point of view it is probably the best point
that could be selected. But Augustus, who was the first to give
to Italy a definite political organization, carried the frontier to
1 On the derivation see below. History, eectaoa A» aa\ imiL
the river Varus or Var, a few miles west of Nice, and this river
continued in modern times to be generally recognised as the
boundary between France and Italy. But in i860 the annexation
of Nice and the adjoining territory to France brought the
political frontier farther east, to a point between Mentone and
Ventimiglia which constitutes no natural limit.
Towards the north-east, the point where the Julian Alps
approach close to the seashore (just at the sources of the little
stream known in ancient times as the Timavus) would seem to
constitute the best natural limit. But by Augustus the frontier
was carried farther east so as to include Tergeste (Trieste), and
the little river Formio (Risano) was in the first instance chosen
as the limit, but this was subsequently transferred to the river
Arsia (the Arsa), which flows into the Gulf of Quarnero, so as
to include almost all Istria; and the circumstance that the
coast of Istria was throughout the middle ages held by the
republic of Venice tended to perpetuate this arrangement, so
that Istria was generally regarded as belonging to Italy, though
certainly not forming any natural portion of that country.
Present Italian aspirations are similarly directed.
The only other part of the northern frontier of Italy where the
boundary is not clearly marked by nature is Tirol or the valley
of the Adige. Here the main chain of the Alps (as marked by
the watershed) recedes so far to the north that it has never
constituted the frontier. In ancient times the upper valleys of
the Adige and its tributaries were inhabited by Raetian tribes
and included in the province of Raetia; and the line of demarca-
tion between that province and Italy was purely arbitrary,
as it remains to this day. Tridentum or Trent was in the time
of Pliny included in the tenth region of Italy or Venetia, but he
tells us that the inhabitants were a Raetian tribe. At the present
day the frontier between Austria and the kingdom of Italy
crosses the Adige about 30 m. below Trent — that dty and its
territory, which previous to the treaty of Luneville in x 801 was
governed by sovereign archbishops, subject only to the German
emperors, being now induded in the Austrian empire.
While the Alps thus constitute the northern boundary of Italy,
its configuration and internal geography are determined almost
entirely by the great chain of the Apennines, which branches off
from the Maritime Alps between Nice and Genoa, and, after
stretching in an unbroken line from the Gulf of Genoa to the
Adriatic, turns more to the south, and is continued throughout
2a
ITALY
(TOPOGRAPHY
** %»k -•*& * *••**
«* «s* Urt throw* out several
i mmi ,*+Jt .ywH***'****"
*** W considered as constituting
qjj— aad Campania, and
>v" K \'
v ^ lu^^Tw^Tssary. Beaide. these offshoots
„ *7^'^/*^3TSi rf Central Italy several
<•>«*.**» ***** *£* E» Wand, on the seashore.
<*-**■* •**•«*♦**** «** Jin» the Monte Argentaro on the
„ ^*. A * *~ .***■ rrj2T»» ft.) and the Monte Circello
^^ n. v,.^.. *£. **T£^JS«^ by the whole breadth
i, •»•■•» ' *' T" ^2«S?Se TOer (Ittl. Tevere) may
P^ ,*.,«•<*«** •*• ^T^JjZLT^n^ Arno, which hat lu source in
^, x ***, fst r*** aiwww^ -levated summits of the main
t l^ M****- h **^^kJ<I|lMi^*>w« nearly south tin in rteneigh
v .*v<in <M th<
ty north-west, and pursues that
w -fi*in rH m« . »- -',•„._, *wm*IV nortn-wett, «nu pursues imi
£UrM*1 * AfW> h tag* *2£ l i , SS» n make, a sudden bend
^•iiw «« f«r »» HHiiasm »*, **-_ _ ilM . thence to the sea. pawns
'^^. ^ ^^r^^^ttoncetothesea.pawnt
«-« «h* we*, and '^ToLTfts* Dnaripal tributary U the Sieve.
*- -- •• fcl ~ — ■" d - BS JSJI. Swathe waters of the Valdi'
rwi«* '
#***Tr2L- L-^kilk near Siena and V
ich join it on its left bank,
^IT J^T^r ^ena and Volterra, are inconsiderable
^iT^^J^^^tVfrom the territory of Lucca
|tir**»
2^^i?*'!!l^ A 32 n '
^ ««« separate channtL The most
**?4Z~ml south of the Amo are the Cecina,
• T*2Ss below Volterra, and the Ombrone,
iHaearSsea** and enters the sea about la m.
- i-oortant river than the Arno, and the
T<r 'TL" ^*sTe*eption of the Po. rise. In the Apennines,
*-*** * U ^TflT-23oithe Arno, and flows nearly south by
r**-s i
«^ti> *Ot»
«s <»tty
■Z^T^aich it receives the Nera. The Ncra,
.T^Z^T** Monte della Sibilla is a consider-
^LiTwkh it the waters of the Vehno (with its
"^ J^SiAeSalto), which join* it a few miles below
** ^^^"^Tersi. The Teverone or Anio, which enters
- *, i» an Inferior stream to the Nera,
body of water from the mountains
* a MM*ar fact in the geography of Central
I j« Hie Tiber and Arno are in some measure
»r " *• * a level and marshy tract, the waters
^^TAmoand partly into the Tiber.
«f the central Apennines towards the
: and varied than the western. The
M -ww.-1-T— * much nearer to the sea, and hence.
'*' rr^W^erivers that flow from it have short
, MUMiiriTTly Utile importance. They may be
*U.^J>-vrai Rimini southward.: (i) the Foglia;
. , U .^UicaJ celebrity, and affording access to one
**a w&aes of Lie Apennines; (3) the E«not (4)
~ T/ -Toi««i: (6) the Aso; (7) the Trontoj (8)
^ \crrwo; (10) the Sangro; (it) the Tngno,
^ N^wan of the southernmost province of the
' ^ - v«m« be taken as the limit of Central July.
- N*«»m of Central Italy U a hilly country, much
*• *♦ tfte torrents from the mountain*, but fertile,
" . w\ «ivea and vines{ and it ha. been, both in
.»« 11— 11 a populous district, containing many
" ^— * w great oties. Its chief disadvantage is the
^ dv cess* preserving an almost unbroken straight
" ' % * .«*ww« of Ancona. the only port worthy of the
- .^* omsc of Central Italy.
.*k -T^rgieat central massof the Apennines, which
■ " . ^ -sawsghout Central luly, with a general direi-
*. M ^« o» sowtb-east, may be considered as continued
v *iM Sjr abo«t 100 m. farther, from the basin-shaped
," - *. .el Matese (which rises to 6660 ft.) to the ncigh-
- \^v-«k ta the heart of the province of Bawlicata.
^**rt co the ancient Lucanuu The whole of the
*- , *.*oca< times as Samnium (a part of which retaips
- * ^jja too*** orhaaHy designated the rjrovince of
oM *l by an irregular nun of mountains, of much
..- T v»* o< Ceotral Italy, and broken up into a number
k ^«*-* J^t^ l»y rivers, which have for the most part a very
-■V. Ts»» snountainous tract, which has an average
* *■*"* ^ to oo av, h bounded west by the plain of Cam-
, »'T*i'"iae Terra <fi La voro, and cast by the much broader
- - * "T^,,* tract of Apulia or Puglia, composed partly of
. *i* ^g the most part of undulating downs, contrasting
.. ^* it h * esouniain ranges of the Apennines, which rise
* t» '.hem- ^to central mass of the mountains, however,
v** VuUing range*, the one to the west, which heparatct
•^C* ff^ot that of Salerno, and culminate* in the Monte
' » ^^♦^ ja cua*»«a*'e(47>o It.), while the detached volcanic
- .lv*< ,-c»rl> aooo ft.) is isossted from the neighbouring
^ ■^lrT^*rt> aooo I
which projects la a bold spar-like promontory into the Adriatic;
forming the only break in the otherwise uniform coast-line of Italy
on that sea. though separated from the great body of the A nr s uiau ■
by a considerable interval of low country, may be considered at
merely an outlier from the central mass.
From the neighbourhood of Poteaza, the main ridge of the
Apennines is continued by the Monti della Maddalcna in a directioa
nearly due south, so that it approaches within a abort distance of the
Gulf of Pobcastro. whence it is carried on as far as the Monte Pottino,
the last of the lofty summits of the Apennine chain, which exceeds
7000 ft. in height. The range is, however, continued through the
province now called Calabria, to the southern extremity or " toe " of
Italy, but presents in this part a very much altered character, the
broken limestone range which b the true continuation of the chain
as far as the neighbourhood of Nicastro and Catanzaro, and keeps
dose to the west coast, being flanked on the east by a great mass of
granitic mountains, rising to aboat 6000 ft., and covered with vast
forests, from which it derives the name of La Sila. A similar 1
separated from the preceding by a low neck of Tertiary hills, fills
up the whole of the peninsular extremity of Italy from Squtllace
to Reggio. Its highest point is called Aspromonte (6420 ft.).
While the rugged and mountainous district of Calabria, extending
nearly due south for a distance of more than 150 m.. thus derives its
character and configuration almost wholly from the range of the
Apennines, the long spur-like promontory which projects towards
the east to Brindisi and Otranto is merely a continuation of the low
tract of Apulia, with a dry calcareous soii of Tertiary origin. The
Monte Voiture, which rises in the neighbourhood of Mdfi and Veaosa
to 4357 ft., is of volcanic origin, and in great measure detached from
the adjoining mass of the Apennines, Eastward from this the ranees
of low bare hdls called the M urgie of Gravina and Altamura gradually
sink into the still more moderate level of those which constitute
the peninsular tract between Brindisi and Taranto as far as the -'
Cape of Sta Maria di Leuca, the south-east extremity of Italy. Tua
projecting tract, which may be termed the " heel or " spar " of
Southern Italy, in conjunction with the great promontory of Calabria,
forms the deep Gulf of Taranto, about 70 m. in width, and sosnewhac
greater depth, which receives a number of streams from the central
mass of the Apennines.
None of the rivers of Southern Italy is of any great importance.
The Liri (Liris) or Ganglia no, which has its source in the central
Apennines above Sora, not far from Lake Fucino, and enters the
Gulf of Gaeta about 10 m. east of the city of that name, briagsdown
a considerable body of water; as docs also the Volturno, which rises
in the mountains bet we en Castd di Sangro and Agnone, Bows past
Isernia, Venafro and Capua, and enters the sea about 15 m. from thfM
mouth of the Garigfiano. About 16 ra. above Capua it receives the
Calore, which flows by Benevento. The Silarus or Sele enters t he Gul
of Salerno a few miles below the ruins of Paestum. Below this tilt-
watershed of the Apennines is too near to the sea on that side t§
allow the formation of any large streams. Hence toe rivers that flo%
in the opposite direction into the Adriatic and the Gulf of Taransl
have much longer courses, though all partake of the character m
mountain torrents, rushing down with great violence in winter ansl
after storms, but dwindling in the summer into scanty strean —
which hold a winding and sluggish course through the great plains
Apulia. Proceeding south from the Trigno, already mentioned
constituting the limit of Central Italy, there are (1) the Biferno a_
(2) the Fortore, both rising in the mountain, of Samnium, and flo-
ing into the Adriatic west of Monte Gargano; (3) the Cervaro, 1
of the great promontory; and (4) the Ofanto, the Aufidus of Ho
whose description of it is characteristic of almost all 1
Southern Italy, of whkh it may be taken as the typical representaiiv. ___
It rises about is m. west of Conaa, and only about 2$ m. from thW
Gulf of Salerno, so that it is f reoucntly (though erroneously) described^*
as traversing the whole range of the Apennines. In its lower course sut'
flows near Canosa and traverses the celebrated battlefield of Cannae*
(5) The Bradano, which rises near Vcnosa, almost at the foot of
Monte Voiture, flows towards the south-east into the Gulf of Taravnto,
as do the Basento, the Agri and the Smni, all of which descend from
the central chain of the Apennines south of Potenza. The Crati.
which flows from Cosenza northwards, and then turns abruptly
eastward to enter the same gulf, is the only stream worthy of notice
in the rugged peninsula of Calabria; white the arid limestone hills
projecting eastwards to Capo di Leuca do not give rise to anything
more than a mere streamlet, from the mouth of the Ofanto to the
south-eastern extremity of Italy.
The only important lakes are those on or near the north frontier,,
formed by the expansion of the tributaries of the Po. They have
been already noticed in connexion with the rivers by which r-a—,
they are formed, but may be again enumerated in order of •■»«_
succession. They are. proceeding from west to east, (1) the Latgo
d'Orta, (2) the Lago Maggiore. (j) the Lago di Lugano, (4) the Laujo
di Corao, (5) the Lagod'lseo,<6) the Lago d'ldro, and (7) the Lagods
Garda. Of these the last named is considerably the tersest, covering
an area of 143*9. m. It is t2i m. long by 10 broad; while tfc~ "
Maniore sjotMtlafJaiiss Tii ■■— «! ■■-«•— — " ■ — —
TOPOCKAPHri
rrALY
deptb<rfii9«ft^whaethatofComoattal««toi3teft. Of a wholly
overeat diameter is the Lagodi Varese, between the Lago Maggiore
of Lugano, which is a mere shallow expanse of i
d by hills of very moderate elevation. Two other
lakes in the same neighbourhood, as well as those of Erba and
Pnriann, between Como and Lecco, are of a similar character.
The lakes of Central Italy, which are comparatively of trifling
dimensions, belong to a wholly different class. The most important
of these, the Lacus Fucmits of the ancients, now called the Lago di
Cefano, situated almost exactly in the centre of the peninsula,
occupies a basin of cons i d er able extent, surrounded by mountains
and without any natural outlet, at an elevation of more than 2000 ft.
Its waters have been in great part carried off by an artificial channel,
and more than half its surface laid bare. Next in size is the Lago
Trashneno,a broad expanseof shallow waters, about 90 m. in circum-
ference, surrounded by low hills. The neighbouring lake of Chiusi
is of similar character, but much smaller dimensions. All the other
lakes of Central Italy, which are scattered through the volcanic
districts west of the Apennines, are of an entirely different formation,
and o cc up y deep cup-shaped hollows, which have undoubtedly at
one time formed the craters of extinct volcanoes. Such is the Lago di
Bobena, near the city of the same name, which is an extensive sheet
of water, as well as the much smaller Lago di Vico (the Ciminian lake
of ancient writers) and the Lago di Bracciano, nearer Rome, while
to the south of Rome the well known lakes of Albano and Nemi
save a similar origin.
The only lake properly so called In southern Italy is the Lago del
Matese, in the heart of the mountain group of the same name, of
small extent. The so-called like* on the coast of the Adriatic north
and south of the pro m o nt ory of Gargano are brackish lagoons
crwrmnmrating with the sea.
The three great islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica are closely
i with Italy, both by geographical position and community
of language, but they are considered at length in separate
articles. Of the smaller islands that lie near the coasts
of Italy, the most considerable is that of Elba, off the west coast of
central Italy, about 50 m. S. of Leghorn, and separated from the
mainland at Piombino by a strait of only about 6 m. in width.
cany, is
South
Monte-
i nearer
itory of
er south
ter. Of
the Bay
he more
imber— -
volcanic
te Island
■y of the
jrLipari
than to
ut equi-
st to its
red bya
aast-line
t island ;
h of the
1 breaks
1 that of
■e found
district
>reading
diere of
Ban to
Otfanto.
Besides these, and leaving out of account the islands, the Italian
peninsula presents four distinct volcanic districts. In three of them
the volcanoes are entirely extinct, while the fourth is still in great
activity.
1. The Euganean hills form a small group extending for about
to m. from the neighbourhood of Padua to Este, and separated from
the lower offshoots of the Alps by a portion of the wide plain of
Padua. Monte Venda. their highest peak, is 1890 ft. high.
2. The Roman district, the largest of the four, extends from the
hills of Albano to the frontier of Tuscany, and from the lower slopes
of the Apennines to the Tyrrhenian Sea. It may be divided into
three groups: the Monti Albani, the second highest 1 of which,
Monte Cavo (31 15 ft.), is the ancient Mons Albanus, on the summit
of which stood the temple of Jupiter Latialis, where the assemblies
of the cities forming the Latin confederation were held; the Monti
Cimtnl. which extend from the valley of the Tiber to the neighbour-
* The actually highest point is the Maschio delle Faete (3137 ft.).
(See Albanus mons.)
oranges and lemons but even the olive tree cannot be grown, except
in specially favoured situations. But the strip of coast between the
Apennines and the sea, known as the Riviera of Genoa, is not only
extremely favourable to the growth of olives, but produces oranges
and lemons in abundance, while even the aloe, the cactus and the
palm flourish in many places.
Central Italy also presents striking differences of climate and
temperature according to the greater or less proximity to the moun-
tains. Thus the greater part of Tuscany, and the provinces thence
to Rome, enjoy a mild winter climate, and are well adapted to the
growth of mulberries and olives as well a* vines, but it is not till after
passing Terracina, in proceeding along the western coast towards
the south, that the vegetation of southern Italy develops in its full
luxuriance. Even in the central parts of Tuscany, however, the
climate is very much affected by the neighbouring mountains,
and the increasing elevation of the Apennines as they proceed south
produces a corresponding effect upon the temperature. But it is
when we reach the central range of the Apennines that we find
the coldest districts of Italy. In all the upland valleys of the
Abruxxi snow begins to fall early in November, and heavy storms
occur often as late as May; whole communities are shut out for
months from any intercourse with their neighbours, and some
villages are so long buried in snow that regular passages are made
between the different houses for the sake of communication among
the inhabitants. The district from the south-east of Lake Fucino
to the Piano di Cinque Miglia. enclosing the upper basin of the Sangro
6
•*!**• •""•» WW ot Scaano, b the eldest *ud mc
l**y south of the AlpTHeavv falUof anow in J
moat bleak part of
Mt tune towards the end of July are the
jght frosts. Yet less than 40 nuE. of this
the north, the olhre. the fig-tree and the
a the shores of the Adriatic from Ortona
iy, whilst in the plains and hills round
, and never remains long, and the ther-
1 the freezing-point, 20 m. E. from it in the
no great elevation, but encircled by high
tot uncommon as late as June; and 18 m.
i region of San Angdo dei Lombardi and
re always warmly clad, and vines grow
heltered places. Still farther south-east.
dest climate in Italy, and certainly the
|o«*«t summer Irmptraturea. But nowhere are these contrasts
^ vinWiim a» ( n Calabria. The shores, especially on the Tyrrhenian
>sv |mv«mu alnHMt a continued grove of olive, orange, lemon and
t »t i\w imt, which attain a size unknown in the north of Italy. The
«,tta*tM«t* nourishes, the cotton-plant ripens to perfection, date-
li*v« at* *wn In the gardens, the rocks are clothed with the prickly-
I*hh «h I tttlUii f\g, l he enclosures of the fields are formed by aloes and
mMUrtlNM* pomegranate*, the liquorice-root grows wild, and the
miamU • (he myrtio and many varieties of oleander and cistus form
i\\o uimIoi wtMHl o( (ho natural forests of arbutus and evergreen oak*
II *« turn inland but 5 or 6 m. from the shore, and often even less,
th<< miMM» changes. High districts covered with oaks and chestnut*
•m«««<«l to this almost tropical vegetation; a little higher up and
wt< msu h the elevated regions of the PolUno and the Sila, covered
«ltlt lit* and pints, and affording rich pastures even in the midst of
•ummvr, when heavy dews and light frosts succeed each other in July
aiul AuguM, and snow begins to appear at the end of September or
•aily in October. Along; the shores of the Adriatic, which are ex-
|mmh! to t he north<est winds, blowing coldly from over the Albanian
nuHiutalns. delicate plants do not thrive so well in general as under
(ho Mine latitude along the shores of the Tyrrhenian Sea.
Southern Italy indeed has in general a very different climate
from the northern portion of the kingdom; and, though large tracts
an* st ill occupied by rugged mountains of sufficient elevation to retain
ITALY IFOPULATMW
fish there are many varieties, the tunny, the sardine and the anchovy
being ccmunerrielfy the most important. Some of the other edabfe
fish, such as the palombo, are not found in northern waters. Smal
cuttlefish are in common use as an article of diet. TortoiaesbelL
an important article of commerce, b derived from the Tbalattochdvt
carctta, a sea turtle. Of freshwater fish the trout of the mountain
streams and the eels of the coast lagoons, may be mentioned. The
tarantula spider and the scorpion are found in the south of Italy.
The aquarium of the zoological station at Naples contains the
finest collection in the world ofi marine animals, showing the wonderful
variety of the different species of fish, molluscs, Crustacea, Ac. found
in the Mediterranean. (E. H. B.; T. As.)
Papulation.— The following table indicates the areas of the several
provinces (sixty-nine in number), and the population of each accord-
ing to the censuses of the 31st of December -1881 and the 9th of
February 1001 . (The larger divisions or compartments in which the
provinces are grouped are not officially recognised.)
the snow for a considerable part of the year, the districts adjoining
the sea enjoy a climate similar to that of Greece and the southern
provinces 01 Spain. Unfortunately several of these fertile tracts
suffer severely from malaria (q.v.), and especially the great plain
adjoining the Gulf of Tarcntum, which in the early ages of history
was surrounded by a girdle of Greek citi es ■ s ome of which
attained to almost unexampled prosperity — has for centuries past
been given up to almost complete desolation. 1
It is remarkable that, of the vegetable productions of Italy, many
which are at the present day among the first to attract the attention
of the visitor are of comparatively late introduction, and were un-
known in ancient times. The olive indeed in al| ages clothed the
hills of a large part of the country; but the orange and lemon, are
a late importation from the East, while the cactus or Indian fig and
the aloe, both of them so conspicuous on the shores of southern Italy,
as well as of the. Riviera of Genoa, are of Mexican origin, and conse-
quently could hot have been introduced earlier than the 16th century.
The same remark applies to the roaixe or Indian corn. Many botanists
are even of opinion that the sweet chestnut, which now constitutes
so large a part of the forests that clothe the sides both of the Alps and
the Apennines, and in some districts supplies the chief food of the
inhabitants, is not originally of Italian growth; it is certain that
it had not attained in ancient times to anything like the extension
ancTimpoftance which it now possesses. The eucalyptus is of quite
modern introduction; it has been extensively planted in malarious
districts. The characteristic cypress, ilex ana stone-pine, however,
are native trees, the last-named nourishing especially near the coast.
The proportion of evergreens is large, and nas a marked effect on the
landscape in winter.
Fauna, — The chamois, bouquetin and marmot are found only in
the Alps, not at all in the Apennines. In the latter the bear was found
in Roman times, and there are said to be still a few remaining.
Wolves are more numerous, though only in the mountainous
districts; the flocks are protected against them by large white sheep-
dogs, who have some wolf blood in them. Wild boars are also found
in mountainous and forest districts. Foxes are common in the
neighbourhood of Rome. The sea mammals include the common
dolphin (Delpkinus ddphis). The birds are similar to those of central
Europe; in the mountains vultures, eagles, buzzards, kites, falcons
and hawks are found. Partridges, woodcock, snipe, &c, are among
the game birds; but all kinds of small birds are also shot for food,
and their number is thus kept down, while many members of the
migratory species are caught by traps in the foothills on the south
side of the Alps, especially near the Lake of Como, on their passage.
Large numbers of quails are shot in the spring. Among reptiles,
the various kinds of lizard are noticeable. There are several varieties
of snakes, of which three species (all vipers) are poisonous. Of sea-
1 On the influence of malaria on the population of Early Italy see
W. H. S. Jones in Annals oj ArckatoU>ty and Anthropology, ii. 97 sqq.
(Liverpool, 1909).
Provinces and Compartments.
Area in
sq. m.
Population
1881.
1 901.
Alessandria
Cunco
Novara
Turin ....
Piedmont . . . .
Genoa
Porto Maurizio ....
Liguria ....
Bergamo ......
Brescia
Como
Cremona
Mantua
Milan
Pavia
Sondrio
Lombardy . . .
Bclluno
Padua
Rovigo
Treviso
Udine
Venice
Verona
Viceiua
Veoetia ....
Bologna
Ferrara
ForU
Modena
Parma
Piacenza
Ravenna
Reggio (Emilia) ....
Emilia ....
Arezzo
Florence
Grosseto
Leghorn
Lucca
Massa and Carrara . . .
Pisa
Siena
Tuscany . . .
Ancona
Ascoli Piceno
Macerata
Pesaro and Urbino . . .
Marches ....
Perugia — Umbria ....
Rome— Lasio
2553
3955
729,710
635400
675.926
1,029.214
825.74s
670,504
763.830
1,147414
".340
3,070,250
3407493
1582
455
760,122
132,251
931.156
144*04
2037
892.373
1. 075J60
1098
1845
1091
695
912
1223
1290
1252
390.775
471.568
5»S.o50
302,097
295.728
W 14.991
469.831
120,534
467449
541J65
594404
329471
315448
1450.214
504482
130.966
9386
3.680.574
443*099
1293
823
685
900
2541
1052
174.140
397.762
217,700
375.704
356i7o8
304-065
396449
214,803
444460
416,945
614.720
399.823
427.018
453*21
9476
2,814.173
3.193447
1448
xoia
725
987
1250
954
m
464.879
230307
251,110
279.254
267,306
226,758
218459
244.959
529*19
270458
283*96
323.598
303.694
250491
281,085
7967
2,18343a
2.477.697
1273
226$
1738
1179
1471
238.744
790.770
114.295
121,612
284484
169.469
283.563
005,926
275488
945424
137.795
121,137
329*86
202,749
319^54
233J74
9304
2.208,869
2.566407
7 ?J
1118
267438
209,185
239.713
223,043
308446
251,829
269405
259,083
3763
939.279
1,088,763
3748
572.060
675452
4663
903472
1.142426
POPULATION)
ITALY
Provinces and Compartments.
Area in
an. m.
Population.
1881.
1901.
Aqmla degtt Abnuua (Abrazzo
Ulteriore 11.) ....
Campobasso (Molise) .
1 138
1067
436.367
389»976
387.604
313,188
Chieti (Abruzso Citeriore)
Tecamo (Abruxso Ulteriore I.)
Abrusi and Mouse
Aveflino (Prindpato Ulteriore)
Bene vento ......
Caaerta (Terra di Lavoro)
Naples
Salerno (Prindpato Citeriore)
Campania . . .
Bar! delte PujUe (Terra di Barf)
Foggia (Capitanata) . . .
Lecce (Terra diOtnnto) . .
ApuKa «...
Potensa (Basilkata) . . .
Cataoxaro (Calabria Ulteriore
II)
Coseiua (Calabria Citeriore) .
Remo di Calabria (Calabria
Ulteriore I.)
Calabria ....
Csltanisetta
Catania
Girgenti
Palermo
Syracuse
Trapani
Sicily
CagHari
Saasari
Sardinia ....
Kingdom of Italy ....
6380
1.317^15
1.526.135
U73
818
2033
350
1916
302.619
238425
7I4.I3I
1,001.245
550,157
421.766
365460
..«
585.132
6389
2.896.577
3.319491
3065
3688
3633
679499
356^67
553*298
837.683
421.115
705482
7376
1.589,064
1,964.180
3845
524.504
49>.558
3030
3568
1331
433.975
45i.«85
372.723
498.791
503429
437.209
5«»9
W57.883
1439429
1363
1917
1172
1346
1948
,44 2
948
266.379
563457
3«2487
460.924
699.151
341.526
283.977
329449
703.598
380.666
550.895
796,151
433.796
373569
9936
3,937.901
3,568,134
5204
4090
430.635
361,367
486.767
309.036
9294
683,003
795.793
110.633
38459.638
32.965504
The number of foreigners in ]
37J62 were domidled within the
The populatioo given in the
" legal " population, which is al
This is 490.251 higher than t
ascertained by the census of the
eace is due to temporary absent
individuals on military service, &t
and also to the fact that 469,020
from Italy, while only 61,606 for
the census. The kingdom is divi
of which 197 are classed as circot
belonging to the province of Man
18D6 administrative divisions (1
These were the figures at the dati
1805 mmnimttnh and 8390 conn
not connected with communes.
ojvutMHM no longer correspond to
ftnetssurHJ which in November
1 535 by a law which provided thi
exwtiag administrative and electo
Ideal administrative bodies are t
councils. The franchise is some*
Both bodies ate elected for six y
three yean. The provincial cou
and the communal council a mu
members; these smaller bodies
while they are not sitting. The
by ballot by the communal coun
The actual (not the resident or
1770 is approximately given in t
of the kingdom as a whole was t
1770 . . 14*689,317
1800 . . 17,337421
1834 . . 19.726,977
1848 . . 33,617.153
taly in 1
■ kingdom
foregoing
so given
he actua
lothof F
aes from 1
^ who on
individoa
eigners w
idea into
idamanc
tnaandt]
mandamn
eofthea
munes, at
The ma*
the judk
1891 we
it judicial
raldivisk
the provi
rhat wide
ears, one-
ndl elect
nidpalco
carry on
syndic of
cil from a
" legal"
he follow
iken In it
I 186
1 187
1881
1 too
901 was 6i,e
L
table is th«
for the indh
1 population
ebniary 100
Lheir residem
>bablywerec
Iswereretun
ere in Italy 1
69 provinces,
87asdistrk
tie 8 province
Ui) and 836
sums. In lot
id 4 borough
damtntior ai
rial divisions
re reduced 1
reform shou
ms. Theprii!
ndal and th
rthan the pi
half bring n
» a provinda
unal from ai
the business
each commt
mong its ow
► population
ng table (th
I71):—
[ . » 35.0
I . . 36,8-
1 . .384
1 . . 324
06, of whom
e resident or
ridual towns.
. 32475.253.
1; the differ-
res of certain
ountcd twice,
ned as absent
it the date of
384 regions,
ts (the latter
sol Vcnetia),
2 communes.
06 there were
s in Sardinia
dministrative
(mandamenti
rom 1806 to
Id not modify
tdpal elective
e communal
uiiamentary.
rawed every
1 commission
none its own
of the larger
me is elected
1 members,
of Italy since
e first census
16.801
01.154
59.638
75.253
The a versos density increased from 257-31 per sq. m. in 1881 to
~ • in Venetia, Emilia, the Marches, Umbria and
?>3-a8 in 1001
uscany the proportion of concentrated population ia
40 to 55%; in Piedmont, Lignria and Lombardy the proportion
1 of concentrated population ia only from
rises to from 70 to 76%; in southern Italy, Sicily and Sardinia it
attains a maximum of from 76 to 93%.
The population of towns over 100,000 is given in the following
table according to the estimates for 1906. The population of the
town itself is distinguished from that of its commune, which often
includes a considerable portion of the surrounding country.
Town. Commune.
Bologna ...... 105,153 160,423
Catania 135-548 159.210
Florence 301,183 326,550
Genoa 255,294 267,248
Messina 108.514 165.007
Milan 560.613
Naples 491.614 585,389
Palermo 364,016 3 3 3.747
Rome 403,383 510,580
Turin 277,131 361,720
Venice 146,940 169,563
The population of the different parts of Italy differs in charac-
ter and dialect; and there is little community of sentiment
between them. The modes of life and standards of comfort and
morality in north Italy and in Calabria are widely different; the
former being far in front of the latter. Much , however, is effected
towards unification,' by compulsory military service, it being the
prinriple that no man shall serve within the military district to
which he belongs. In almost all parts the idea of personal
loyalty (eg. between master and servant) retains an almost
feudal strength. The inhabitants of the north— the Pied-
montese, Lombards and Genoese especially— have suffered less
than those of the rest of the peninsula from foreign domination
and from the admixture of inferior racial elements, and the cold
winter climate prevents the heat of summer from being enervat-
ing. They, and also the inhabitants of central Italy, are more
industrious than the inhabitants of the southern provinces,
who have by no means recovered from centuries of misgovern"
ment and oppression, and are naturally more hot-blooded and
excitable, but less stable, capable of organization or trust-
worthy. The southerners are apathetic except when roused,
and socialist doctrines find their chief adherents In the north.
The Sicilians and Sardinians have something of Spanish dignity,
but the former are one of the most mixed and the latter probably
one of the purest races of the Italian kingdom. Physical character-
istics differ widely; but as a whole the Italian is somewhat short
of suture, with dark or black hair and eyes, often good looking.
Both sexes reach maturity early. Mortality is decreasing, but
if we may judge from the physical conditions of the recruits the
physique of the nation shows little or no improvement. Much of
this lack of progress is attributed to the heavy manual (especially
agricultural) work undertaken by women and children. The
women especially age rapidly, largely owing to this cause (E.
Nathan, Vent' anni di vita italiana attrtverso all' annuaria,
x6o sqq.).
Births, Marriotts, Deaths.— Birth and marriage rates vary
considerably, being highest in the centre and south (Umbria, the
Marches, Anulia, Abruzzi and Molise, and Calabria) and lowest in the
north (Piedmont, Liguria and Venetia), and in Sardinia. The
death-rate is highest in Apulia, in the Abruiri and Molise, and in
Sardinia, and lowest in the north, especially in Venetia and Piedmont.
Taking the statistics for the whole kingdom, the annual marriage-
rate for the years 1876-1880 was 7*5$ per 1000; in 188 1-1885 it rose
to 8 06; in 1886-1890 it was 7*77; in 1891-1895 it was 741. and in
1896-1900 it had gone down to 7*14 (a figure largely produced by
the abnormally low rate of 6-88 in 1898), and in 1902 was 723.
Divorce is forbidden by the Roman Catholic Church, and only 839
judicial separations were obtained from the courts in 1902, more
than half of the demands made having been abandoned. Of the
whole population in 1901, 57-5% were unmarried, 360% married,
and 65% widowers or widows. The Illegitimate births show a
decrease, having been 6*95* per too births in 1873 and 5*72 in 1903,
with a rise, however, in the intermediate period as high as 7*76 in
1883. The birth-rate shows a corresponding decrease from 38-10
per 1000 in 1881 to 33*39 in 1003. The male births have since 1873
been about 3% (3*14 in 1873-1875 and 3*73 in 1806-1000) in excess
of the female births, which is rather more than com p ensated for by
the mater male mortality, the excess ban? 264 in 1872-1875 and
having increased to 4*08 in 1896- 1900. - (The calculations are made
9
ITALY
lACRICULTURB
in both cm« o« the total ol birth* «ad death* ol both •««.) The
result is that, while in 1871 there was an excess of 143.370 male*
over female* in the total popoJatioa. in 1881 the excem was only
71,138. and in 1001 there were 169,684 none females than males,
The death-rate (excluding still-born children) was, in 1872, 30-78
per 1000. and has since steadily decreased— less rapidly between
1886-1800 than during other years; in 1902 it was only 22*15 and
in 1899 was aa low as 2189. The excess of births over deaths shows
considerable variations— owing to a very low birth-rate, it was only
3 12 per 1000 in 1880, but has averaged 11*05 per 1000 from 1896 to
1900, reaching 11-98 in 1899 and 11-14 in 1902. For the four years
1 809-1902 24-66 % died under the age of one year, 9-41 between one
and two years. The average expectation of life at birth for the same
period was 52 yean and 11 months, 62 years and 2 months, at the
age of three years, 52 years at the age of fifteen, 44 years at the age
of twenty-four. 30 years at the age of forty; while the average
period of life, which was 35 years 3 months per individual in 1882,
was 43 years per individual in 1901. This shows a considerable
improvement, largely, but not entirely, in the diminution of infant
mortality; the expectation of life at birth in 1882, it is true, was
only 33 years and 6 months, and at three years of age 56 years
1 month ; but the increase, both in the expectation of life and in its
average duration, goes all through the different ages.
Occupations. — In the census of 1901 the population over nine
of age (both male and female) was divided as follows as
main prof<
the
Total.
Males.
Females.
Agricultural (including hunt-
ing and fishing) ....
Industrial
Commerce and transport
(public and private services)
Domestic service, &c
Professional classes, admini-
9,666,467
4.505.736
1,003,888
574.855
1,304,347
6466,165
3.0I7.393
885/70
171.875
855.217
204,012
89.329
3,200,302
1.488.343
118,8x8
402,980
449.»30
40I564
Defence '
Religion
204,012
129.893
Emigration, — The movement of emigration may be divided into
two currents, temporary and permanent — the former going; chiefly
towards neighbouring European countries and to North Africa, and
consisting of manual labourers, the latter towards trans-oceanic
countries, principally Brazil, Argentina and the United States.
These emigrants remain abroad for several years, even when they
do not definitively establish themselves there. They are composed
principally of peasants, unskilled workmen and other manual
labourers. There was a tendency towards increased emigration
during the last quarter of the 19th century. The principal causes
are the growth 01 population, and the over-supply of and low rates
of remuneration for manual labour in various Italian provinces.
Emigration has, however, recently assumed such proportions as to
lead to scarcity of labour and rise of wages in Italy itself. Italians
jonn about half of the total emigrants to America.
Permanent Emigration.
Total Na of
Emigrant*.
Temporary Emigration.
Per every
100,000 of
Population.
Total Na of
Emigrants.
41,607
175.520
251.577
Per every
100,000 of
Population.
«47
578
772
. |W -— ,1 figures may, to a minor extent, be due to better
f* f?in«nsequence of the law of 1901.
■ t g tatl ^rt C ittiH # will be seen the direction of emigration in the
these about three-fourths would be adults; in the meantime, how-
ever, the population increases so fast that even in 1905 there was a
net increase in Sicily of 20,000 souls; so that in three years 2*0,000
workers were replaced by 320000 infants.
The phenomenon of emigration in Sicily cannot altogether be
explained by low wages, which have risen, though prices have done
the same. It tea been denned as apparently " a kind of collective
Agriculture. — Accurate statistics with regard to the area
occupied in different forms of cultivation are difficult to obtain,
both on account of* their varied and piecemeal character and
from the lack of a complete cadastral surrey. A complete
survey was ordered by the law of the xst of March 1886, but
many years must elapse before its completion. The law, however,
enabled provinces most heavily burdened by land tax to ac-
celerate their portion of the survey, and to profit by the reassess-
ment of the tax on the new basis. An idea of the effects of the
survey may be gathered from the fact that the assessments in the
four provinces of Mantua, Ancona, Cremona and Milan, which
formerly amounted to a total of £1 ,454,606, are now £2,788,060, an
increase of 91 % Of the total area of Italy, 70,793,000 acres,
71% are classed as "productive." The unproductive area
comprises 16% of the total area (this includes 4% occupied by
lagoon* or marshes, and 1*75% of the total area susceptible of
bonificaiione or improvement by drainage. Between 1882 and
1902 over £4/300,000 was spent on this by the government). The
uncultivated area is 13%. This includes 3-50% of the total
susceptible of cultivation.
The cultivated area may be divided into five agrarian regions or
zones, named after the variety of tree culture which flourishes in
them. (1) Proceeding from south to north, the first aone is that of
the agrumi (oranges, lemons and similar fruits). It comprises a
great part of Sicily. In Sardinia it extends along the southern and
western coasts. It predominates along the Ligurian Riviera from
Bordighera to Spezia, and on the Adriatic, near San Benedetto dd
Tronto and Gargano, and, crossing the Italian shore of the Ionian
Sea, prevails in some regions of Calabria, and terminates around the
gulfs of Salerno, Sorrento and Naples. (2) The region of olives
comprises the internal Sicilian valleys and part of the mountain
slopes; in Sardinia, the valleys near the coast on the S.E., S.W. and
N.W.; on the mainland it extends from Liguria and from the
southern extremities of the Romagna to Cape Santa Maria di Leuca
in Apulia, and to Cape Spaxtivento in Calabria. Some districts of
the olive region are near the lakes of upper Italy and in Venetia,
and the territories of Verona, Vicenza, Treviso and FriulL (3) The
vine region begins on the sunny slopes of the Alpine spurs and in
those Alpine valleys open towards the south, extending over the
plains of Lombardy and Emilia. In Sardinia it covers the mountain
slopes to a considerable height, and in Sicily covers the aides of the
Madonie range, reaching a level above 3000 ft. on the southern slope
of Etna. The Calabrian Alps, the less rocky sides of the Apulian
Murgie and the whole length of the Apennines are covered at
different heights, according to their situation. The hills of Tuscany,
and of Monferrato in Piedmont, produce the most celebrated Italian
vintages. (4) The region of chestnuts extends from the valleys to
the high plateaus of the Alps, along the northern slopes of the
Apennines in Liguria, Modena, Tuscany, Romagna, Uinbria, the
Marches and along the southern Apennines to the Calabrian and
Sicilian ranges, aa well as to the mountains of Sardinia. (5) The
weeded region covers the Alps and Apennines above the chestnut
level. The woods consist chiefly of pine and hazel upon the Apennines,
and upon the Calabrian, Sicilian and Sardinian mountain* of oak,
ilex, hornbeam and similar trees.
Between these regions of tree culture lie zones of different her-
baceous culture, cereals, vegetable*
and textile plants. The style of
cultivation varies according to the
nature of the ground, terraces sup-
ported by stone walls being much
used in mountainous districts. Cereal
cultivation occupies the for em ost
f>Iace in area arid quantity though
l has been on the decline since
1903, still representing, however, aa
advance on previous years. Wheat
is the most important crop and
905 12,734491 acres, or about 18%
151,696^571 bushels of wheat, a yield
re. The importation has, however,
882— from 164,600 to I.J 26,368 tons;
ed to com cultivation has slightly
r- _, - snee to wheat comes maize, occupying
41 * a of the country , and cultivated almost
w _ ' crop. The production of maiae in 1905
AGRICULTURE)
ITALY
a
reached about 96,250,000 bushels, a slight increase on the average.
The production of maize is, however, insufficient, and 208,719 tons
were imported in 1902— about double the amount imported in 188a.
Rice ts cultivated in low-lying, moist lands, where spring and
summer temperatures are high. The Po valley and the valleys of
Emilia and the Romagna arc best adapted for rice, but the area is
diminishing on account of the competit ' '- ' ' J ~' "he
impoverishment of the soil by too intei 1 is
about 0-5 % of the total of I taly. The i , %
of the total, of which about two-thirds tut
one-third in the Apennine zone. The I
extensive but embraces not more than 1
half is situated in Sardinia and Sicily. C
and Tuscan maremma and in Apulia, ai for
horses and cattle. The area of oats cul tal
area. The other cereals, millet and f>a* »),
have lost much of their importance in < k>
tion of maize and rice. Millet, however, th
of Italy, and is used as bread for ag as
forage when mixed with buckwheat ( he
manufacture of macaroni and similar tic
Italian industry. It is extensively lly
flourishes in the Neapolitan provinces. r „jh-
flour pastes " sank, however, from 7100 tons to 350 between 1882
and 1902.
The cultivation of green forage is extensive and is divided into the
categories of temporary and perennial. The temporary includes
vetches, pulse, lupine, clover and trifolium; and the perennial,
meadow-trefoil, lupinella, sulla (Hedysarum csronarium), lucerne
and darnel. The natural grass meadows arc extensive, and hay is
grown all over the country, but especially in the Po valley. Pasture
occupies about 30% of the total area of the country, of which
Alpine pastures occupy 1*25%. Seed-bearing vegetables are
comparatively scarce. The principal are: white beans, largely
consumed by the working classes; lentils, much less cultivated than
beans; and green peas, largely consumed in Italy, and exported as
a spring vegetable. Chick-pease are extensively cultivated in the
southern provinces. Horse beans are grown, especially in the south
and In the larger islands; lupines are also grown for fodder.
Among tuberous vegetables the potato comes first. The area
occupied is about 07% of the whole of the country. Turnips are
grown principally in the central provinces as an alternative crop to
wheat. They yield as much as 12 tons per acre. Beetroot (Bcla
tsUgaris) is used as fodder, and yields about 10 tons per acre. Sugar
beet is extensively grown to supply the sugar factories. I r\ 1898-1899
there vera only four sugar factories, with an output of 5972 tons;
m IQ05 there were thirty-three, with an output of 93,916 tons.
Market gardening is carried on both near towns and villages,
where products find ready sale, and along the great railways, on
account of transport facilities. Rome is an exception to the former
rule and imports garden produce largely from the neighbourhood of
Naples and from Sardinia.
Among the chief industrial plants is tobacco, which grows wherever
suitable soil exists. Since tobacco as a government monopoly, its
cultivation is subject to official concessions and prescriptions.
Experiments hitherto made show that the cultivation of Oriental
tobacco may profitably be extended in Italy. The yield for loot
was 5528 tons, but a large increase took place subsequently, eleven
million new plants having been added in southern Italy in 1905.
The chief textile plants are hemp, flax and cotton. Hemp w
largely cultivated in the provinces of Turin, Fcrrara, Bologna, Fori!,
Ascoh Piceno and Cascrta. Bologna hemp is specially valued.
FJax covers about 160,000 acres, with a product, in fibre, amounting
to about 20,000 tons. Cotton (Gossypium ktrbaceum), which at
the beginning of the !Qth century, at the time of the Continental
blockade, and again during the American War of Secession, was
largely cultivated, is now grown only in parts of Sicily and in a few
southern provinces. Sumach, liquorice and madder are also grown
in the south.
I The vine is cultivated throughout the length and breadth of Italy,
but while in some of the districts of the south and centre it occupies
from 10 to 20% of the cultivated area, in some of the northern
provinces, such as Sondrio, Belluno, Grossrto, &c, the average is
only about f or 2%. The methods of cultivation are varied; but
the planting of the vines by themselves in long rows of insignificant
bushes is the exception. In Lombardy, Emilia, Romagna, Tuscany,
the Marches, Umbria and the southern provinces, they are trained
to trees which are either left in their natural state or subjected to
pruning and pollarding. In Campania the vines arc allowed to climb
freely to the tops of the poplars. In the rest of Italy the rim and
the maple are the trees mainly employed as supports. Artificial
Kops of several kinds — wires, cane work, trellis work. &c. — are also
use in many districts (in the neighbourhood of Rome canes are
almost exclusively employed), and in some the plant is permitted
to trail along the ground. The vintage takes place, according to
locality and climate, from the beginning of September to the beginning
of November. The vine has been attacked by the Oi&ium tuckert,
the Phylloxera vastatrix and the Peronospora viticola, which in
rapid succession wrought great havoc in Italian vineyards. American
vines, are, however, immune and have been largely adopted. The
production of wine in Che vintage of 1907, which was extraordinarily
abundant all over the country, was estimated at 1232 million gallons
(56 million hectolitres), the average for 1901-J903 being some 352
million gallons less; of this the probable home consumption was
es " ...... it remained
o> d about 45
in » an equally
at »rtatibn of
th rndered the
<" uality, too,
<" tod; Italian
*! i best wines
of we opening
fo ); nor will
m ral qualities
ar ireparation.
Tl >me of the
he re excellent
k* s increased
en a, or about
14 seems thus
to ..__,.. , :y is rather
to be sought after. This has been encouraged by government prizes
sir— tM '
ti<
C
Tl
he
W1
K
19
an
sh
8IV.VUI.V v* »ubm.u-w>» .«. iimu^ *u uvuumiuI| »>,vujr , nuuild 41 111
Calabria; colza in Piedmont, Lombardy, Venctia and Emilia:
and castor-oil in Venctia and Sicily. The product is principally used
for industrial purposes, and partly in the preparation of food, but
the amount is decreasing.
The cultivation of oranges, lemons and their congeners (collec-
tively designated in Italian by the term agntmi) is of comparatively
modern date, the introduction of the Citrus Bigaradi* being probably
due to the Arabs. Sicily is the chief centre of cultivation — the area
occupied by lemon and orange orchards in the province of Palermo
alone having increased from 1 1,525 acres in 1854 to 54,340 in 1874.
Reggio Calabria, Catanzaro, Coscnza, Lecce, Sale *
... Jerno, Naples and
Cascrta are the continental provinces which come next after Sicily.
In Sardinia the cultivation is extensive, but receives little attention.
Both crude and concentrated lime-juice is exported, and essential
oils are extracted from the rind of the ae'umi, more particularly from
that of the lemon and the bergamot. In northern and central Italy,
except in the province of Brescia, the agrumi are almost non-existent.
The trees are planted on irrigated soil and the fruit gathered between
November and August. Considerable trade is done in agra di limone
or lemon extract, which forme the basis of citric acid. Extraction is
extensively carried on in the provinces of Messina and Palermo.
Among other fruit trees, apple-trees have special importance.
Almonds are widely cultivated in Sicily, Sardinia and the southern
provinces; walnut trees throughout the peninsula, their wood being
more important than their fruit; hazel nuts, figs, prickly pears (used
in the south and the islands for hedges, their fruit being a minor
consideration), peaches, pears, locust beans and pistachio nuts are
among the other fruits. The mulberry-tree (mows alba), whose
leaves serve as food for silkworms, is cultivated in every region,
considerable progress having been made in its cultivation and in the
rearing of silkworms since 1850. Silkworra-reariog establishments
(IO
of Importance now exist in the Marches, Umbria, in the Abruzzi,
Tuscany, Piedmont and Venetia. The chief silk-producing provinces
are Lombardy, Venetia and Piedmont. During the period iooo-iooa
the average annual production of silk cocoons was 53,500 tons, and
of silk 5200 tons.
The great variety in physical and social conditions throughout
the peninsula gives corresponding variety to the methods of agricul-
ture. I n the rotation of crops there is an amazing diversity— shifts of
two years, three years, four years, six years, and in many cases
whatever order strikes the fancy of the farmer. The fields of Tuscany
for the most part bear wheat one year and maize the next, in per-
petual interchanges, relieved to some extent by green crops. A
similar method prevails in the Abruzzi, and in the provinces of
Salerno, Benevento and Avcllino. In Lombardy a six-year shift
is common: either wheat, clover, maize, rice, rice, rice (the last
year manured with lupines) or maize, wheat followed by clover,
clover, clover ploughed in, and rice, rice and rice manured with
lupines. The Emilian region is one where regular rotations are best
observed— a common shift being grain, maize, clover, beans and
vetches, Ac., grain, which has the disadvantage of the grain crops
succeeding each other. In the province of Naples, Cascrta. &c.,
Che method of fallows is widely adopted, the ground often being left
jn this state for fifteen or twenty >ears; and in some parts of Sicily
there is a regular interchange of fallow and crop year by year. The
following scheme indicates a common Sicilian method of a type which
fvas many varieties: fallow, grain, grain, pasture, pasture— other
two divisions of the area following the same order, but beginning
respectively with the two years of grain and the two of pasture.
Woods and forests play an important part, especially in regard
to the consistency of the soil and to the character of the water-
^. courses. The chestnut is of great value for its wood and
**_*; its fruit, an article of popular consumption. Good timber
***; is furnished by the oak and beech, and pine and fir forests
****** of the Alps and Apennines. Notwithstanding the efforts
of the government to unify and co-ordinate the forest laws previously
Existing in the various states, deforestation has continued in many
regions. This has been due to speculation, to the unrestricted
pasturage of goats, to the rights which many communes have over
ITALY [AGRICULTURE
p ceptkra of a few sub-
/ great Lombard plain
ii u the largest breed in
t caches it in size. In
t nail stationary flocks.
1 , Apulia, the Abruzzi,
I lopment a remarkable
s ol seasons which has
t ss, and has attracted
a its industrial import-
a 1 acclimatized in the
/ ber of sheep, however,
u >atB, which are reared
1 account of the exist-
ii oi young plantations,
r helps to improve the
b al of private breeders
a nimportant, while the
ii \ horses having been
ii the different regions.
1 n pens and stalls; ia
c the stall system being
Ii cattle are kept in the
erection of shelters,
li i extensively reared in
n and ; though methods
a rapidly increasing.
17,766 head of cattle:
e exported 95.995 and
i a very large decrease
a tgures for 188a. The
e arease,
s great dairy districts.
1 (from Lodi) or grave,
v 09. Parmesan is not
c its name: it ia manu-
fi bourhood of the Po.
a Pavia, Novmra and
/ ia from a town in the
p whole of Lombardy.
11 and in the province of
Cuhcv. a iic wkvwc kiiuwii «• iuc uKwtcmw is produced in regions
extending from 37 * to 43* N. let Gruyere, extensively manufactured
in Switzerland and France, is also produced in Italy in the Alpine
regions and in Sicily. With the exception of Parmesan, Gorgoazola,
La Fontina and Gruyere, most of the Italian cheese b consumed in
the locality of its production. Co-operative dairy farms are
numerous in north Italy, and though only about halt as many as
in 1889 (1 14 in 1902) are better organized. Modern methods have
been introduced.
The drainage of marshes and marshy lands has considerably
extended. A law passed on the 22nd of March 1900 gave a - .
special impulse to this form of enterprise by fixing the ratio 2™^
of expenditure incumbent respectively upon the State, ma
the provinces, the communes, and the owners or other private
individuals directly interested.
The Italian Federation of Agrarian Unions has greatly contributed
to agricultural progress. Government travelling teachers
of agriculture, and fixed schools of viticulture, also do good
work. Some unions annually purchase large quantities
of merchandise for their members, especially chemical
manures. The importation of machinery amounted
5000 tons in 1901.
Income from land has diminished on the whole. The chief
diminution has taken place in the south in regard to oranges and
lemons, cereals and (for some provinces) vines. Since 1895, however,
the heavy import corn duty has caused a slight rise in the income
from corn lands. The principal reasons for the general decrease arc
the fall in prices through foreign competition and the closing of certain
markets, the diseases of plants and the increased outlay required
to combat them, and the growth of State and local taxation. One
of the great evils of Italian agricultural taxation is its lack of elas-
ticity and of adaptation to local conditions. Taxes are not sufficiently
proportioned to what the land may reasonably be expected to
produce, nor sufficient allowance made for the exceptional conditions
of a southern climate, in which a few hours' bad weather may destroy
a whole crop. The Italian agriculturist has come to look (and often
in vain) for action on a large scale from the state, for irrigation,
drainage of uncultivated low-lying land, which may be made fertile,
river regulation, &c; while to the small proprietor the state often
appears only as a hard and inconsiderate tax-gatherer.
The relations between owners and tillers of the soil are still
regulated by the ancient forms of agrarian contract, which have
remained almost untouched by social and political changes. The
possibility of reforming these contracts in some parts of the kingdom
has been studied, in the hope of bringing them into closer harmony
with the needs of rational cultivation and the exigencies of social
justice.
Peasant proprietorship is most common in Lombardy and Pied*
moot, but it is also found elsewhere. Large farms are found ia certain
MINES AND FISHERIES!
ITALY
ii
of the more open districts; but in Italy generally, and especially in
Sardinia, the land b very much subdivided. The following forms of
contract are most usual in the several regions: In Piedmont the
metaadria (mMayoge), the terrieria, the colonia parwiaria, the boaria,
the scktavensa and the afitto, or lease, are most usual. Under
metaadria the contract generally lasts three years. Products are
usually divided in equal proportions be t wee n the owner and the
tiller. The owner pays the taxes, defrays the cost of preparing the
ground, and provides the necessary implements. Stock usually
belong* to the owner, and, even if kept on the half-and-half system,
is usually bought by him. The peasant, or memadro, provides
•■-'•--- rfurmsf ---■•■
labour. Under Urtieria the owner furnishes stock, implements and
seed, and the tiller retains only one-third of the principal products.
In the colonia partiaria the peasant executes all the agricultural
work, in return for which he is housed rent-free, and receives one-
sixth of the corn, one-third of the maize and has a small money wage.
This contract is usually renewed from year to year. The boaria
is widely diffused in its two forms of casctnafaUa and pagke. In the
former case a peasant family undertakes all the necessary work in
return for payment in money or kind, which varies according to the
crop; in the latter the money wages and the payment in kind are
fixed beforehand. Sckiavenaa, either simple or with a share in the
crops, is a form of contract similar to the boaria, but applied princi-
pally to large holdings. The wages are lower than under the boaria.
In the ofkUo, or lease, the proprietor furnishes seed and the imple-
ments. Kent varies according to the quality of the soil.
In Lombardy, besides the meteadri*, the lease b common, but the
lertieria b rare. The lessee, or farmer, tills the soil at his own risk;
usually he provides live stock, implements and capital, and has no
right to compensation for ordinary improvements, nor for extra-
ordinary improvements effected without the landlord's consent.
He b obliged to give a guarantee for the fulfilment of hb engage-
ments. In some places he pays an annual tribute in grapes, corn and
other produce. In some of the Lombard meuadria contracts taxes
are paid by the cultivator.
In Venetia it b more common than elsewhere in Italy for owners
to till their own soil. The prevalent forms of contract are the
mestadria and the lease. In Liguria, also, meuadtia and lease are
the chief forms of contract.
In Emilia both metaadria and lease tenure are widely diffused in
the provinces of Ferrara, Reggio and Parma; but other special
forms of contract exist, known as the famiglio da spesa, boaria,
braccianH obNigoti and broxcianti disobbiigali. In the famiglio da
spesa the tiller receives a smalt wage anrl a proportion of certain
products. The boaria a of two kinds. If the tiller receives as much
as 45 lire per month, supplemented by other wages in kind, it b said
to be boaria a salario; if the principal part of his remuneration Is in
kind, hb contract b called boaria a spesa.
In the Marches, Umbria and Tuscany, metaadria prevaib in its
purest form. Profits and losses, both in regard to produce and stock,
are equally divided. In some places, however, the landlord takes
two-thirds of the olives and the whole of the grapes and the mulberry
leaves. Leasehold exists in the province of Grosseto alone. In
Latium leasehold and farming by landlords prevail, but cases of
metaadria and of " improvement farms " exist. In the agro Romano,
or zone immediately around Rome, land b as a rule left for pasturage.
It needs, therefore, merely supervision by guardians and mounted
overseers, or butteri, who are housed and receive wages. Large
landlords are usually represented by ministri, or factors, who direct
agricultural operations and manage the estates, but the estate b
often let to a middleman, or mereanU di eampaena. Wherever corn
b cultivated, leasehold predominates. Much of the work b done by
companies of peasants, who come down from the mountainous
districts when required, permanent residence not being possible
owing to the malaria. Near Vetlctri and Frosinone " improvement
farms " prevail. A piece of uncultivated land is made over to a
peasant for from 20 to 29 years. Vines and olives are usually
planted, the landlord paying the taxes and receiving one-third of the
produce. At the end of the contract the landlord either cultivates
Kb land himself or leases it, repaying to the improver part of the
expenditure incurred by him. This repayment sometimes consists
of half the estimated value of the standing crops.
In the Abruxxi and in Apulia leasehold Is predominant. Usually
leases la*t from three to six years. In the provinces of Foggb *nd
Lecce long leases (up to twenty-nine years) are granted, but in them
it is explicitly declared that they do not imply tnfiUvsi (perpetual
leasehold), nor any other form of contract equivalent to co-pro-
prietorship. Metaadria b rarely resorted to. On some small hold-
ings, however, it exists with contracts lasting from two to six years.
Special contracts, known as colonie immooibm and colonie temporanee
are applied to the tatifondi or huge estates, the owners of which receive
half the produce, except that of the vines, olive-trees and woods,
which he leases separately. " improvement contracts " also exist.
They consist of long leases, under which the landlord shares the
costs of improvements and builds farm-houses; also leases of orange
and lemon gardens, two-thirds of the produce of which go to the
landlord, while the farmer contributes half the cost of farming
besides the labour. Leasehold, varying from four to six years for
arable land and from six to eighteen years for forest-land, prevails
also in Campanb, Basilica** and Cambria. The sstagko, or rent,
k
a
k
t
d
b
t<
sj
o
v
U
o
c<
CI
Ic
T
ir
a
b
fc
tl
rciamra oy tne actual uuer 01 we sou is extremely meagre, in oaa
years the tiller, moreover, gives up seed corn before beginning harvest.
In Sardinia landlord-farming and leasehold prevail. In the few
cases of metaadria the Tuscan system b followed.
Mines. — The number of mines increased from 589 in 1881 to
1580 in 1002. The output in 1881 was worth about £2,800,000, but
by 1895 bad decreased to £1. 800,000, chiefly on account of the fall
in the price of sulphur. It afterwards rose, and was worth more than
„ ,640,000 in 1899, falling again to £3,1 18,600 in 1902 owing to s
American competition in sulphur (see Sicily). The chief minerals
are sulphur, in the production of which Italy holds one of the first
places, iron, zinc, lead; these, and, to a smaller extent, copper of an
inferior quality, manganese and antimony, are successfully mined.
The bulk of the sulphur mines are in Sicily, while the majority of the
lead and sine mines are in Sardinia; much of the lead smelting is
done at Pertusola, near Genoa, the company formed for this purpose
having acquired many of the Sardiman mines. Iron b mainly mined
in Elba. Quicksilver and tin are found (the latter in small quantities)
in Tuscany. Boracic acid b chiefly found near VoUerra. where there
b also a little rock salt, but the main supply b obtained by evapora-
tion. The output of stone from quarries u greatly diminished (from
12,500,000 tons, worth £1,920,000, in 1890, to 8,000,000 tons, worth
£1,400,000, in 1899), * circumstance probably attributable to the
slackening of building enterprise in many cities, and to the decrease
in the demand for stone for railway, maritime and river embankment
works. The value of the output had, however, by 1902 risen to
£1,600,000, representing a tonnage of about 10,000,000. There b
good travertine below Tivoli and elsewhere in Italy; the finest
granite b found at Baveno. Lava b much used for paving-stones
in the neighbourhood of volcanic districts, where posxolana (for
cement) and pumice stone are also important. Much of Italy contains
Pliocene clay, which b good for pottery and brickmaking. Mineral
springs are very numerous, and of great variety.
Fisheries.— The number of boats and smacks engaged in the
fisheries has considerably increased. In 188 1 the total number was
15.914. with a tonnage of 49.1°3- In 1902 there were 23,098 boats,
manned by 101 ,720 men, and the total catch was valued at just over
half a million sterling— according to the government figures, which
are certainly below the truth. The value has, however, undoubtedly
diminished, though the number of boats and crews increases. Most
of the fishing boats,' properly so called, start from the Adriatic coast,
the coral boats from the western Mediterranean coast, and the sponge
boats from the western Mediterranean and Sicilian coasts. Fishing
and trawling are carried on chiefly off the Italian (especially Ligurian,
Austrian and Tunisian coasts; coral b found principally near
Sardinia and Sicily, and sponges almost exclusively off Sicily and
Tunisia in the neighbourhood of Sfax. For sponge fishing no
accurate statistics are available before 1896; in that year 75 tons of
sponges were secured, but there has been considerable diminution
since, only 3 1 tons being obtained in 1 902. A considerable proportion
was obtained by foreign boats. The island of Lampedusa may be
considered it* centre. Coral fishing, which fell off between 1889 and
1892 on account of the temporary closing of the Sciacca coral reefs
has greatly decreased since 1884, when the fisheries produced 643
tons, whereas in 1902 they only produced 225 tons. The value of
the product has, however, proportionately increased, so that the sum
liaed was little leas* while leas than half the number of men
%t
ITALY
(MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES
•
*9*
r ••* v\*w** ^•\K\»i>n co««1 command* from £t to {4 per kilo-
n v- ^ **V *»^l i» much more valuable than the Sicilian
^v. Vvk\* r\vK *vtr Again closed (or three winters by a
4 . >N ...» X ^V4 fV r»>Kmjs t« largely carried on by boats from
• >>•>-. v n\>\ m the \\w\\ of Naples, where the best coral beds are
>\ >\^.*v »<v\t l« i$«q auoo men were employed; in 1002 only
. x»\n^ iossv U i^vi there were 48 tunny fisheries, employing
^>v >»»% * m>I jn« t\»n» ol fish worth £80,000 were caught. The
« s.v, n .« *<v in Sardinia, Sicily and Elba. Anchovy and
s * Nv,v S <tho prxMlmtm of which are reckoned among the
• »\ i.m »t» ,ux« .»Im» *>f cott»kfcrahte importance, especially along
, t < > .«»« Ami Ititiin ctvuts. The lagoon fisheries arc also of
> .M»^Mt,»mt, mutr e.^jallv those of Comacchio. the lagoon
%Mst,lk% rt .«vl the Mare Piccolo at Taranto &c The deep-sea
^-sc Nv>u m too* numbered 1308. with a total tonnage of 16J49;
^ % A Ou -♦ wrrv i™*|.fi,hing boats and 1 11 sponge-fishing boats.
/ «..f-.x,. „,/ /V.»xr««.--The Industrial progress of Italy has been
^, % i Mm* 1S80. Many articles formerly imported arc now
#% |v M home, and some Italian manufactures have begun to
•° V! ,h - ?'* *? ma r kcl ** Ildy has on, y important lignite
%l .»>^'»«v lie mines but water power is abundant and hasbcen
^•lv awl!*! to industry, especially in generating electricity.
* C %V^r., rc ? uircd ^. 1 ^ tmrnwavsanHhcmS:
::•
be
o).
pre
rid
Iso
lan
of
ry.
ot-
try
zzi
>les
m-
ITS
of
nia
rnt
txi.
ort
V uvmstries (flax. Jute. Ac.) have made notable
. - Wv t« concentrated in a few large factories.
H ** ' W more than supplied the home market.
s . >*v»»Ny to export.
.* vVm« an output worth £2.640,000 in 1903 as
,v • Vj The chief products are sulphuric acid :
, - ^s -.v» employed chiefly as a preventive of
. . »<v» w tt* vine; carbonate of lead, hyper-
.K-...S u MMsvures; calcium carbide; explosive
% ^y^f^»v»i, Pharov- •*.
as distinguished from those above mentioned, have kept pace with
the general development of Italian activity. The principal product
is quinine, the manufacture of which has acquired great importance,
owing to its use as a specific against malaria. Milan and Genua am
the principal centres, and also the government military pharma-
ceutical factory at Turin. Other industries of a semi-chemical
character are candle*, soap-, glue-, and pcrfumc-makiog, and the
preparation of india-rubber. The last named has succeeded, by
means of the large establishments at Milan in supplying not only the
whole Italian market but an export trade.
The match-making industry is subject to special fiscal conditions.
| n .~*-_.^.. .t -pg 2 |p match factories scattered throughout
It; n Piedmont, Lombard^ and Vcnetia. The
nu ccd to less than half since 1897 by the sup-
pn ctorics, while the production has increased
fro 59.741 millions.
tdustry has attained considerable proportions
in »s, Lazio, Vcnetia and Piedmont since 1890.
In ns were produced, while in 1905 the figure
hai The rise of the industry has been favoured
by id by a system of excise which allows a con-
sid lanufacturcra.
one various oscillations, according to the
leg istillcrics. In 1871 only 20 hectolitres were
pn f the output was 318,000 hectolitres, the
ma incd. Since then special laws have hampered
dc r r _ vinccs, as for instance Sardinia, being allowed
to manufacture for their own consumption but not for export. la
other parts the industry is subjected to an almost prohibitive excise-
duty. The average production is about 180,000 hectolitres per
annum. The greatest quantity is produced in Lombardy, Piedmont,
Vcnetia and Tuscany. The quantity of beer is about the same,
the greater part of the beer drunk being imported from Germany,
while the production of artificial mineral waters has somewhat
decreased. There is a considerable trade (not very large for export,
however) in natural mineral waters, which are often excellent.
Paper-making is highly developed in. the provinces of Novara,
Caserta. Milan, Viccnza, Turin, Como, Lucca, Ancona, Genoa.
Brescia, Cunco, Macerata and Salerno. The hand-made paper of
Fabriano is especially good.
Furniture-making in different styles is carried on all over Italy,
especially as a result of the establishment of industrial schools.
Each region produces a special type, Vcnetia turning out imitations
of 16th- and 17th-century styles, Tuscany the 15th-century or cinque-
cento style, and the Neapolitan provinces the Pompeian style.
Furniture and cabinet -making in great factories are carried on
particularly in Lombardy and Piedmont. Bent-wood factories have
been established in Vcnetia and Liguria.
A characteristic Italian industry is that of straw-plaiting for
hat-making, which is carried on principally in Tuscany, in the
district of Fcrmo, in the Alpine villages of the province of Viccnza,
and in some communes of the province of Messina. The plaiting
is done by country women, while the hats are made up in factories.
Both plaits and hats are largely exported.
Tobacco is entirely a government monopoly; the total amount
manufactured in 1902-1903 was 16,599 tons — a fairly constant figure.
The finest glass is made in Tuscany and Vcnetia; Venetian glass
is often coloured and of artistic form.
In the various ceramic arts Italy was once unrivalled, but the
ancient tradition for a long time lost its primeval impulse. The
works at Vinovo, which had fame in the 18th century,
came to an untimely end in 1820; those of Castclli (in
the Abruzzi), which have been revived, were supplanted trUa
by Charles lll.'s establishment at Capodimontc, 1750,
which after producing articles of surprising execution was closed
before the end of the century. The first place now belongs to the
Delia Doccia works at Florence. Founded in 1 735 by the marquis
Carlo Ginori. they maintained a reputation of the very highest kind
down to about i860; but since then they have not kept pace with
their younger rivals in other lands. They still, however, are com-
mercially successful. Other cities where the ceramic industries keep
their ground arc Pesaro, Gubbio, Facnza (whose name long ago
became the distinctive term for the finer kind of pottcr*s work in
France, faience), Savona and Albissola, Turin, Mondovi. Cunco,
CastcUamontc, Milan, Brescia, Sassuoto, lmola, Rimini, Perugia.
Castclli. &c. In all these the older styles, by which these places
became famous in the t6ih-i8th centuries, have been revived. It
is estimated that the total production of the finer wares amounts
on the average to £400,000 per annum. The ruder branches of the
art— the making of tiles and common wares— are pretty generally
diffused.
The jeweller's art received large encouragement in a country
which had so many independent courts: but nowhere has it attained
a fuller development than at P.ome. A vast variety of trinkets— in
coral, glass, lava, &c. — is exported from Italy, or carried away bv
the annual host of tourists. The copying of the paintings of the old
masters is becoming an art industry of no small mercantile import-
ance in some of the larger cities.
The production of mosaics is an industry still carried on with
much success is Italy, which, indeed ranks exceedingly high in the
WORKING CLASSES!
ITALY
>3
The great works of the Vatican aw especially tamow
(more than 17,000 distinct tints are employed in theirproductions),
and there are many other establishments in Rome. Toe Florentine
mosaics are perhaps better known abroad; they are composed of
larger pieces than the Roman. Those of the Venetian artists are
remarkable for the boldness of their colouring. There is a tendency
towards the fostering of feminine home uxtoftries—lace-making,
fiaen- weaving, Ac
Condition of UU Working Classes.— Tht condition of the
numerous agricultural labourers (who constitute one-third of the
population) is, except in some regions, bard, and in places
absolutely miserable. Much light was thrown upon their position
by the agricultural inquiry (incMicsU agraria) completed in 1884,
The large numbers of emigrants, who are drawn chiefly from the
rural classes, furnish another proof of poverty. The terms of
agrarian contracts and leases (except in districts ^here mmadria
prevails in its essential form), are in many regions disadvantageous
to the labourers, who suffer from the obligation to provide
guarantees for payment of rent, for repayment of seed corn and
for the division of products.
It was only at the close of the 19th century that the true caose
of malaria— the conveyance of the infection by the bite of the
jy^jb AnopktUs cAmjtr— was discovered. This mosquito does
not as a rule enter the large towns; but low-lying coast
districts and ill-drained plains are especially subject to it. Much
has been done in keeping out the insects by fine wire netting placed
on the windows and the doors of houses, especially in the railway
men*s cottages. In 1903 the state took up the sate of quinine at a
low price, manufacturing it at the central military pharmaceutical
laboratory at Twin. Statistics show the difference produced by
this measure.
Financial Year.
Pounds of
quinine sold.
Deaths by
Malaria.
1 901-1902
1 902-1903
1903-1904
1904-190S
1905-1900
1906-1907
4W
15,915
30<95§
4M66
45*591
13.358
9.908
8.5«3
8.501
7.838
4.875
Th« profit made by the state, which is entirely devoted to a
special fund for means against malaria, amounted in these
five .years to £41,759. It ha» been established that two 3-grain
pastilles a day are a sufficient prophylactic; and the proprietors
of malarious estates and contractors (or public works in malarious
districts are bound by law to provide sufficient quinine for their
workmen, death for want of this precaution coming under the pro-
visions of tho workmen's compensation act. Much has also been,
though much remains to be, done in the way of bonificmmsnto, i>.
proper drainage and improvement of the (generally fertile) low-lying
ana hitherto malarious plains.
In Venetia the lives of tho small proprietors and of the salaried
peasants are often extremely miserable. There and in Lombardy the
disease known as pelUgro is most widely diffused. The disease Is
due to poisoning by micro-organism* produced by deteriorated maize,
and can be combated by care in ripening, drying and storing the
maize. The most recent statistics snow the disease to be dimmish-
ing. Whereas in 1881 there were 104,067 (16-79 per 1000) peasants
afflicted by the disease, in 1899 there were only 72,603 (10-30 per
1000) peasants, with a maximum of 39,88a (34*32 per 1000} peasants
in Venetia. and 19,557 (11*90 per 1000) peasants in Lombardy. The
b of the disease is a direct result of the efforts made to combat
h, in the form of special hospitals or peUaposori, economic kitchens,
rural bakeries and maize-drying establishments. A bill for the
better prevention of pellagra was introduced in the spring of 1903.
The deaths from it dropped in that year to 2376, from 3054 in the
previous year and 3788 in 1900.
In Liguna, on account of the comparative rarity of Urge estates,
agricultoral labourers arc in a better condition. Men earn between
Is. 3d. and 2s. id. a day, and women from 5d. to 8d. In Emilia
the day labourers, known as distbUigpH, earn, on the contrary, low
wages, out of which they have to provide for shelter and to lay by
something against unemployment. Their condition is miserable.
In Tuscany, however, the prevalence of mettairia, properly so
called, has raised the labourers' position. Yet in some Tuscan
provinces, as, for instance, that of Grosseto, where malaria rages,
kbourers are organized in gangs under " corporals," who undertake
harvest work. They arc poverty-stricken, and easily fall victims
to fever. In the Abrurri and in Apulia both regular and irregular
workmen are engaged by the year. The eurqtori or eurntoH (factors)
* * .with a si - . . .
receive £40 a year,
slight interest in the profits; the stock-
hardly earn in money and kind £13; the muleteers and under*
get between £5 to £8, plus firewood, bread and oil;
irregular workmen have even lower wages, with a dairy distribution
of bread, salt and oiL In Campania and Calabria the curototi and
wmssan earn, in money and kind, about £ia a year; cowmen,
shepherds and muleteers about £10; irregular workmen are paid
from 8|d. to is. 3d. per day, but only find employment, on an
average, 230 days in the year. The condition of Sicilian labourers
is also miserable. The huge extent of the ItUifondi, or large estates,
often results in their being left in the hands of speculators, who
exploit both workmen and farmers with such usury that the latter
are often compelled, at the end of a scanty year, to hand over their
crops to the usurers before harvest. In Sardinia wage-earners are
paid tod. a day, with free shelter and an allotment for private
cultivation. Irregular adult workmen earn between led. and is. 3d.,
and boys from 6d. to tod. a day. Woodcutters and vine-waterers,
however, sometimes earn as much as 3s. a day.
The peasants somewhat rarely use animal food—this b most largely
used in Sardinia and least in Sicily— bread and polenta or macaroni
and vegetables being the staple diet. Wine is the prevailing drink.
The condition of the workmen employed in manufactures has
improved during recent years. Wages are higher, the cost of the
prime necessaries of life is, as a rule, lower, though taxation on
some of them is still enormous; so that the remuneration of
work has improved. Taking into account the variations in wages
and in the price of wheat, it may be calculated that the number
of hours of work requisite to earn a sum equal to the price of
a cwt. of wheat fell from 183 in 1871 to 73 in 1804* la
1898 it was 105, on account of the rise in the price of wheat, and
since then up tfll 1902 it oscillated between 105 and 95.
Wages have risen from 226 centimes per hour (on an average)
to 26*3 centimes, but not in all industries. In the mining and
woollen industries they have fatten, but have increased in mechanical,
chemical, silk and cotton industries. Wages vary greatly in different
parts of Italy, according to the cost of the necessaries of Ufe, the
degree of development of working-class needs and the state of
working-class organization, which m some places has succeeded in
increasing tht rates of pay. Women are, as a rule, paid less than
men, and though their wages Jiave also increased, the rise has been
slighter than in the case of men. In some trades, for instance the
silk trade, women earn little more than led. a day, and, for some
classes of work, as little as 7d. and M. The general improvement
in sanitation has fed to a corresponding Improvement in the condi-
tion of the working classes, though much still remains to be done,
espedaly in the sooth. On the other hand, it is generally the case
that even in the most unpromising inn the bedding is clean.
The number of industrial strikes has risen from year to year,
although, on account of the large namber of persons involved in
some of them, the rise in the number of strikers has not sMkmm.
always corresponded to the number of strikes. During a" 1 ***
the years 1900 and 1901 strikes were increasingly numerous, chiefly
are most developed. Textile, building and mining industries show
the highest percentage of strikes, since they give employment to
large numbers of men concentrated in single localities. Agricultural
strikes, though less frequent than those in manufacturing industries;
have speciartmportance in Italy. They are most common in the
north and centre, a circumstance which shows them to be promoted
less by the move backward and more ignorant peasants than by the
better-educated labourers of Lombardy and Emilia, among whom
Socialist organizations are widespread. Since 1901 there have been,
more than once, general strikes at Milan and elsewhere, and one in
the autumn of 1905 caused great inconvenience throughout the
country, and led to no effective result.
Although in some industrial centres the working-class movement
has assumed an importance equal to that of other countries, there
is no general working-class organization comparable to the English
trade unions. Mutual benefit and co-operative societies serve the
parpose of working-class defence or offence against the employers.
In 1893,. after many vicissitudes, the Italian Socialist Labour Party
was founded, and has 1 — ■ * 1 — -*- ,: -- «--*-«--. »-—- —
i893,*after many vicissitudes, the Italian Socialist Labour I _
1 founded, and has now become the Italian Socialist Party, in
which the majority of Italian workmen enrol themselves. Printers
and hat-makers, however, possess trade societies. In 1899 an agita-
tion began for the organization of " Chambers of Labour, Intended
to look after the technical education of workmen and to form com-
missions of arbitration in case of strikes. They act also as employ-
ment bureaux, and are often centres of political propaganda. At
present such " chambers " exist in many Italian cities, while "leagues
of improvement," or of " resistance," are rapidly spreading in the
country districts. In many cases the action of these organizations has
proved, at least temporarily, advantageous to the working classes.
Labour legislation is backward In Italy, on account of the late
development of manufacturing industry and of working-class
organization. On the 17th of April 1898 a species of Employers
Liability Act compelled employers of more than five workmen in
certain industries to insure their employees against accidents.
ITALY
{COMMUNICATIONS
Q* the* t ?xh of Jalv 1808 a national futld forth* insurance of workmen
•***•«* Ml««rs» and old age was founded by law on the principle of
*****»a4 Trituration. In addition to an initial endowment by the
•**t«\ i*m vi ike annual income of the fund it furnished in various
****** **v the state (principally by making over a proportion of the
ljv»&t* ol the Post Office Savings Bank), and part by the premiums
*" *"* *»«rkroen. The minimum} annual premium is six lire for an
Annua > of one lira per day at the age of sixty, and insurance against
*£ iSTTf" ^^** ** w I***! °* wnges in many trades and the jealousies
** •*• * Oumbm of Labour " and other working-class organizations
•«M*2* rapid dcx-elopmcnt.
A **!■' cvarae into operation in February 1908, according to which
# *ttHi Unv of rest (with few exceptionslwas established on Sunday
V • vc *v <^a» in which it was possible, and otherwise upon some other
* A X** l*** w k.
t « V£* **•«** institution of Pntdkommes was introduced into Italy
l« »»**• >hkWt the name of CeUegi di Prebmri. The institution has
not *M*ux*l treat vogue. Most of the colleges deal with matters
? v2£2P w tr * * ,wl mccftarMca » industries. Each "college" is
k» v ^y*l decree, and consists of a president, with not fewer
tnan ten and not more than twenty members. A conciliation
t* ur **u *nd * Jury are elected to deal with disputes concerning wages,
hours o| wvrk. labour contracts, &c, and have power to settle the
<J**P ut **» without appeal* whenever the amounts involved do not
c )tceeU Jpj.
f VtovideM Institutions have considerably developed in Italy
rMMt Un ^ cr lne forms of savings banks, assurance companies
~\t\ H<t - *nd mutual benefit societies. Besides the Post Office
JJJJs, Savings Bank and the ordinary savings banks, many
co-operative credit societies and ordinary credit banks
-w.clve deposits of savings.
flourishes most in the districts in which the mezaadria system baa
been prevalent.
Radwavs.-~The first railway in Italy, a line 16 m. long from Naples
to Castelkurnmare, was opened in 1840. By 1881 there were some
5500 m. open, in 1891 some 8000 m., while in 1901 the total length
was 9317 m. In July 1905 all the principal lines, which had been
constructed by the state, but had been since 1885 let out to three
companies (Mediterranean, Adriatic, Sicilian), were taken over by
the state; their length amounted in loot to 6147 m., and in 1907
to 8422 m. The minor lines (many of them narrow gauge) remain in
the hands of private companies. The total length, including the
Sardinian railways, was 10,368 m. in 1907. The state, in taking over
the railways, did not exercise sufficient care to see that the lines and
the rolling stock were kept up to a proper state of efficiency and
adequacy for the work they had to perform; while the step itself
was taken, somewhat hastily. The result was that for the first two
years of state administration the service was distinctly bad, and the
lack of goods trucks at the ports was especially fcU. A capital
expenditure of £4,000,000 annually was decided on to bring the lines
up to the necessary state of efficiency to be able to cope with the
rapidly increasing traffic. It was estimated in 1906 that this would
have to be maintained for a period of ten years, with a further total
expenditure of £14,000,000 on new lines.
Comparing the state of things in 1001 with that of 1881, for the
whole country, we find the passenger and goods traffic almost
doubled (except the cattle traffic), the capital expenditure almost
doubled, the working expenses per mile almost imperceptibly
increased, and the gross receipts per mile slightly lower. The
personnel had increased from 70,568 to 108,690. The construction
of numerous unremunerative lines, and the free granting- of coo-
cessions to government and other employees (and also of cheap
tickets on special occasions for congresses, fix., in various towns,
without strict inquiry into the qualifications of the claimants) will
account for the failure to realise a higher profit. The fares (in slow
trains, with the addition of 10% for expenses) arc: 1st class, i*8sd.;
2nd, 1 3d. ; 3rd, 0*7250% per mile. There are, however, considerable
reductions for distances over 93 m-, on a scale increasing in propor-
tion to the distance.
The taking over of the main lines by the state has of course
produced a considerable change in the financial situation of the
railways. The state incurred in this connexion a liability of some
£20,000,000, of which about £16,000,000 represented the rolling
stack. The state has considerably improved the enginesand passenger
carriages. The capital value of the whole of the lines, rolling stock,
&c, for 1908-1909 was calculated approximately at £244,161,400,
and the profits at £5.?95^»9. or 2*%.
Milan is the most important railway centra in the country, and
is followed by Turin, Genoa, Verona, Bologna, Rome, Naples, Lom-
bardy and Piedmont are much better provided with railways in
proportion to their area than any other parts of Italy; ne
Venctia, Emilia and the immediate environs of Naples.
The northern frontier is crossed by the railway from Turin to
Ventimiglia by the Col di Tenda, the Mont Cenis line from Turin
to Modane (the tunnel is 7 m. in length), the Simplon line (tunnel
1 1 m. in length) from Domodossola to Brigue, the St Got t hard from
Milan to Chiasso (the tunnel is entirely in Swiss territory), the
Brenner from Verona to Trent, the line from Udine to Tarvis and
the line from Venice to Triest by the Adriatic coast. Besides these
international lines the most important are those from Milan to Turin
(via Vcrcelli and via Alessandria), to Genoa via Tortona, to Bologna
via Parma and Modena, to Verona, and the shorter lines to the
district of the lakes of Lombardy ; from Turin to Genoa via Savona
and via Alessandria ( from Genoa to Savona and Ventimiglia along
the Riviera, and along the south-west coast of Italy, via Sarzana
(whence a line runs to Parma) to Pisa (whence lines run to Pistoia
and Florence) and Rome; from Verona to Modena, and to Venice
via Padua; from Bologna to Padua, to Rimini (and thence alone
the north-east coast via Ancona, Castellammare Adriatico ana
Foggia to Brindisi and Otranto), and to Florence and Rome; from
Rome to Ancona, to Castellammare Adriatico and to Naples; from
Naples to Foggia, via Metaponto (with a junction for Keggio di
Calabria), to Brindisi and to Reggio di Calabria. (For the Sicilian
and Sardinian lines, see Sicily and Sardinia.) The speed of the
trains is not high, nor are the runs without stoppage long as a rule.
One of the fastest runs is from Rome to Orte, 52*40 m. in 69 min*
or 45*40 m. per hoar, but this is a double line with little traffic*
The low speed reduces the potentiality of the lines. The insufficiency
of rolling stock, and especially of goods wagons, is mainly caused
by delays in " handling traffic consequent on this or other causes,
among which may be mentioned the great length of the single lines
south of Rome. It is thus a matter of difficulty to provide trucks
for a sudden emergency, «£. the vintage season; and in 1905-1907
complaints were many, while the seaports were continually short of
trucks. This led to deficiencies in the supply of coal to the manu-
facturing centres, and to some diversion elsewhere of shipping.
Steam and Electric Tramways. — Tramways with mechanical
traction have developed rapidly. Between 1875, when the first line
was opened, and 1001, the length of the lines grew to 1 890 m. of
steam and 270 m. of electric tramways. These lines exist principally
in Lombardy (especially in the province of Mitaa)* ia Piedmont*
FOREIGN TSADMGI
ITALY
espedaJty la the province of Turin, and in other regioi
and central luly. In the south they ate rare, on aooo
the mountainous character of the country, and partly <
of traffic All the important townt of Italy are providec
electric tramways, mostly with overhead wires.
P'lworfr have been
Gemot**'
greatly extended in
although their ratio to ansa varies in different localit
Italy there are 1480 yds. of road per sq. m.; in cent
in southern Italy 405; in Sardinia 596, and in Sit
They are as a rule well kept up in north and central It
the south, where, especially in Calabria, many villa
ceasibJe by road and have only footpaths leading to t
act of 1903 the state contributes half and the provmc
the cost of roads connecting communes with the m
■rations or landing places.
Intend Norifatum.— Navigable canals had in 1886 a 1
about 655 m.; they are principally situated in Piedmo
and Venetia, and are thus practically confined to 1
Canals lead from Milan to the Tidno, Adda and Po. 1
navigable from Turin downwards, but through its deta
that canals are p referred, the Po di Volano and the Po
the right, and the Canale Bianco on the left. The t
navigable rivers is 967 m.
Pmsts, Tdtrrapks and Telephones.— The number e
(including colleUoru, or collecting offices, which are
eliminated) ii
from 2200 in 1862 to 4823 in 1881
and 8817 in 1904. In spite of a large increase in tl
letters and post cards (i*. nearly 10 per inhabitant 1
1904, as against 5*65 in 1888) the average is consic
that of most other European countries. 'Die number
graph offices was 4603, of other offices (railway and tran
which, accept private telegrams for transmission)
telephone system is considerably developed ; in 1904,
66 later - urban systems existed. They were install*
companies, but have been taken over oy the state,
communication between Rome and Paris, and Italy an
also exists. The parcel post and money order service)
increased since 1 887-1888, the number of parcels fa
doubled (those for abroad are more than trebled), wh.il
of money orders issued is trebled and their value dc
£40,000,000). The value of the foreign orders paid in 1
from £1,280,000 to £2*3*6,000 owing to the increase
and of the savings sent home by emigrants.
At the end of 1907 Italy was among the few countries
adopted the reduction of postage sanctioned at the
c on g r ess , held in Rome in 1906, by which the rates be
the first on., and ifcL per ox. afterwards. The intern
(1 WO per I ox.; post-cards 10c. (id), reply 15c. On tl
letters within the postal district are only Se.(ftd.) per \
matter is 2c. (Jd.) per 50 grammes (1 1 ox.). Thereguu
that if there is a greater weight of correspondence (in
packets) than 1} lb for any individual by any one dc
■kail be given bun that it is lying at the post office, 1
obliged to arrange for fetchucg it. Letters insured fo
are not delivered under any circumstances.
Money order cards are very convenient and cheap
[8s.] for ioc. [id.]), as they need not be enclosed in a 1
short private message can be written on them. Owin
parativdy small amount of letters, it is found povil
travelling post office on all principal trains (while alroo
hasa travelling sorter, for whom a compartment is rese
a late fee being exacted in either case. In the principal
may be posted in special boxes at the head office ju
departure of any given mail train, and are conveyed
travelling post office. Another convenient arrangx
provision of letter-boxes on electric tramcars in some c
Mercantile Marine.— Between the years 1881 and 19c
of ships entered and cleared at Italian ports decn
(219.598 in 1881 and 208,737 in 1905). while their aggri
increased (32,070,704 in 1881 and 80,782,030 in 1905).
ment of shipping, trade with foreign countries prevails
regards arrivals) over trade between Italian ports,
merchandise ana passengers bound for and bailing from
sail under foreign flags. Similarly, foreign vessels
Italian vessels in regard to goods embarked. Europ
absorb the greater part of Italian sea-borne trade, wh
the passenger traffic goes to North and South America
tution of steamships for sailing vessels has brought ab
tion in the number of vessels belonging to the lulu
marine, whether employed in the coasting trade, the \
traffic on the high seas. Thus: —
Year.
Total
No. of
Ships.
Steamships.
Sailing
Number.
Tonnage
(Net):
Number.
1881
1905
7815
5590
176
513
93.69«
462,259
7.639
5.083
nd up
- .. uig obligatory at
frO ^. oecoodary instruction (i.)
~*a /tc«, the latter leading to the
?fe age Ifcw/ technical. 3. Higher education— universities,
^L. f institutes and special schools.
Of the secondary and higher educatory methods, in the normal
schools and licei the state provides for the payment of the staff
and for scientific material, and often largely supports the ginnasi
and technical schools, which should by law be supported by the
communes. The universities are maintained by the state and
by their own ancient resources; while the higher special schools
are maintained conjointly by the state, the province, the com-
mune and (sometimes) the local chamber of commerce.
The number of persons unable to read and write has gradually
decreased, both absolutely and in proportion to the number of
inhabitants. The census of 1871 gave 73% of illiterates, that
of 1881, 67%, and that of xoot, 56%, i.e. 51-8 for males and 608
for females. In Piedmont there were 17*7% of illiterates above
Six years (the lowest) and in Calabria 78*7% (the highest),
the figures for the whole country being 48-5. As might be
expected, progress has been most rapid wherever education, at
the moment of national unification, was most widely diffused.
For instance, the number of bridegrooms unable to write their
names in 1872 was in the province of Turin 26%, and in the
Calabrian province of Cosenza 00%; in 1809 the percentage in
the province of Turin had fallen to 5%, while in that of Cosenza
it was still 76%. Infant asylums (where the first rudiments of
instruction are imparted to children between two and a half and
six years of age) and elementary schools have increased in
number. There has been a corresponding increase in the number
of scholars. Thus: —
{EDUCATION
greatest increase has taken place m technical education, when* it has
been much more rapid than io classical education. There are three
higher commercial school*, with academic rank, at Venice, Genoa
and Ban, and eleven secondary commercial schools; and technical
and commercial schools for women at Florence and Milan. The
number of agricultural schools has also grown, although the total
is relatively small .when compared with population. The attendance
at the various classes of secondary schools in 188a and 190a is shows
by the following tabic: —
Year.
Infant Asylums
(Public and Private).
Daily Elementary Schools
(Public and Private).
Number of
Asylums.
Number of
Scholars.
Number of
Schoolrooms.
Number of
Scholars.
1885-86
1890-91
1901-02
2083
2296
33M
240465
278,204
355.594
53.628
57.077
61,777
2,252,808
2418,692
2,733.349
The teachers in 1001-1902 numbered 65,739 (exclusive of 576
non-teaching directors and 322 teachers of special subjects) or
about 41*5 scholars per teacher.
The rate of increase in the public state-supported schools has been
much greater than in the private schools. School buildings have
been improved and the qualifications of teachers raised. # Neverthe-
less, many schools are still defective, both from a hygienic and a
teaching point of view; while the economic position of the ele-
mentary teachers, who in Italy depend upon the communal admini-
strations and not upon the state, is still in many parts of the country
extremely low.
The law of 1877 rendering education compulsory for children
between six and nine years of age has been the principal cause of the
spread of elementary education. The law is, however, imperfectly
enforced for financial reasons. In 1 901-1 902 only 65 % out of the
whole number of children between six and nine years of age were
registered in the lower standards of the elementary and private
schools. The evening schools have to some extent helped to spread
education. Their number and that of their scholars have, however,
decreased since the withdrawal of state subsidies. In 1871-1872
there were 3 *~~' ~ L " L ' J """ "°" at
the holiday en
to 94.510 ar tly
institutions i 06
5000 of the* 're
the proportW 15.
with 138,18 ry
education to ed
40% of the ^
illiterate wh< »ns
and workint el-
lectual condi ve
lately attain^*, ^w....^,. , — t«s
devoted to secondary education remained almost unchanged between
1880-1881 and 1895-1896. In some places the number has even been
diminished by the suppression of private educational institutes.
But the number of scholars has considerably increased, and shows
a ratio superior to the general increase of the population. The
1882.
1902.
No. of
Schools.
Ginnasi —
Government
On an equal footing with govern*
meat schools
Not on such a footing ....
Total , • «
Technical schools—
Government
On an equal footing ....
Not on such a footing ....
Total . . .
Llcei—
Government ......
On an equal footing ....
Not on such a footing ....
Total ...
Technical institutes-
Government . #
On an equal footing ....
Not on such a footing. . . •
Total . . .
Nautical institutes-
Government
On an equal footing ....
Not on such a footing ....
Total . . .
13.875
6417
22.609
24.081
7.208
24.850*
19a
76
442
42,811
56.139
710
8,670
3»4"
12,055
3.623'
186
101
106*
24.833
46,089
395
6,623
1.167
4.600
10,983
1.955
4.962»
121
12,300
17,900
341
5.555
1.684
619
37*
7
7.858
n. 930
79
13
1.878
ay
18
1
816
1.945
20
1896.
Tl
are <
in w
such
T
IOOC
Abr
F
repe
of p
largi
919
pup
thes
on ^
wen
190
decreased to 19,044 in 1901-1902, owing to the admission of women
to telegraph and telephone work. The female secondary schools in
1881-1882 numbered 77. of which 7 were government institutions,
with 3569 pupils; in 1901-1902 there were 233 schools (9 govern-
mental) with 9347 pupils. m
The total attendance of students in the various faculties at- the
different universities and higher institutes is as follows : —
1882.
1902.
Law
Philosophy and letters
Medicine and surgery
Professional diploma, pharmacy
Mathematics and natural science
Engineering ....
Agriculture . . • • •
Commerce .... 4
Total
4.801
442f
798
.3
8,385
1.703
9.055
3.290
3.500
1.293
507
167
13.065
27.900
XtBKARies AND CHARITIES]
ITALY
*7
Thus a large all-round increase in teeoadary and higher education
is shown — satisfactory in many respects, but showing, chat more
young men devote themselves to the learned profcsNons (especially
to the law) than the economic condition of the country will justify.
There are 21 universities — Bologna, Cagliari, Camenno. Catania.
Ferrara,Cenoa,Maccrata. Messina, Modcna. Naples, Padua, Palermo.
Parma. Pavia, Perugia. Pisa, Rome, Sa&sari. Siena. Turin, Urbino,
of which Camerino, Ferrara, Perugia and Urbino arc not state
institutions; university courses arc alx> given at Aquila, Bari and
Catanaaro. Of these the most frequented in 1 904-1905 were: Naples
(4745)> Turin (3451). Rome (26)0), Bologna (171 1 ), Pavia (1559),
Padua (1364). Genoa (1276). and the least frequented, Cagliari (254).
Siena (235) and Sassart (200). The professors arc ordinary and
extraordinary, and free professors {liberi docenli), corresponding to
the German Prwaidotenten, arc also allowed to be attached to the
universities.
The institutions which co-operate with tl he
special schools for cngineci» at Turin, Napk na
(and others attached to some of the u ni wrsi 1 ic :al
institute at Milan, the higher veterinary scfa les
and Turin, the institute tor higher studies a di
itudi superior i, fnatici e di perfezionamcnlo), til fie
academy of Milan, the higher institutes for lie
teachers at Florence and Rome, the lnstitui at
Florence, the higher commercial schools at V< ja,
the commercial university founded by L. Boc 32.
the higher naval school at Genoa, the higher ire
at Milan and Portici. the experimental insi he
school of forestry at Vallambrosa. the indust
The special secondary institutions, distinct dy
reckoned under the universities and alliec an
Oriental institute at Naples with 243 pupils; 3 ire
with (1004-1905) 1925 students; 2 schools of 1 :ta
and Iglesias) with (1904-1905) 83 student nd
commercial schools with (1903-1904) 46,411 »Is
of design and moulding with (1898) 12,556 stL . -.-„„■ 'nt
fine art institutes (1904-1905) with 2778 students and 13 non-
government with 1662 students: 5 government institutes of music
with 1026 students, and 51 non-government with 4109 pupils (1904-
•y^5). Almost all of these show a considerable increase.
Libraries are numerous in Italy, those even of small cities
being often rich in manuscripts and valuable works. Statistics
collected in 1893-1804 and 1896 revealed the existence of 1831
libraries, either private (but open 10 the public) or completely
public The public libraries have been enormously increased
since 1870 by the incorporation of the treasures of suppressed
monastic institutions. The richest in manuscripts is that of the
Vatican, especially since the purchase of the Barbcrini Library in
1902; it now contains over 34,000 MSS. The Vatican archives
are also of great importance. Most large towns contain im-
portant state or communal archives, in which a considerable
amount of research is being done by local investigators; the
various societies for local history (Socicta di Star in P atria) do
very good work and issue valuable publications; the treasures
which the archives contain are by no means exhausted. Libraries
and archives are under the superintendence of the Ministry of
Public Instruction. A separate department of this ministry
under a director-general has the charge of antiquities and fine
arts, making archaeological excavations and supervising those
undertaken by private persons (permission to foreigners, even
to foreign schools, to excavate in Italy is rarely granted), and
maintaining the numerous state museums and picture galleries.
The exportation of works of art and antiquities from Italy without
leave of the ministry is forbidden (though it has in the past
been sometimes evaded). An inventory of those subjects, the
exportation of which can in no case be permitted, has been
prepared; and the ministry has at its disposal a fund of £200,000
for the purchase of important works of art of all kinds.
Charities. — In Italy there is no legal right in the poor to be
supported by the parish or commune, nor any obligation on the
commune to relieve the poor — except in the case of forsaken
children and the sick poor. Public charity is exercised through
the permanent charitable foundations (opcre pie) % which arc,
however* very unequally distributed in the different provinces.
The districts of Italy which show between 1881 and 1003 the
greatest increase of new institutions, or of gifts to old ones, arc
Lombardy, Piedmont, Liguria, while Sardinia, Calabria and
Basilicata stand lowest, Lalium standing comparatively low.
The patrimony of Italian charitable institutions is considerable
and is constantly increasing. In 1880 the number of charitable
XV I*
institutions (exclusive of public pawnshops, or Mntti di Field, and
other institutions which combine operations of credit with charity)
was approximately 22.000. with an aggregate patrimony of nearly
Dio.ooo.ooo. The revenue was about * 3,600,000; after deduction of
taxes, interest an debts, expenses of management, Ac, £2,080,000.
Adding to this. £1,240,009. of communal and provincial subsidies,
the product of the labour of inmates, temporary subscriptions, &c,
the net revenue available for charity was, during 1880, £3,860,000.
Of this sum £260,000 was spent for religious purposes. Between
1881 and 1905 the bequests to existing institutions and sums left for
the endowment of new institutions amounted toabout tt6.604.60a
Charitable institutions take, as a rule, the two forms of outdoor
and indoor relief and attendance. The indoor institutions are the
more important in regard to endowment, and consist of hospitals
for the infirm (a number of these are situated at the seaside); of
hospitals for chronk and incurable diseases; of orphan asylums;
of a poorhouses and shelters for beggars; of infant asylums or in*
stitutcs for the first education of children under six years of age:
of lunatic asylums; of homes for the deaf and dumb; and of
institutes for the Wind. The outdoor charitable institutions include
those which distribute help in money or food; those which supply
medicine and medical help; those which aid mothers unable to rear
their own children; those which subsidize orphans and foundlings;
those which subsidize educational institutes; and those which supply
marriage portions. Between 1881 and 1898 the chief increases took
place in the endowments of hospitals: orphan asylums; infant
asylums; poorhouses; almshouses; voluntary workhouses; and
institutes for the blind. The least creditably administered of these
arc the asylums for abandoned infants; in 1887, of a total of 23,913,
53*77% died; while during the years 1893-1896 (no later statistics
arc available) of 117,970 5172% died. The average mortality
under one year for the whole of Italy in 1893-1896 was only 16 -66%.
Italian charity legislation was reformed by the laws of 1862 and
1890, which attempted co provide efficacious protection for endow-
ments, and to ensure the application of the income to the purposes
for which it was intended. The law considers as " charitable in-
stitutions " (opere pie) all poorhouses, almshouses and institutes
which partly or wholly give help to able-bodied or infirm paupers,
or seek to improve their moral and economic condition ; and also the
Congregationi di caritd (municipal charity boards existing in every
commune, and composed of members elected by the municipal
council), which administer funds destined for the poor in general. All
charitable institutions were under the protection of provincial adminis-
trative junta, existing in every province, and empowered to control the
management of charitable endowments. The supreme control was
vented in the minister of the I nterior. The law of 1890 also empowers
every citizen to appeal to the tribunals on behalf of the poor, for
whose benefit a given charitable institution may have been intended.
A more recent law provides for the formation of a central body,
with provincial commissions under it. Its effect, however, has been
comparatively small.
Public pawnshops or Monti di pieti numbered 555 in 1896,
with a net patrimony of £2,879,625. In that year their income,
including revenue from capital, was £416.385. and their expenditure
£300,232. The amount lent on security was £4,153,229.
The Monti frumentarii or co-operative corn deposits, which lend
seed corn to farmers, and are repaid after harvest with interest in
kind, numbered 1615 in 1894, and possessed a patrimony of £240,000.
In addition to the regular charitable institutions, the communal
and provincial authorities exercise charity, the former (in 1899) to the
extent of £1.827.166 and the latter to the extent of £919832 per
annum. Part of these sums is given to hospitals, and part spent
directly by the communal and provincial authorities. Of the sum
spent by the communes, about \ goes for the sanitary service (doctors,
midwives, vaccination), \ for the maintenance of foundlings,
A for the support of the sick in hospitals, and jfo for sheltering
the aged and needy. Of the sum spent by the provincial authorities,
over halT goes to lunatic asylums and over a quarter to the mainten-
ance of foundling hospitals.
Religion.— The great majority of Italians— 97* «%— are
Roman Catholics. Besides the ordinary Latin rite, several
others are recognized. The Armenians of Venice maintain their
traditional characteristics. The Albanians of the southern
provinces still employ the Greek rite and the Greek language
in their public worship, and their priests, like those of the Greek
Church, are allowed to marry. Certain peculiarities introduced
by St Ambrose distinguish the ritual of Milan from that of the
general church. Up to 1871 the island of Sicily was, according
lo the bull of Urban II.. ecclesiastically dependent on the king,
and exempt from the canonical power of the pope.
Though the territorial authority of the papal see was practically
abolished in 1870. the fact that Rome is the seat of the admini-
strative centre of the vast organization of the church is not
without significance to the nation. In the same city in which
the administrative functions of the body politic arc centralized
<8
there still
1879 consl
65,000, of 1
22,500 are
1*36,000,
tome 2$oc
were in 15
48,043 **%
parishes v
parishes ii
and some
Italian pi
assign men
£1, 280,0a
sum cons
The kin
uuttius die
A. 6»u1
Albaao. F
B-. 74 •
archiepisc
posed of
loQowuig
Acerenaa-
B^» •
Braeveat
B*$»
Of*
OP-
ITALY
(RELIGION
^
i
tl.
tb \
to
ins'
B.
with
educ-
40%
UUtcr
and *
kctual
latdya
devotee
1880-1&
diminish
But the
a ratio »
i
£
id
re
!y
in
rf
be
ad
lar
of
»;
lia.
Mi-
eal
rah
lots
[be
t in
om.
cise
ities
.for
W
ihed.
rahip
tings
tries,
uses,
rcble
,San
stab-
arical
I the
n the
tnded
atioo
nuity
Sicily.
mony
ion 01
■vioos
of the
Bhtof
io/WO,
CONSTITUTION AND GOVERNMENT)
ITALY
«9
which were to be accepted at their nominal value m purchase money
for the alienated property. The public worship endowment fund
has relieved the state exchequer of the cost of public worship; has
gradually furnished to the poorer parish priests an addition to
their stipends, raising; them to £32 per annum, with the prospect
of further raising them to £10; and has contributed to the outlay
incurred by the communes for religions purposes. The monastic
buildings required for public purposes have been made over to the
c o m mun al and provincial authorities, while the same authorities
have been entrusted with the administration of the ecclesiastical
revenues previously set apart for charity and education, and objects
of art ana historical interest have been consigned to public libraries
and museums. By these laws the reception of novices was for-
bidden in the existing conventual establishments the extinction of
which had been decreed, and all new foundations were forbidden,
except those engaged in instruction and the care of the sick.
But the laws have not been rigorously enforced of late years; and
the ecclesiastical possessions seized by the state were thrown on the
market simultaneously, and so realized very low prices, being often
bought up by wealthy religious institutions. The large number
of these institutions was increased when these bodies were expelled
from France.
On the 30th of June 1903 the patrimony of the endowment fund
amounted to jfj7.3jQ.040, of which only £364,399 were represented
by buildi ngs st ill occupied by mon ks of nuns. The rest was made up
of capital and interest. The liabilities of the fund (capitalized)
amounted to £10.668.105, °f which monastic pensions represented a
rapidly diminishing sum of £2.564,930. The chief items of annual
expenditure drawn from the fund are the supplementary stipends
to priests and the pensions to members of suppressed religious houses.
The number of persons in receipt of monastic pensions on the 30th
of June 1899 was 13.255; but while this item of expenditure will
disappear by the deaths of those" entitled to pensions, the supple-
mentary stipends and contributions are gradually increasing. The
following table shows the course of the two main categories of the
fund from 1876 to 1902-1903:—
Monastic pensions, liquidation of re-
ligious property and provision of
shelter for nuns .
Supplementary stipends to bishops and
Sarochial clergy, assignments to Sar-
inian clergy and expenditure for edu-
cation and charitable purposes . .
876. 1885-1886.
£749.172
14?.9 »*
£49».3J9
128.521
1898-1899-
1 902- 1903.
£>*M79
Roman Charitable and Religions Fund.— The law of the 19th of
June 1873 contained special provisions, in conformity with the
character of Rome as the scat of the papacy, and with the situation
created by the Law of Guarantees. According to the census of 1871
there were in the city and province of Rome 474 monastic establish-
ments (311 for monks, 163 for nuns), occupied by 4326 monks and
3825 nuns, and possessing a gross revenue of 4,780.891 lire. Of these.
126 monasteries and 90 convents were situated in the city, 51
monasteries and 22 convents in the " suburbirariatcs." The law of
1873 created a special charitable and religious fund of the city, while
it left untouched 23 monasteries and 49 convents which had either
the character of private institutions or were supported by foreign
funds. New parishes were created, old parishes were improved, the
property of the suppressed religious corporations was assigned to
charitable and educational institutions and to hospitals, while
property having no special application was used to form a charitable
snd religious fund. On the 30th of June 1903 the balance-sheet of
this fund showed a credit amounting to £1.796,120 and a debit of
£460.819. Expenditure for the year 1902-1903 was £889,858 and
revenue £818,674.
Consiiitrtion and Government. — The Vatican palace itself
(with St Peter's), the Late ran palace, and the papal villa
at Castel Gandolfo have secured Lo them the privilege of
extraterritoriality by the law of 1871. The small republic of
San Marino is the only other enclave in Italian territory.
Italy is & constitutional monarchy, in which the executive
power belongs exclusively to the sovereign, while the legislative
power is shared by him with the parliament. He holds
supreme command by land and sea, appoints ministers and
officials, promulgates the laws, coins money, bestows honours,
has the right of pardoning, and summons and dissolves the
parliament. Treaties with foreign powers, however, must have
the consent of parliament. The sovereign is irresponsible, the
ministers, the signature of one of whom is required to give
validity to royal decrees, being responsible. Parliament consists
of two chambers, the senate and the Chamber of Deputies,
vbicb axe nominally on an equal tooting, though practically
the elective chamber is the mote important. * The senate consists
of princes of the blood who have attained their majority, and
of an unlimited number of senators above forty years of age,
who are qualified under any one of twenty-one specified cate-
gories — by having either held high office, or attained celebrity
in science, literature, &c. In 1008 there were 318 senators
exclusive of five members of the royal family. Nomination is
by the king for life. Besides its legislative functions, the senate
is the highest court of justice fn the case of political offences or
the impeachment of ministers. The deputies to the lower house
are 508 in number, i.e. one to every 64,893 of the population,
and all the constituencies are single-member constituencies.
The party system is not really strong. The suffrage is extended
to all citiaens over twenty-one years of age who can read and
write and have cither attained a certain standard of elementary
education or arc qualified by paying a rent which varies from
£6 in communes of 2500 inhabitants to £16 in communes of
iSP.ooo inhabitants, or, if peasant farmers, 16s. of rent; or
by being sharers in the profits of farms on which not less than
£3, 45. of direct (including provincial) taxation is paid ; or by
paying not less than £16 in direct (including provincial) taxation.
Others, e.g. members of the professional classes, are qualified
to vote by their position. The number of electors (2,541,327)
at the general election in 1904 was 29% of the male population
over twenty-one years of age, and 76% of the total population-
exclusive of those temporarily disfranchised on account of
military service; and of these 62-7% voted. No candidate
can be returned unless he obtains more than half the votes given
and more than one-sixth of the total number on the register;
otherwise a second ballot must be
held. Nor can he be returned under
the age of thirty, and he must be
qualified as an elector. All salaried
government officials (except minis-
ters, under-secret arics of state and
other high functionaries, and officers
in the army or navy), and ecclesiastics,
are disqualified for election. Senators
and deputies receive no salary but have free passes on
railways throughout Italy and on certain lines of steamers.
Parliaments are quinquennia], but the king may dissolve the
Chamber of Deputies at any time, being bound, however, to
convoke a new chamber within four months. The executive (
must call parliament together annually. Each of the chambers
has the right of introducing new bills, as has also the government;
but all money bills must originate in the Chamber of Deputies.
The consent of both chambers and the assent of the king is
necessary to their being passed. Ministers may attend the
debates of either bouse but can only vole in that of which they
are members. The sittings of both houses arc public, and an
absolute majority of the members must be present to make
a sitting valid. The ministers are eleven in number and havf
salaries of about £1000 each; the presidency of the council of
ministers (created in 1889) may be held by itself or (as is usual)
in conjunction with any other portfolio. The ministries arc:
interior (under whom are the prefects of the several provinces),
foreign affairs, treasury (separated from finance in 1889), finance,
public works, justice and ecclesiastical affairs, war, marine,
public instruction, commerce, industry and agriculture* posts
and telegraphs (separated from public works in 1889). Each
minister is aided by an under-secretary of state at a salary of
£500. There is a council of state with advisory functions, which
can also decide certain questions of administration, especially
applications from local authorities and conflicts between
ministries, and a court of accounts, which has the right of
examining all details of state expenditure. In every country
the bureaucracy is abused, with more or less reason, for un-
progressiveness, timidity and " red-tape," and Italy is no
exception to the rule. The officials are not well paid, and are
certainly numerous; while the manifold checks and counter-
checks have by no means always been sufficient to prevent
dishonesty.
£165,144
347.940
20
TUtes of Honour.— The
sovereignties and " fountai
hereditary titles of nobili
dukes, marquesses, counts
number of persons of " pal
designation nobilt or sip
cavaJieri. In the " Golde
CampidogKo) are inscribec
have the title of prince a
marquesses, counts or sim
knighthood see Knightho
The king's uncle is duke ol
his cousin is duke of Geno
Justice. — The judiciary
French model. Italy ha:
Palermo, Turin, Florence,
districts and 1535 mand
{prelura). In 13 of the prir
exclusively penal jurisdicti
up to 100 lire (£4), liudic
they may act as arbitrate
Roman court of cassation
matters has a right to deci
the lower judicial authoril
diction in penal cases, wl
revise civil cases.
The pretori have penal j
(contravoenziont) or offence
exceeding three months c
The penal tribunals have
merit up to ten years, or a
with a jury, deal with of!
over ten years, and hav<
senate is on occasion a high
Appeal may be made from 1
ana from the tribunals t
courts there is no appeal e>
to the court of cassation
power in all questions o
competency.
The penal code was unifi
years is the amdanna ami
bound over to appear fc
94,489 cases in 1907. It
giudict concitiatore to the
of 1500 lire- £60) from 1
civil tribunal to the court
toe court of cassation.
The judges of all land
president of the Rome cot
The statistics of civil pc
to province. Lombardy,
holds the lowest place;
_9; VenetU
; and Sai
ITALY
Tuscany has 39: 'X
153; and Sardinia, ,
chiefly due to cases within
enetia
The number of penal proi
petence of praetors, has
Frequency of minor conti
section Crime. The ratio
as a rule, much higher in 1
A royal decree, dated I
prisons: judiciary prison
•persons sentenced to ants
months; penitentiaries of
detemfone or custodia), fc
imprisonment; and refoi
vagabond*. Capital pui
servitude for life being sul
confinement of the most
occupy the mind, the a
Certain types of dangeroc
sentence in the ordinary c
by judicial process, to spa
or u forced residences,
satisfactory, being mostly
difficult to find work for t
confined at night. The
allowance for food of so a
supplement by work if th
Notwithstanding the o
formation of old ones, th
is still insufficient for a
established by the code ol
tion of the prisoners is no
finement as practised in I
prisoners, including mino
which from 76,066 (284 p
ber 1871 rose to a maximi
(287 per 1000), decreasec
IARMV
75*7*
women,
noticed
ued to
in lock-
100,000
pares of
eredby
b a rise
541* in
a; and
iropean
frauds*
also an
actual
rtion to]
rtiiJe in'
lie pro-
t Mafia
is still
thepre-
htime;
s called
ve been
e inter-
doptcd;
p 241)
though
lly. In
(fere ac-
courts,
r. This
rnt, are
:her are
eal and
ar 1907
Dints of
aded.
aJyhas
r. lower
t. while
{best in
t south,
that of
bund in
i of the
ice 1882
nontese
brought
orption
serious
opinions
country
ancntly
ontiers.
r organ-
tie. To
Llsoasa
politans
barrack
to their
to draw
arps to
f affairs
isf erring
Tvab in
lere are
wanted,
irobably
i f works
ore, has
I to the
ch more
the way
HAVY)
of any radical and far-reaching reforms, and even the proposals
c: the Commission of 1907, referred to below, have only been
firtiilly accepted.
The taw of 1875 t h er ef ore still regulates the principles of military
service in Italy, though an important modification was made in
1907-1908. By this law, every man liable and accepted for service
mred for eight or nine years on the Active Army and its Reserve
(of which three to five were spent with the colours), four or five in
the Mobile Mtlitia. and the rest of the service period of nineteen
Tears in the Territorial MM tux. Under present regulations the
Rrra of liability is divided into nine years m the Active Army and
inerve (three or two years with the colours) four in the Mobile
Mdiha and six in the Territorial Militia. But these figures do not
represent the actual service of every able-bodied Italian. Like almost
all " Universal Service " countries, Italy only drafts a small pro-
portion of the available recruits into the army.
The folio wine table shows the operation of the law of 1875, with
the figures of 1871 for comparison: —
30th Sept.
30th June.
1871.
1881.
1891
1901
Officers'
Men ....
ActingArrny & Reserve
Mobile Militia . .
Territorial Militia . .
14.070
521.969
536,039
22.482
1.833554
73i.»49
294.714
823.970
36.739
2,821,367
843.160
445.3 15
1.553.784
36.7»8
3,330,202
734.401
320,170
2.275,631
1 Including officers on special service or in the reserve.
Huts, on the 30th of September 1871 the various categories of
the amy included only a % of the population, but on the 30th of
Jam* 189ft they included 10%. But in 1901 the strength of the
active army and reserve shows a marked diminution, which
became accentuated in the year following. The table below in-
Antes that np to 1907 the army, though always below its
aomtnal strength, never absorbed' more than a quarter of the
available contingent*
1902.
1903.
1904-
1906.
Liable
441. »7»
453.640
469,860
475.737
Physically unfit . . .
Struck off ... .
Failed to appear . .
Put back for re-examina-
tion ....
91,176
12.270
33.634
108.835
98.065
I3.»89
34.7H
1 08.6 r8
1 19.070
i3.'30
39.219
107.173
122.559
18,222
40,226
122,205
Assigned to Territorial
Mifitia and excused
peace service . . .
92.952
96.916
04.136
87/>32
Assigned to active army
Joined active army . .
102,204
88.666
102,141
86448
8i!s8i
87493
66)836
The serious condition of recruiting was quickly noticed, and the
tabulation of each year's results waa followed by a new draft law,
but no solution was achieved until a special commission assembled.
The inquiries made by this body revealed an unsatisfactory con-
dition in the national defences, traceable in the main to financial
exigencies, and as regards recruiting a new law was brought into
force in 1907-1908.
One specially difficult point concerned the < e-
strength army. Hitherto the actual time of is
than the nominal. The recruits due to join >t
incorporated till the following March, and thu is
Italy was defenceless. The army is alwayi w
peace effective (about one-quarter of war es :n
this was reduced, by the absence of the rec re
often only 15 rank and file with a company Ji
is about 230. Even in the summer and auti mi
of the army consisted of men with but ad a
highly dangerous state of things considering a-
tion conditions of the country. Further— and >n
can cover — the contingent, and (what is roor s,
are being steadily weakened by emigration. ie
numbers rejected as unfit is accounted for bj a
small proportion of the contingent can be ie
medical standard of acceptance is high.
The new recruiting scheme of 1907. re-established three categories
of recruits, 1 the 2nd category corresponding practically to the
German Ersattr Reserve, The men classed In it have to train for
six months, and they are called up in the late summer to bridge the
» The Tod c a t e gor y of the 1675 law had practically ceased to
ITALY 21
gap above mentioned. Toe new terras off service for the other
categories have been already stated. In consequence, in 1908, of
490.000 liable, some 1 10,000 actually joined for full training and
24.000 of the new and category for short training, which contrasts
very forcibly with the feeble embodiments of 1906 and 1907. These
changes threw a considerable strain on the finances, but the im-
minence of the danger caused their acceptance.
The peace strength under the dew scheme is nominally 300,000,
but actually (average throughout the year) about 240,000. The
army is organized in 12 army corps (each of 2 divisions), 6 oC
which are quartered on the plain of Lombardy and Venetia and
on the frontiers, and 2 more in northern Central Italy. Their
headquarters are: I. Turin, II. Alessandria, III. Milan, IV.
Genoa, V. Verona, VI. Bologna, VII. Ancona, VIII. Florence,
IX. Rome, X. Naples, XI. Ban, XII. Palermo, Sardinian division
Cagliari. In addition there are 22 " Alpini " battalions and
15 mountain batteries stationed on the Alpine frontiers.
The war strength was estimated in 190 1 as, Active Army (ind.
Reserve) 750,000, Mobile Militia 320,000, Territorial Militia
2,300,000 (more than half of the last-named untrained). These
figures are, with a fractional increase in tbe Regular Army,
applicable to-day. When the 1007 scheme takes full effect,
however, the Active Army and the Mobile Militia will each be
augmented by about one-third. In 191 5 the field army should;
including officers and permanent cadres, be about 1,012,000
strong. The Mobile Militia will not, however, at that date have
felt the effects of the scheme, and the Territorial Militia (setting
the drain of emigration against the increased population) ail)
probably remain at about the same figure as in 1901.
The army consists of 96 three-battalion regiments of infantry of
the line and 12 of bersaglieri (riflemen), each of the latter having
a cyclist company (Bersaglieri cyclist battalions are being (1909)
provisionally formed); 26 regiments of cavalry, of which 10 are
lancers, each of 6 squadrons; 24 regiments of artillery, each of
8 batteries;* 1 regiment of horse artillery of 6 batteries; 1 of
mountain artillery of 12 batteries, and 3 independent mountain
batteries. The armament of the iniantry is the Mftnnlicher-Carcano
magazine rifle of 1891. The field and horse artillery was in 1909
in process of rearmament with a Krupp quick-firer. The garrison
artillery consists of 3 coast and 3 fortress regiments, with a total of
72 companies. There are 4 regiments (1 1 battalions) of engineers.
The carabinieri or gendarmerie, some 26.300 in number, are part of
the standing army; they are recruited from selected volunteers front
the army. In 1902 the special corps in Eritrea numbered about
4700 of all ranks, including nearly 4000 natives.
Ordinary and extraordinary military expenditure for the financial
year 1 898-1 899 amounted to nearly £10,000,000, an increase of
£4.000.000 as compared with 1871. The Italian Chamber decided
that from the 1st of July 1901 until the 30th of June 1907 Italian
military expenditure proper should not exceed the maximum of
£9.560.000 per annum fixed by the Army Bill of May 1897, and that
military pensions should not exceed /1440,00a Italian military
expenditure was thus until 1907 £11,000.000 per annum. In 1908
the ordinary and extraordinary expenditure was £1 0,000,00a
The demand* of the Commission were only partly complied with,
but a large special grant was voted amounting to at least £1,000,000
per annum for the next seven years. The amount spent is slight
compared with the military expenditure of other countries.
The Alpine frontier is fortified strongly, although the condition
of the works was in many cases considered unsatisfactory by the
1907 Commission. The fortresses in the basin of the Po chiefly
belong to the era of divided Italy and are now out of date; the
chief coast fortresses are Vado, Genoa, Spezia, Monte Argentaro.
Gaeta, Straits of Messina, Taranto. Maddalena. Rome is ptotected
by a circle of forts from a coup de main from the sea, the coast, only
12 ra. off, being flat and deserted.
Navy. — For purposes of naval organization the Italian coast U
divided into three maritime departments, with headquarters at
Spezia, Naples and Venice; and into two comandi mililari, with
headquarters at Taranto and at tbe island of Maddalena.
Tbe personnel of the navy consists of the following corps: (t)
General staff; (2) naval engineers, chiefly employed in building
and repairing war vessels; (3) sanitary corps; (4) commissariat
corps, for supplies and account-keeping; (5) crews.
The materiel of tbe Italian navy has been completely trans-
formed, especially in virtue of the bill of the 31st of March 1875.
Old types of vessels have been sold or demolished, and replaced
by newer types.
* This maybe reduced, In consequence of the adoption of the new
Q.F. gun. 1 to 6.
22
ITALY
[FINANCE
To March 1907 the Italian aavy contained, wi n din g ship* of no
fighting value:—
Effective.
Completing.
Projected.
Modern battleship* .
4
4
3
Old battleships . . .
10
..
• •
Armoured causer*
6
8
..
Protected cruisers . .
H
..
• ..
Torpedo gunboats
"3
..
..
Destroyers ....
13
4
10
Modern torpedo boats
34
■5
Submarines . . .
1
4
2
The four modern ships— the " Vittorio Emanuele" class, latd
down in 1807— have a tonnage of 12,625, two 12-in. and twelve 8- in.
guns, an l.H.P. of 19,000. and a designed speed of 23 knots, being
intended to avoid any battleship and to carry enough guns to
destroy any cruiser.
The personnel on active service consisted of 1799 officers and
25,000 men, the former being doubled and the latter trebled since
1883. , ,
Naval expenditure has enormously increased s tal
for 1871 having been about £900,000, and the f 06
over £5,100,000. Violent fluctuations have, ho ce
from year to year, according to the state of It To
permit the steady execution of a normal program kg.
the Italian Chamber, in May 1901, adopted a ng
naval expenditure, inclusive of naval pensions a on
mercantile shipbuilding, to the sum of £4,840,0: ng
six years, 14. from 1st July 1901 until 30th Jur im
consists of £4,240,000 of naval expenditure pc [or
naval pensions and £380,000 for premiums upc up-
building. During thennancial year ending on th 01
these figures were slightly exceeded.
Finance.— The volume of the Italian budget has considerably
increased as regards both income and expenditure. The income
of £60,741,418 in 1881 rose in 1800- 1000 to £69,917,126; while
the expenditure increased from £58,705,929 in 1881 to £69,708,706
in 1809-1000, an increase of £9.1 75.708 in income and £u ,002,777
in expenditure, while there has been a still further increase since,
the figures for 1005- 1906 showing (excluding items which figure
on both sides of the account) an increase of £8,766,995 in income
and £5,434,560 in expenditure over 1800-1000. These figures
include not only the categories of " income and expenditure "
proper, but also those known as " movement of capital/' " rail-
way constructions " and " partite di giro," which do not constitute
real income and expenditure. 1 Considering only income and
expenditure proper, the approximate totals are: —
Financial Year.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
Surpluses or
Deficits.
1882
1885-1886
1890-1891
1895-1896
1898-1899
1899-1900
1900-1901
1905-1006
£53,064,800
56.364,000
61,600,000
65.344,000
66453,800
66,860.800
'68,829,200
77.684.100
£51.904.800
57,304,500
64,601.600
67.962,800
65.046,400
65.323.600
66,094.400
75.»43.300
£+ 160,000
- 940.400
—3.001,600
-2,618,800
+1.306,400
+ I.537.200
+3.734.800
+3,540,900
duced more than £3^00,000 a year. From 1883-1886 oowaxda,
outlay on public works, military and colonial expenditure, and
especially the commercial and financial crises, contributed to pro-
duce annual deficits; but owing to drastic reforms introduced in
1894-1895 and to careful management the year 1898-1899 marked
a return of surpluses (nearly £1406,400).
The revenue in the Italian financial year 1905-1906 (July l. 190S
to June 30, 1906) was £102,486,108, and the expenditure £99.945*2 S3,
or, subtracting the partite di giro, £99,684,121 and £97.I43^66,
leaving a surplus of £2,540.855.* The surplus was made up by
contributions from every branch of the effective revenue, except the
" contributions and repayments from local authorities." The rail-
ways showed an increase of £351,685; registration transfer and
succession, £295,560; direct taxation, £42,136 (mainly from income
tax, which more than made up for the remission of the house tax in
the districts of Calabria visited by the earthquakeof 1906) .0
and excise, £1,036,743; government monopolies, £391/127;
The financial year 1863 closed with a deficit of more than
£16,000,000, which increased in 1866 to £28,640,000 on account of
the preparations for the war against Austria. Excepting the in-
creases of deficit in 1868 and 1870, the annual deficits tended thence*
forward to decrease, until in 1875 equilibrium between expenditure
and revenue was attained, ana was maintained until 1881. Ad-
vantage was taken of the equilibrium to abolish certain imposts,
amongst them the grist tax, which prior to its gradual repeal pro-
1 " Movement of capital " consists, as regards " income," of the
proceeds of the sale of buildings, Church or Crown lands, old prisons,
barracks, Ac., or of moneys derived from sale of consolidated stock.
Thus " income " really signifies diminution of patrimony or increase
of debt, la regard to " expenditure;" " movement of capital "
refers to extinction of debt by amortization or otherwise, to pur-
chases of buildings or to advances made by the state. Thus ex-
penditure " really represents a patrimonial improvement, a creation
of credit or a decrease of indebtedness. The items referring to
" railway construction " represent, on the one hand, repayments
made to the exchequer by the communes and provinces of money
disbursed on their account by the State Treasury; and, on the
other, the cost of new railways incurred by the Treasury. The
items of the " Partite di giro " are inscribed both on the credit and
debit sides of the budget, and have merely a figurative value.
441.3-0; telegraphs. £23461. telephones, £65.771. Of the surplus
£1,000,000 was allocatedto the improvement of posts, telegraphs and
telephones; £1.000,000 to public works (£720,000 for harbour im-
provement ana £280,000 for internal navigation) , £200,000 to the
navy (£132,000 lor a second dry dock at Taranto and £68,000 for
coal purchase) ; and £200,000 as a nucleus of a fund for the purchase
of valuable works of art which are in danger of exp o rt atio n .
The state therefore draws its principal revenues from the imposts,
the taxes and the monopolies. According to the Italian tributary
system, " imposts," properly so called are those upon land, Taxation.
buildings and personal estate. The impost upon land is
based upon the cadastral survey independently of the vicissitudes of
harvests. In 1869 the main quota to the impost was increased by
one-tenth, in addition to the extra two-tenths previously imposed
in 1866. Subsequently, it was decided to repeal these additional
tenths, the first being abolished in 1886 and the rest in 1887. On
account of the inequalities still existing in the cadastral survey, in
spite of the law of 1886 (see Agriculture, above), great differences are
found in the land tax assessments in various parts of Italy. Land is
not so heavily burdened by the government quota as by the additional
centimes imposed by the provincial and communal authorities
On an average Italian landowners pay nearly 25% of their reven u e s
from land in government and local land tax. The buildings impost
has been assessed since 1866 upon the basis of 12*50% of T< taxable
revenue." Taxable revenue corresponds to two-thirds of actual
income from factories and to three-fourths of actual income from
houses: it is ascertained by the agents of the financial administra-
tion. In 1869, however, a third additional tenth was added to the
previously existing additional two-tenths, and, unUke the tenths of
the land tax, they have not been abolished. At present the main
quota with the additional three-tenths amounts to 16*25% of tax-
able income. The imposts on incomes from personal estate (rtcckexaa
mobile) were introduced in 1866, it applies to incomes derived from
investments, industry or personal enterprise, but not to landed
revenues. It is proportional, and is collected by deduction from
salaries and pensions paid to servants of the state. Where it is assessed
on three-eighths of the income, and from interest on consolidated
stock, where it is assessed on the whole amount; and by register in
the cases of private individuals, who pay on three-fourths of their
income, professional men, capitalists or manufacturers, who pay on
one-half or nine-twentieths of their income. From 1871 to 1894 it
was assessed at 13-20% of taxable income, this quota being formed
of 12 % main quota and 1*20% as an additional tenth. In 189a the
quota, including the additional tenth, was raised to the uniform level
of 20%. One-tenth of the tax is paid to the communes as compensa-
tion for revenues made over to the state.
Taxes proper are divided into (a) taxes on business transactions
and (6) taxes on articles of consumption. The former apply prin-
cipally to successions, stamps, registrations, mortgages, Ac; the
latter to distilleries, breweries, explosives, native sugar and matches,
though the customs revenue and octrois upon articles of general
consumption, such as corn, wine, spirits, meat, flour, petroleum,
butter, tea, coffee and sugar, may be considered as belonging to tins
class. The monopolies are those of salt, tobacco and the lottery.
Since 1880, while income from the salt and lotto monopolies has
remained almost stationary, and that from land tax and octroi has
diminished, revenue derived from all other sources has notably
increased, especially that from the income tax on personal estate,
and the customs, the yield from which has been nearly doubled.
It will be seen that the revenue is swollen by a large number of
taxes which can only be justified by necessity; the reduction and,
still more, the readjustment of taxation (which now largely faRs on
articles of primary necessity) Is urgently needed. The government
in presenting the estimates for 1007-1908 proposed to set aside s
sum of nearly £800,000 every year for this express purpose. It
must be remembered that the sums realised by the octroi go in the
main to the various communes. It is only in Rome and Naples that
the octroi is collected directly by the government, which pays over a
certain proportion to the respective communes.
The external taxation is not only strongly protectionist, but is
• Financial operations (mainly in connexion with railway purchase)
figure on each side of the account for about £22,000,000.
FINANCE)
ITALY
*3
applied to goods which cannot be made fa Italy; hardly anything
comes in duty free, even such articles as second-hand furniture paying
duty, unless within she months of the date at which the importer
has declared domicile in Italy. The application, too, is somewhat
rigorous, e.g. the tax on electric light is applied to foreign ships
generating their own electricity while lying in Italian ports.
The annual consumption per inhabitant of certain kinds of food
and drink has considerably increased, e.g. grain from 370 lb per head
in 1884-1885 to 321 lb in 1901-1902 (mane remains almost stationary
at 158 lb); wine from 73 to 125 litres per head; oil from 12 to 13 lb
per head (sugar is almost stationary at 7} lb per head, and coffee
at about t lb); salt from 14 to 16 lb per head. Tobacco slightly
diminished in weight at a little over 1 lb per head, while the gross
receipts are considerably increased — by over 2| millions sterling
since 1884-1885— showing that the quality consumed is much better.
The annual expenditure on tobacco was 5s. per inhabitant in 1902-
1903. and is increasing.
The annual surpluses are largely accounted for by the heavy
taxation on almost everything imported into the country, * and by
the monopolies on tobacco and on salt ; and are as a rule spent, and
well spent, in other ways. Thus, that of 1907-1908 was devoted
mainly to raising the salaries of government officials and university
professors; even then the maximum for both (in the former class,
lor an under-secretary of state) was only £500 per annum. The case
is frequent, too, in which a project is sanctioned by law, but is then
not carried into execution, or only partly so, owing to the lack of
funds. Additional stamp duties ana taxes were imposed in 1909 to
meet the expenditure necessitated by the disastrous earthquake at
the end of 1908.
The way in which the taxes press on the poor may be shown by the
Dumber of small proprietors sold up owing to inability to pay the
hod and other taxes. In 1882 the number of landed proprietors was
1452% of the population, in 1902 only 12-66, with an actual
diminution of some 30,000. Had the percentage of 1882 been kept
op there would have been in 1902 600,000 more proprietors than
there were. Between 1884 and 1902 no fewer than 220,616 sales
were effected for failure to pay taxes, while, from 1886 to 1902,
79,208 expropriations were effected for other debts not due to the
state. In 1884 there were 20.422 sales, of which 35*28% were for
debts of 4*. or less, and 51-95 for debts between as. and £2 ; in 1902
there were 4857 sales, but only 1 1 -oi % for debts under 4s. (the
treasury having given up proceeding in cases where the property is
a tiny piece of ground, sometimes hardly capable of cultivation),
and 55-69% for debts between 4s. and £2. The expropriations deal
as a rule with properties of higher value: of these there were 3217
ra 1886. 5993 in 1892 (a period of agricultural depression), 3910 in
1902. About 22% of them are for debts under £40, about 49%
from £40 to £200, about 26% from £200 to £2000.
Of the expenditure a large amount is absorbed by interest on debt.
Debt has continually increased with the development of the state.
r j. The sum paid in interest on debt amounted to £1 7,640,000
VJ" in 1871, £19440.000 in 1881, £25.600.000 in 1891-1892
^ m and £27.560,000 in 1899-1900; bui had been reduced to
£23.100,409 by the 30th of June 1906. The public debt at that date
was composed as follows: —
Parti.— Funded Debt.
Grand 1
Consolidated 5 %
.. 3 % ■
4.% net .....
4 %
„ 34% .......
Total . . ,
Debts to be transferred to the Grand Livre
Perpetual annuity to the Holy See .
Perpetual debts (Modena, Sicily, Naples)
Total . .
Part II.— Unfunded Debt.
Debts separately inscribed in the Grand Livre .
Various railway obligations, redeemable, &c .
Sicilian indemnities
Capital value of annual payment to Sooth
Austrian Company .
Long date Treasury warrants, law of July 7, 1901
Railway certi6cates (365% net). Art. 6 of law,
June 25. 1905. So. 261
Amount.
£316,141,802
6404.335
28,872,511
7.875.502
37,689.880
£396,984,120
60.868
2,580,000
2.591,807
£402,216.795
Total
Parti.
10.042,027
5&»37W5«
19S.348
37.102.908
1,416,200
14^220,000
£119.351.834
£403^16.705
Grand Tout . £521,568.629
1 For example, wheat, the price of which was in 1902 26 lire per
cwt^ pays a tax of 7i lire: sugar pays four times its wholesale value
mtax; coffee twice its wholesale value.
The debt per head of population was, hi 1905, £14, lbs. 3d., and
the interest 13s. 5d.
In July 1906 the 5% gross (4% net), and 4% net rente were
successfully converted into 3!% stock (to be reduced to 3$% after
five years), to a total amount of £324,017.393. The demands for
reimbursement at par represented a sum oionly £187,588 and the
market value of the stock was hardly affected; while the saving
to the Treasury was to be £800,000 per annum for the first five years
and about double the amount afterwards.
Currency. — The lira (plural lire) of 100 eentesimi (centimes) is equal
in value to the French franc The total coinage (exclusive of Eritrean
currency) from the 1st of January 1862 to the end of 1907 was
1.104,667.116 lire (exclusive of recoinage), divided as follows: gold,
427.516.070 bre: silver, 570.097,025 tire; nickel, 23417,000 lire;
bronxe, 83,636,121 lire. The forced paper currency, instituted in
1866, was abolished in 1 881, in which year were dissolved the Union
of Banks of Issue created in 1874 to furnish to the state treasury a
milliard of lire in notes, guaranteed collectively by the banks, rart
of the Union notes were redeemed, part replaced by 10 lire and -5 lire
state notes, payable at sight in metallic legal tender by certain state
banks. Nevertheless the law of 1881 did not succeed in maintaining
the value of the state notes at a par with the metallic currency, and
from 1885 onwards there reappeared a gold premium, which during
1899 and 1900 remained at about 7 %, but subsequently fell to about
3% and has since 1902 practically disappeared. The paper circula-
tion to the debit of the^ state and the paper currency issued by the
authorized state banks is shown below: —
sSqi
1*96
1800
*oo$
Direct Liabaity of State.
State Notes. Boat de Camd
4«6.66s.5JS
A4t.S49.ai7
4S«^ii.7Bo
44t.J«4.78o
4a.1j8.1s1
1*74.114
by State
Banks.
Lite
7J5479,tor
lAH.46g.7U
t.lil.601,070
l^6o.»J3J76
i.i&o.iiojjo
1.400.474.SOO
Aamate
Paper
Currency.
Lire,
ij67S.S79.to7
>^784JS.*47
SSOJ16
376
<6a
t.S70.a3t476
1 .673 680.46a
1_M.657.764
1 These ceased to have legal currency at the cod of soot; they were notes of 1 and a lird
Banks. — Until 1893 thc juridical status of the Banks of Issue was
regulated by the laws of the 30th of April 1874 on paper currency and
of the 7th of April 1881 on the abolition of forced currency. At that
time four limited companies were authorized to issue bank notes,
namely, the National Bank, the National Bank of Tuscany, the
Roman Bank and the Tuscan Credit Bank; and two banking
corporations, the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily. In 1893
the Roman Bank was put into liquidation, and the other three
limited companies were fused, so as to create thc Bank of Italy, the
privilege of issuing bank notes being thenceforward confined to the
Bank of Italy, the Bank of Naples and the Bank of Sicily. The gold
reserve in the possession of the Banca d'lulia on September 30th
1907. .amounted to £32,240,984, and the silver reserve to £4*767,861 ;
the foreign treasury bonds, Ac amounted to £3.324,074, making
the total reserve £40.332.919; while thc circulation amounted to
£54,612,234. The figures were on the 31st of December 1906:
Paper
Circulation.
Reserve.
Banca d'ltalia .
Banca di Napofi .
Banca di Sialia .
Total . .
£47.504.35*
13.893.152
. 2.813.692
tj6.979.235
9.756.284
2,060481
£64,211,196
£48,796,000
This is considerably in excess of the circulation, £40.404,000, fixed
by royal decree of 1900; but the issue of additional notes was
allowed, provided they were entirely covered by a metallic reserve,
whereas up to the fixed limit a 40% reserve only was necessary.
These notes are of 50, 100, 500 and 1000 lire; while the state issues
notes for 5, 10 and 25 lire, the currency of these at the end of October
1906 being £17.546.967: with a total guarantee of £15,636,000 held
against them. They were in January 1908 equal in value to the
metallic currency of gold and silver.
The price of Italian consolidated 5% (gross, 4% net, allowing for
the 20% income tax) stock, which is thc security most largely
negotiated abroad, and used in settling differences between large
financial institutions, has steadily risen during recent years. After
being depressed between 1885 and 1894. the prices in Italy and abroad
reached, in 1899, on the Rome Stock Exchange, the average of
10083 and of 948 on thc Paris Bourse. By the end of 1901 the price
of Italian stock on the Paris Bourse had, however, risen to par or
thereabouts. 1 The average price of Italian 4% in 1905 was 105-29;
since the conversion to 31 % net (to be further reduced to 3 J in five
more years), the price has been about 103-5. Rates of exchange, or,
in other words the gold premium, favoured Italy during the years
immediately following the abolition of the forced currency in 1881.
In 1885, however, rates tended to rise, and though they fell in 1886
thev subsequently increased to such an extent as to reach 110%
at tie end of August 1894. For the next four years they continue'*
24 ITALY IFIMAMCE
L
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at
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th
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On
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for.
CTHNOGRAPHVJ
ITALY
25
from 30-79 lire (£1, 4s. 7§d.) to 43*70 lire (£1, 14s. 1 td.),anincreasedue
in great part to the need for improved buildings, hygienic reforms
and education, but also attributable in part to the manner in which
the finances of many communes arc administered. The total was in
>9oo, £49*496,193 for the communes and £6,903,022 for the provinces.
The former total is more than double and the latter more tban treble
the sura in ' 1873, while there is an increase of 62 % in the former and
36% in the latter over the totals for 1882.
See Annuario statistico italiano (not, however, issued regularly each
year) for general statistics; and other official publications; W.
Decckr. Italy, a Popular Account of Ike Country, its Peopie and its
Institutions (translated by H. A. Nc&bitt, London, 1904); B. King
and T. Okcy, Italy to-day (London, 1901); E. Nathan, Vent' Anni dt
vita italiana attraverso air Annuario (Rome, 1906); G. StrafforcJIo,
Geogmfia dell' Italia (Turin, 1 890-1902). • (T. As.)
History
The difficulty of Italian history lies in the fact that until
modern times the Italians have had no political unity, no inde-
pendence, no organized existence as a nation. Split up into
numerous and mutually hostile communities,' they never, through
the fourteen centuries which have elapsed since the end of the
old Western empire, shook off the yoke of foreigners completely;
they never until lately learned to merge their local and conflicting
interests in the common good of undivided Italy. Their history
is therefore not the history of a single people, centralizing and
absorbing its constituent elements by a process of continued
evolution, but of a group of cognate populations, exemplifying
divers types of constitutional developments.
The early history of Italy will be found under Rome and allied
headings. The following account is therefore mainly concerned
with the periods succeeding A.t>. 476, when Romuhis August ul us
was deposed by Odoacer. Prefixed to this arc two sections
dealing respectively with (A) the ethnographical and philological
divisions of ancient Italy, and (B) the unification of the country
under Augustus, the growth of the road system and so forth.
The subsequent history is divided into five periods: (C) From
476 to 1796; (D) From 170610 1814; (£) From 1815 to 1870;
(F) From 1870 to 190a; (G) From 1002 to 1910.
A. Ancient Lancuages and Peoples
The ethnography of ancient Italy is a very complicated and
difficult subject, and notwithstanding the researches of modern
scholars is still involved in some obscurity. The great beauty
and fertility of the country, as well as the charm of its climate,
undoubtedly attracted, even in early ages> successive swarms of
invaders from the north, who sometimes drove out the previous
occupants of the most favoured districts, at others reduced them
to a state of serfdom, or settled down in the midst of them, until
the two races gradually coalesced. Ancient writers are agreed
as to the composite character of the population of Italy, and the
diversity of races that were found within the limits of the
peninsula. But unfortunately the traditions they have trans-
mitted to us are often various and conflicting, while the only safe
test of the affinities of nations, derived from the comparison of
their languages, is to a great extent inapplicable, from the fact
that the idioms that prevailed in Italy in and before the 5th
century B.C. are preserved, K at all, only in a few scanty and
fragmentary inscriptions, though from that date onwards we
have now a very fair record of many of them (see, e.g. Latin
Language, Osca Lingua, Icuvtum, Volsci, Etruria: section
Language, and below). These materials, imperfect as they are,
when combined with the notices derived from ancient writers and
the evidence of archaeological excavations, may be considered
as having furnished some results of reasonable certainty.
It must be observed that the name " Italians " was at one
time confined to the Ocnolrians; indeed, according to Anthxhus
of Syracuse (apud Dion. Hal. Ant. Rom. ii. 1), the name of Italy
was first still more limited, being applied only to the southern
portion of the Bruttium peninsula (now known as Calabria).
But in the time of that historian, as well as of Thucydtdes, the
names of Ocnotria and Italia, which appear to have been at that
period regarded as synonymous, had been extended to include
the shore of the Tarcntine GuH as far as Mctapontum and
from thence across to the gulfs of Laus and Posidonia on the
Tyrrhenian Sea. It thus stul comprised only the two provinces
subsequently known as Lucania and Bruttium (see references s.t.
" Italia " in R. S. Conway's Italic Dialects, p. 5). The name seems
to be a Graecized form of an Italic Vitdia, from the stem vitlo-,
" calf " (Lat. titulus, Gr. traAot), and perhaps to have meant
"calf-land," '* grazing-land "; but the origin is more certain
than the meaning; the calf may be one of the many animals
connected with Italian tribes (see Hirmni, Samnites).
Taking the term Italy to comprise the whole peninsula with
the northern region as far as the Alps, we must first distinguish
.the tribe or tribes which spoke Indo-European languages from
those who did not. To the latter category it is now possible to
refer with certainty only the Etruscans (for the chronology and
limits of their occupation of Italian soil see Etruria: section
Language). Of all the other tribes that inhabited Italy down
to the classical period, of whose speech there is any record
(whether explicit or in the form of names and glosses), it is
impossible to maintain that any one does not belong to the
Indo-European group. Putting aside the Etruscan, and also
the different Greek dialects of the Greek colonies, like Cumae,
Ncapolis, Tarentum, and proceeding from the south to the
north, the different languages or dialects, of whose separate
existence at some time between, say, 600 and 200 B.C., we can
be sure, may be enumerated as follows: (1) Sicel, (2) South
Oscdn and Oscan, (3) Messapian, (4) North Oscan, (5) Volscian,
(6) East Italic or " Sabellic," (7) Latinian, (8) Sabine, (9) Iguvrae
or " Umbrian," (10) Gallic, (11) Ligurian and (12) Venetic.
Between several of these dialects it is probable that closer
affinities exist. (1) It is probable, though not very clearly
demonstrated, that Venetic, East Italic and Messapian are
connected together and with the ancient dialects spoken in
lllyria (q.v.), so that these might be provisionally entitled the
Adriatic group, to which the language spoken by the Eteocretes
of the city of Praesos in Crete down to the 4th century B.C.
was perhaps akin. (3) Too little is known of the Sicel language
to make clear more than its Indo-European character. But
it must be reckoned among the languages of Italy because of the
well-supported tradition of the early existence of the Sicels in
Latium (see Sicuu). Their possible place in the earlier stratum
of Indo-European population is discussed under Sabini. How
far also the language or languages spoken in Bruttium and at
certain points of Lucania, such as Anxia, differed from the
Oscan of Samnium and Campania there is not enough evidence
to show (see Brutttj). (3) It is doubtful whether there are any
actual inscriptions which can be referred with certainty to the
language of the Ligurcs, but some other evidence seems to link
them with the -CO' peoples, whose early distribution is discussed
under Volsci and Licuria. (4) It is difficult to point to any
definite evidence by which wc may determine the dates of the
earliest appearance of Gallic tribes in the north of Italy, No
satisfactory collection has been made of the Celtic inscriptions of
Cisalpine Gaul, though many are scattered about in different
museums. For our present purpose it is important to note that
the archaeological stratification in deposits like those of Bologna
shows that the Gallic period supervened upon the Etruscan.
Until a scientific collection of the local and personal names of
this district has been made, and until the archaeological evidence
is clearly interpreted, it is impossible to go beyond the region
of conjecture as to the tribe or tribes occupying the vaUey of
the Po before the two invasions. It is clear, however, that the
Celtic and Etruscan elements together occupied the greater
part of the district between the Apennines and the Alps
down to its Romanization, which took place gradually in the
course of the 2nd century B.C. Their linguistic neighbours
were Ligurian in the south and south-west, and the Ventti
on the easL
We know from the Roman historians that a large force of
Gauls came as far south as Rome in the year 300 B.C., and that
some part of this horde settled in what was henceforward known
as the Ager Callicus, the easternmost strip of coast in what was
later known as Umbria, including the towns of Caesena, Ravenna
and Ariminum. A bilingual inscription (Gallic and Latin) of
*6
ITALY
(UNDER AUGUST
the and century B.C. was found as far sooth as Tuder, the modern
Todi (Italic Dialects, ii. S&; Stokes, Baunbergcr's BciUdgc,
ii, p. 113).
(5) Turning now to the languages which constitute the Italic
group in the narrower sense, (a) Oscan; (b) the dialect of Velitrae,
commonly called Volscian; (c) Latinian (i.e. Latin and its
nearest congeners-, like Faliscan); and (d) Umbrian (or, as it
may more safely be called, Iguvine), two principles of classifica-
tion offer themselves, of which the first is purely linguistic, the
second linguistic and topographical. Writers on the ethnology
of Italy have been hitherto content with the first, namely, the.
broad distinction between the dialects which preserved the Indo-
European velars (especially the breathed plosive q) as velars or
back-palatals (gutturals), with or without the addition of a
ip-sound, and the dialects which converted the velars wholly
into labials, for example, Latinian quis contrasted with Oscan,
Volscian and Umbrian pis (see further Latin Language).
This distinction, however, takes us but a little way towards
an historical grouping of the tribes, since the only Latinian
dialects of which, besides Latin, we have inscriptions are Faliscan
and Marsian (see Falxsci, Marsi); although the place-names
of the Aequi (q.v.) suggest that they belong to the same group
in this respect. Except, therefore, for a very small and appar-
ently isolated area in the north of Latkim and south of Etruria,
all the tribes of Italy, though their idioms differed in certain
particulars, are left undiscriminated. This presents a strong
contrast to the evidence of tradition, which asserts very strongly
(1) the identity of the Sabines and Samnites; (2) the conquest
of an earlier population by this tribe; and which affords (3)
clear evidence of the identity of the Sabines with the ruling
class, i.e. the patricians, at Rome itself (see Sabini; and Rome.
Early History and Ethnology).
Some clue to this enigma may perhaps be found in the second
principle of classification proposed by the present writer at the
Congresso Internationale di Scicnre Storichc at Rome (Atti del
Con graso/vi) in 1003. It was on that occasion pointed cut that the
ethnica or tribal and oppidan names of communities belonging
to the Sabine stock were marked by the use of the suffix -NO-
as in Sabini; and that there was some linguistic evidence that
this stratum of population overcame an earlier population, which
used, generally, ethnica in -CO- or -77- (as in Marruci, A rotates,
transformed later into Marrucini, Ardeatini).
The validity of this distinction and its results are discussed
under Sabini and Volsci, but it is well to state here its chief
consequences.
1. Latin will be counted the language of the earlier plebeian
stratum of the population of Rome and Latium, probably once
spread over a large area of the peninsula, and akin in some
degree to the language or languages spoken in north Italy
before either the Etruscan or the Gallic invasions began.
a. It would follow, on the other hand, that what is called
Oscan represented the language of the invading Sabines (more
correctly Safines), whose racial affinities would seem to be
of a distinctly more northern cast, and to mark them, like the
Dorians or Achaeans in Greece, as an early wave of the invaders
who more than once in later history have vitally influenced the
fortunes of the tempting southern land into which they forced
their way.
3. What is called Volscian, known only from the important
inscription of the town of Velitrae, and what is called Umbrian,
known from the famous Iguvine Tables with a few other records,
would be regarded as Safine dialects, spoken by Safine com-
munities who had become more or less isolated in the midst
of the earlier and possibly partly Etniscanized populations, the
result being that as early as the 4th century B.C. their language
had suffered corruptions which it escaped both in the Samnite
mountains and in the independent and self-contained community
of Rome.
For fuller details the reader must be referred to the separate
articles already mentioned, and to Iguvium, Picenum, Osc a Lingua,
Marsi, Aequi, Siculi and Liguria. Such archaeological evidence as
can be connected with the linguistic data will there be dhcussed.
(R.S.C.)
B. Consolidation of Italy
We have seen that the name of Italy was originally ap
only to the southernmost part of the peninsula, and was o* _
gradually extended so as to comprise the central regions, s m* /
as Latium and Campania, which were designated by writenrf
late as Thucydides and Aristotle as in Opicia. The progress*
this change cannot be followed in detail, but there can be ltlfll
doubt that the extension of the Roman arms, and the gnuM
union of the nations of the peninsula under one dominant powdj
would contribute to the introduction, or rather would make t£
necessity felt, for the use of one general appellation. At fiatf
indeed, the term was apparently confined to the regions of til
central and southern districts, exclusive of Cisalpine Gaul an*—
the whole tract north of the Apennines, and this continued ti^
be the official or definite signification of the name down to tta^
end of the republic. But the natural limits of Italy are so clea
marked that the name came to be generally employed as a g
graphical term at a much earlier period. Thus we already i
Polybius repeatedly applying it in this wider signification to \
whole country, as far as the foot of the Alps; and it is evidc
from many passages in the Latin writers that this was the famili
use of the term in the days of Cicero and Caesar. The official
distinction was, however, still retained. Cisalpine Caul, inclu
ing the whole of northern Italy, still constituted a " province,*!
an appellation never applied to Italy itself. As such it waft
assigned to Julius Caesar, together with Transalpine Caul,
and it was not till he crossed the Rubicon that he entered Italy
in the strict sense of the term.
Augustus was the first who gave a definite administrative
organization to Italy as a whole, and at the same time gave
official sanction to that wider acceptation of the name which
had already established itself in familiar usage, and which hat
continued to prevail ever since.
The division of Italy in to eleven regions, instituted by Augustus
for administrative purposes, which continued in official use till
the reign of Constantino, was based mainly on the territorial
divisions previously existing, and preserved with few exceptions
the ancient limits.
The first region comprised Latium (in the more extended sense
of the term, as including the land of the Volsci, Hernki and
Aurunci), together with Campania and the district of the
Picentini. It thus extended from the mouth of the Tiber to
that of the Silarus (see Latium).
The second region included Apulia and Calabria (the name
by which the Romans usually designated the district known to
the Greeks as Messapia or Iapygia), together with the land of the
Hirpini, which had usually been considered as a part of Samnium.
The third region contained Lucania and Bruttium; it was
bounded on the west coast by the Silarus, on the east by the
Bradanus.
The fourth region comprised all the Samnites (except the
H.'pini), together with the Sabines and the cognate tribes of
the Frentani, Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, Vestini and AequicuU.
It was separated from Apulia on the south by the river Tifemus,
and from Picenum on the north by the Matrinus.
The fifth region was composed solely of Picenum, extending
along the coast of the Adriatic from the mouth of the Matrinus
to that of the Acsis, beyond Ancona.
The sixth region was formed by Umbria, in the more extended
sense of the term, as including the Ager Galticus, along the coast
of the Adriatic from the Aesis to the Ariminus, and separated
from Etruria on the west by the Tiber.
The seventh region Consisted of Etruria, which preserved
its ancient limits, extending from the Tiber to the Tyrrhenian
Sea, and separated from Liguria on the north by the river
Macra.
The eighth region, termed Gallia Cispadana, comprised the
southern portion of Cisalpine Gaul, and was bounded on the sort b
(as its name implied) by the river Padus or Po, from above
Placentia to its mouth. It was separated from Etruria and
Umbria by the main chain of the Apennines; and tbo river
GOTHIC AMD LOMBARD KINGDOMS)
ITALY
27
Arixninus was substituted for the far-famed Rubicon as its limit
on the Adriatic
The ninth region comprised Liguria, extending along the sea-
coast from the Varus to the Macra, and inland as far as the river
Padas, which constituted its northern boundary from its source
in Mount Vesulus to its confluence with the Trebia just above
Placentia.
The tenth region included Venetia from the Padus and Adriatic
to the Alps, to which was annexed the neighbouring peninsula
of Istria, and to the west the territory of the Cenomani, a Gaulish
tribe, extending from the Athesis to the Addua, which had
previously been regarded as a part of Gallia Cisalpina.
The eleventh region, known as Gallia Transpadana, included
all the rest of Cisalpine Gaul from the Padus on the south and
the Addua on the east to the foot of the Alps.
The arrangements thus established by Augustus continued
almost unchanged ttH the time of Constant ine, and farmed the
basis of all subsequent administrative divisions until the fan*
of the Western empire.
The mainstay of the Roman military control of Italy first,
and of the whole empire afterwards, w«s the splendid system of
roads. As the supremacy of Rome extended itself
over Italy, the Roman road system grew step by step,
each fresh conquest being marked by the pushing forward of
roads through the heart of the newly-won territory, and the
establishment of fortresses in connexion with them. It was in
Italy that the military value of a network of roads was first
appreciated by the Romans, and the lesson stood them in good
stead in the provinces. And it was for military reasons that
from mere cart-tracks they were developed into permanent
highways (T. Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome,
i. 129). Prom Rome itseH roads radiated in all directions.
Communications with the south-east were mainly provided
by the Via Appia (the" queen of Roman roads," as Stat ius colled
it) and the Via Latina, which met close to Casilinum, at the
crossing of the Volturnus, 3 m^N.W. of Capua, the second city in
Italy in the 3rd century B.C., and the centre of the road system
of Campania. Here the Via Appia turned eastward towards
Bene vent urn, while the Via PopQla continued in a south-easterly
direction through the Campanian plain and thence southwards
through the mountains of Lucania and Bruttii as far as Rhegium.
Coast roads of minor importance as means of through com-
munication also existed on both sides of the " toe " of the boot.
Other roads ran south from Capua to Cumae, Puteoli (the most
important harbour of Campania), and Neapolis, which could
also be reached by a coast road from Minturnae on the Via Appia.
From Beneventum, another important road centre, the Via
Appia itself ran south-east through the mountains past Venusia
to Tarentum on the south-west coast of the " heel," and thence
across Calabria to Brundusium, while Trajan's correction of it,
following an older mule-track, ran north-east through the moun-
tains and then through the lower ground of Apulia, reaching the
coast at Barium. Both met at Brundusium, the principal port
•for the East. From Aequum Tuticum, on the Via Traiana,
the Via Herculia ran to the south-east, crossing the older Via
Appta, then south to Potentia and so on to join the Via Popflia
in the centre of Lucania.
The only highroad of importance which left Rome and ran
eastwards, the Via Valeria, was not completed as far as the
Adriatic before the time of Claudius; but on the north and north-
west started the main highways which communicated with central
and northern Italy, and with all that part of the Roman empire
which was accessible by land. The Via Salaria, a very ancient
road, with its branch, the Via Caecilia, ran north-eastwards to
the Adriatic coast and so also did the Via Flaminia, which reached
thexoast at Fanum Fortunae, and thence followed it to Ariminum.
The road along the east coast from Fanum Fortunae down to
Barium, which connected the terminations of the Via Salaria
and Via Valeria, and of other roads farther south crossing from
Campania, had no special name in ancient times, as far as we
know. The Via Flaminia was the earliest and most important
mad to the north; and it was soon extended (in 187 B.C.) by
the Via AemiHa running through Bononia as far as Placentia,
in an almost absolutely straight line between the plain of the.
Po and the foot of the Apennines. In the same year a road was
constructed over the Apennines from Bononia to Arretiura, but
it is difficult to suppose that it was not until later that the Via
Cassia was made, giving a direct communication between
Arrethim and Rome. The Via Clodia was an alternative route
to the Cassia for the first portion out of Rome, a branch having
been built at the same time from Florentia to Lucca and Luna.
Along the west coast the Via Aurelia ran up to Pisa and was
continued by another Via Aemilia to Genoa. Thence the Via
Postumia led to Dertona, Placentia and Cremona, while the Via
Aemilia and the Via Julia Augusta continued along the coast into
Gallia Naibonensis.
The road system of Cisalpine Gaul was mainly conditioned
by the rivers which had to be crossed, and the Alpine passes
which had to be approached.
Cremona, on the north bank of the Po, was an important
meeting point of roads and Hostilia (Ostiglia) another; so also
was Pat avium, farther east, and Altinum and AquileU farther
east still. Roads, indeed, were almost as plentiful as railways
at the present day in the basin of the Po.
As to the roads leading out of Italy, from Aquileia roads
diverged northward into Raetia, eastward to Noricum and
Pannonia, and southwards to the Istrian and Dalmatian coasts.
Farther west came the roads over the higher Alpine passes—
the Brenner from Verona, the Septimer and the SplUgen from
Clavenna (Chiavenao), the Great and the Little St Bernard from
Augusta Praetoria (Aosta) # and the Mont Genevre from Augusta
Taurinorum (Turin).
Westward two short but important, roads led on each side of
the Tiber to the great harbour at its mouth; while the coast
of Lathim was supplied with a coast road by Septimius Severus.
To the south-west the roads were short and of little importance.
On ancient Italian geography in general see articles in Pauly-
Wissowa, Rtaiencyclopcdte (1899, sqo.); Corpus inscriptiouum
Latinarum (Berlin, 1863 sqq.); C, Straflorcllo. GcografiadcW Italia
(Turin, 1890-1892); H. Ni&scn, Italiscke Londeskunde (Berlin, 1883-
1902); also references in articles Rous, Latium, Ac. (T. As.)
C From 476 to 1796
The year 476 opened a new age for the Italian people. Odoacer,
a chief of the Herulians, deposed Romulus, the last Augustus
of the West, and placed the peninsula beneath the titular sway
of the Byzantine emperors. At Pavia the barbarian conquerors
of Italy proclaimed him king, and he received from Zeno the
dignity of Roman patrician. Thus began that system of mixed
government, Teutonic and Roman, which, in the absence of a
national monarch, impressed the institutions of new Italy from
the earliest date with dualism. The same revolution vested
supreme authority in a non-resident and inefficient autocrat,
whose title gave him the right to Interfere in Italian affairs, but
who lacked the power and will to rule the people for his own or
their advantage. Odoacer inaugurated that long scries of foreign
rulers — Greeks, Franks, Germans, Spaniards and Austriaits—
who have successively contributed to the misgovernment of
Italy from distant seats of empire.
I. Gothic and Lombard Kingdoms. — In 488 Theodoric, king of
the East Goths, received commission from the Greek -emperor,
Zeno, to undertake the affairs of Italy. He defeated Odoacer,
drove him to Ravenna, besieged him there, and in 493 completed
the conquest of the country by murdering the Heruh'an chief
with his own hand. Theodoric respected the Roman institutions
which he found in Italy, held the Eternal City sacred, and governed
by ministers chosen from the Roman population. He settled
at Ravenna, which had been the capital of Italy since the days
of Honorius, and which still testifies by its monuments to the
Gothic chieftain's Romanizing policy. Those who believe that
the Italians would have gained strength by unification in a single
monarchy must regret that this Gothic kingdom lacked the
dements of stability. The Goths, except in the valley of the
Po, resembled an army of occupation rather than a people
numerous enough to blend with the Italic stock. Though their
38
ITALY
IFRANKISH EMPERORS
rule wis favourable to the Rontons, they were Arians; and
religious differences, combined with the pride and jealousies
of a nation accustomed to imperial honours, rendered the in-
habitants of Italy eager to throw off their yoke. When, there-
fore, Justinian undertook the reconquest of Italy, his generals,
Belisarius and Narses, were supported by the south. The struggle
of the Greeks and the Goths was carried on for fourteen years,
between 539 and $53, when Teias, the last Gothic king, was
finally defeated in a bloody battle near Vesuvius. At its close
the provinces of Italy were placed beneath Greek dukes, controlled
by a governor-general, entitled exarch, who ruled in the Byzantine
emperor's name at Ravenna.
This new settlement lasted but a few years. Narses had
employed Lombard auxiliaries in his campaigns against the
Goths; and when he was recalled by an insulting
, message from the empress in 565, he is said to have
invited this fiercest and rudest of the Teutonic clans
to seize the spoils of Italy. Be this as it may, the Lombards,
their ranks swelled by the Gcpidae, whom they had lately
conquered, and by the wrecks of other barbarian tribes, passed
southward under their king Alboin in 568. The Hcrulian
invaders had been but a band of adventurers; the Goths were
an army; the Lombards, far more formidable, were a nation
In movement. Pavia offered stubborn resistance; but after
a three years' siege it was taken, and Alboin made It the capital
of his new kingdom.
In order to understand the future history of Italy, it is necessary
to form a clear conception of the method pursued by the Lombards
in their conquest. Penetrating the peninsula, and advancing
like a glacier or half-liquid stream of mud, they occupied the
valley of the Po, and moved slowly downward through the centre
of the country. Numerous as they were compared with their
Gothic predecessors, tbey had not strength or multitude enough
to occupy the whole peninsula. Venice, which since the days
of Atlila had offered an asylum to Roman refugees from the
northern cities, was left untouched. So was Genoa with its
Riviera. Ravenna, entrenched within her lagoons, remained
a Greek city. Rome, protected by invincible prestige, escaped.
The sea-coast cities of the south, and the islands, Sicily, Sardinia
and Corsica, preserved their independence. Thus the Lombards
neither occupied the extremities nor subjugated the brain-centre
of the country. The strength of Alboin's kingdom was in the
north; his capital, Pavia. As his people pressed southward,
they omitted to possess themselves of the coasts; and what
was worse for the future of these conquerors, the original impetus
of the invasion was checked by the untimely murder of Alboin
in 573. After this event, the semi-independent chiefs of the
Lombard tribe, who borrowed the title of dukes from their
Roman predecessors, seem to have been contented with con-
solidating their power in the districts each had occupied. The
duchies of Spoleto in the centre, and of Benevento in the south,
inserted wedge-like into the middle of the peninsula, and enclos-
ing independent Rome, were but loosely united to the kingdom
at Pavia. Italy was broken up into districts, each offering
points for attack from without, and fostering the seeds of internal
revolution. Three separate capitals must be discriminated-
Pa via, the seat of the new Lombard kingdom; Ravenna, the
garrison city of the Byzantine emperor; and Rome, the rallying
point of the old nation, where the successor of St Peter was
already beginning to assume that national protectorate which
proved so influential in the future.
It is not necessary to write the history of the Lombard kingdom
in detail. Suffice it to say that the rule of the Lombards proved
at first far more oppressive to the native population, and was
less intelligent of their old customs, than that of the Goths had
been. Wherever the Lombards had the upper hand, they placed
the country under military rule, resembling in its general
character what we now know as the feudal system. Though
there is reason to suppose that the Roman laws were still ad-
ministered within the cities, yet the Lombard code was that of
the kingdom; and the Lombards being Arians, they added the
oppression of religious intolerance to that of martial despotism
and barbarous cupidity. The Italians were reduced to the
last extremity when Gregory the Great (500-604), having
strengthened his position by diplomatic relations with the
duchy of Spoleto, and brought about the conversion of the
Lombards to orthodoxy, raised the cause of the remaining
Roman population throughout Italy. The fruit of his policy,
which made of Rome a counterpoise against the effete empire
of the Greeks upon the one hand and against the pressure of the
feudal kingdom on the other, was seen in the succeeding century.
When Leo the Isaurian published his decrees against the worship
of images in 726, Gregory IL allied himself with Liudprand,
the Lombard king, threw off allegiance to Byzantium, and
established the autonomy of Rome. This pope initiated the
dangerous policy of playing one hostile force off against another
with a view to securing independence, He used the Lombards
in his struggle with the Greeks, leaving to his successors the
duty of checking these unnatural allies. This was accomplished
by calling the Franks in against the Lombards. Liudprand
pressed hard, not only upon the Greek dominions of the exarchate,
but also upon Rome. His successors, Rachis and Aistolf,
attempted to follow the same game of conquest. But the popes,
Gregory III., Zachary and Stephen II., determining at any
cost to espouse the national cause and to aggrandize their own
office, continued to rely upon the Franks. Pippin twice crossed
the Alps, and forced Aistolf to relinquish his acquisitions,
including Ravenna, Pcntapolis, the coast towns of Romagna
and some cities in the duchy of Spoleto. These he handed
over to the pope of Rome. This donation of Pippin in 756
confirmed the papal see in the protectorate of the Italic party,
and conferred upon it sovereign rights. The virtual outcome
of the contest carried on by Rome since the year 726 with
Byzantium and Pavia was to place the popes in the position
held by the Greek exarch, and to confirm the limitation of the
Lombard kingdom. We .must, however, be cautious to remember
that the south of Italy was comparatively unaffected. The
dukes of the Greek empire and the Lombard dukes of Benevento,
together with a few autonomous commercial cities, still divided
Italy below the Campagna of Rome (see Lombards).
II. Frankish Emperors. — The Franko-Papal alliance, which
conferred a crown on Pippin and sovereign rights upon the see
of Rome, held within itself thai ideal of mutually chart—
supporting papacy and empire which exercised $0 <** OtmI
powerful an influence in medieval history. When
Charles the Great (Charlemagne) deposed his father-in-
law Desidcrius, the last Lombard king, in 774, and
when he received the circlet of the empire from Leo 111. at Rome
in 800, he did but complete and ratify the compact offered to
his grandfather, Charles Martcl, by Gregory III. The relations
between the new emperor and the pope were ill defined; and
this proved the source of infinite disasters to Italy and Europe
in the sequel. But for the moment each seemed necessary to
the other; and that sufficed. Charles took possession of the
kingdom of Italy, as limited by Pippin's settlement. The pope
was confirmed in his rectorship of the cities ceded by Aistolf, .
with the further understanding, tacit rather than expressed,
that, even as he had wrung these provinces for the Italic people
from both Greeks and Lombards, so in the future he might
claim the protectorate of such portions of Italy, external to the
kingdom, as he should be able to acquire. This, at any rate,
seems to be the meaning of that obscure resettlement of the
peninsula which Charles effected. The kingdom of Italy, trans*
milled on his death by Charles the Great, and afterwards con-
firmed to his grandson Lothar by the peace of Verdun in 843,
stretched from the Alps to Terradna. The duchy of Benevento
remained tributary, but independent. The cities of Gaeta and
Naples, Sicily and the so-called Theme of Lombard y in South
Apulia and Calabria, still recognized the Byzantine emperor.
Venice stood aloof, professing a nominal allegiance to the East.
The parcels into which the Lombards had divided the peninsula
remained thus virtually unaltered, except for the new authority
acquired by the see of Rome.
Internally Charles left the affairs of the Italian kingdom
GERMAN EMPEBORS]
ITALY
zq
ranch m he found them, -except that be appears to have
pursued the polky of breaking up the larger fiefs of the Lombards,
substituting counts for their dukes, and adding to the privileges
of the bishops. We may reckon these measures among the
earnest advantages extended to the cities, which still contained
the bulk of the old Roman population, and which were destined
to intervene with decisive effect two centuries later in Italian
history. It should also here be noticed that the changes intro-
duced into the holding of the fiefs, whether by altering their
boundaries or substituting Prankish for Lombard vassals,
were chief among the causes why the feudal system took no
permanent hold in Italy. Feudalism was not at any time a
national institution. The hierarchy of dukes and marquises
and counts consisted of foreign soldiers imposed on the indigenous
inhabitants; and the rapid succession of conquerors, Lombards,
Franks and Germans following each other at no long interval,
and each endeavouring to weaken the remaining strength of his
predecessor, prevented this alien hierarchy from acquiring
fixity by permanence of tenure. Among the many miseries
inflicted upon Italy by the frequent changes of her northern
rulers, this at least may be reckoned a blessing.
The Italians acknowledged eight kings of the house of Charles
the Great, ending in Charles the Fat, who was deposed in 888.
Prtakitk After them followed ten sovereigns* some of whom
imt have been misnamed Italians by writers too eager
JjJJJ* to catch at any resemblance of national glory for a
****** people passive in the hands of foreign masters. The
truth is that no period in Italian history was less really glorious
than that which came to a close in 061 by Berengar IL's cession
Of his rights to Otto the Great. It was a period marked in the
first place by the conquests of the Saracens, who began to occupy
Sicily early in the 9th century, overran Calabria and Apulia, took
Ban and threatened Rome. In the second place it was marked
by a restoration of the Greeks to power. In 800 they established
themselves again at Ban, and ruled the Theme of Lorabardy by
means Of an officer entitled Catapan. In the third place It was
marked by a decline of good government in Rome. Early in the
soth century the papacy fell into the hands of a noble family,
known eventually as the counts of Tuscuhim, who almost
succeeded in rendering the omce hereditary, and in uniting the
civil and ecclesiastical functions of the city under a single member
of their house. It is not necessary to relate the scandals of
Maroxfa's and Theodora's female reign, the infamies of John XII.
or the intrigues which tended to convert Rome into a dudry.
The most important fact for the historian of Italy to notice is
that during this time the popes abandoned, not only their high
duties as chiefs of Christendom, but also their protectorate of
Italian liberties. A fourth humiliating episode in this period
was the invasion of the Magyar barbarians, who overran the
north of Italy, and reduced its fairest provinces to the condition
of a wilderness. Anarchy and misery are indeed the main
features of that long space of time which elapsed between the
death of Charles the Great and the descent of Otto. Through
the almost impenetrable darkness and confusion we only discern
this much, that Italy was powerless to constitute herself a
nation.
F The discords which followed on the break-up of the Carolingian
power, and the weakness of the so-caMed Italian emperors, who
were unable to control the feudatories (marquises of Ivrea and
Tuscany, dukes of Friuli and Spokto), from whose ranks they
sprang, exposed Italy to ever-increasirjg misrule. The country
by this time had become thickly covered over with castles, the
seats of greater or lesser nobles, all of whom were eager to detach
themselves from strict allegiance to the " Regno," The cities,
exposed to pillage by Huns in the north and Saracens in the
south, and ravaged on the coast by Norse pirates* asserted their
right to enclose themselves with walls, and taught their burghess
the use of arms. Within the circuit of their ramparts, the bishops
already began to exercise authority in rivalry with the counts,
to whom since the days of Theodoric, had been entrusted the
government of the Italian burghs. Agreeably to feudal customs,
these nobles, as they grew in power, retired from the town,
and buit themselves fortresses on points of vantage in the
neighbourhood. Thus the titular king of Italy found himself
simultaneously at war with those great vassals who had chosen
him from their own class, with the turbulent factions of the
Roman aristocracy, with unruly bishops in the growing dties
and with the multitude of minor counts and barons who occupied
the open lands, and who changed sides according to the interests
of the moment. The last king of the quasi-Italian succession,
Berengar IL, marquis of Ivrea (951-061), made a vigorous effort
to restore the authority of the regno; and had he succeeded, it
is not impossible that now at the last moment Italy might have
become an independent nation. But this attempt at unification
was reckoned to Berengar for a crime. He only won the hatred
of all classes, and was represented by the obscure annalists of
that period as an oppressor of the church and a remorseless
tyrant. In Italy, divided between feudal nobles and almost
hereditary ecclesiastics, of foreign blood and alien sympathies,
there was no national feeling. Berengar stood alone against a
multitude, unanimous in their intolerance of discipline. His
predecessor in the kingdom, Lothar, had left a young and
beautiful widow, Adelheid. Berengar imprisoned her upon the
Lake of Como r and threatened her with a forced marriage to his
son Adalbert* She escaped to the castle of Canossa, where the
great count of Tuscany espoused her cause, and appealed in
her behalf to Otto the Saxon. The king of Germany descended
into Italy, and took Adelheid in marriage. After this episode
Berengar was more discredited and impotent than ever. In the
extremity of his fortunes he had recourse himself to Otto, making
a formal cession of the Italian kingdom, fat his own name and
that of his son Adalbert, to the Saxon as his overlord. By this
slender tie the crown of Italy was joined to that of Germany;
and the formal right of the elected king of Germany to be con-
sidered king of Italy and emperor may be held to have accrued
from this epoch.
III. The Qcrman £m£«r«T.— Berengar gained nothing by
his act of obedience to Otto. The great Italian nobles, in their
turn, appealed to Germany. Otto entered Lombardy smxob
in 061, deposed Berengar, assumed the crown in San «** #*»«.
Ambrogio at Milan, and in 06s was proclaimed ******
emperor by John XII. at Rome. Henceforward • l "** rw *
Italy changed masters according as one or other of the German
families assumed supremacy beyond the Alps. It is one of the
strongest instances furnished by history of the fascination
exercised by an idea that the Italians themselves should have
grown to glory in this dependence of their nation upon Caesars
who had nothing but a name in common with the Roman
Imperater of the past.
The first thing we have to notice in this revolution which
placed Otto the Great npon the imperial throne is that the
Italian kingdom, founded by the Lombards, recognised by
the Franks and recently claimed by eminent Italian feudatories,
virtually ceased to exist. It was merged in the German kingdom ;
and, since for the German princes Germany was of necessity
their first care, Italy from this time forward began to be left
more and more to herself. The central authority of Pavia bad
always been weak; the regno had proved Insufficient to combine
the nation. But now even that shadow of union disappeared,
and the Italians were abandoned to the slowly working influences
which tended to divide them into separate states. The most
brilliant period of their chequered history, the period which
includes the rise of communes, the exchange of municipal
liberty for despotism and the gradual discrimination of the five
great powers (Milan, Venice, Florence, the Papacy and the
kingdom of Naples), now begins. Among the centrifugal forces
which determined the fatureof the Italian race muBt be reckoned,
first and foremost, the new spirit of municipal independence.
We have seen how the cities enclosed themselves with walls,
and how the bishops denned their authority against that of
the counts. Otto encouraged this revolution by placing the
enclosures of the chief burghs beyond the jurisdiction of the
counts. Within those precincts the bishops and the citizens were
independent of all feudal masters but the emperor. He further
30
ITALY
[GERMAN EMPERORS
broke the power of the great vassals by redivisions of their feuds,
and by the creation of new marches which he assigned to his
German followers. In this way, owing to the dislocation of the
ancient aristocracy, to the enlarged jurisdiction of a power so
democratic as the episcopate, and to the increased privileges of
the burghs, feudalism received a powerful check in Italy. The
Italian people, that people which gave to the world the commerce
and the arts of Florence, was not indeed as yet apparent. But the
conditions under which it could arise, casting from itself all
foreign and feudal trammels, recognising its true past in ancient
Rome, and reconstructing a civility out of the ruins of those
glorious memories, were now at last granted. The nobles from
this time forward retired into the country and the mountains,
fortified themselves in strong places outside the cities, and gave
their best attention to fostering the rural population. Within
the cities and upon the open lands the Italians, in this and
the next century, doubled, trebled and quadrupled their
numbers. A race was formed strong enough to keep the
empire itself in check, strong enough, except for its own
internecine contests, to have formed a nation equal to its
happier neighbours.
The recent scandals of the papacy induced Otto to deprive
the Romans of their right to elect popes. But when he died
in 073, his son Otto IL (married to Theophano of the imperial
Bysantine house) and his grandson, Otto III., who descended
into Italy in 006, found that the affairs of Rome and of the
southern provinces were more than even their imperial powers
could cope with. The faction of the counts of Tusculum raised
its head from time to time in the Eternal City, and Rome still
claimed to be a commonwealth. Otto III.'i untimely death in
1002 introduced new discords. Rome fell once more into the
hands of her nobles. The Lombards chose Ardoin, marquis of
Ivrea, for king, and Pavia supported his claims against those of
Henry of Bavaria, who had been elected in Germany. Milan
sided with Henry; and this is perhaps the first eminent instance
of cities being reckoned powerful allies in the Italian disputes of
sovereigns. It is also the first instance of that bitter feud
between the two great capitals of Lombardy, a feud rooted in
ancient antipathies between the Roman population of Medio-
Ianum and the Lombard garrison of Alboin's successors, which
proved so disastrous to the national cause. Ardoin retired to
a monastery, where he died in 1015. Henry nearly destroyed
Pavia, was crowned in Rome and died in 1024. After this event
Heribert, the archbishop of Milan, invited Conrad, the Franconian
king of Germany, into Italy, and crowned him with the iron
crown of the kingdom.
The intervention of this man, Heribert, compels us to turn a
closer glance upon the cities of North Italy. It is here, at the
Htrt**tt present epoch and for the next two centuries, that the
mastk* pith and nerve of the Italian nation must be sought;
f""**'* and among the burghs of Lombardy, Milan, the eldest
*"**** daughter of ancient Rome, assumes the lead. In
Milan we hear for the first time the word Commie. In Milan
the citixens first form themselves into a Portamento. In Milan
the archbishop organizes the hitherto voiceless, defenceless
population into a community capable of expressing its needs,
and an army ready to maintain its rights. To Heribert is
attributed the invention of the Carroccio, which played so
singular and important a part in the warfare of Italian cities.
A huge car drawn by oxen, bearing the standard of the burgh,
and carrying an altar with the host, this carroccio, like the ark
of the Israelites, formed a rallying point in battle, and reminded
the armed artisans that they had a dty and a church to fight for.
That Heribert 's device proved effectual in raising the spirit of
his burghers, and consolidating them into a formidable band of
warriors, is shown by the fact that it was speedily adopted in
all the free cities. It must not, however, be supposed that at
this epoch the liberties of the burghs were fully developed. The
mass of the people remained unrepresented in the government;
and even if the consuls existed in the days of Heribert, they
were but bumble legal officers, transacting business for their
constituents in the courts of the bishop and his viscount. It
still needed nearly * century of struggle to render the burghers
independent of lordship, with a fully organized commune,
self-governed in its several assemblies. While making these
reservations, it is at the same time right to observe that certain
Italian communities were more advanced upon the path of
independence than others. This is specially the case with the
maritime ports. Not to mention Venice, which has not yet
entered the Italian community, and remains a Greek free dty,
Genoa and Pisa were rapidly rising into ill-defined autonomy.
Their command of fleets gave them incontestable advantages,
as when, for instance, Otto II. employed the Pisans in 080 against
the Greeks in Lower Italy, and the Pisans and Genoese together
attacked the Saracens of Sardinia in 1017. Still, speaking
generally, the age of independence for the burghs had only
begun when Heribert from Milan undertook the earliest
organization of a force that was to become paramount in peace
and war.
Next to Milan, and from the point of view of general politics
even more than Milan, Rome now claims attention. The
destinies of Italy depended upon the character which rftmt
the see of St Peter should assume. Even the liberties
of her republics In the north hung on the issue of a contest which
in the nth and 12th centuries shook Europe to its farthest
boundaries. So fatally were the Internal affairs of that magnifi-
cent but unhappy country bound up with concerns which
brought the forces of the civilized world into play. Her andent
prestige, her geographical position and the intellectual primacy
of her most noble children rendered Italy the battleground of
principles that set all Christendom in motion, and by the dash
of which she found herself for ever afterwards divided. During
the reign of Conrad IL, the party of the counts of Tusculum
revived in Rome; and Crescentius, claiming the title of consul
in the imperial dty, sought onco more to control the election
of the popes. When Henry III., the son of Conrad, entered
Italy in 1046, he found three popes in Rome. These he abolished,
and, taking the appointment into his own hands, gave German
bishops to the see. The policy thus initiated upon the precedent
laid down by Otto the Great was a remedy for pressing evils.
It saved Rome from becoming a duchy in the hands of the
Tusculum house. But it neither raised the prestige of the papacy,
nor could it satisfy the Italians, who rightly regarded the Roman
see as theirs. These German popes were short-lived and in*
efficient. Their appointment, according to notions which defined
themselves within the church at this epoch, was simoniacal;
and during the long minority of Henry IV., who succeeded
his father in 1056, the terrible Tuscan monk, Hildebrand of
Soana, forged weapons which he used with deadly effect against
the presumption of the empire. The condition of the church
seemed desperate, unless it could be purged of crying scandals—
of the subjection of the papacy to the great Roman nobles,
of its subordination to the German emperor and of its internal
demoralization. It was Hilde brand's policy throughout three
papades, during which he controlled the counsels of the Vatican,
and before he himself assumed the tiara, to prepare the mind
of Italy and Europe for a mighty change. His programme
included these three points: (1) the celibacy of the clergy;
(2) the abolition of ecclesiastical appointments made by the
secular authority; (3) the vesting of the papal election in
the hands of the Roman clergy and people, presided over by the
curia of cardinals. How Hildebrand paved the way for these
reforms during the pontificates of Nicholas II. and Alexander IL,
how he succeeded in raising the papal office from the depths of
degradation and subjection to illimitable sway over the minds
of men in Europe, and how his warfare with the empire estab-
lished on a solid basis the still doubtful independence of the
Italian burghs, renewing the long neglected protectorate of the
Italian race, and bequeathing to his successors a national policy
which had been forgotten by the popes since his great pre*
decessor Gregory IL, forms a chapter in European history which
must now be interrupted. We have to follow the fortunes of
unexpected allies, upon whom in no small measure his success
depended.
ACE OF THE COMMUNES)
ITALY
3*
In oidcr to maintain some thread of continuity through the
perplexed and tangled vicissitudes of the Italian race, it has been
necessary to disregard those provinces which did not
immediately contribute to the formation of its history.
For this reason we have left the whole of the south up
to the present point unnoticed. Sicily in the hands of
the Mussulmans, the Theme of Lombardy abandoned to
the weak suzerainty of the Greek catapans, the Lombard duchy
of Benevento slowly falling to pieces and the maritime republics
of Naples, Gaeta and Amalfi extending their influence by com-
merce in the Mediterranean, were in effect detached from the
Italian regno, beyond the jurisidktion of Rome, included in no
parcel of Italy proper. But now the moment had arrived when
this vast group of provinces, forming the future kingdom of the
Two Sicilies, was about to enter definitely and decisively within
the bounds of the Italian community. Some Norman adventurers,
on pilgrimage to St Michael's shrine on Monte Gargano, lent
their swords in 1017 to the Lombard cities of Apulia against the
Greeks. Twelve years later we find the Normans settled at
Aversa under their Count Rainulf . From this station as a centre
the little band of adventurers, playing the Greeks off against the
Lombards, and the Lombards against the Greeks, spread their
power in ail directions, until they made themselves the most con-
siderable force in southern Italy William of Hauteville was
proclaimed count of Apulia. His half-brother, Robert Wiskard
or Guiscard, after defeating the papal troops at Civitetla in 1053,
received from Leo IX. the investiture of all present and future
conquests in Apulia, Calabria and Sicily, which he agreed to hold
as fiefs of the Holy See. Nicholas IL ratified this grant, and con-
firmed the title of count. Having consolidated their possessions
on the mainland, the Normans, under Robert Guiscard's brother,
the great Count Roger, undertook the conquest of Sicily in 1060.
After a prolonged struggle of thirty years; they wrested the
whole island from the Saracens; and Roger, dying in izoi,
bequeathed to bis son Roger a kingdom in Calabria and Sicily
second to none in Europe for wealth and magnificence. This,
while the elder branch of the Hauteville family still held the title
and domains of the Apulian duchy; but in 1127, upon the death
of his cousin Duke William, Roger united the whole of the future
realm. In 1130 he assumed the style of king of Sicily, i n sc ri bing
upon his sword the famous hexameter —
"Appulus et Calaber Siculus mini servit et Afcr."
This Norman conquest of the two Sicilies forms the most
romantic episode in medieval Italian history. By the con-
solidation of Apulia, Calabria and Sicily into a powerful kingdom,
by checking the growth of the maritime republics and by
recognising the over-lordship of the papal sec, the house of
Hauteville influenced the destinies of Italy with more effect than
any of the princes who had previously dealt with any portion of
the peninsula. Their kingdom, though Naples was from time to
time separated from Sicily, never quite lost the cohesion they
had given it; and all the disturbances of equilibrium in Italy
were due in after days to papal manipulation of the rights
acquired by Robert Guiscard's act of homage. The southern
negno, in the hands of the popes, proved an insurmountable
obstacle to the unification of Italy, led to French interference in
Italian affairs, introduced the Spaniard and maintained in those
rich southern provinces the reality of feudal sovereignty long
after this alien element had been eliminated from the rest of
Italy (see Noimans; Sicily: History).
For the sake of clearness, we have anticipated the course of
events by nearly a centary. We must now return to the data of
RDdebrand's elevation to the* papacy in 1073, when
£j£5f. he chose the memorable name of Gregory VII. In
aw*» the next year after his election Hildebrand convened
a council, and passed measures enforcing the celibacy
of the clergy. In 107s he caused the investiture of ecclesiastical
dignitaries by secular potentates of any degree to be condemned.
These two reforms, striking at the most cherished privileges and
most deeply-rooted self-indulgences of the aristocratic caste in
Europe, inflamed the bitterest hostility. Henry IV., king of
Germany, but not crowned emperor, convened a- diet in the
Inflowing year at Worms, where Gregory was deposed and ex-
communicated. The pope followed with a counter excommnnica*
tion, far more formidable, releasing the king's subjects from
their oaths of allegiance. War was thus declared between the
two chiefs of western Christendom, that war of investitures
which out-lasted the lives of both Gregory and Henry, and was
not terminated till the year naa. The dramatic episodes of this
struggle are too well known to be enlarged upon. In his single*
handed dud with the strength of Germany, Gregory received
material assistance from the Countess Matilda of Tuscany. She
was the last heiress of the great house of Canossa, whose fiefs
stretched from Mantua across Lombardy, passed the Apennines,
included the Tuscan plains, and embraced a portion of the duchy
of Spoleto. It was in her castle of Canossa that Henry IV. per*
formed Ins three days' penance in the winter of 1077; and there
she made the cession of her vast domains to the church. That
cession, renewed after the death of Gregory to his successors,
conferred upon the popes indefinite rights, of which they after-
wards availed themselves in the consolidation of their temporal
power. Matilda died in the year. iris. Gregory had passed
before her from the scene of his contest, an exile at Salerno,
whither Robert Guiscard carried him in 1084 from the anarchy of
rebellious Rome. With unbroken spirit, though the objects of
his life were unattained, though Italy and Europe had been
thrown into confusion, and the issue of the conflict was still
doubtful, Gregory expired in 1085 with these words on his lips: " I
loved justice, I hated iniquity, therefore in banishment I die."
The greatest of the popes thus breathed his last; but the new
spirit he had communicated to the papacy was not destined to
expire with him. Gregory's immediate successors, Victor III.,
Urban n. and Paschal II., carried on his struggle with Henry
IV. and his imperial antipopes, encouraging the emperor's son
to rebel against him, and stirring up Europe for the first crusade.
When Henry IV. died, his own son's prisoner, in 1106, Henry
V. crossed the Alps, entered Rome, wrung the imperial coronation
from Paschal IL and compelled the pope to grant his claims
on the investitures. Scarcely had he returned to Germany when
the Lateran disavowed all that the pope had done, on the score
that it had been extorted by force. France sided with the
church. Germany rejected the bull of investiture. A new
descent into Italy, a new seizure of Rome, proved of no avail*
The emperor's real weakness was in Germany, where his subjects
openly expressed their discontent. He at last abandoned the
contest which had distracted Europe. By the concordat of
Worms, ma, the emperor surrendered the right of investiture
by ring and staff, and granted the right of election to the clergy.
The popes were henceforth to be chosen by the cardinals, the
bishops by the chapters subject to the pope's approval. On
the other hand the pope ceded to the emperor the right of
investiture by the sceptre. But the main issue of the struggle
was not in these details of ecclesiastical government; principles
had been at stake far deeper and more widely reaching. The
respective relations of pope and emperor, ill-defined in the
compact between Charles the Great and Leo III., were brought
in question, and the two chief potentates of Christendom, no
longer tacitly concordant, stood against each other in irreconcil-
able rivalry. Upon this point, though the battle seemed to be
a drawn one, the popes were really victors. They remained
independent of the emperor, but the emperor had still to seek
the crown at their hands. The pretensions of Otto the Great
and Henry III. to make popes were gone for ever (see Papacy;
ImrzsrrruBE).
IV. Age of ike Comimmess—Tht final gamers, however, by the
war of investitures were the Italians. In the first place, from
this time forward, owing to the election of popes by
the Roman curia, the Holy See remained in the hands %£
of Italians; and this, though it was by no means an tum, -
unmixed good, was a great glory to the nation. In the
next place, the antagonism of the popes to the emperors, which
became hereditary in the Holy College, forced the former to
assume the protectorate of the national cause. But by far the
greatest profit the Italians reaped was the emancipation of theft
3*
ITALY
(AGE OP THE COMMUNES
burghs. During the forty-seven years 1 war, when pope and
emperor were respectively bidding for their alliance, and offering
concessions to secure their support, the communes grew in
self-reliance, strength and liberty. As the bishops had helped
to free them from subservience to their feudal masters, so the
war of investitures relieved them of dependence on their bishops.
The age of real autonomy, signalized by the supremacy of consuls
in the cities, had arrived.
In the republics, as we begin to know .them after the war of
investitures, government was carried on by officers called consuls,
varying in number according to custom and according to the
division of the town into districts. These magistrates, as we
have already seen, were originally appointed to control and
protect the humbler classes. But, in proportion as the people
gained more power in the field the consuls rose into importance,
superseded the bishops and began to represent the city in trans-
actions with its neighbours. Popes and emperors who needed
the assistance of a city, had to seek it from the consuls, and thus
these officers gradually converted an obscure and indefinite
authority into what resembles the presidency of a common-
wealth. They were supported by a deliberative assembly,
called crtdetua, chosen from the more distinguished citizens.
In addition to this privy council, we find a gran consitfio, consist-
ing of the burghers who had established the right to interfere
immediately in public affairs, and a still larger assembly called
portamento, which included the whole adult population. Though
the institutions of the communes varied in different localities,
this is the type to which they all approximated. It will be
perceived that the type was rather oligarchical than strictly
democratic. Between the parlamento and the consuls with their
privy council, or credenza, was interposed the gran consiglio of
privileged burghers. These formed the aristocracy of the town,
who by their wealth and birth held its affairs within their custody.
There is good reason to believe that, when the term popoio
occurs, it refers to this body and not to the whole mass of the
population. The commu included the entire city— bishop,
consuls, oligarchy, councils, handicraftsmen, proletariate. The
popolo was the governing or upper class. It was almost inevitable
in the transition from feudalism to democracy that this inter-
mediate ground should be traversed; and the peculiar Italian
phrases, primo popolo, scconic popolo, Urzo popolo, and so forth,
indicate successive changes, whereby the oligarchy passed from
one stage to another in its progress toward absorption in
democracy or tyranny.
Under their consuls the Italian burghs rose to a great height
of prosperity and splendour. Pisa built her Duomo. Milan
undertook the irrigation works which enriched the soil of
Lombardy for ever. Massive walls, substantial edifices, com*
medious seaports, good roads, were the benefits conferred by this
new government on Italy. It is also to be noticed that the
people now began to be conscious of their past. They recognised
the fact that their blood was Latin as distinguished from Teutonic,
and that they must look to ancient Rome for those memories
which constitute a people's nationality. At this epoch the study
of Roman law received a new impulse, and this is the real meaning
of the legend that Pisa, glorious through her consuls, brought
the pandects in a single codex from Amain. The very name
consul, no less than the Romanizing character of the best archi-
tecture of the time, points to the same revival of antiquity.
The rise of the Lombard communes produced a sympathetic
revolution in Rome,, which deserves to be mentioned in this place.
Bm _ A monk, named Arnold of Brescia, animated with the
£*£•#. *P irk of *** Milanese, stirred up the Romans to shake
off the temporal sway of their bishop. He attempted,
in fact, upon a grand scale what was being slowly and quietly
effected in the northern cities. Rome, ever mindful of her
unique past, listened to Arnold's preaching. A senate was
established, and the republic was proclaimed. The title of
patrician was revived and offered to Conrad, king of Italy, but
not crowned emperor. Conrad refused it, and the Romans
conferred ft upon one of their own aobies* Though these institu-
tion* borrowed high-standing titles from antiquity, they were
in reaKty imitations of the Lombard civic system. The patrician
stood for the consuls. The senate, composed of nobles, repre-
sented the credenza and the gran consiglio. The pope was
unable to check this revolution, which is now chiefly interesting
as further proof of the insurgence of the Latin as against the
feudal elements in Italy at this period (see Rome: History).
Though the communes gained so much by the war of investi-
tures, the division of the country between the pope's and
emperor's parties was no small price to pay for inde- muBldm
pendence. It inflicted upon Italy the ineradicable p* VMr% .
curse of party-warfare, setting city against city, bouse
against house, and rendering concordant action for a national
end impossible. No sooner had the compromise of the investitures
been concluded than it was manifest that the burghers of the
new enfranchised communes were resolved to turn their arms
against each other. We seek in vain an obvious motive for each
separate quarrel All we know for certain is that, at this epoch,
Rome attempts to ruin Tivoli, and Venice Pisa; Milan fights
with Cremona, Cremona with Crema, Pavia with Verona,
Verona with Padua, Piacenza with Parma, Modena and Reggie
with Bologna, Bologna and Faenza with Ravenna and Imoht,
Florence and Pisa with Lucca and Siena, and so on through the
whole list of cities. The nearer the neighbours, the more rancor-
ous and internecine is the strife; and, as in all cases where
animosity is deadly and no grave local causes of dispute are
apparent, we arc bound to conclude that some deeply-seated
permanent uneasiness goaded these fast growing communities
into rivalry. Italy was, in fact, too small for her children. As
the towns expanded, they perceived that they must mutually
exclude each other. They fought for bare existence, far primacy
in commerce, for the command of seaports, for the keys of
mountain passes, for rivers, roads and all the avenues of wealth
and plenty. The pope's cause and the emperor's cause were of
comparatively little moment to Italian burghers; and the names
of Guelph and Ghibelline, which before long began to be heard hi
every street, on every market-place, had no meaning for them.
These watchwords are said to have arisen in Germany during
the disputed successionr of the empire between 113 5 and 1152,
when the WelCs of Bavaria opposed the Swabian princes of
Waiblingen origin. But in Italy, although they were severally
identified with the papal and imperial parties, they really served
as symbols for jealousies which altered in complexion from time
to time and place to place, expressing more than antagonistic
political principles, and involving differences vital enough to
split the social fabric to its foundation.
Under the imperial rule of Lothar the Saxon (1125-1137) and
Conrad the Swabian (1138-1152), these civil wars increased
in violence owing to the absence of authority. Neither
Lothar nor Conrad was strong at home; the former Zn^
had no influence in Italy, and the latter never entered
Italy at all. But when Conrad died, the electors chose his
nephew Frederick, surnamed Barbarossa, who united the rival
honours of Welf and Waiblingen, to succeed him; and it was
soon obvious that the empire had a master powerful ft^^ut
of brain and firm of will. Frederick immediately 6«tirwM
determined to reassert the imperial rights in his «■*<*•
southern provinces, and to check the warfare of the *•*£*•»»
burghs. When he first crossed the Alps in 1154,****"
Lombardy was, roughly speaking, divided between two parties,
the one headed by Pavia professing loyalty to the empire*
the other headed by Milan ready to oppose its claims. The
municipal animosities of the last quarter of a century gave
substance to these factions; yet neither the imperial nor the
anti-imperial party had any real community of interest with
Frederick. He came to supersede self-government by consuls*
to deprive the cities of the privilege of making war on their own
account and to extort bis regalian rights of forage, food ami
lodging for his armies. It was only the habit of inter urban
jealousy which prevented the communes from at once combining
to resist demands which threatened their liberty of action, and
would leave them passive at the pleasure of a foreign master.
The diet was opened at RoncagUa near Piacecaa, where Frederick
ABB Or THE COMMUNES
ITALY
rjateaed to the roraplaints of Coma and Lodi against Mflan, of
Fa via against Teuton* and of the marquis of Montfcrrat against
Asti and Chkri. The plaintiffs in each case were imperialists;
and Frederick's first action was to redress their supposed griev-
ances. He laid waste Chkri, Asti and Tortona, then took the
Lombard crown at Pa via, and, reserving Milan for a future day,
passed southward to Rome. Outside the gates of Rome he was
met by a deputation from the senate he had come to supersede,
who addressed him in words memorable for expressing the
republican spirit of new Italy face to face with autocratic
feudalism: " Thou wast a stranger, I have made thee a citizen ";
it is Rome who speaks: " Thou earnest as an alien from beyond
the Alps, I have conferred on thee the principality." Moved
only to scorn and indignation by the rhetoric of these presump-
tuous enthusiasts, Frederick marched into the Leonine city, and
took the imperial crown from the hands of Adrian IV. In return
for this compliance, the emperor delivered over to the pope his
troublesome rival Arnold of Brescia, who was burned alive by
Nicholas Brcakspear, the only English successor of St Peter.
The gates of Rome itself were shut against Frederick; and even
on this first occasion his good understanding with Adrian began
to suffer. The points of dispute between them .related mainly
to Matilda's bequest, and to the kingdom of Sicily, which the
pope had rendered independent of the empire by renewing its
investiture in the name of the Holy See. In truth, the papacy
and the empire had become irreconcilable. Each claimed
illimitable authority, and neither was content to abide within
such limits as would have secured a mutual tolerance. Having
obtained bis coronation, Frederick withdrew to Germany, while
Milan prepared herself against the storm which threatened.
In the ensuing struggle with the empire, that great city rose tp
the altitude of patriotic heroism. By their sufferings no less
than by their deeds of daring, her citizens showed themselves to
be sublime, devoted and disinterested, winning the purest
laurels which give lustre to Italian story. Almost in Frederick's
presence, they rebuilt Tortona, punished Pavia, Lodi, Cremona
and the marquis of Montferrat. Then they fortified the Adda
and Tidno, and waited for the emperor's next descent. He
came in 1 158 with a large army, overran Lombardy, raised his
imperial allies, and sat down before the walls of Milan. Famine
forced the burghers to partial obedience, and Frederick held a
victorious diet at RoncagUa. Here the jurists of Bologna
appeared, armed with their new lore of Roman law, and ex-
pounded Justinian's code in the interests of the German empire.
It was now seen how the absolutist doctrines of autocracy
developed irt. Justinian's age at Byzantium would bear fruits in
the development of an imperial idea, which was destined to be
the fatal mirage of medieval Italy. Frederick placed judges of
his own appointment, with the title of podesta, in all the Lombard
communes; and this stretch of his authority, while it exacer-
bated his foes, forced even his friends to join their ranks against
him. The war, meanwhile, dragged on. Crema yielded after an
heroic siege in xx6o, and was abandoned to the cruelty of its
fierce rival Cremona. Milan was invested in x 161, starved into
capitulation after nine months' resistance, and given up to total
destruction by the Italian imperialists of Frederick's army,
so stained and tarnished with the vindictive passions of municipal
rivalry was even this, the one great glorious strife of Italian
annals. Having ruined his rebellious city, but not tamed her
spirit, Frederick withdrew across the Alps. But, in the interval
between his second and third visit, a league was formed against
him in north-eastern Lombardy. Verona, Vicenza, Padua,
Treviso, Venice entered into a compact to defend their liberties;
and when he came again in 1x63 with a brilliant staff of German
knights, the imperial cities refused to join his standards. This
was the first and ominous sign of a coming change.
» Meanwhile the election of Alexander III. to the papacy in
1 1 SO added a powerful ally to the republican party. Opposed
by an anti-pope whom the emperor favoured, Alexander found
it was his truest policy to rely for support upon the anti-
imperialist communes. They in return, gladly accepted a
champion who lent them the prestige and influence of the
church. When Frederick once more crossed the Alps
advanced on Rome, and besieged Alexander in the Colis
the affairs of Lombardy left him no leisure to p
recalcitrant pontiff. In April 1167 a new league v
between Cremona, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua an
In December of the same year this league allied itsc
elder Veronese league, and received the addition of ft
Piacenza, Parma, Modena and Bologna. The fam
of Lombard cities, styled Concordia in its acts of settli
now established. Novara, Vercelli, Asti and Tortona
ranks; only Pavia and Montferrat remained imperialist
between the Alps and Apennines. Frederick fled foi
his life by the Mont Cenis, and in. 1168 the town o
Alessandria was erected to keep Pavia and thernarquisa
in the emperor's absence, Ravenna, Rimini, Imola
joined the league, which now called itself the " Societ)
Lombardy, the March, Romagna and Alessandria.'
fifth time, in n 74, Frederick entered bis rebellious
The fortress town of Alessandria stopped his progress
mud walls contemptuously named " of straw," while
of the league assembled at Modena and obliged him 1
siege. In the spring of n 76 Frederick threatened &
•army found itself a little to the north of the towi
village of Legnano, when the troops of the city, assist
a few allies from Piacenza, Verona, Brescia, Novara ai
met and overwhelmed it. The victory was complete,
escaped alone to Pavia, whence he opened ncgotia
Alexander. In consequence of these transactions
suffered to betake himself unharmed to Venice. Hei
neutral ground, the emperor met the pope, and a ti
years was concluded with the Lombard burghs. La
from the vantage-ground of history upon the issue c
struggle, we are struck with the small results whic
the Lombard communes. They had humbled ai
defeated their foreign lord. . They had proved the
in combination. Yet neither the acts by which their
ratified nor the terms negotiated for them by th
Alexander evince the smallest desire of what we now 1
as national independence. The name of Italy is never 1
The supremacy of the emperor is not called in ques
conception of a permanent confederation, bound t
offensive and defensive alliance for common object
occurred to these hard fighters and stubborn assertc
civic privileges. All they claim is municipal auto
right to manage their own affairs within the city wal
their battles as they choose, and to follow their se
unchecked. It is vain to lament. that, when they r
now established Italian independence upon a secure
chose local and municipal privileges. Their mutual
combined with the prestige of the empire, and possibl
selfishness of the pope, who had secured his own po
was not likely to foster a national spirit that w
threatened the ecclesiastical supremacy, deprived t]
of the only great opportunity they ever had of forming
into a powerful nation.
When the truce expired in 1183, a permanent
ratified at Constance. The intervening years had bee
the Lombards, not in consolidating their union, bul
in attempting to secure special privileges for theii
several cities. Alessandria della Paglia, glorious bj
her resistance to the emperor in 1x74, had ever
changed her name to Cesarea! The signatories of tl
Constance were divided between leaguers and ii
On the one side we find Vercelli, Novara, Milan, Lodi
Brescia, Mantua, Verona, Vicenza, Padua, Treviso
Faenza, Modena, Reggio, Parma, Piacenza; on
Pavia, Genoa, Alba, Cremona, Como, Tortona, Ast
Venice, who had not yet entered the Italian con-
conspicuous by ber absence. According to the ter
treaty, the communes were confirmed in their right of s
merit by consuls, and their right of warfare. Th
retained the supreme courts of appeal within the
34
ITALY
{AGE OP THE COMMUNES
his dtim for sustenance at their expense when he tame into
Italy.
The privileges confirmed to the Lombard cities by the peace
of Constance were extended to Tuscany, where Florence, having
War •/ ruined Fiesole, had begun her career of freedom and
ckka prosperity. The next great chapter in the history of
«*•<•«* Italian evolution is the war of the burghs against the
—*** nobles. The consular dties were everywhere sur-
rounded by castles; and, though the feudal fords had been
weakened by the events of the preceding centuries, they con-
tinued to be formidable enemies. It was, for instance, necessary
to the well-being of the towns that they should possess territory
round their wails, and this had to be wrested from the nobles.
We cannot linger over the details of this warfare. It must
suffice to say that, partly by mortgaging their property to rich
burghers, partly by entering the service of the cities as coudoUien
(mercenary leaders), partly by espousing the cause of one town
against another, and partly by forced submission after the siege
of their strong places, the counts were gradually brought into
connexion of dependence on the communes. These, in their
turn, forced the nobles to leave their castles, and to reside for
at least a portion of each year within the walk. By these
measures the counts became citizens, the rural population
ceased to rank as serfs, and the Italo-Roman population of
the towns absorbed into itself the remnants of Franks, Germans
and other foreign stocks. It would be impossible to exaggerate
the importance of this revolution, which ended by destroying
the last vestige of feudality, and prepared that common Italian
people which afterwards distinguished itself by the creation of
European culture. But, like all the vicissitudes, of the Italian
race, while it was a decided step forward in one direction, it
introduced a new source of discord. The associated nobles
proved ill neighbours to the peaceable citizens. They fortified
their houses, retained their military habits, defied the consuls,
and carried on feuds in the streets and squares. The war against
the castles became a war against the palaces; and the system
of government by consuls proved inefficient to control the
clashing elements within the state. This led to the establishment
of podestas, who represented a compromise between two radically
hostile parties in the city, and whose business it was to arbitrate
and keep the peace between them. Invariably a foreigner,
elected for a year with power of life and death and control of
the armed force, but subject to a strict account at the expiration
of his office, the podesta might be compared to a dictator invested
with limited authority. His title was derived from that of
Frederick Barbarossa's judges; but he had no dependence on
the empire. The citizens chose him, and voluntarily submitted
to his rule. The podesta marks an essentially transitional state
in civic government, and his intervention paved the way for
despotism.
\ The thirty years which elapsed between Frederick Barbarossa's
death in noo and the coronation of his grandson Frederick II.
in z22o form one of the most momentous epochs in
Italian history. Barbarossa, perceiving the advantage
that would accrue to his house if he could join the
crown of Sicily to that of Germany, and thus deprive the popes of
their allies in Lower Italy, procured the marriage of his son
Henry VI. to Constance, daughter of King Roger, and heiress of
the Hauteville dynasty. When William II., the last monarch of
the Norman race, died, Henry VI. claimed that kingdom in his
wife's right, and was recognised in x 104. Three years afterwards
he died, leaving a son, Frederick, to the care of Constance, who
in her turn died in 1198, bequeathing the young prince, already
crowned king of Germany, to the guardianship of Innocent III.
It was bold policy to confide- Frederick to his greatest enemy and
rival; but the pope honourably discharged his duty, until his
ward outgrew the years of tutelage, and became a fair mark for
ecdeshutkal hostility. Frederick's long minority was occupied
by Innocent's pontificate. Among the principal events of that
reign must be reckoned the foundation of the two orders, Fran-
ciscan and Dominican, who were destined to form a militia for the
holy see In conflict with the empire and the hecetki of Lombardy.
M.
A second great event was the fourth crusade, undertaken in not,
which established the naval and commercial supremacy of the
Italians in the Mediterranean. 4The Venetians, who contracted
for the transport of the crusaders, and whose blind doge Dandolo
was first to land in Constantinople, received one-half and one*
fourth of the divided Greek empire for their spoils. The Venetian
ascendancy in the Levant dates from this epoch; for, though the
republic had no power to occupy all the domains ceded to jft,
Candia was taken, together with several small islands and stations
on the mainland. The formation of a Latin empire in the East
increased the pope's prestige; while at home it was his poKcy to
organize Countess Matilda's heritage by the formation of Gudph
leagues, over which he presided. This is the meaning of the three
leagues, in the March, in the duchy of Spoleto and in Tuscany,
which now combined the chief cities of the papal territory into
allies of the holy see. From the Tuscan league Pisa, consistently
Ghibelline, stood aloof. Rome itself again at this epoch established
a republic, with which Innocent would not or could not interfere.
The thirteen districts in their council nominated four caporimd,
who acted in concert with a senator, appointed, like the podesta
of other cities, for supreme judicial functions. Meanwhile the
Guelph and Ghibelline factions were beginning to divide Italy
into minute parcels. Not only did commune range itself against
commune under the two rival flags, but party rose up against
party within the city walls. The introduction of the factions
into Florence in 1215, owing to a private quarrel between the
Buondelmonti, Amidei and Donati, is a celebrated instance of
what was happening in every burgh.
Frederick II. was left without a rival for the imperial throne
in 1218 by the death of Otto IV., and on the 22nd of November
12 20, Honorius IH., Innocent's successor, crowned _
him in Rome. It was impossible for any section of the J'^**
Italians to mistake the gravity of his access to power, pj^
In his single person he combined the prestige of empire
with the crowns of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Germany and Bur-
gundy; and in 1225, by marriage with Yolande de Brienne, he
added that of Jerusalem. There was no prince greater or more
formidable in the habitable globe. The communes, no less than
the popes, felt that they must prepare themselves for contest to
the death with a power which threatened their existence. Already
in 12x8, the Guetphs of Lombardy had resuscitated their old
league, and had been defeated by the Ghibellines in a battle near
GhibeUo. Italy seemed to lie prostrate before the emperor, who
commanded her for the first time from the south as well as from
the north. In 1227 Frederick, who had promised to lead a
crusade, was excommunicated by Gregory IX. because he was
obliged by illness to defer his undertaking; and thus the spiritual
power declared war upon its rival. The Guelph towns of Lorn*
bardy again raised their levies. Frederick enlisted his Saracen
troops at Nocera and Luceria, and appointed the terrible EzaeUno
da Romano his vicar in the Marches of Verona to quell their
insurrection. It was 1236, however, before he was able to take
the field himself against the Lombards. Having established'
EzzeBno in Verona, Vicenza and Padua, he defeated the Milanese
and their allies at Cortenuova in x 237, and sent their carroccio as
a trophy of his victory to Rome. Gregory IX. feared lest the
Guelph party would be ruined by this check. He therefore
made alliance with Venice and Genoa, fulminated a new ex-
communication against Frederick, and convoked a council at
Rome to ratify his ban in 1 241. The Genoese undertook to bring
the French bishops to this council. Their fleet was attacked at
Meloria by the Pisans, and utterly defeated. The French prelates
went in silver chains to prison in the Ghibelline capital of Tuscany.
So far Frederick had been successful at all points. In x 245 a new
pope, Innocent IV., was elected, who prosecuted the war with
still bitterer spirit. Forced to fly to France, he there, at Lyons,
in 1245, convened a council, which enforced his condemnation of
the emperor. Frederick's subjects were freed from their allegiance,
and he was declared dethroned and deprived of all rights. Five
times king and emperor as he was, Frederick, placed under the
ban of the church, led henceforth a doomed existence. The
m e ndic a nt monks stirred up the populace to acts of fanatical
ACS OP THE COMMUNES)
ITALY
35
comity. To plot against htm, to attempt hit life by
the sword, was Accounted virtuous. His secretary, Hero delle
Vigne, was wrongly suspected of conspiring. The crimes of his
vicar Ewu'no, who laid whole provinces waste and murdered men
by thousands in his Paduan prisons, increased the horror with
which he was regarded. Parma revolted from him, and he spent
months in 1247-1348 vainly trying to reduce this one time
faithful city. The only gleam of success which shone on his ill
fortune was the revolution which placed Florence in the hands of
the GhibelUnesin 124&. Next year Bologna rata against him,
defeated his troops and took his son Enzio, king of Sardinia,
prisoner at Fossalta. Hunted to the ground and broken-hearted,
Frederick expired at the end of ia$o in his Apulian castle of
Florentine. It is difficult to judge his career with fairness. The
only prince who could, with any probability of success, have
established the German rule in Italy, his ruin proved the im-
possibility of that long-ch eri sh ed scheme. The nation had out*
grown dependence upon foreigners, and after his death no
German emperor interfered with anything but miserable failure
in Italian affairs. Yet from many points of view it might be
regretted that Frederick was not suffered to rule Italy. By birth
and breeding an Italian, highly gifted and widely cultivated,
liberal in his opinions, a patron of literature, a founder of uni-
versities, he anticipated the spirit of the Renaissance. At his
court Italian started into being as a language. His laws were
vise. He wascapable of giving to Italy a large and noble culture.
But the commanding greatness of his position proved his rain.
Emperor and king of Sicily, he was the natural enemy of popes,
who could not tolerate so overwhelming a rival.
After Frederick's death, the popes carried on their war for
eighteen years against his descendants. The cause of bis son
0mmmt Conrad was sustained in Lower Italy by Manfred,
******"* on* of Frederick's many natural children; and, when
Coarad died in 1354, Manfred still acted as vicegerent
foe the Swabians, who were now represented by a boy
Conradin. Innocent IV. and Alexander XV. continued
to make bead against the Ghibelline party. The most
dramatic incident in this struggle was the crusade preached
against EszeUno. This tyrant had made himself justly odious;
and when be was hunted to death in 1259, the triumph was less
for the Gueiph cause than for humanity outraged by the
iniquities of such a monster. The battle between Gueiph and
Ghibelline raged with unintermitting fury. While the former
faction gained In Lombardy by the massacre of Ezselino, the
latter revived in Tuscany after the battle of Montaperti, which
m 1 too placed Florence at the discretion of the Ghibellines.
Manfred, now called king of Sicily, beaded the GhibelVnes, and
there was no strong counterpoise against hfm. In this necessity
Urban IV. and Clement IV. invited Charles of Anjoa to enter
Italy and take the Gueiph command. They made him senator
of Rome and vicar of Tuscany, and promised him the investiture
of the regno provided he stipulated that it should not be bdd in
combination with the empire. Charles accepted these terms,
% and was welcomed by the Gueiph party as their chief throughout
* Italy. He defeated Manfred in a battle at Grandella near
Benevento in ia66. Manfred was killed; and, when Conradin,
a lad of sixteen, descended from Germany to make good his
claims to the kingdom, he too was defeated at Tagilacozzo in
1*67. Less lucky than his uncle, Conradin escaped with his
lire, to die upon a scaffold at Naples. His glove was carried to
lbs cousin Constance, wife of Peter of Aragon, the last of the
great Norman-Swabian family. Enrio died in his prison four
years later. The popes had been successful; but they had
purchased their bloody victory at a great cost. This first
invitation to French princes brought with it incalculable evils.
Churles of Anjou, supported by Rome, and recognized as
chief in Tuscany, was by far the most formidable of the Italian
potentates. In his turn he now excited the jealousy of the
popes, who began, though cautiously, to cast their weight into
the Ghibelline scale. Gregory initiated the policy of establish-
ing an equilibrium between the parties, which was carried out
by his successor Nicholas III. Charles was forced to resign
the ftnatetabJp of Rome and .the sJgnoria of Lombardy and
Tuscany. In 1 282 he received a more decided check, when Sicily
rose against him in the famous rebellion of the Vespers. CMtWmtm
He lest the island, which gave itself to Aragon; and •som***
thus the kingdom of Sicily was severed from that of —*
Naples, the dynasty in the one being Spanish and <**•*
Ghibelline, in the other French and Gueiph. Mean- ^"*
while a new emperor had been elected, the prudent Rudolf of
Habsburg, who abstained from interference with Italy, and
who confirmed the territorial pretensions of the popes by solemn
charter in 1278. Henceforth Emilia, Romagna, the March of
Ancona, the patrimony of St Peter and the Campagna of Rome
held of the Holy See, and not of the empire. The imperial
chancery, without inquiring closely into the deeds furnished
by the papal curia, made a deed of .gift, which placed the pope
in the position of a temporal sovereign. While Nicholas IIL
thus bettered the position of the church m Italy, the Gueiph party
grew stronger than ever, through the crushing defeat of the fisans
by the Genoese at Mdoria in 1284* Pisa, who had ruined
Amain, was now ruined by Genoa; She never held her bead
so high again after this victory, which sent her best and bravest
citizens to die in the Ligurian dungeons. The Mediterranean
was left to be fought for by Genoa and Venice, while Gueiph
Florence grew still more powerful in Tuscany. Not long after
the battle of MelorJa Charles of Anjou died, and was succeeded
by his son Charles II. of Naples, who played no prominent
part ra Italian affairs. The Gueiph party was held together
with a less tight hand even in cities so consistent as Florence.
Here in the year 1300 new factions, subdividing the old Guelphs
and GhibelKnes under the names of Neri and Bianchi, bad
acquired such force that Boni f ace VIII., a violently Gueiph pope,
called in Charles of Valois to pacify the republic and undertake
the charge of Italian affairs. Bo n iface was a passionate and
unwise man. After quarrelling with the French king, Philip
le Bel, he fell into the hands of the Ceionna family at Anagni,
and died r either of the violence he there received or of mortinca*
tion, in October 1303*
After the short papacy of Benedict XL a Frenchman, Clement
V., was elected, and the seat of the papacy was transferred to
Avignon. Thus began that Babylonian exile of the Tna9 .
popes which placed them in subjection to the French uttoa
crown and ruined their prestige in Italy. Lasting •"*+
seventy years, and joining on to the sixty years of ?*£* rM
the Great Schism, this enfeeblement of tht papal *"**•*
authority, coinciding at it did with the practical elimination
of the empire from Italian affairs, gave a long period of com-
parative independence to the nation. Nor must it be forgotten
that this exile was due to the policy which induced the pontiffs,
in their detestation of GtrfbellJnisrn, to rely successively upon
the houses of Anjou and of Valois. This policy it was which
justified Dante's fierce epigram— the puttotuigior iortgu
The period we have briefly traversed was immortalized by
Dante in an epic which from one point of view might be caHed
tberx>em of the Goelphft and Ghibellines. From the foregoing bare
narration of events ft Is impossible to estimate the importance
of these parties, or to understand their bearing on subsequent
Italian history We are therefore forced to pause awhile, and
probe beneath the surface. The civil wars may be regarded as
a continuation of the previous municipal struggle, intensified by
recent hostilities between the burghers and the nobles. The
quarrels of the church and empire lend pretexts and furnish
war-cries; but the real question at issue is not the supremacy of
pope or emperor. The conflict h a social one, between civic
and feudal institutions, between c om merc i al and military
interests, between progress and conservatism. Guefph de-
mocracy and industry idealize the pope. The banner of the
church waves above the camp of those who aim at positive
prosperity and republican equality. Ghibelline aristocracy and
immobility idealise the emperor. The prestige of the empire,
based upon Roman law end feudal tradition, attracts imaginative
patriots and systematic thinkers. The two ideals are counter-
poscd and mutually exclusive. NodtycaQsHselfoItrK
3«
ITALY
(AGE OF THE DBS*
Alfonso reigned alone and undisturbed in Lower Italy, combining
for the first time since the year xa8a the crowns of Sicily and
Naples. The former he held by inheritance, together with that
of Aragon. The latter be considered to be his by conquest.
Therefore, when he died in 1458, he bequeathed Naples to his
natural son Ferdinand, while Sicily and Aragoa passed together
to his brother John, and so on to Ferdinand the Catholic. The
twenty-three years of Alfonso's reign were the most prosperous
and splendid period of South Italian history. He became an
Italian in taste and sympathy, entering with enthusiasm into
the humanistic ardour of the earlier Renaissance, encouraging
men of letters at his court, administering his kingdom on the
principles of an enlightened despotism, and lending his authority
to establish that equilibrium in the peninsula upon winch the
politicians of his age beheved, not without reason, that Italian
independence might be secured.
The last member of the Visconti family of whom we had
occasion to speak was Azco, who bought the city in 1328 from
fodfrtt Louis of Bavaria. His uncle Lucchlno succeeded, but
jukm. was murdered in 1349 by a wife against whose life be
had been plotting. Lucchino's brother John, arch*
bishop of Milan, now assumed the lordship of the city, and
extended the power of the Visconti over Genoa and the whole of
north Italy, with the exception of Piedmont, Verona, Mantua,
Ferrara and Venice. The greatness of the family dates from the
reign of this masterful prelate. He died in 1354, and his heritage
was divided between three members of his house, Matteo,Bemabd
and Galeazzo. In the next year Matteo, being judged incom-
petent to rule, was assassinated by order of his brothers, who
made an equal partition of their subject cities— Bernabd
residing in Milan, Galeazzo in Pavia. Galea am was the wealthiest
and most magnificent Italian of his epoch. He married his
daughter Violante to our duke of Clarence, and his son Gian
Galeaaso to a daughter of King John of France. When he died
in 1378, this son resolved to reunite the domains of the Visconti;
and, with this object in view, he plotted and executed the murder
of his uncle Bernabd. Gian Galeazzo thus became by one stroke
the most formidable of Italian despots. Immured in his castle at
Pa via, accumulating wealth by systematic taxation and methodical
economy, he organized the mercenary troop* who eagerly took
service under so good a paymaster; and, by directing their
operations from his cabinet, he threatened the whole of Italy
with conquest. The last scions of the Delia Scala family stall
reigned in Verona, the last Carraresi in Padua; the Estensi were
powerful in Ferrara, the GonaagU in Mantua. Gian Galeazzo,
partly by force and partly by intrigue, discredited these minor
despots, pushed his dominion to the very verge of Venice, and,
having subjected Lombardy to his sway, proceeded to attack
Tuscany. Pisa and Perugia were threatened with .extinction, and
Florence dreaded the advance of the Visconti arms, when the
plague suddenly cut short his career of treachery and conquest
in the year 140a. Seven years before his death Gian Galea rro
bought the title of duke of Milan and count of Pavia from the
emperor Wenceslaus, and there is no doubt that he was aiming at
the sovereignty of Italy. But no sooner was he dead than the
essential weakness of an artificial state, built up by running and
perfidious pokey, with the aid of bought troops, dignified by no
dynastic title, and consolidated by no sense of loyalty, became
apparent. Gian Galeazso's duchy was a masterpiece of
mechanical contrivance, the creation of a scheming intellect and
lawless wilt When the mind which had planned it was with-
drawn, it fell to pieces, and the very hands which had been used
to build it helped to scatter its fragments. The Visconti's own
' generals, Facino Cane, Pandolfo Mala test a, Jacopo dal Venae,
Gabrino Fondulo, Ottobon Terxo* seized upon the tyranny of
several Lombard cities. In others the petty tyrants whom the
Visconti had uprooted reappeared. The Estensi re covered their
grasp upon Ferrara* and the Gonzaghi upon Mantua, Venice
strengthened herself between the Adriatic and the Alpa. Florence
reassumed her Tuscan hegemony. Other communes which still
preserved the shadow of independence, tike Perugia and Bologna,
began once mora to. dream of republican freedom under their
own leading families. Meanwhile Gian Galeaaso had ferl
sons, Giovanni Maria and Fihppo Maria. Giovanni, a mel
of cruelty and lust, was assassinated by some Milanese nod
141a; and now Fihppo set about rebuilding his father's <■
Herein be was aided by the troops of Fjadno Cane, who, f
opportunely at this period, left considerable wealth, a
trained band of mercenaries, and a widow, Beatrice di 11
Fihppo married and then beheaded Beatrice after a mock trl
adultery, having used her money and her influence in rem
several subject cities to the crown of Milan. He sub*
sperit a long, suspicious, secret and incomprehensible c
the attempt to piece together Gian Galeazso's Lombard state;
to carry out his schemes of Italian conquest. In this en '
he met with vigorous opponents. Venice and Florence, si
in the strength of their resentful oligarchies, offered a detail
resistance; nor was Fihppo equal in ability to his father,
infernal cunning often defeated its own aims, checkmating hi
the point of achievement by suggestions of duplicity or U
In the course of Fihppo's wars with Florence and Vemca
greatest generab of this age were formed — Francesco Cermaf
who was beheaded between the columns at Venice in 1
Niccolo Picdnino, who died at Milan in 1444; and Franl
Sforza, who survived to seize his master's heritage in 1490.
of Attendolo Sforza, this Francesco received the hand of Fili|
natural daughter, Bianca, as a reward for past service ai
pledge of future support. When the Visconti dynasty ende
the duke's death in 1447, he pretended to espouse the cam
the Milanese republic, which was then re-established; bu
played his cards so subtly as to make himself, by the hd
Coshno de' Medki in Florence, duke de facto if not dt
Francesco Sforza was the only condotticro among many asp
to be tyrants who planted themselves firmly on a throne of 1
rate importance. Once seated in the duchy of Milan, he dfept
rare qualities as a ruler; for he not only entered into thesph
the age, which required humanity and culture from a de
but he also knew how to curb his desire for territory. The
ceptaon of confederated Italy found in htm a vigorous suppc
Thus the limitation of the Milanese duchy under Filippo k
Visconti, and its consolidation under Francesco Sforza, 1
equally effectual in preparing the balance of power to M
Italian politics now tended.
This balance could not have been established without th*
current aid of Florence. After the expulsion of the
Athens in 1343. and the great plague of 1348, the Flare!
proletariate rose up against the merchant princes. This ii
gence of the artisans, in a republic which had been remotk
upon economical principles by Giano della Bella's constitute
129a, reached a climax in 1378, when the Ciompi rebellion pi
the city for a few years in the hands of the Lesser Arts,
revolution was but temporary, and was rather a symptoM
democratic tendencies in the state than the sign of any capaj
for government on the part of the working classes. The nfl
sides of war and foreign affairs soon placed Florence in the pi
of an oligarchy headed by the great Albiexi family. Theyfai
the battles of the republic with success against the ViscentiV
widely extended the Florentine domain over the Tuscan cl
During their season of ascendancy Pisa was enslaved,
Florence gained the access to the sea. But throughout
period a fttwerrul oprmtion was gatiiering strength. Itwa
by the Medici, who sided with the common people, and focrej
their political importance by the accuimuation and wise eton"
ment of vast commercial wealth, In 1433 the Albiexi and
Medici came to open strife. Coauno de' Medid, the chief of
exposition, was exiled to Venice, In the next year he retail
assu m ed the presidency of the democratic party, and by a ays!
of corruption and popularity-hunting, combined with
patronage of arts and letters, established himself as the real
unacknowledged dictator of the commonwealth, Cosimoal
doned the policy of his pred e cesso r s. Instead of opposing Fj
cesco Sforza in Milan, he lent him his prestige and mfl«4
foreseeing that the dynastic future of his own family andi
pacifica t ion of bar/ might be secured by a balance of .powt
il(» OF THE DESPOTS)
ITALY
3*
wmch Florence should rank on equal terms with Mian and
Naples.
The republic of Venke differed essentially from any other
state in Italy; and her history was so separate that, up to this
Ytak*. point, it would have been needless to interrupt the
narrative by tracing it. Venice, however, in the 14th
century took her place at last as an Italian power on an equality
at least with the very greatest. The constitution of the common-
wealth bad slowly matured itself through a series of revolutions,
which confirmed and denned a type of singular stability. During
the earlier days of the republic the doge had been a prince elected
by the people, and answerable only to the popular assemblies.
In 103s he was obliged to act in concert with a senate, called
pregadi; and in 117a the grand council, which became the real
sovereign of the state, was formed. The several steps whereby
the members of the grand council succeeded in eliminating the
people from a share m the government, and reducing the doge
to the position of their ornamental representative, cannot here
be described. It must suffice to amy that these changes cul-
minated in 1307, when an act was passed for closing the grand
council, or in other words for confining it to a fixed number of
privileged families, in whom the government was henceforth
vested by hereditary right. This ratification of the oligarchical
principle, together with the establishment in 13U of the
Council of Ten, completed that famous constitution which
endured till the extinction of the republic in 1797. Meanwhile,
throughout the middle ages, it had been the policy of Venice to
refrain from conquests on the Italian mainland, and to confine
her energies to commerce in the East. The first entry of any
moment made by the Venetians into strictly Italian affairs was
in 1336, when the republics of Florence and St Mark allied them-
selves against Mastino dells Scala, and the latter took possession
of Treviso. After this, for thirty years, between 135a and 138 1,
Venke and Genoa contested the supremacy of the Mediterranean.
Pisa's maritime power having been extinguished in the battle
of Meloria (1284), the two surviving republics had no rivals.
They fought their duel out upon the Bosporus, off Sardinia,
and in the Mores, with various success. From the first great
encounter, in 1355, Venice retired well-nigh exhausted, and
Genoa was so crippled that she placed herself under the protection
of the Visconti. The second and decisive battle was fought upon
the Adriatic. The Genoese fleet under Luciano Doria defeated
the Venetians off Pola in 1379, and sailed without opposition to
Chioggia, which was stormed and taken. Thus the Venetians
found themselves blockaded in their own lagoons. Meanwhile
a fleet was raised for their relief by Carlo Zeno in the Levant,
and the admiral Vittore Pisanf, who had been imprisoned after
the defeat at Pola, was released to lead their forlorn hope from
the city side. The Genoese in their turn were now blockaded in
Chioggia, and forced by famine to surrender. The losses of men
and money which the war of Chioggia, as it was called, entailed,
though they did not immediately depress the spirit of the Genoese
republic, signed her naval ruin. During this second struggle
to the death with Genoa, the Venetians had been also at strife
with the Carraresi of Padua and the Scaligers of Verona. In 1406,
after the extinction of these princely houses they added Verona,
Vkenza and Padua to the territories they claimed on terra firma.
Their career of conquest, and their new policy of forming Italian
alliances and entering into the management of Italian affairs
were confirmed by the long dogeship of Francesco Foscari (i4>3~
1457), w h° nwst ranK "bh Alfonso, Cosimo de' Medici, Francesco
Sforza and Nicholas V., as a Joint-founder of confederated Italy.
When Constantinople fell in 1453, the old ties between Venice and
the Eastern empire were broken, and she now entered on a
wholly new phase of her history. Ranking as one of the five
Italian powers, she was also destined to defend Western Christen-
dom against the encroachments of the Turk in Europe. (See
Venice: History,)
By their settlement in Avignon, the popes relinquished their
protectorate of Italian liberties, and lost their position as Italian
potentates. Rienzi's revolution in Rome ( 1347-1 3 54) f and his
establishment of a repnbfic upon a fantastic basis, half classical,
half feudal, proved the temper of the times; while the rise of
dynastic families in the cities of the church, claiming the title
of papal vicars, but acting in their own interests,
weakened the authority of the Holy See. The pre-
datory expeditions of Bertrand du Poiet and Robert of
Geneva were as ineffective as the descents of the emperors;
and, though the cardinal Albornos conquered Romagna and the
March in 1364, the legates who resided in those districts were not
long able to hold them against their despots. At last Gregory XI.
returned to Rome; and Urban VI., elected in 1378, put a final
end to the Avignoaian exile. Still the Great Schism, which now
distracted Western Christendom, so enfeebled the papacy, and
kept the Roman pontiffs so engaged in ecclesiastical disputes,
that they had neither power nor leisure to occupy themselves
seriously with' their temporal affairs. The threatening presence
of the two princely houses of Orsini and Colonna, alike dangerous
as friends or foes, rendered Rome an unsafe residence. Even
when the schism was nominally terminated in 141 5 by the council
of Constance, the next two popes held but a precarious grasp
upon their Italian domains. Martin V. (141 7-143 1) resided
principally at Florence. Eugenius IV. (1431-1447) followed his
example. And what Martin managed to regain Eugenius lost.
At the same time, the change which had now come over Italian
politics, the desire on all skies for a settlement, and the growing
conviction that a federation was necessary, proved advantageous
to the popes as sovereigns. They gradually entered into the
spirit of their age, assumed the style of despots and made use of
the humanistic movement, then at its height, to place themselves
in a new relation to Italy. The election of Nicholas V. in 1447
determined this revolution in the papacy, and opened a period of
temporal splendour, which ended with the establishment of the
popes as sovereigns. Thomas of Sarsana was a distinguished
humanist. Humbly born, he had been tutor in the house of the
Albisri, and afterwards librarian of the Medici at Florence,
where he imbibed the politics together with the culture of the
Renaissance. Soon after assuming the tiara, he found himself,
without a rival in the church; for the schism ended by Felix V.'s
resignation in 1440. Nicholas fixed his residence in Rome, which
he began to rebuild and to fortify,- d e t ermining to render the
Eternal City once more a capital worthy of its high place in
Europe. The Romans ware flattered] and, though his reign
was disturbed by republican conspiracy, Nicholas V. was able
before his death 101455 to secure the modern status of the pontiff
as a splendid patron and a wealthy temporal potentate.
Italy was now for a brief space independent. The humanistic
movement had created a common culture, a common language
and sense of common nationality. The five great „**+* -
powers, with their satellites— -dukes of Savoy and „<**"
Urbino, marquesses of Ferrara and Mantua, republics tufy.
of Bologna, Perugia, Siena— were constituted. All
political institutions tended toward despotism. The Medici
became yearly more indispensable to Florence, the Bentrrogli
more autocratic in Bologna, the Baglioni in Perugia; and even
Siena was ruled by the Petrucd. But this despotism was of a
mild type. The princes were Italians; they shared the common
enthusiasms of the nation for art, learning, literature and science;
they studied how to mask their tyranny with arts agreeable to the
multitude. When Italy had reached this point, Constantinople
was taken by the Turks. On all sides it was felt that the Italian
alliance must be tightened; and one of the last, best acts of
Nicholas V.'s pontificate was the appeal in 1453 to the five great
powers in federation. As regards their common opposition to
the Turk, this appeal led to nothing; but it marked the growth
of a new Italian consciousness.
Between 1453 and 149a Italy continued to be prosperous and
tranquil. Nearly all wars during this period were undertaken
either to check the growing power of Venice or to further the
ambition of the papacy. Having become despots, the popes
sought to establish their relatives in principalities. The word
nepotism acquired new significance in the reigns of Sixtus IV.
and Innocent VIII. Though the country was convulsed by no
great struggle, these forty years witnessed a truly appalling
40
ITALY
IACC OF INVASIONS
> of political crime. To be a prince was tantamount to
being the mark ot secret conspiracy and assassination. Among
the most noteworthy examples of such attempts may be mentioned
the revolt of the barons against Ferdinand L of Naples (1464)*
the murder of Gateaxxo Maria Sforza at Milan (1476) and the
plot of the Parti to destroy the Medici (1478)- After Cosimo
de' Medici's death in 1464, the presidency of the Florentine
republic passed to his son Piero, who left it in 1469 to his sons
LorensoandGiuliano. These youths assumed the style of princes,
and it was against their lives that the Paxri, with the sanction
•i Sixt us I V., aimed their blow. Giuliano was murdered, Lorenzo
•scaped, to tighten his grasp upon the city, which now loved
him and was proud of him. During the following fourteen years
of bis brilliant career he made himself absolute master of
Florence, and so modified her institutions that the Medici were
henceforth necessary to the state. Apprehending the importance
of Italian federation, Lorenzo, by his personal tact and prudent
■tadenhip of the republic, secured peace and a common intel-
Ugence between the five powers. His own family was fortified
by the. marriage of his daughter to a son of Innocent VUL,
which procured his son Giovanni's elevation to the cardinalate,
and involved two Medicean papacies and the future dependence
of Klotence upon Rome.
VI, Aft *f Invasions.—- The year 149 J opened a new age for
Italy. In this year Lorenzo died, and was succeeded by his son,
*. — Tg, the vain and weak Piero; France passed beneath
•'csmnm the personal control of the inexperienced Charles
%«* VIII.; the fall of Granada freed Spain from her
^_ embarrassments; Columbus discovered America,
•Proving the commercial supremacy of Venice; last, but not
tlV , kiH *«ri«o Borgia assumed the tiara with the famous
i"w«f Alexander VI. In this year the short-lived federation
<* it* five powers was shaken, and Italy was once more drawn
i»n* the vortex of European affairs. The events which led to
%"*» diMstcr may be briefly told. After Geteasso Maria's
• luuinjtwn, his crown passed to a boy, Gian Galeasxo, who
"Vm • OOUrtc rowri «d to a grand-daughter of Ferdinand I.
. li L M But lhe government of Milan remained in the hands
% U iMe youth'a uncle, Lodovico, sumamed II Moro. Lodovico
,v*Mv*u to become duke of Milan. The king of Naples was
* i* !!*i » J lltmjr ' and he h * d <*»»* to su *p ect &* ntxo de *
c>I<*um might abandon his alliance. Feeling himself alone,
* >r,i l,l l! l , !l lhe titIe he was bent on seizing, he had recourse
*** 1 J *L *%jll L °* Franc *» wh °» he urged to make good his
c j*»m 10 the kingdom of Naples. This claim, it may be said in
• ^^'^^^^^•wiU of King Ren* of Anjou. After some
| % ...*t Alton, Charles agreed to invade Italy. He crossed the Alps
t f * Wh.^L /tj "* JLombardy, entered Tuscany, freed Pisa
• ■ * k ui , m f lor * nce « witnessed the expulsion of the Medici,
• •* % V.h- » 1.1 * pl€ f * nd *** crowned there-*ll this without
-' ' * 1 •«.! .T' . Me * nwh ^e Lodovico procured his nephew's
«> -*\i JiTJ*W_f >Mt* against the French in Lombardy.
nd narrowly escaped destruc-
i Apennines. He made good
France in 1495. Little
»w ...» t > •"■ — h-"*""**; but he had convulsed
ft * •' h JJ^k J ,***• d «"roycd her equilibrium, exposed her
• . - »'*** ,v * ,u, " w «* Powerful nations.
** l !" .h raon^i p t j! autt « A"* 00 ' *»" Wanted by
. •* J ' mad. k *™iii»and I., returned to Naples. Florence
^*<»* tW \H t* H * ^"blic, adopting a form of constitu-
***^ i^l Z t5* l0iBut to toMi of Venice. At this crisis she
^ *• ° L wah ! I^? 1 * GXr <>lamo Savonarola, who inspired
•>* t^i"* 1 ***. ***> pUcea H!m ^ lf >** Air ^ mntmtfnnim S n
.,,,/#"/ • Knin* ■*! c **■» *-"mis ajj. succreoea tnsna viu.
1 ' ■ '» ' M lldan thL. u n f *• A» duk « <* Orleans be had certain
*£ss* tQ M thf ° U * h *» trandmother Valentine, daughter of
Gian Galeexzo, the first duke. Tbey were not valid, for the
investiture of the duchy had been granted only to male heirs.
But they served as a sufficient pretext, and in 1499 Louis entered
and subdued the Milanese. Lodovico escaped to Germany,
returned the next year, was betrayed by his Swiss mercenaries
and sent to die at Leches 11 France. In 1500 Louis made the
blunder of calling Ferdinand the Catholic to help htm in the
conquest of Naples. By a treaty signed at Granada, the French
and Spanish kings were to divide the spoil The conquest was
easy; but, when it came to a partition, Ferdinand played has
ally false. He made himself supreme over the Two Sicilies,
which he now reunited under a single crown. Three years later,
unlessoned by this experience, Louis signed the treaty of Blois
(1504), whereby he invited the emperor Maximilian to aid him
in the subjugation of Venice. No policy could have been lest
far-sighted; for Charles V., joint heir to Austria, Burgundy,
Castile and Aragon, the future overwhelming rival of Fiance,
was already born.
The stage was now prepared, and all the actors who were
destined to accomplish the ruin of Italy trod it with their armies,
Spain, France, Germany, with their Swiss auxiliaries, had been
summoned upon various pretexts to partake her provinces.
Then, too late, patriots like MachlaveUi perceived the suicidal
self-indulgence of the past, which, by substituting mercenary
troops for national militias, left the Italians at the absolute
discretion of their neighbours. Whatever parts the Italians
themselves played in the succeeding quarter of a century, the
game was in the hands of French, Spanish and German invaders,
Meanwhile, no scheme for combination against common foes
arose in the peninsula. Each petty potentate strove for his ow»
private advantage in the confusion; and at this epoch the chief
gains accrued to the papacy. Aided by his terrible son, Ceaare
Borgia, Alexander VI. chastised the Roman nobles, subdued
Romagna and the March, threatened Tuscany, and seemed to
be upon the point of creating a Central Italian state m favour
of his progeny, when he died suddenly in 1503. His rongeurs
reverted to the Holy See. Julius £L, his bitterest enemy and
powerful successor, continued Alexander's policy, but no longer
in the interest of his own relatives. It became the nobler
ambition of Julius to aggrandize the church, and to reassume
the protectorate of the Italian people. With this object, he
secured Emilia, carried his victorious arms against Ferrari,
and curbed the tyranny of the Baglioci in Perugia. Julius IX
played a perilous game; but the stakes were high, and he fancied
himself strong enough to guide the tempest he evoked. Quarrel-
ling with the Venetians in 1508, he combined the forces of all
Europe by the league of Cambray against them; and, when he
had succeeded in his first purpose of humbling them even to the
dust, he turned round in 2510, uttered bis famous resolve to
expel the barbarians from Italy, and pitted the Spaniards
against the French. It was with the Swiss that he hoped to
effect this revolution; but the Swiss, now interfering for the first
time as principals in Italian affairs, were incapable of snore than
adding to the already maddening distractions of the people.
Formed for mercenary warfare, they proved a perilous instrument
in the hands of those who used them, and were hardly less injurious
to their friends than to their foes. In 1512 the battle of Ravenna
between the French troops and the allies of Julius— Spaniards,
Venetians and Swiss— was fought. Gaston de Foix bought a
doubtful victory dearly with his death; and the allies, though
beaten on the banks of the Ronco, immediately afterwards
expelled the French from Lombardy. Yet Julius II. had
failed, as might have been foreseen. He only exchanged one
set of foreign masters for another, and taught a new barbarian
race how pleasant were the. plains of Italy. As a consequence
of the battle of Ravenna, the Medici returned in 1512 to Florence.
When Leo X. was elected in 1 513, Rome and Florence rejoiced;
but Italy had no repose. Louis XII. had lost the game, and the
Spaniards were triumphant. But new actors appeared upon
the scene, and the same old struggle was resumed with fiercer
energy. By the victory of Marignano in 1515 Francis I., having
now succeeded to the throne of France, regained the Milanese,
SPANISH-AUSTRIAN ASCENDANCY!
ITALY
+i
and broke the power of the Swiss, who held it for Maarimflkno
Sforza, the titular duke. Leo for a while relied on Francis} for
the vast power of Charles V., who succeeded to the empire
in 1519, as in 1516 he had succeeded to the crowns of Spain
and Lower Italy, threatened the whole of Europe, It was
Leo's nature, however, to- be inconstant. In 1521 he changed
sides, allied himself to Charles, and died after hearing that the
imperial troops had again expelled the French from Milan.
During the next four years the Franco-Spanish war dragged on
in Lombardy until the decisive battle of Pavia in 152$, when
Francis was taken prisoner, and Italy by open to the Spanish
armies. Meanwhile Leo XL had been followed by Adrian VI.,
and Adrian by Clement VII:, of the house of Medici, who had
long ruled Florence. In the reign of this pope Francis was
released from his prison in Madrid (1576), and Clement hoped
that he might still he used in the Italian interest as a counterpoise
to Charles. It is impossible in this place to follow the tangled
mtrigaes of that period. The year 1537 was signalised by the
famous sack of Rome. An army of mixed German and Spanish
troops, pretending to act for the emperor, but which may
rather be regarded as a vast marauding party, entered Italy
tinder their leader Frundsberg. After his death, the Constable
de Boorbon took command of them; they marched slowly
down, aided by the marquis of Ferrara, and unopposed by the
duke of Urbino, reached Rome, and took it by assault. The
constable was killed in the first onslaught; Clement was im-
prisoned in the castle of St Angela; Rome was abandoned
to the rage of 30,000 ruffians. As an Immediate result of this
catastrophe, Florence shook off the Medici, and established a
republic But Clement, having made peace with the emperor,
turned the remnants of the army which had sacked Rome
against his native city. After a desperate resistance, Florence
fell in 1530. Alessandro de* Medici was placed there with the
title of duke of Civita di Penna; and, on his murder in 1537,
Cosimo de 1 Medici, of the younger branch of the ruling house,
was made duke. Acting as lieutenant for the Spaniards, he
subsequently (1555) subdued Siena, and bequeathed to his
descendants the grand-duchy of Tuscany.
VIL Sptnisk- Austrian Ascendancy.— It was high time, after
the sack of Rome in 1527, that Charles V. should undertake
Italian affairs. The country was exposed to anarchy,
fJJSj* -1 of which this had been the last and most disgrace*
lyg iS e. *"* « DCam P le * T* 10 Turks were threatening western
Europe, and Luther was inflaming Germany. By
the treaty of Barcelona in 1520 the pope and emperor made
terms. By that of Cambray in the same year France relinquished
Italy to Spain. Charles then entered the port of Genoa, and on
the 5th of November met Clement VIL at Bologna. He there
received the imperial crown, and summoned the Italian princes
for a settlement of all disputed claims. Francesco Sforza, the
last and childless heir of the ducal house, was left in Milan till
his death, which happened in 1 53 5. The repubhc of Vemce was
respected m her liberties and Lombard territories. The Este
family received a confirmation of their duchy of Modena and
Reggio, and were invested in their 6ef of Ferrara by the pope.
The marquessate of Mantua was made a duchy; and Florence
was secured, as we have seen, to the Medici. The great gainer
by this settlement was the papacy, which held the most sub-
stantial Italian province, together with a prestige that raised
it far above all rivalry. The rest of Italy, however parcelled,
henceforth became but a dependence upon Spam. Charles V.,
it must be remembered, achieved his conquest and confirmed
his authority far less as emperor than as the heir of Castile and
Aragon. A Spanish viceroy in Milan and another in Naples,
supported by Rome and by the minor princes who followed the
policy dictated to them from Madrid, were sufficient to preserve
the whole peninsula in a state of somnolent inglorious servitude.
Frotn 1530 until 1796, that is, for a period of nearly three
centuries, the Itatians had no history of their own. Their annals
are filled with records of dynastic changes and redistributions of
territory, consequent upon treaties signed by foreign powers, in
the settlement of quarrels which no wise concerned the people*
Italy only too often became the theatre of desolating and dis-
tracting wars. But these wars were fought for the most part
by alien armies; the points at issue were decided beyond the
Alps; the gains accrued to royal families whose names were
unpronounceable by southern tongues. The affairs of Europe
during the years when > Habsburg and Bourbon fought their
domestic battles with the blood of noble races may teach grave
lessons to aH thoughtful men of our days, but none bitterer,
none fraught with more insulting recollections, than to the
Italian people, who were haggled over like dumb driven cattle
in the mart of chaffering kings. We cannot wholly acquit the
Italians of their share of blame. When they might have won
national independence, after their warfare with the Swabian
emperors, they let the golden opportunity slip. Pampered with
commercial prosperity, eaten to the core with inter-urban
rivalries, they submitted to despots, renounced the use of arms,
and offered themselves in the hour of need, defenceless and dis-
united to the shock of puissant nations. That they had created
modern civilization for Europe availed them nothing. Italy,
intellectually first among the peoples, was now politically and
practically last; and nothing to her historian is more heart-
rending than to watch the gradual extinction of her spirit in this
age of slavery.
In 1534 Alessandro Farnese, who owed his elevation to his
sister Giulia, one of Alexander VI.'s mistresses, took the tiara
with the title of Paul HI. It was his ambition to
create a duchy for his family; and with this object he **£*£
gave Parma and Piaccnza to his son Pier Lirigi. After pu,ua.
much wrangling between the French and Spanish
parties, the duchy was confirmed in rs86 to Ottaviano Farnese
and his son Alessandro, better known as Philip II. 's general,
the prince of Parma. Alessandro's descendants reigned in Parma
and Piacenza till the year 173T. 'Vaul III.'s pontificate was
further marked by important changes in the church, all of which
confirmed the spiritual autocracy of Rome. In 1^40 this pope
approved of Loyola's foundation, and secured the powerful
militia of the Jesuit order. The Inquisition was established with
almost unlimited powers in Italy, and the press was placed under
its jurisdiction. Thus free thought received a check, by which
not only ecclesiastical but political tyrants knew how to profit.
Henceforth it was impossible to publish or to utter a word which
might offend the despots of church or state; and the Italians
had to amuse their leisure with the polite triflings of academics.
In 154s a council was opened at Trent for the reformation of
church discipline and the promulgation of orthodox doctrine.
The decrees of this council defined Roman Catholicism against
the Reformation; and, while failing to regenerate morality,
they enforced a hypocritical observance of public decency. Italy
to outer view put forth blossoms of hectic and hysterical piety,
though at the core her clergy and her aristocracy were more
corrupt than ever.
In 1556 Philip II., by the abdication of his father Charles V.,
became king of Spain. He already wore the crown of the Two
Sicilies, and ruled the duchy of Milan. In the next
year Ferdinand, brother of Charles, was elected em- pSRtt,
peror. The French, meanwhile, had not entirely
abandoned their claims on Italy. Gian Pietro Caraffa, who
was made pope in 1555 with the name of Paul IV., en-
deavoured to revive the ancient papal policy of leaning upon
France. He encouraged the duke of Guise to undertake the
conquest of Naples, as Charles of Anjou had been summoned by
his predecessors. But such schemes were now obsolete and
anachronistic. They led to a languid lingering Italian campaign,
which was settled far beyond the Alps by Philip's victories over
the French at St Quentin and Gravelines. The peace of Catcatt
Cambresis, signed in 1559, left the Spanish monarch undisputed
lord of Italy. Of free commonwealths there now survived only
Venice, which, together with Spain, achieved for Europe the
victory of Lcpanto in 1573; Genoa, which, after the ineffectual
Fieschi revolution in 1547, abode beneath the rule of the great
Doria family, and held a feeble sway in Corsica; and the two
insignificant republics of Lucca and San Marino..
42
ITALY
(SPANISH-AUSTRIAN ASCENDANCY
The future hope of Italy, however, was growing in a remote
and hitherto neglected corner. Emmanuel Philibert, duke of
Savoy, represented the oldest and not the least illustrious reigning
house in Europe, and his descendants were destined to achieve
for Italy the independence which no other power or prince
had given her since the fall of ancient Rome. (See Savoy,
House or.)
When Emmanuel Philibert succeeded to his father Charles III.
in 1553, he was a duke without a duchy. But the princes of
the house of Savoy were a race of warriors; and what Emmanuel
Philibert lost as sovereign he regained as captain of adventure
in the service of his cousin Philip II. The treaty of Cateau
Cambresis in 1559, and the evacuation of the Piedmontesc cities
held by French and Spanish troops in 1574, restored bis state.
By removing the capital from ChamWry to Turin, he completed
the transformation of the dukes of Savoy from Burgundian into
Italian sovereigns. They still owned Savoy beyond the Alps, the
plains of Bresse, and the maritime province of Nice.
Emmanuel Philibert was succeeded by his son Charles
Emmanuel I., who married Catherine, a daughter of Philip II.
He seized the first opportunity of annexing Saluzzo, which had
been lost to Savoy in the last two reigns, and renewed the
disastrous policy of his grandfather Charles III. by invading
Geneva and threatening Provence. Henry IV. of France forced
him in 1601 to relinquish Bresse and his Burgundian possessions.
In return he was allowed to keep Saluzzo. All hopes of conquest
on the transalpine side were now quenched; but the keys of
Italy had been given to the dukes of Savoy; and their attention
was still further concentrated upon Lombard conquests. Charles
Emmanuel now attempted the acquisition of Montferrat, which
was soon to become vacant by the death of Francesco Gonzaga,
who held, it together with Mantua. In order to secure this
territory, he went to war with Philip III. of Spain, and allied
himself with Venice and the Grisons to expel the Spaniards from
the Valtelline. When the male line of the Gonzaga family expired
in 1627, Charles, duke of Nevers, claimed Mantua and Montferrat
in right of his wife, the only daughter of the last duke. Charles
Emmanuel was now checkmated by France, as he had formerly
been by Spain. The total gains of all his strenuous endeavours
amounted to the acquisition of a few places on the borders of
Montferrat.
Not only the Gonzagas, but several other ancient ducal
families, died out about the date which we have reached. The
gjrt^p. legitimate line of the Estensi ended in 1597 by the
<#•«•/ death of Alfonso II., the last duke of Ferrara. He
•u ducal left his domains to a natural relative, Cesare d'Este,
tamBln * who would in earlier days have inherited without
dispute, for bastardy had been no bar on more than one occasion
in the Este pedigree. Urban VIII., however, put in a claim to
Ferrara, which, it will be remembered, had been recognized a
papal fief in 1530. Cesare d'Este had to content himself with
Modena and Reggio, where his descendants reigned as dukes
till 1794. Under the same pontiff, the Holy See absorbed the
duchy of Urbino on the death of Francesco Maria II., the last
representative of Montefcltro and Delia Rovere. The popes
were now masters of a fine and compact territory, embracing
no inconsiderable portion of Countess Matilda's legacy, in
addition to Pippin's donation, and the patrimony of St Peter.
Meanwhile Spanish fanaticism, the suppression of the Huguenots
in France and the Catholic policy of Austria combined to
strengthen their authority as pontiffs. Urban's predecessor,
Paul V., advanced so far as to extend his spiritual jurisdiction
over Venice, which, up to the date of his election (1605), bad
resisted all encroachments of the Holy See. Venice offered the
single instance in Italy of a national church. The republic
managed the tithes, and the clergy acknowledged no chief above
their own patriarch. Paul V. now forced the Venetians to
admit his ecclesiastical supremacy; but they refused to readmit
the Jesuits, who had been expelled in 1606. This, if we do not
count the proclamation of James I. of England (1604), was the
earliest instance of the order's banishment from a state where
it had proved disloyal to the commonwealth.
Venice rapidly declined throughout the 17th century. The
loss of trade consequent upon the closing of Egypt and the
Levant, together with the discovery of America and Dteam
the sea-route to the Indies, had dried up her chief «/r*ote
source of wealth. Prolonged warfare with the Otto- *•*
mans, who forced her to abandon Candia in 1660, ^•*
as they had robbed her of Cyprus in 1570, still further crippled
her resources. Yet she kept the Adriatic free of pirates, notably
by suppressing the sea-robbers called Uscocchi (1601-1617),
maintained herself in the Ionian Islands, and in 1684 added one
more to the series of victorious episodes which render her annals
so romantk. In that year Francesco Morosini, upon whose
tomb we still may read the title Peloponnesiacus, wrested the
whole of the Morea from the Turks. But after his death in 1715
the republic relaxed her hold upon his conquests. The Venetian
nobles abandoned themselves to indolence and vice. Many of
them fell into the slough of pauperism, and were saved from
starvation by public doles. Though the signory still made a
brave show upon occasions of parade, it was clear that the state
was rotten to the core, and sinking into the decrepitude of dotage.
The Spanish monarchy at the same epoch dwindled with
apparently less reason. Philip's Austrian successors reduced
it to the rank of a secondary European power. This decline of
vigour was felt, with the customary effects of discord and bad
government, in Lower Italy. The revolt of Masaniello in Naples
(1647), followed by rebellions at Palermo and Messina, which
placed Sicily for a while in the hands of Louis XIV. (1676-
1678) were symptoms of progressive anarchy. The population,
ground down by preposterous taxes, ill-used as only the subjects
of Spaniards, Turks or Bourbons are handled, rose in blind
exasperation against their oppressors. It is impossible to attach
political importance to these revolutions; nor did they bring
the people any appreciable good. The destinies of Italy were
decided in the cabinets and on the battlefields of northern
Europe. A Bourbon at Versailles, a Habsburg at Vienna, or
a thick-lipped Lorrainer, with a stroke of his pen, wrote off
province against province, regarding not the populations who
had bled for him or thrown themselves upon his mercy.
This inglorious and passive chapter of Italian history is con-
tinued to the date of the French Revolution with the records of
three dynastic wars, the war of the Spanish succession,
the war of the Polish succession, the war of the Austrian JJJJjf
succession, followed by three European treaties, do*,
which brought them respectively to diplomatic
terminations. Italy, handled and rehandled, settled and re-
settled, upon each of these occasions, changed masters without
caring or knowing what befell the principals in any one of the
disputes. Humiliating to human nature in general as are the
annals of the 18th-century campaigns in Europe, there is no
point of view from which they appear in a light so tragi -comic
as from that afforded by Italian history. The system of setting
nations by the ears with the view of settling the quarrels of a
few reigning houses was reduced to absurdity when the people,
as in these cases, came to be partitioned and exchanged without
the assertion or negation of a single principle affecting their
interests or rousing their emotions.
In 1700 Charles II. died, and with him ended the Austrian
family in Spain. Louis XIV. claimed the throne for Philip,
dukeofAnjou. Charles, archduke of Austria, opposed
him. The dispute was fought out in Flanders; but SjjJ?
Lombardy felt the shock, as usual, of the French and 9hm
Austrian dynasties. The French armies were more
than once defeated by Prince Eugene of Savoy, who drove them
out of Italy in 1707. Therefore, in the peace of Utrecht (17 ij),
the services of the house of Savoy had to be duly recognized.
Victor Amadeus II. received Sicily with the title of king. Mont*
fcrrat and Alessandria were added to his northern provinces,
and his state was recognized as independent. Charles of Austria,
now emperor, took Milan, Mantua, Naples and Sardinia for his
portion of the Italian spoil. Philip founded the Bourbon Tine
of Spanish kings, renouncing in Italy all that his Habsburg
predecessors had gained. Discontented with this diminution
THE NAPOLEONIC PEJU0O)
ITALY
+3
of the Spanish heritage, PhHip V. minted Elbabetta Fame*,
heiress to the last duke of Puma, in 1714. He hoped to secure
this duchy for his 000, Don Carlos; and EMsabetta further brought
with her a daim to the grand-duchy of Tuscany, which would
soon become vacant by the death of Gian Gastone de' Medici
After this marriage Philip broke the peace of Europe by invading
Sardinia. The Quadruple AlKance was formed, and the new king
of Sicily was punished for his supposed adherence to Philip V.
by the forced exchange of Sicily for the island of Sardinia.
It was thus that in 1730 the house of Savoy assumed the regal
title which it bore until the declaration of the Italian kingdom
m the last century. Victor Amadeus U.'s reign wasof great import*
ance in the history of his state. Though a despot, as all monarch*
were obliged to be at that date, he reigned with prudence,
probity and seal for the welfare of his subjects. He took public
education out of the hands of the Jesuits, which, for the future
development of manliness in his dominions, was a measure
of incalculable value. The duchy of Savoy in bis days became
a kingdom, and Sardinia, though it seemed a poor exchange for
Sicily, was a far less perilous possession than the larger and
wealthier island would have been. In 1730 Victor Amadeus
abdicated in favour of his son Charles Emmanuel III. Repenting
of this step, he subsequently attempted to regain Turin, but was
imprisoned in the castle of RivoB, where he ended his days
in 173*-
The War of the Polish Succession which now disturbed Europe
is only important in Italian history because the treaty of Vienna
in 1738 settled the disputed affairs of the duchies
of Parma and Tuscany. The duke Antonio Farnese
died in 1731; the grand-duke Gian Gastone de*
Medici died in 1737. In the duchy of Parma Don
Carlos had already been proclaimed. But he was now transferred
to the Two Sicilies, while Francis of Lorraine, the husband of
Maria Theresa, took Tuscany and Parma. Milan and Mantua
remained in the hands of the Austrian*. On this occasion
Charles Emmanuel acquired Tortona and Novara.
Worse complications ensued for the Italians when the emperor
Qtsdes VI., father of Maria Theresa, died in 1740. The three
^^^ branches of the Bourbon house, ruling m France,
!*■■"" Spain and the Sicilies, joined with Prussia, Bavaria
aY g and the kingdom of Sardinia to despoil Maria Theresa
of her heritage. Lombardy was made the seat of war;
and here the king of Sardinia acted as in some sense the arbiter
of the situation. After war broke out, he changed sides and
supported the Habsburg-Lorraine party. At first, in 1745, the
Sardinians were defeated by the French and Spanish troops.
But Francis of Lorraine, elected emperor in that year, sent an
army to the king's support, which in 1746 obtained a signal
victory over the Bourbons at Piacenza. Charles Emmanuel now
threatened Genoa. The Austrian soldiers already held the town.
But the citizens expelled them, and the republic kept her inde-
pendence. In 1748 the treaty of Aix-la-Chapellc, which put an
end to the War of the Austrian Succession, once more redivided
Italy. Parma, Piacenza and GuastaUa were formed into a duchy
for Don Philip, brother of Charles III. of the Two Sicilies, and son
of Philip V. of Spain. Charles III. was confirmed in his kingdom
of the Two Sicilies. The Austrianskept Milan and Tuscany. The
duchy of Modena was placed under the protection of the French.
So was Genoa, which in 1755, after Paoli's insurrection against
the misgovcrnment of the republic, ceded her old domain of
Corsica to France.
From the date of this settlement until 1792, Italy enjoyed a
period of repose and internal amelioration under l?cr numerous
paternal despots. It became the fashion during these
forty-four years of peace to encourage the industrial
population and to experimentalize in economical re-
forms. The Austrian government in Lombardy under
Maria Theresa was characterized by improved agriculture, regular
administration, order, reformed taxation and increased educa-
tion. A considerable amount of local autonomy was allowed, and
dependence on Vienna was very slight and not irksome. The
nooles and the clergy were rich and influential, but kept in order
by the dvfl power. There was no feeling of nationality, but the
people were prosperous, enjoyed profound peace and were
placidly content with the existing order of things. On the death
of Maria Theresa in 1780, the emperor Joseph II. instituted much
wider reforms. Feudal privileges were done away with, clerical
influence di m inished and many monasteries and convents sup-
pressed, the criminal law rendered more humane and torture
abolished largely as a result of G. Beccaria's famous pamphlet
DHdtUUicddUpent. At the same time Joseph's administration
was more arbitrary, and local autonomy was to some extent
curtailed. His anti-clerical laws produced some OMeeling
among the more devout part of the population. On the whole
the Austrian rule in pre-revolutionary days was beneficial and
far from oppressive, and helped Lombardy to recover from the
ill-effects of the Spanish domination. It did little for the moral
education of the people, but the same criticism applies more or
less to all the European governments of the day. The emperor
Francis I. ruled the grand-duchy of Tuscany by lieutenants until
his death in 1765, when it was given, as an independent state, to
his second son, Peter Leopold., The reign of this duke was long
remembered as a period of internal prosperity, wise legislation
and important pubBc enterprise. Leopold, among other useful
works, drained the Val di Chiana, and restored those fertile upland
plains to agriculture. In 1700 he succeeded to the empire, and
left Tuscany to his son Ferdinand. The kingdom of Sardinia
was administered upon similar principles, but with less of
geniality. Charles Emmanuel made his wiD law, and erased the
remnants of free institutions from his state. At the same time
he wisely followed his father's policy with regard to education and
the church. This is perhaps the best that can be said of a king
who incarnated the stolid absolutism of the period. From this
date, however, we are able to trace the revival of independent
thought among the Italians. The European ferment of ideas
which preceded the French Revolution expressed itself in men
like Alfieri, the fierce denouncer of tyrants, Beccaria, the philo-
sopher of criminal jurisprudence, Volta, the physicist, and
numerous political economists of Tuscany. Moved partly by
external influences and partly by a slow internal reawakening,
the people was preparing for the efforts of the 19th century.
The papacy, during this period, had to reconsider the question of
the Jesuits, who made themselves universally odious, not only in
Italy, but also In France and Spain. In the pontificate of
Clement XIII. they ruled the Vatican, and almost succeeded in
embroiling the pope with the concerted Bourbon potentates of
Europe. His successor, Cement XIV. suppressed the order
altogether by a brief of 1773. (J. A. S.)
D. Italy in the Napoleonic Pebioo, 1 706-1814
The campaign of 1706 which led to the awakening of the
Italian people to a new consciousness of unity and strength is
detailed in the article Napoleonic Campaigns. Here we can
attempt only a general survey of the events, political, civic and
social, which heralded the Risorgitnenio in its first phase. It Is
desirable in the first place to realize the condition of Italy at
the time when the irruption of the French and the expulsion of
the Austrians opened up a new political vista for that oppressed
and divided people.
For many generations Italy had been bandied to and fro
between the Habsburgs and the Bourbons The decline -of
French influence at the dose of the reign of Louis XIV. . ftKtwn
left the Habsburgs and the Spanish Bourbons without 0itb0
serious rivals. The former possessed the rich duchies Pnact
of Milan (including Mantua) and Tuscany; while %?**
through a marriage alliance with the house of Este
of Modena (the Archduke Ferdinand had married the heiress
of Modena) its influence over that duchy was supreme.
It also had a few fiefs in Piedmont and in Genoese
te/ritory. By marrying her daughter, Maria Amelia, to the
young duke of Parma, and another daughter, Maria Carolina,
to Ferdinand of Naples, Maria Theresa consolidated Habsburg
influence in the north and south of the peninsula. The Spanish
Bourbons held Naples and Sicily, as well as the duchy of Parma.
4+
ITALY
fTHE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD
P*rt»ta
Of the nominally independent states- the chief were the kingdom
of Sardinia, ruled over by the house of Savoy, and comprising
Piedmont, the isle of Sardinia and nominally Savoy and Nice,
though the two provinces last named had virtually been lost
to the monarchy since the campaign of 1 793. Equally extensive,
but less important in the political sphere, were the Papal States
and Yenetia, the former torpid under the obscurantist rule
of pope and cardinals, the latter enervated by luxury and the
policy of unmanly complaisance long pursued by doge and
council. The ancient rival of Venice, Genoa, was likewise far
gone in decline. The small states, Lucca and San Marino,
completed the map of Italy. The worst governed part of the
peninsula was the south, where feudalism lay heavily on the
cultivators and corruption pervaded all ranks. Milan and
Piedmont were comparatively well governed; but repugnance
to Austrian rule in the former case, and the contagion of French
Jacobinical opinions in the latter, brought those populations into
increasing hostility to the rulers. The democratic propaganda,
which was permeating all the large towns of the peninsula, then
led to the formation of numerous and powerful clubs and secret
societies; and the throne of Victor Amadeus IiL, of the house
of Savoy, soon began to totter under the blows delivered by the
French troops at the mountain barriers of his kingdom and under
the insidious assaults of the friends of liberty at Turin. Plotting
was rife at Milan, as also at Bologna, where the memory of old
liberties predisposed men to cast off clerical rule and led to the
first rising on behalf of Italian liberty in the year 1704. At
Palermo the Sicilians struggled hard to establish a republic
in place of the odious government of an alien dynasty.
The anathemas of the pope, the bravery of Piedmontese
and Austrian*, and the subsidies of Great Britain
failed to keep the league of Italian princes against
France intact. The grand-duke of Tuscany was the first of the
European sovereigns who made peace with, and recognized
the French republic, early in 1795. The first fortnight of
Napoleon's campaign of 1796 detached Sardinia from alliance
with Austria and England. The enthusiasm of the Italians
for the young Corsican " liberator " greatly helped his progress.
Two months later Ferdinand of Naples sought for an armistice,
the central duchies were easily overrun, and, early in 1797,
Pope Pius VI. was fain to sign terms of peace with Bonaparte
at Tolentino, practically ceding the northern part of his states,
known as the Legations. The surrender of the last Habsburg
stronghold, Mantua, on the 2nd of February 1797 kft the field
dear for the erection of new political institutions.
Already the men of Reggio, Modena and Bologna had declared
for a democratic policy, in which feudalism and clerical rule
should have no place, and in which manhood suffrage,
TtoOa- together with other rights promised by Bonaparte
to the men of Milan in May 1796, should form the basis
of a new order of things. In taking this step the
Modenese and Romagnols had the encouragement of Bonaparte,
despite the orders which the French directory sent to him in a
contrary sense. The result was the formation of an assembly
at Modena which abolished feudal dues and customs, declared
for manhood suffrage and established the Cispadane Republic
(October 1796).
The close of Bonaparte's victorious campaign against the
Archduke Charles in 1797 enabled him to mature those designs
respecting Venice which are detailed in the article Napoleon.
On a far higher level was his conduct towards the Milanese.
While the French directory saw in that province little more
than a district which might be plundered and bargained for.
Bonaparte, though by no means remiss in the exaction of gold
and of artistic treasures, was laying the foundation of a friendly
republic. During his sojourn at the castle of Montebello or
Mombello, near Milan, be commissioned several of the leading
men of northern Italy to draw up a project of constitution and
list of reforms for that province. Meanwhile he took care to
curb the excesses of the Italian Jacobins and to encourage
the Moderates, who were favourable to the French connexion
as promising a guarantee against Austrian domination and
Tb*a*
internal anarchy. ' He summed up his conduct in the letter of
the 8th of May 1797 to the French directory, " I cool the hot
heads here and warm the cool ones." The Transpadane
Republic, or, as it was soon called, the Cisalpine
Republic, began its organised life on the 9th of July
1 797. with a brilliant festival at Milan. The constitu-
tion was modelled on that of the French directory, and, lest there
should be a majority of clerical or Jacobinical deputies, the
French Republic through its general, Bonaparte, nominated
and appointed the first deputies and administrators of the
new government. In the same month it was joined by the
Cispadane Republic; and the terms of the treaty of Campo
Formio (October 17, 1797), while fatal to the political life
of Venice, awarded to this now considerable state the Venetian
territories west of the river Adige. A month later, under the
pretence of stilling the civil strifes in the Valtelline, Bonaparte
absorbed that Swiss district in the Cisalpine Republic, which
thus included all the lands between Como and Verona on the
north, and Rimini on the south.
Early in the year 1708 the Austrian*, in pursuance of the
scheme of partition agreed on at Campo Formio, entered Venice
and brought to an end its era of independence which
had lasted some 1 100 years. Venice with its mainland f^%y
territories east of the Adige, inclusive of Istria and ^M^a
Dalmatia, went to the Habsburgs, while the Venetian
isles of the Adriatic (the Ionian Isles) and the Venetian fleet went
to strengthen France for that eastern expedition on which
Bonaparte had already set his heart. Venice not only paid the
costs of the war to the two chief belligerents, but her naval
resources also helped to launch the young general on his career
of eastern adventure. Her former rival, Genoa, had also been
compelled, in June 1797, to bow before the young conqueror,
and had undergone at his bands a remodelling on the lines already
followed at Milan. The new Genoese republic, French in all
but name, was renamed the Ligurian Republic.
Before he set sail for Egypt, the French had taken possession
of Rome. Already masters of the papal fortress of Ancona,
they began openly to challenge the pope's authority r „ wt
at the Eternal City itself.. Joseph Bonaparte, then •m^»
French envoy to the Vatican, encouraged democratic «*•*•*
manifestations; and one of them, at the close of 1797, rr,B "
led to a scuffle in which a French general, Duphot, was killed.
The French directory at once ordered its general, Berthier, to
march to Rome: the Roman democrats proclaimed a republic
on the 15th of February 1798, and on their invitation Berthier
and his troops marched in. The pope, Pius VI., was forthwith
haled away to Siena and a year later to Valence in the south of
France, where he died. Thus fell the temporal power. The
" liberators " of Rome thereupon proceeded to plunder the city
in a way which brought shame on their cause and disgrace
(perhaps not wholly deserved) on the general left in command,
Massena.
These events brought revolution to the gates of the kingdom
of Naples, the worst-governed part of Italy, where the boorish
king. Ferdinand IV. (U ri laxzarone, he was termed), — _._
and his whimsical consort, Maria Carolina, scarcely ^
held in check the discontent of their own subjects. A British
fleet under Nelson, sent into the Mediterranean in May 1798
primarily for their defence, checkmated the designs of Bonaparte
in Egypt, and then, returning to Naples, encouraged that court
to adopt a spirited policy. It is now known that the influence
of Nelson and of the British ambassador, Sir William Hamilton,
and Lady Hamilton precipitated the rupture between Naples
and France. The results were disastrous. The Neapolitan
troops at first occupied Rome, but, being badly handled by
their leader, the Austrian general, Mack, they were soon scattered
in flight; and the Republican troops under General j^
Champlonnet, after crushing the stubborn resistance
of the lazzaroni, made their way into Naples and
proclaimed the Parthenopaean Republic (January 23,
1799). The Neapolitan Democrats chose five of their leading
men to be directors, and tithes and feudal dues and customs
THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD)
ITALY
45
were abolished. Much good work was done by the Republicans
during their brief teaureof power ,but it soon came to an end owing
to the course of events which favoured a reaction agaiaat France;
The directors of Paris, not content with overrunning and pleader-
ing Switzerland, had outraged German sentiment in many ways*
Further, at the close of 1 708 they virtually compelled the young
king of Sardinia, Charles Emmanuel IV., to abdicate at Turin.
He retired to the island of Sardinia, while the French despoiled
Piedmont, thereby adding fuel to the resentment rapidly growing
against them, in every part of Europe.
The outcome of it all was the War of the Second Coalition,
in which Russia, Austria, Great Britain, Naples and some
secondary states of Germany took part. The incursion
saJtaST °f *& Austro-RassUn army, led by that strange but
magnetic being, Suvarov, decided the campaign in
northern Italy. The French, poorly handled by Scherer and
Securier, were everywhere beaten, especially at Magnaao (April
5) and Cassano (April 27), Milan and Turin fell before the
allies, and Moreau, who took over the command, had much
difficulty in making his way to the Genoese coast -line. There
be awaited the arrival of Macdonald with the army of Naples.
That general, Championnet's successor, had been compelled by
these reverses and by the threatening pressure of Nelson's fleet
to evacuate Naples and central Italy. In many parts the
peasants and townsfolk, enraged by the licence of the French,
hung on his flank and rear. The republics set up by the French
at Naples, Rome and Milan collapsed as soon as the French
troops retired; and a reaction in favour of clerical and Austrian
influence set in with great violence. For the events which then
occurred at Naples, so compromising to the reputation of Nelson,
see Nelson and Naples. Sir William Hamilton was subset
quenlly recalled in a manner closely resembling a disgrace, and
his place was taken by Paget, who behaved with more dignity
and tact*
Meanwhile Macdonald, after struggling through central Italy,
had 'defeated an Austrian force at Modena (June 1a, 1709),
but Suvarov was able by swift movements utterly to overthrow
brm at the Trcbbia (Ju&e 17-19). The wreck of his force
drifted away helplessly towards Genoa. A month later the
ambitious young general, Joubcrt, who took over Moreau's
command and rallied part of Macdonalds following, was utterly
routed by the Austro- Russian army at Novi (August 15) with
the loss of 12,000 men. Joubert perished in the battle. The
growing friction between' Austria and Russia led to the -transfer-
ence of Suvarov and his Russians to Switzerland, with results
which were to be fatal to the allies in that quarter. But in Italy
the Austrian successes continued. Melas defeated Champiormet
near Coni on the 4th of November; and a little later the French
garrisons at Ancona and Coni surrendered. The tricolour,
which floated triumphantly over all the strongholds of Italy
early in the year, at its close waved only over Genoa, where
Masse na prepared for a stubborn defence. Nice and Savoy
also seemed at the mercy of the invaders. Everywhere the old
order of things was restored. The- death of the aged Pope
Pius VI. at Valence (August 39, 1709) deprived the French of
whatever advantage they had hoped to gain by dragging, him
into exile; on the 24th of March 1800 the conclave, assembled
for greater security on the island of San Giorgio at Venice, elected
a new pontiff, Pius VII.
Such was the position of affairs when Bonaparte returned
from Egypt and landed at Frejus. The contrast presented by
bis triumphs, whether real or imaginary, to the reverses
sustained by the armies of the French directory, was
fatal to that body and to popular institutions in France.
After the coup d'itat of Brumaire (November 1709) he,
as First Consul, began to organize an expedition against the
Attstrians (Russia having now retired from the coalition), in
northern Italy. The campaign culminating at Marengo was
the result. By that triumph (due to Desaix and Retlermann
rather than directly to him), Bonaparte consolidated his own
position in France and again laid Italy at his feet. The Austrian
general, Melas, signed an armistice whereby he was to retire
with hi* army beyood the river Mtaria Ten days earlier,
namely en the 4th of June, Massena had been compelled by
hunger to capitulate at Genoa; but the success at Marengo,
followed up by that of Macdonald in north Italy, and Moreao
at Honcnlinden (December a, r8oo), brought the emperor
Francis to sue for peace which was finally concluded
at Luneville on the 9th of February 1801. The JlSK^.
Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics (reconstituted soon
after Marengo) were recognized by Austria on condition that they
were independent of France. The rule of Pius VII. over the
Papal States was admitted; and Italian affairs were arranged
much as they were at Campo Formio: Modena and Tuscany
now reverted to French control, their former rulers being promised
compensation in Germany. Naples, easily worsted by the French,
under Miollis, left the British alliance, and made peace by the
treaty of Florence (March 1801), agreeing to withdraw her
troops from the Papal States, to cede Plombino and the Presidil
(in Tuscany) to France and to close her ports to British ships and
commerce. King Ferdinand also had to accept a French garrison
at Taranto, and other points in the south.
Other changes took place in that year, all of them in favour
of France. By complex and secret bargaining with the court
of Madrid, Bonaparte procured the cession to France fy M<tMta * f
of Louisiana, in North America, and Parma; while im^w .
the duke of Parma (husband of an infanta of Spain) **«<*»« 0/
was promoted by him to the duchy of Tuscany, now ltMty '
renamed the kingdom of Etruria. Piedmont was declared to be
a military division at the disposal of France (April 21, 1S01);
and on the 2 1 st of September 1802, Bonaparte, then First Consul
for life, issued a decree for its definitive incorporation m the
French Republic About that time, too, Elba fell into the hands
of Napoleon. Piedmont was organized in six departments on
the model of those of France, and a number of French veterans
were settled by Napoleon in and near the fortress of Alessandria.
Besides copying the Roman habit of planting military colonies,
the First Consul imitated the old conquerors of the wodd by
extending and completing the road-system of his outlying
districts, especially at those important passes, the Mont Cenis
and Simplon. Fie greatly improved the rough track over the
Simplon Pass, so that, when finished in 1807, it was practicable
for artillery. Milan was the terminus of the road, and the
construction of the Foro Buonaparte and the completion of the
cathedral added dignity to the Lombard capital. The Corniche
road was improved; and public works in various parts of
Piedmont, and the Cisalpine and Ligurian Republics attested
the foresight and wisdom of the great organiser of industry and
quickener of human energies. The universities of Pavia and
Bologna were reopened and made great progress in this time of
peace and growing prosperity. Somewhat later the Pavia canal
was begun in order to connect Lake Como with the Adriatic
for barge-traffic.
The personal nature of the tie binding Italy to France was
illustrated by a curious incident of the winter of 1802-1803.
Bonaparte, now First Consul for life, felt strong enough to impose
his will on the Cisalpine Republic and to set at defiance one of
the stipulations of the treaty of Luneville. On the pretext of
consolidating that republic, he invited 4 so of its leading men to
come to Lyons to a consuUa. In reality he and his agents had
already provided for the passing of proposals which were agree-
able to him. The deputies having been dazzled by fetes and
reviews, Talleyrand and Marescalchi, ministers of foreign affairs
at Paris and Milan, plied them with hints as to the course to be
followed by the consulUi; and, despite the rage of the more
democratic of their number, everything corresponded to the
wishes of the First Consul. It remained to find a chief. Very
many were fin favour of Count Mclzi, a Lombard noble, who had
been chief of the executive at Milan; but again Talleyrand and
French agents set to work on behalf of their master, with the
result that he was elected president for ten years. He accepted
that office because, as he frankly informed the deputies, he had
found no one who " for his services rendered to his country,
his authority with the people and his separation from party
+6
ITALY
[TOE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD
has deserved such an office." Mela was elected vice-president
with merely honorary functions. The constitution comprised a
consulta charged with executive duties, a legislative body of
150 members and a court charged with the maintenance of the
fundamental laws. These three bodies were to be chosen by
three electoral colleges consisting of (a) landed proprietors!
(b) learned men and clerics, (c) merchants and traders, holding
their sessions biennially at Milan, Bologna and Brescia re-
spectively. In practice the consulta could override the legis-
lature; and, as the consulta was little more than the organ of
the president, the whole constitution may be pronounced as
autocratic as that of France after the changes brought about
by Bonaparte in August 1803. Finally we must note that the
Cisalpine now took the name of the Italian Republic, and that
by a concordat with the pope, Bonaparte regulated its relations
to the Holy See in a manner analogous to that adopted in the
famous French concordat promulgated at Easter 1802 (see
Concordat). It remains to add that the Ligurian Republic
and that of Lucca remodelled their constitutions in a way some-
what similar to that of the Cisalpine.
Bonaparte's ascendancy did not pass unchallenged. Many of
the Italians retained their enthusiasm for democracy and national
Ktmt*m ^dependence. In 1803 movements in these directions
ot'ltSy! t0 °^ place at Rimini, Brescia and Bologna; but they
were sharply repressed, and most Italians came to
acquiesce in the Napoleonic supremacy as inevitable and indeed
beneficial. The complete disregard shown by Napoleon for one
of the chief conditions of the treaty of Luneville (February
1801)— that stipulating for the independence of the Ligurian
and Cisalpine Republics— became more and more apparent
every year. Alike in political and commercial affairs they were
for all practical purposes dependencies of France. Finally,
after the proclamation of the French empire (May 18, 1804)
Napoleon proposed to place his brother Joseph over the Italian
state, which now took the title of kingdom of Italy. On Joseph
declining, Napoleon finally decided to accept the crown which
Melzi, Marescakhi, SerbeUoni and others begged him to assume.
Accordingly, on the 26th of May 1805, in the cathedral at Milan,
he crowned himself with the iron crown of the old Lombard
kings, using the traditional formula, " God gave it me: let him
beware who touches it." On the 7th of June he appointed his
step-son, Eugene Beauharnais, to be viceroy. Eugene soon found
that his chief duty was to enforce the will of Napoleon. The
legislature at Milan having ventured to alter some details of
taxation, Eugene received the following rule of conduct from his
step-father: " Your system of government is simple: the
emperor wills it to be thus." Republicanism was now every*
where discouraged. The little republic of Lucca, along with
Piombino, was now awarded as a principality by the emperor
to Elisa Bonaparte and her husband, Baccbcchi.
In June 1805 there came a last and intolerable affront to the
emperors of Austria and Russia, who at that very time were
seeking to put bounds to Napoleon's ambition and to redress
the balance of power. The French emperor, at the supposed
request of the doge of Genoa, declared the Ligurian Republic
to be an integral part of the French empire. This defiance to
the sovereigns of Russia and Austria rekindled the flames of
war. The third coaliti on was formed between Great Britain,
Russia and Austria, Naples soon joining its ranks.
For the chief events of the ensuing campaigns see Napoleonic
Campaigns. While Masstna pursued the Austrians into their
own lands at the dose of 1805, Italian forces under Eugene
and Gouvion St Cyr (?.».) held their ground against allied forces
landed at Naples. After Austerlitz (December a, 180$)
Austria made peace by the treaty of Pressburg, ceding to the
kingdom of Italy her part of Venetia along with the provinces
of Istria and Dalmatia. Napoleon then turned fiercely against
Maria Carolina of Naples upbraiding her with her " perfidy."
He sent Joseph Bonaparte and Masstna southwards with a
strong column, compelled the Anglo-Russian forces to evacuate
Naples, and occupied the south of the peninsula with little
opposition except at the fortress of Gaeta. The Bourbon court
sailed away to Palermo, where it remained for eight yean
under the protection afforded by the British fleet end a
British army of occupation. On the 15th of February
1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples in triumph, his '
troops capturing there two hundred pieces of cannon. * #
Gaeta, however, held out stoutly against the French.
Sir Sidney Smith with a British squadron captured Capri
(February 1806), and the peasants of the Abruza and Calabria
soon began to give trouble. Worst of all was the anivml of a
small British force in Calabria under Sir John Stuart, which
beat off with heavy loss an attack imprudently delivered by
General Reynier on level ground near the village of Ifaida
(July 4). The steady volleys of Kempt's light infantry
were fatal to the French, who fell back in disorder under a
bayonet charge of the victors, with the loss of some 2700 men.
Calabria now rose In revolt against King Joseph, and the peasants
dealt out savage reprisals to the French troops. On the 18th
of July, however, Gaeta surrendered to Masstna, and that
marshal, now moving rapidly soutnwards, extricated Reynier,
crushed the Bourbon rising in Calabria with great barbarity,
and compelled the British force to re-embark for Sicily. At
Palermo Queen Maria Carolina continued to make vehement
but futile efforts for the overthrow of King Joseph.
It is more important to observe that under Joseph and his
ministers or advisers, including the Frenchmen Roederer,
Dumas, Miot de Melito and the Corsican Saticeti, great progress
was made in abolishing feudal laws and customs, in reforming
the judicial procedure and criminal laws on the model of the
Code NapoUon, and in attempting the beginnings of elementary
education. More questionable was Joseph's policy in dosing
and confiscating the property of 213 of the richer monasteries
of the land. The monks were pensioned off, but though the
confiscated property helped to fill the empty coffers of the state,
the measure aroused widespread alarm and resentment .
that superstitious people.
The peace of Tilsit (July 7, 1607) enabled Napoleon to ]
on his projects for securing the command of the Mediterranean,
thenceforth a fundamental axiom of his policy. Consequently,
in the autumn of 1807 he urged on Joseph the adoption of vigorous
measures for the capture of Sicily. Already, in the negotiations
with England during the summer of 1806, the emperor had shown
his sense of the extreme importance of gaining possession of
that island, which indeed caused the breakdown of the peace
proposals then being considered; and now he ordered French
squadrons into the Mediterranean in order to secure Corfu and
Sicily. His plans respecting Corfu succeeded. That island and
some of the adjacent isles fell into the hands of the French
(some of them were captured by British troops in 1800-10);
but Sicily remained unassailable. Capri, however, feU to the
French on the x8th of October 1808, shortly after the arrival
at Naples of the new king, Murat.
This ambitious marshal* brother-in-law of Napoleon, foiled
in his hope of gaining the crown of Spain, received that of Naples
in the summer of 1808, Joseph Bonaparte being moved
from Naples to Madrid. This arrangement pleased S^L
neither of the relatives of the emperor; but bis- will j^**
now was law on the continent. Joseph left Naples on
the s^rd of May 1808; but it was not until the 6th of September
that Joachim Murat made his entry. A fortnight later his
consort Caroline arrived, and soon showed a vigour and restless-
ness of spirit which frequently clashed with the dictates of her
brother, the emperor and the showy, unsteady policy of her
consort. The Spanish national rising of 1808 and thereafter
the Peninsular War diverted Napoleon's attention from the
affairs of south Italy., In June 1809, during his campaign
against Austria, Sir John Stuart with an Anglo-Sicilian force
sailed northwards, captured Ischia and threw Murat into great
alarm; but on the news of the Austrian defeat at Wagram,
Stuart sailed back again.
It is now time to turn to the affairs of central Italy. Early in
1808 Napoleon proceeded with plans which he had secretly
concerted after the treaty of Tilsit for transferring the infanta
THE NAPOLEONIC PERIOD)
FTALY
47
**y.
of Spain who* after the death of her consort, reigned at Florence
on behalf of her young son, Charles Louis, from her kingdom of
Etruria to the little principality of Bntre Dooro e
Minho which he proposed to carve out from the north
of Portugal Etruria reverted to the French empire,
but the Spanish princess and her son did not receive the promised
indemnity. Elba Bonaparte and her husband, Bacciocchi,
rulers of Lucca and Piombino, became the heads of the admini-
stration in Tuscany, Elba showing decided governing capacity.
The last part of the peninsula to undergo the GalHrizing influ-
ence was the papal dominion. For some time past the relations
between Napoleon and the pope, Pius VII., had been
severely strained, chiefly because the emperor insisted
on controlling the church, both m France and in the
kingdom of Italy, in a way inconsistent with the
traditions of the Vatican, but also because the pontiff refused to
grant the divorce between Jerome Bonaparte and the former
Miss Patterson on which Napoleon early in the year 1806 laid so
much stress. These and other disputes led the emperor, as
successor of Charlemagne, to treat the pope in a very high-
handed way. " Your Holiness (he wrote) is sovereign of Rome,
but I am Hs emperor **; and he threatened to annul the pre-
sumed ** donation " of Rome by Charlemagne, unless the pope
yielded implicit obedience to hitn in all temporal affairs. He
further exploited the Charlemagne tradition for the benefit of
the continental system, that great engine of commercial war by
which he hoped to assure the ruin of England. This aim prompted
the annexation of Tuscany, and his intervention in the affairs of
the Papal States. To this the pope assented under pressure
from Napoleon; but the latter soon found other pretexts for
intervention, and in February 1808 a French column under
mollis occupied Rome, and deposed the papal authorities.
Against this violence Pius VII. protested in vain. Napoleon
sought to push matters to an extreme, and on the 2nd of April
Aaatxma he adopted the rigorous measure of annexing to the
UoMo/tb0 kingdom of Italy the papal provinces of Ancona,
Av«f Urbino, Macerata and Camerina. This measure, which
**■***» seemed to the pious an act of sacrilege, and to ItaKan
patriots an outrage on the only independent sovereign of the
peninsula, sufficed for the present. The outbreak of war in
Spain, followed by the rupture with Austria in the spring of 1809,
distracted the attention of the emperor. But after the occupation
of Vienna the conqueror dated from that capital on the 1 7th of
May 1809 a decree virtually annexing Rome and the Patri-
monium Petri to the French empire. Here again he cited the
action of Charlemagne, his *' august predecessor," who had
merely given ** certain domains to the bishops of Rome as fiefs,
though Rome did not thereby cease to be part of his empire."
In reply the pope prepared a bull of excommunication against
those who should infringe the prerogatives of the Holy See in
this matter, "thereupon the French general, Miollis, who still
occupied Rome, caused the pope to be arrested and carried him
away northwards into Tuscany, thence to Savona; finally he was
taken, at Napoleon's orders, to Fontainebleau. Thus, a second
time, fell the temporal power of the papacy. By an imperial
decree of the 17th of February 18 10, Rome and the neighbouring
districts, including Spoleto, became part of the French empire.
Rome thenceforth figured as its second city, and entered upon
a new life under the adminn»tration of French officials. The
Roman territory was divided into two departments— the Tiber
and Trasimenus; the Code NopoHon was introduced, public works
were set on foot and great advance was made in the material
sphere. Nevertheless the harshness with which the emperor
treated the Roman clergy and suppressed the monasteries
caused deep resentment to the orthodox.
• There is no need to detail the fortunes of the Napoleonic states
in Italy. One and all they underwent the influences emanating
Otarmefr * rom P ftr «J arK * m respect to civil administration,
•IHmpo- l*w, judicial procedure, education and public works,
Jm0** they all experienced great benefit*, the icsults of which
*■•* never wholly disappeared. On the other hand, they
suffered from the rigorous measures of the continental system,
which seriously crippled trade at the ports and were not com-
pensated by the increased facilities for trade with France which
Napoleon opened up. The drain of men to supply his armies in
Germany, Spain and Russia was also a serious loss. A powerful
Italian corps marched under Eugene Beauharnais to Moscow,
and distinguished itself at Malo-Jaroslavit*, as also during the
horrors of the retreat in the dosing weeks of 181 2. It is said that
out of 37,000 Italians who entered Russia with Eugene, only 3$$
saw their country again. That campaign marked the beginning of
the end for the Napoleonic domination in Italy as else- ctoArpM
where. Murat, left In command of the Grand Army at o/jv«*o-
Vilna, abandoned his charge and in the next year made *«•'•
overtures to the allies who coalesced against Napoleon. n * 1 *
For his vacillations at this time and his final fate, see Mtjbat.
Here it must suffice to say that the uncertainty caused by his
policy in 1815-1814 had no small share in embarrassing Napoleon
and in precipitating the downfall of his power in Italy. Eugene
Beauharnais, viceroy of the kingdom of Italy, showed both
constancy and courage; but after the battle of Leipaig (October
16-19, l8l 3) n is power crumbled away under the assaults of
the now victorious Austrians. By an arrangement with Bavaria,
they were able to march through Tirol and down the valley of the
Adlge in force, and overpowered the troops of Eugene whose
position was fatally compromised by the defection of Murat and
the dissensions among the Italians. Very many of them, distrust-
ing both of these kings, sought to act independently in favour
of an Italian republic. Lord William Bcntinck with an Anglo-
Sidlian force landed at Leghorn on the 8th of March 1814, and
issued a proclamation to the Italians bidding them rise against
Napoleon in the interests of their own freedom. A little later he
gained possession of Genoa, Amidst these schisms the defence
of Italy collapsed. On the 16th of April 18 14 Eugene, on hearing
of Napoleon's overthrow at Paris, signed an armistice at Mantua
by which he was enabled to send away the French troops beyond
the Alps and entrust himself to the consideration of the allies.
The Austrians, under General Bellegarde, entered Milan without
resistance? and this event precluded the restoration of the old
political order.
The arrangements made by the allies in accordance with the
treaty of Paris (June 12, 1814) and the Final Act of the congress
of Vienna (June 9, 181 5), imposed on Italy boundaries which,
roughly speaking, corresponded to those of the pre-Napoleonie
era. To the kingdom of Sardinia, now reconstituted under
Victor Emmanuel I., France ceded its old provinces, Savoy and
Nice; and the allies, especially Great Britain and Austria,
insisted on the addition to that monarchy of the territories of
the former republic of Genoa, in respect of which the king took
the title of duke of Genoa, in order to strengthen it for the duty
of acting as a buffer state between France and the smaller states
of central Italy. Austria recovered the Milanese, and all the
possessions of the old Venetian Republic on the mainland,
including Istria and Dalmatia. The Ionian Islands, formerly
belonging to Venice, were, by a treaty signed at Paris on the
$th of November 18x5, placed under the protection of Great
Britain. By an instrument signed on the 24th of April 1815,
the Austrian territories in north Italy were erected into the
kingdom of Lombardo-Venetia, which, though an integral part
of the Austrian empire, was to enjoy a separate administration,
the symbol of its separate individuality being the coronation
of the emperors with the ancient iron crown of Lombardy
C* Proclamation de rempereur d'Autriche, &o," April 7, 1815,
State Papers, h*. 000). Francis IV., son of the archduke
Ferdinand of Austria and Maria Beatrice, daughter of Ercole
Rmaldo, the last of the Estensi; was reinstated as duke of
Modena. Parma and Piacenza were assigned to Marie Louise,
daughter of the Austrian emperor and wife of Napoleon, on
behalf of her son, the little Napoleon, but by subsequent arrange-
ments (18x6-1817) the duchy was to revert at her death to the
Bourbons of Parma, then reigning at Lucca. Tuscany was
restored to the grand-duke Ferdinand III. of Habsburg-Lorraine.
The duchy of Lucca was given to Marie Louise of Bourbon-
Parma, who, at- the death of Marie Louise of Austria, would
ITALY
fTHE M90RGI1CEKTO
- <k»_* MU»«^ikite<^ 0Vttt0 Tuscany.
** ^T-Tr^«W s*t tone bee* kept under restraint
"\ **~J* ^TaW^wmdto Ron* in May 1814,
* v^n- *J^^^J^T^ Vienna (not without
~~ ^UL-T^ltekS^ Ferdinand IV. of Naples,
* "~ ^!^jt^^W»c^^M»n»CMoUnft. in Austria.
_ .^. .^v. ^~^ r „ .i to dominions on the
, v ^^^^ , *TtI IHNII# iMur*t in the autumn of
s. ^ vs. <* ^^ViTTSLo in Calabria, enabled the
" ^t ~ ? ?£* SakeStnt with all the greater
^. ^ . ^* J^Tjrww^Wl and heavy in the
~ JVlSTawi * Victor Emmanuel, systematically
" ' > C lV£ ila •! U* north, and comporauvdy
. *v.-* "^ JJT ^Jftttit these it was directed by a
v^ * -^ . .^^fl,-. why Sicily ahouW harbour these
N x r* ^t^ST XSu^tyear. (i8co-i ?; 4)
^ ^ ^.^ ,v £**T~ ^ d beBn garrisoned by British
V ^ "^ x^tM ol the force whkh upheld the
— ~' ** v rr^Tar^ni»o naturally had great
•* s> " v, it-Tand queen at Palermo, daimed to
■ -^"^^tradmlnistraUon. Lord William
v s ^ ,w* -^ ^ administrative powers, seeing
* * V *"J *X t» M duW, and Maria Carolina, owing
v • " Jl *u«u<« *M Napoleon, could never be
v v ^UiS* «>yal power and that <rf the
t J-i t* bring matters to a deadlock, until
^ ^^#1 Urd William Bentinck, a con-
:Tih. «a that of England was passed by
! ^ XTSiHiMiil of the British troops in 1814
v
"* "Tt* ^ m ir*ment
" ** L-Il and the royal authority became once
^ ^ " uYiW memory of the benefits conferred by
v * 1I1L1 M rtmained fresh and green amidst
v^ Ci ^i*"^ wh |ch foUowcd. It lived on as one
' v £ 'STwwfHul influences which spurred on the
1V t ^TaTof Naple* lo the efforts which they
* ***\ lM a „d 186a
jww British intervention, was in some
cwrtcd by Napoleon on the Italians of
tv *rtalilki * Austria's white coats in the
^TCft ^rtcd by Napoleon on the Italians of
i ^JaT wprmion then characteristic
^ tT£u7»p5« of the duke of Modena, the
VV ^tinopt and cardinals in the middle of the
^'v l ^«isn weesseaof Ferdinand in the south,
" imIX mi«di of the Italians the recollection
* ,-JlKwn the just laws, vigorous administra-
s ' " "l^j jLimii of the great emperor. The hard but
- ,s ^TtjLa they had undergone at his hands had
^. ... ^ .^J' J* * Uie equals of the northern races
, . .v..* ' w j^JJJe and on the field of battle. It had
K ^ .. Jw ^^** L^, t hat truth, which once grasped can
% , ,, ^v^v^ w ' .^^^ differences of climate, character
. - v "* ^£ 5 4llesKn«^ a nation. <J. Hu R.)
*, TAW RWORCOIENTO, 18x5-1870
^k ui \U Vienna treaties, Austria became the real
* »^ ****,!" Koj only did she govern Lombardy and
» * M ^ iT Kut Austrian princes ruled in Modeaa, Parma
y » * JI * X ivTlma, Pcrrara and Comacchio had Austrian
^ ^^**.^* klctt«rnich, the Austrian chancellor, believed
^ r ** , *2,n» *<urc the election of an Austrophil pope,
\ i. vn*^ T*^ Ksples, reinstated by an Austrian army,
» " 4 * S iy asccrct article of the treaty of June iz,
v v- - V ' M *. 1 1|JJ» methods of government incompatible
, *h *♦" ** ' » j n AusirJ?'* Italian »n«scssions. Austria
. ' ^"^Sivt ar ^ with Sardinia,
Tuscany and Naples; and MetternichV ambition was to make
Austrian predominance over Italy still more absolute, by placing
an Austrian archduke on the Sardinian throne.
Victor F.mmsnuel I., the king of Sardinia* was the only native
ruler in the peninsula, and the Savoy dynasty was popular with
all classes. But although welcomed with enthusiasm ffBl<rf<tt>
on his return to Turin, he introduced a system of *»<*•
reaction which, if less brutal, was no less uscom- tummm
promising than that of Austrian archdukes or Bourbon £*"•*•
princes. His object was to restore his dominions to the condi-
tions preceding the French occupation. The French system of
taxation was maintained because it brought in ampler revenues;
but feudalism, the antiquated legislation and bureaucracy were
revived, and all the officers and officials still living who had served
the state before the Revolution, many of them now in their
dotage, were restored to their posts; only nobles were eligible for
the higher government appointments; all who had served under
the French administration were dismissed or reduced in rank;
and in the army beardless scions of the aristocracy were placed
over the heads of war-worn veterans who had commanded
regiments in Spain and Russia. The influence of a bigoted
priesthood was re-established, and " every form of intellectual
and moral torment, everything save actual persecution and
physical torture that could be inflicted on the 'impure* was
inflicted " (Cesare Balbo's Autobiography). All this soon pro-
voked discontent among the educated classes. In Genoa the
government was particularly unpopular, for the Genoese resented
being handed over to their old enemy Piedmont like a flock of
sheep. Nevertheless the king strongly disliked the Austria ns,
and would willingly have seen them driven from Italy.
In Lombardy French rule had ended by making itself un-
popular, and even before the fall of Napoleon a national party,
called thtltalici puri, bad begun to advocate the ..
independence of Lombardy, or even its union with ^jflj"
Sardinia. At first a part of the population were y-fr
content with Austrian rule, which provided an honest
and efficient administration; but the rigid system of centraliza-
tion which, while allowing the semblance of local autonomy,
sent every minute question for settlement to Vienna; the
severe police methods; the bureaucracy, in which the best
appointments were usually conferred on Germans or Slavs
wholly dependent on Vienna, proved galling to the people, and
in view of the growing disaffection the country was turned
into a vast armed camp. In Modena Duke Francis proved
a cruel tyrant. In Parma, on the other hand, there was
very little oppression, the French codes were retained, and
the council of state was consulted on all legislative matters.
Lucca too enjoyed good government, and the peasantry were
well cared for and prosperous. In Tuscany the rule of Ferdinand
and of his minister Fossombroni was mild and benevolent,
but enervating and demoralizing. The Papal States were
ruled by a unique system of theocracy, for not only the head of
the state but all the more important officials were ecdesiastifs,
assisted by the Inquisition, the Index and all the paraphernalia
of medieval church government. The administration
was inefficient and corrupt, the censorship uncora- gj,'^',,'*
promising, the police ferocious and oppressive, although
quite unable to cope with the prevalent anarchy and brigandage;
the antiquated pontifical statutes took the place of the French
laws, and every vestige of the vigorous old communal independ-
ence was swept away. In Naples Xing Ferdinand retained
some of the laws and institutions of Murat's regime, and many
of the functionaries of the former government entered h&*±
his service; but he revived the Bourbon tradition,
the odious police system and the censorship; and a degrading
religious bigotry, to which the masses were all too much inclined,
became the basis of government and social life. The upper
classes were still to a large extent inoculated with French ideas,
but the common people were either devoted to the dynasty or
indifferent. In Sicily, which for centuries had enjoyed a feudal
constitution modernized and Anglicized under British auspices
in 181 a, and whore ami-Neapolitan feeling was strong, autonomy
?UB*iae»HM«NTQ]
ITALY
49
was suppressed, the constitution abofiahed in tBl6 t and the
island, as a reward for its fidelity to the dynasty, converted into
a Neapolitan province governed by Neapolitan, bureaucrats.
. To the mass of the people the restoration of the old govern-
ments undoubtedly brought a sense of relief, for the terrible
drain in men and money caused by Napoleon's wars had caused
much discontent, whereas now there was a prospect of peace and
rest. But the restored governments in their terror of revolution
would not realise that the late regime had wafted a breath of
new life over the country and left ineffaceable traces in the way
of improved laws, efficient administration, good roads and the
sweeping away of old abuses; while the new-born idea of
Italian unity, strengthened by a national pride revived on many
a stricken field from Madrid to Moscow, was a force to be
reckoned with. The oppression and follies of the restored
governments made men forget the evils of French rule and
remember only its good side. The masses were still more or
less indifferent, but among the nobility and the educated middle
classes, cut off from all part in free political life, there
was developed either the spirit of despair at Italy's
moral degradation, as expressed in the writings of
Foscolo and Leopardi, or a passion of hatred and
revolt, whkh found its manifestation, in spite of severe laws,
in the development of secret societies. The most important of
these were the Carbonari lodges, whose objects were the expulsion
of the foreigner and the achievement of constitutional freedom
(see Carbonari).
> When Ferdinand returned to Naples in 1815 he found the
kingdom, and especially the army, honeycombed with Carbonar-
ism, to which many noblemen and officers were
affiliated; and although the police instituted prosecu-
tions and organized the counter-movement of the
um% Caldcrai, who may be compared to the "Black
Hundreds " of modem Russia, the revolutionary spirit continued
to grow, but it was not at first anti-dynastk. The granting
of the Spanish constitution of 1820 proved the signal for the
beginning of the Italian liberationist movement; a military
mutiny led by two officers, Sflvati and MoreUi, and the priest
Menichini, broke out at Monteforte, to the cry of " God, the
King, and the Constitution 1" The troops sent against them
commanded by General GugMehno Pepe, himself a Carbonaro,
hesitated to act, and the king, finding that he could not count
on the army, granted the constitution (July 13, 18*0), and
appointed his son Francis regent. The events that followed
are described in the article on the history of Naples (q.v.). Not
only did the constitution, which was modelled on the impossible
Spanish constitution of x8i?, prove unworkable, but the powers
of the Grand Alliance, whose main object was to keep the peace
of Europe, felt themselves bound to interfere to prevent the evil
precedent of a successful military revolution. The diplomatic
developments that led to the intervention of Austria are sketched
elsewhere (see Europe: History)* » general the result of the
deliberations of the congresses of Troppau and Laibach was to
establish, not the general right of intervention claimed in the
Troppau Protocol, but the special right of Austria to safeguard
her interests in Italy. The defeat of General Pepe by the
Austrians at Rieti (March 7, 2821) and the re-establishment
of King Ferdinand's autocratic power under the protection of
Austrian bayonets were the effective assertion of this principle.
The movement in Naples had been purely local, for the
Neapolitan Carbonari had at that time no thought save of
Naples; it was, moreover, a movement of the middle
and upper classes in which the masses took little
interest. Immediately after the battle of Rieti a
Carbonarist mutiny broke out in Piedmont independ-
ently of events in the south. Both King Victor Emmanuel and
his brother Charles Felix had no sons, and the heir presumptive
to the throne was Prince Charles Albert, of the Carignano
branch of the house of Savoy. Charles Albert felt a certain
interest in Liberal ideas and was always surrounded by young
nooks of Carbonarist and anti-Austrian tendencies, and was
therefore regarded with suspicion by his royal relatives. Metter-
XV %
MlMUty
nich, too; had aa instinctive disHke lor Urn, and proposed to
exclude him from the succession by marrying one of the king's
daughters to Francis of Modena, and getting the Salic law
ahoushed so that the succession would pass to the duke and
Austria would thus dominate Piedmont. The Liberal movement
had gained ground in Piedmont as in Naples among the younger
nobles and officers, and the events of Spain and southern Italy
aroused much excitement. In March 1821, Count Santofre di
Santarosa and other conspirators informed Charles Albert of a
constitutional and anti-Austrian plot, and asked for his help.
After a momentary hesitation he informed the king; but at
his request no arrests were made, and no precautions were
taken. On the 10th of March the garrison of Alessandria
mutinied, and its example was followed on the 12th by that
of Turin, where the Spanish constitution was demanded, and
the black, red and blue flag of the Carbonari paraded the streets.
The next day the king abdicated after appointing Charles Albert
regent. The latter immediately proclaimed the constitution,
but the new king, Charles Felix, who was at Modena at the time,
repudiated the regent's acts and exiled him to Tuscany; and,
with 'his consent, an Austrian army invaded Piedmont and
crushed the constitutionalists at Novara. Many of the con-
spirators were condemned to death, but all succeeded in escaping.
Charles Felix was most indignant with the ex-regent, but be
resented, as an unwarrantable interference, Austria's attempt
to have him excluded from the succession at the congress Of
Verona (i8jq), Charles Albert's somewhat equivocal conduct
also roused the hatred of the Liberals, and for a long time the
eseerate Carignetw was regarded, most unjustly, as a traitor
even by many who were not republicans.
Carbonarism had been introduced into Lombardy by two
Romagnols, Count ladercht and Pictro Maroncclli, but the
leader of the movement was Count F. Confalonieri, , „^ mmnmmm
who was in favour of an Italian federation coiriposed j^toaH
of northern Italy under the house of Savoy, central benty.
Italy under the pope, and the kingdom of Naples.
There had been some mild plotting against Austria in Milan,
and an attempt was made to cooperate with the Piedmontese
movement of i8«; already in i8ao Maroncclli and the poet
SQvio Pellko had been arrested as Carbonari, and after the
movement in Piedmont more arrests were made. The mission
of Gaetaao Castiglia and Marquis Giorgio Pallavicmi to Turin,
where they had interviewed Charles Albert, although without
any definite result — for Confalonieri had warned the prince that
Lombardy was not ready to rise— was accidentally discovered,
and Confalonieri was himself arrested. The plot would never
have been a menace to Austria but for her treatment of the
conspirators. Pellico and Maroncelli were immured in the
Spielberg; Confalonieri and two dozen others were condemned
to death, their sentences being, however, commuted to imprison-
ment in that same terrible fortress. The heroism of the priaeero,
and Silvio Pellico's account of his Imprisonment (Le mie Prigiotri),
did much to enlist the sympathy of Europe for the Italian cause.
During the next few years order reigned in Italy, save for a
few unimportant outbreaks in the Papal States; there was,
however, perpetual discontent and agitation, especially m -^
in Romagna, where misgovernment was extreme, sutes.
Under Pins VIL and fas minister Cardinal Consalvi
oppression had not been very severe, and Metternich's proposal
to establish a central inquisitorial tribunal for political offences
throughout Italy had been rejected by the papal government.
But on the death of Pius in 1823, his successor Leo XII. (Cardinal
Delia Genga) proved a ferocious reactionary under whom
barbarous laws were enacted and torture frequently applied.
The secret societies, such as the Carbonari, the Adclfi and the
Bersaglieri d'Amerka, which flourished in Romagna, replied
to these persecutions by assassinating the more brutal officials
ans spies. The events of 1820-1821 increased the agitation hi
Romagna, and in 1875 large numbers of persons were condemned
to death, imprisonment or exile. The society of the Sanfedisti,
formed of the dregs of the populace, whose object was to murder
every Liberal, was openly protected and encouraged. Leo died
5©
ITALY
{THE 'RIS0RGIM1&TOO
in 1829, and the mild, religious Pins VIII. (Cardinal Castiglioni)
only reigned until 1830, when Gregory XVI. (Cardinal Cappellari)
was elected through Austrian influence, and proved another
a*™**. *d aMt€ - T° c J^y revolution in Paris and the declara-
jjJJJ^J tion of the new king, Louis Philippe, that France, as
jam. & Liberal monarchy, would not only not intervene
in the internal affairs of other countries, but would
not permit other powers to do so, aroused great hopes among the
oppressed peoples, and was the immediate cause of a revolution
in Romagna and the Marches. In February 183 1 these provinces
rose, raised the red, white and green tricolor (which henceforth
took the place of the Carbonarist colours as the Italian flag),
and shook off the papal yoke with surprising case. 1 At Parma
too there was an outbreak and a demand for the constitution;
Marie Louise could not grant it because of her engagements
with Austria, and, therefore, abandoned her dominions. In
Modena Duke Francis, ambitious of enlarging his territories,
coquetted with the Carbonari of Paris, and opened indirect
negotiations with Menotti, the revolutionary leader in his state,
believing that he might assist him in his plans. Menotti, for
his part, conceived the idea of a united Italian state under the
duke. A rising was organized for February 1831; but Francis
got wind of it, and, repenting of his dangerous dallying with
revolution, arrested Menotti and fled to Austrian territory with
his prisoner. In his absence the insurrection took place, and
Biagio Nardi, having been elected dictator, proclaimed that
" Italy is one; the Italian nation one sole nation." But the
French king soon abandoned his principle of non-intervention
on which the Italian revolutionists had built their hopes; the
Austrians intervened unhindered; the old governments were
re-established in Parma, Modena and Ro magna; and Menotti
and many other patriots were hanged. The Austrians evacuated
Romagna in July, but another insurrection having broken out
immediately afterwards which the papal troops were unable
to quell, they returned. This second intervention gave umbrage
to France, who by way of a counterpoise sent a force to occupy
Ancona. These two foreign occupations, which were almost
as displeasing to the pope as to the Liberals, lasted until 1838.
The powers, immediately after the revolt, presented a memor-
andum to Gregory recommending certain moderate reforms,
but no attention was paid to it. These various movements
proved in the first place that the masses were by no means ripe
for revolution, and that the idea of unity, although now advocated
by a few revolutionary leaders, was far from being generally
accepted even by the Liberals; and, secondly, that, in spite of
the indifference of the masses, the despotic governments were
unable to hold their own without the assistance of foreign
bayonets.
On the 37th of April 2832, Charles Albert succeeded Charles
Felix on the throne of Piedmont. Shortly afterwards he received
Jfsmfaf * lettcr irom an unknown person, in which he was
ma4 exhorted with fiery eloquence to place himself at the
"Yoomg head of the movement for liberating and uniting
ft ** r *" Italy and expelling the foreigner, and told that he
was free to choose whether he would be " the first of men or the
last of Italian tyrants." The author was Giuseppe Mazzini,
then a young man of twenty-six years, who, though in theory a
republican, was ready to accept the leadership of a prince of
the house of Savoy if he would guide the nation to freedom.
The only result of his letter, however, was that he was forbidden
to re-enter Sardinian territory. Mazzini, who had learned to
distrust Carbonarism owing to its lack of a guiding principle
and its absurd paraphernalia of ritual and mystery, had conceived
the idea of a more serious political association for the emancipa-
tion of his country not only from foreign and domestic despotism
but from national faults of character; and this idea he had
materialized in the organization of a society called the Giovane
Italia (Young Italy) among the Italian refugees at Marseilles.
After the events of 183 1 he declared that the .liberation of Italy
could only be achieved through unity, and his great merit lies
> \Among the Insurgents of Romagna was Louis Napoleon, after-
wards em peror of the French.
in having Inspired a large number of Italians with that idea at
a time when provincial jealousies and the difficulty of communica-
tions maintained separatist feelings. Young Italy spread to
all centres of Italian exiles, and by means of literature carried
on an active propaganda in Italy itself, where the party came
to be called " Ghibellini," as though reviving the traditions
of medieval anti-Papalism. Though eventually this activity
of the Giovane Italia supplanted that of the oMer societies,
in practice it met with no better success; the two attempts
to invade Savoy in the hope of seducing the army from its
allegiance failed miserably, and only resulted in a series of
barbarous sentences of death and imprisonment which made
most Liberals despair of Charles Albert, while they called down
much criticism on Mazzini as the organizer of raids in which
he himself took no part. He was now forced to leave France,
but continued his work of agitation from London. The disorders
in Naples and Sicily in 2837 had no connexion with Mazzini,
but the forlorn hope of the brothers Bandiera, who in 1844
landed on the Calabrian coast, was the work of the Giovane
Italia. The rebels were captured and shot, but the significance
of the attempt lies in the fact that it was the first occasion on
which north Italians (the Bandieras were Venetians and officers
in the Austrian navy) had tried to raise the standard of revolt
in the south.
Romagna had continued a prey to anarchy ever since 1832;
the government organized armed bands called the Centurioni
(descended from the earlier Sanfedisti), to terrorize the Liberals,
while the secret societies continued their "propaganda by
deeds." It is noteworthy that Romagna was the only part of
Italy where the revolutionary movement was accompanied by
murder. In 2845 several outbreaks occurred, and a band led by
Pietro Renzi captured Rimini, whence a proclamation drawn up
by L. C. Farini was issued demanding the reforms advocated by
tfa . , ~ ~ . .. lt co ik pspd
It
at
th 1
Sc Lys,develop-
iftj resorting to
re .inspired by
th be people fit
fo ; periodicals.
Vltiwiutw uiuuuii yu.v>/ |nii/i»iim •■> *u^« mi isuivu) treatlSC JJO
primalo meraU • dvtU degli ItaHani, a work, which, in striking con-
trast to the prevailing pessimism of the day, extolled the past great-
ness and achievements of the Italian people and their present virtues.
His political ideal was a federation of all the Italian states under the
presidency of the pope, on a basis of Catholicism, but without a
constitution. In spite of all its inaccuracies and exaggerations the
book served a useful purpose in reviving the sclf-rcspcct of a de-
spondent people. Another work of a similar kind was Le Spt
Italia (1844) by the Piedmontcse Count Cesare Balbo (q,v.h Like
Gioberti he advocated a federation of Italian states, but he declared
that before this could be achieved Austria must be expelled from
Italy and compensation found for her in the Near East by making
her a Danubian power— a curious forecast that Italy's Liberation
would begin with an eastern war. He extolled Charles Albert
and appealed to his patriotism; he believed that the church was
necessary and the secret societies harmful; representative govern-
ment was undesirable, but he advocated a consultative assembly.
Above all Italian character must be reformed and the nation edu-
cated. A third important publication was Massimo d'Azeglto's
Degli vllimi can di Romagna, in which the author, another Pied-
inontese nobleman, exposed papal misgovcrnment while condemning
the secret societies and advocating open resistance and protest. He
upheld the papacy in principle, regarded Austria as the great enemy
of Italian regeneration, and believed that the means of expelling her
were only to be found in Piedmont.
Besides the revolutionists and republicans who promoted con-
spiracy and insurrection whenever possible, and the moderates or
■' Neo-Gudphs," as Gioberti's followers were called, we
must mention the Italian exiles who were learning the art *■•
of war in foreign countries — in Spain, in Greece, in
Poland, in South America — and those other exiles who, in
Paris or London, eked out a bare subsistence by teaching Italian or
TOE RWD8G1MENT0)
ITALY
5«
by their pes, and bid the foundations of that love of Italy which,
especially in England, eventually brought the weight of diplomacy
into the scales tor Italian freedom. All these forces were equally
necessary — the revolutionists to keep up agitation and make govern-
ment by bayonets impossible; the moderates to curb the impetu-
osity of the revolutionists and to present a scheme of society that
was neither reactionary nor anarchical; the volunteers abroad to
gain military experience; and the more peaceful exiles to spread the
name of Italy among foreign peoples. All the while a vast amount of
revo l utio n a r y literature was betng printed in Switzerland, France
and England, and smuggled into Italy; the poet Giusti satirized the
Italian princes, the dramatist G. B. Niccolini blasted tyranny in his
tragedies, the novelist Guerrazzi re-evoked the memories of the last
struggle for Florentine freedom in UAssedio di Firetue, and Verdi's
operas bristled with political double tntendres which escaped the censor
but were understood and applauded by the audience.
On the death of Pope Gregory XVI. in 1846 Austria hoped to
secure the election of another zealot; but the Italian cardinals,
-^j. . who did not want an Austxophil, finished the conclave
pj^ix, before the arrival of Cardinal Gaysruck, Austria's
mouthpiece, and in June elected Giovanni Maria
Mastai Ferretti aa Pius IX. The new pope, who while bishop
of Imole had evinced a certain interest in Liberalism, was
a kindly man, of inferior intelligence, who thought that
all difficulties could be settled with a little good-will, some
reforms and a political amnesty. The amnesty which he
granted was the beginningof the immense if short-lived popularity
which he was to enjoy. But he did not move so fast in the path
of reform as was expected, and agitation continued throughout
the papal states. 1 In 1847 some administrative reforms were
enacted, the laity were admitted to certain offices, railways were
talked about, and political newspapers, permitted. In April
Pkas created a. Consults, or consultative assembly, and soon
afterwards a council of ministers and a municipality for Rome.
Here he would willingly have stopped, but he soon realized that
he had hardly begun. Every fresh reform edict was greeted with
demonstrations of enthusiasm, but the ominous cry " Viva Pio
Nonosolol" signified dissatisfaction with the whole system of
government. A lay ministry was now demanded, a constitution,
and an Italian federation for war against Austria. Rumours of a
reactionary plot by Austria and the Jesuits against Pius, induced
him to create a national guard and to appoint Cardinal Ferretti
as secretary of state.
Events in Rome produced widespread excitement throughout
Europe< Metternich had declared that the one thing which had
not entered into his calculations was a Liberal pope, only that was
an impossibility; still he was much disturbed by Pius's attitude,
and tried to stem the revolutionary tide by frightening the
princes. Seizing the agitation in Romagna as a pretext, he had
the town of Ferrara occupied by Austrian troops, which provoked
the indignation not only of the Liberals but also of the pope, for
according to the treaties Austria had the right of occupying the
citadel atone. There was great resentment throughout Italy, and
in answer to the pope's request Charles Albert declared that he
was with him in everything, while from South America Giuseppe
Garibaldi wrote to offer his services to His Holiness. Charles
Albert, although maintaining his reactionary policy, had intro-
duced administrative reforms, built railways, reorganized the
army and developed the resources of the country. He had little
sympathy with Liberalism and abhorred revolution, but his
batted of Austria and bis resentment at the galling tutelage to
which she subjected him had gained strength year by year.
Religion was still his dominant passion, and when a pope in
Libera] guise appeared on the scene and was bullied by Austria,
his two strongest feelings— piety and hatred of Austria— ceased
to be incompatible. In 1847 Lord Minto visited the
Italian courts to try to induce the recalcitrant despots
. to mend their ways, so as to avoid revolution and war,
C 7 * the latter being England's especial anxiety; this
mission, although not destined to produce much effect, aroused
extravagant hopes among the liberals. Charles Louis, the opera-
* In Rome itself a certain Angelo Brunetti. known as Ciceruaechio,
a forage merchant of lowly birth and a Carbooaro. exercised great
influence over the masses and kept the peace where the authorities
would have failed.
bonne duke of Lucca, who had coquetted with Liberalism in the
past, now refused to make any concessions to his subjects, and in
1847 sold his duchy to Leopold II. of Tuscany (the successor of
Ferdinand III. since 1824) to whom it would have reverted in any
case at the death of the duchess of Banna. At the same time
Leopold ceded Lunigiana to Parma and Modena in equal parts*
an arrangement which provoked the indignation of the in-
habitants of the district (especially of those destined to be ruled
by Francis V. of Modena, who had succeeded to Francis IV. in
1846), and led to disturbances at Fivixzano. In September 1847,
Leopold gave way to the popular agitation for a national guard,
in spite of Metternich's threats, and allowed greater freedom of
the press; every concession made by the pope was followed by
demands for a similar measure in Tuscany. •
Ferdinand I. of the Two Sicilies had died in 1835, and was
succeeded by Francis L At the fetter's death in 1830 Ferdinand
II. succeeded, and although at first he gave promise of proving a
wiser ruler, he soon reverted to the traditional Bourbon methods.
An ignorant bigot, he concentrated the whole of the executive
into his own hands, was surrounded by priests and monks, and
served by an army of spies. In 1847 there were unimportant
disturbances in various parts of the kingdom, but there was no
anti-dynastic outbreak, the jealousy between Naples and Sicily
largely contributing to the weakness of the movement. On the
1 ath of January, however, a revolution, the first of the many
throughout Europe that was to make the year 1848 memorable,
broke out at Palermo under the leadership of Ruggiero Settimo.
The Neapolitan army sent to crush the rising was at first un-
successful, and the insurgents demanded the constitution of 181a
or complete independence. Disturbances occurred at Naples
also, and the king, who could not obtain Austrian help, as the
pope refused to allow Austrian troops to pass through his
dominions, on the advice of his prime minister, the duke of.
Serracapriola, granted a constitution, freedom of the press, the
national guard, &c. (January 28).
The news from Naples strengthened the demand for a con-
stitution in Piedmont. Count Camillo Cavour, then editor of a
new and influential paper called 11 Risorgimenio, had
advocated it strongly, and monster demonstrations
were held every day. The king disliked the idea, but
great pressure was brought to bear on him, and
finally, on the 4th of March 1848, he granted the charter which
was destined to be the constitution of the future* Italian kingdom.
It provided for a nominated senate and an elective chamber of
deputies, the king retaining the right of veto; the press censor-
ship was abolished, and freedom of meeting, of the press and of
speech were guaranteed. Balbo was called upon to form the first
constitutional ministry. Three days later the grand-duke of
Tuscany promised similar liberties, and a charter, prepared by a
commission which included Gino Capponi and Bettino Ricasoli,
was promulgated on the 17 th-
in the Austrian provinces the* situation seemed calmer, and
the government rejected the moderate proposals of Daniele
Manin and N. Tommaseo. A demonstration in favour of Pius IX.
on the 3rd of January at Milan was dispersed with unnecessary
severity, and martial law was proclaimed the following month.
The revolution which broke out on the 8th of March in Vienna
itself and the subsequent flight of Metternich (see Austria-
Hungary: History), led to the granting of feeble concessions
to Lombardy and Venetia, which were announced in Milan on
the 18th. But it was too late; and in spite of the exhortations
of the mayor, Gabrio Casati, and of the republican C. Cattaneo,
who believed that a rising against 15,000 Austrian soldiers under
Field-Marshal Radetzky was madness, the famous Five Days'
revolution began. It was a popular outburst of pent-up hate,
unprepared by leaders, although leaders such as Luciano Manara
soon arose. Radetzky occupied the citadel and other points of
vantage; but in the night barricades sprang up by the hundred
and were manned by citizens of all classes, armed with every
kind of weapon. The desperate struggle lasted until the 22nd,
when the Austrian*, having lost 5000 killed and wounded, were
forced to evacuate the city. The rest of Lombardy and Venetia
5*
ITALY
fTHE RISOROIMENTO
DO w flew to arms, and the Austrian garrisons, except in the
quadrilateral (Verona, Pescbiera, Mantua and Legnano) were
^^pelled. In Venice the people, under the leadership of Manin,
xX> %c in arms and forced the military and civil governors (Counts
^icby and Palffy) to sign a capitulation on the 22nd of March,
«fter which the republic was proclaimed. At Milan, where there
wB s a division of opinion between the monarchists under Casati
jfTvd. the republicans under Cattaneo, a provisional administration
wa s formed and the question of the form of government postponed
far the moment. The duke of Modena and Charles Louis of
j»^rm* (Marie Louise was now dead) abandoned their capitals;
2^ both cities provisional governments were set up which sub-
0C cgiiently proclaimed annexation to Piedmont. In Rome the
nope gave way to popular clamour, granting one concession after
iXotber, and on the 8th of February he publicly called down
God'* blessing on Italy—that Italy hated by the Austrians,
w j j0 §c name it had hitherto been a crime to mention. On the
x otb of March he appointed a new ministry, under Cardinal
Antooe^t which included several Liberal laymen, such as Marco
Vj ingbetti, G. Pasolini, L. C. Farini and Count G. Recchi. On
*j,e 1 **** a constitution drawn up by a commission of cardinals,
«ritis° ut ttte knowledge of the ministry, was promulgated, a
constitution which attempted the impossible task of reconciling
She P ?*'* t * m P oral power with free institutions. In the mean-
while preparations for war against Austria were being carried on
with Pius's sanction.
The** were now three main political tendencies, viz. the union
^g north Italy under Charles Albert and an alliance with the
^-^ and Naples, a federation of the different states under their
P°*^nt rulers, and a united republic of all Italy. All parties,
£ wr vef , were agreed in favour of war against Austria, for which
•h« p6°Pl n forced their unwilling rulers to prepare. But the
*J*7 -/it ate capable of taking the initiative was Piedmont, and the
£ln£ still hesitated. Then came the news of the Five Days of
Z!iklan, which produced the wildest excitement in Turin; unless
*** ^ the army were sent to assist the struggling Lombards
F*jV£ at once the dynasty was in jeopardy. Cavour's stirring
^JJlJZt articles in the Risorgimento hastened the king's decision,
*/tmirt+> and on the 23rd of March he declared war (see for the
ttitary events Italian Wars, 1848-70). But much precious
1 I bid been lost, and even then the army was not ready.
UkmtIcS Albert could dispose of 00,000 men, including some
^00 from central Italy, but he took the field with only half
£ 'force. He might yet have cut off Radetzky on his retreat,
JLotured Manlut, which was only held by 300 men. But his
*L JL lc*t him both chances and enabled Radetzky to receive
r^^rtrments from Austria. The pope, unable to resist the
***£!y demand for war, allowed his army to depart (March 23)
,W ZTihc commAnA of General Durando, with instructions to
*^! Jsicert with Charles Albert, and he corresponded with the
* r TU of Tuscany and the king f Naples with a view to a
n ir^r jfcanc*. But at the same time, fearing a schism in the
****TJZ*U\ he attack Catholic Austria, he forbade his troops
T * rf \J*«riMn defend the frontier, and in his Encyclical of the
,. a .*** _„ mt%teA that, as head of the church, he could not
revent his subjects from
is. He then requested
under his command, and
asking him voluntarily
Tuscany and Naples had
'scan army started for
7.000 Neapolitans com-
after 28 years of exile)
the Austrian reinforce-
j -sc defeated the enemy
n t profit by the victory.
/. he 17th of May, but in
aj ■* Naples between the
col ln « *oyal oath ; a cry of
On receiving the order to return, Pepe, after hesitating for some
time between his oath to the king and his desire to fight for Italy,
finally resigned his commission and crossed the Po with a few
thousand men, the rest of his force returning south. The effects
of this were soon felt. A force of Tuscan volunteers was attacked
by a superior body of Austrians at Curtatone and Montanaro
and defeated after a gallant resistance on the 27th of May;
Charles Albert, after wasting precious time round Pescbiera,
which capitulated on the 30th of May, defeated Radetzky at
Goito. But the withdrawal of the Neapolitans left Durando
too weak to intercept Nugent and his 30.000 men; and the
latter, although harassed by the inhabitants of Venctia and
repulsed at Vicenza, succeeded in joining Radetzky, who was
soon further reinforced from Tirol The whole Austrian army
now turned on Vicenza, which after a brave resistance sur-
rendered on the toth of June. All Veneris except the capital
was thus once more occupied by the Austrians. On the 23rd,
24th and 25th of July (first battle of Custozza) the Pledmontese
were defeated and forced to retire on Milan with Radetzky**
superior force in pursuit. The king was the object of a hostile
demonstration in Milan, and although he was ready to defend
the dty to the last, the town council negotiated a capitulation
with Radetzky. The mob, egged on by the republicans, attacked
the palace where the king was lodged, and he escaped with
difficulty, returning to Piedmont with the remnants of his army.
On the 6th of August Radetzky re-entered Milan, and three
days later an armistice was concluded between Austria and
Piedmont, the latter agreeing to evacuate Lombardy and
Venetia. The offer of French assistance, made after the pro-
clamation of the republic in the spring of 1848, had been rejected
mainly because France, fearing that the creation of a strong
Italian state would be a danger to her, would have demanded
the cession of Nice and Savoy, which the king refused to
consider.
Meanwhile, the republic had been proclaimed in Venice;
but on the 7th of July the assembly declared in favour of fusion
with Piedmont, and Manin, who had been elected
president, resigned his powers to the royal com- '
missioners. Soon after Custozza, however, the '
Austrians blockaded the city on the land side. In
Rome the pope's authority weakened day by day, and disorder
increased. The Austrian attempt to occupy Bologna was re-
pulsed by the citizens, but unfortunately this success was followed
by anarchy and murder, and Farini only with difficulty restored
a semblance of order. The Mamiani ministry having failed to
achieve anything, Pius summoned Pellegrino Rossi, a learned
lawyer who had long been exiled in France, to form a cabinet.
On the 15th of November be was assassinated, and as no one
was punished for this crime the insolence of the disorderly
elements increased, and shots were exchanged with the Swiss
Guard. The terrified pope fled in disguise to Gaeta (November
25), and when parliament requested him to return he refused
even to receive the deputation. This meant a complete rupture;
on the 5th of February 1849 a constituent assembly was
summoned, and on the oth ft voted the downfall of the temporal
power and proclaimed the republic. Mazzini hurried rtrntUmi
to Rome to see his dream realized, and was chosen Uaamftk&
head of the Triumvirate. On the 1 8th Pius invited Ommb
the armed intervention of France, Austria, Naples *■#■■•
and Spain to restore his authority. In Tuscany the government
drifted from the moderates to the extreme democrats; the
Ridolfi ministry was succeeded after Custozza by that of Ricasofi,
and the latter by that of Capponi. The lower classes provoked
disorders, which were very serious at Leghorn, and were only
quelled by Guerrazri's energy. Capponi resigned in October
1848, and Leopold reluctantly consented to a democratic ministry
led by Guerrazzi and Montanelli, the former a very ambitious
and unscrupulous man, the latter honest but fantastic. Follow-
ing the Roman example, a constituent assembly was demanded
THE RISORGIMENTO)
ITALY
S3
iS. Stefano; on the 8th of February 1849 the republic was pro-
claimed, and on the 21st, af the pressing request of the pope and
the king of Naples, Leopold went to Gaeta.
Ferdinand did not openly break his constitutional promises
until Sicily was reconquered. His troops had captured Messina
after a bombardment which earned him the sobriquet of " King
Bomba "; Catania and Syracuse feU soon after, hideous atrocities
being everywhere committed with his sanction. He now pro*
rogued parliament, adopted stringent measures against the
Liberals, and retired to Gaeta, the haven of refuge for deposed
despots.
But so long as Piedmont was not completely crushed none of
the princes dared to take decisive measures against their subjects;
in spite of Custozza, Charles Albert still had an army, and Austria,
with revolutions in Vienna, Hungary and Bohemia on her
hands, couM not intervene. In Piedmont the Pinelli-Revcl
ministry, which had continued the negotiations for an alliance
with Leopold and the pope, resigned as it could not count
on a parliamentary majority, and in December the returned
exile Gtoberti formed a new ministry. His proposal to reinstate
Leopold and the pope with Piedraontese arms, so as to avoid
Austrian intervention, was rejected by both potentates, and met
with opposition even in Piedmont, which would thereby have
forfeited its prestige throughout Italy. Austrian mediation
was now imminent, as the Vienna revolution had been crushed,
and the new emperor, Francis Joseph, refused to consider any
settlement other than on the basis of the treaties of 1815. But
ChmHn Charles Albert, who, whatever his faults, had a generous
A»erirv nature, was determined that so long as he had an
»■•*•• army in being he could not abandon the Lombards
■"* and the Venetians, whom he had encouraged in their
resistance, without one more effort, though he knew full well
that he was staking all on a desperate chance. On the 12th of
March 1849, he denounced the armistice, and, owing to the
want of confidence in Piedmontese strategy after 1848, gave the
chief command to the Polish General Chrzanowski. His forces
amounted to 80,000 men, including a Lombard corps and some
Roman, Tuscan and other volunteers. But the discipline and
moral of the army were shaken and its organization faulty.
General Ramorino, disobeying his instructions, failed to prevent
a corps of Austrian* under Lieut. Field- Marshal d'Aspre
from seizing Mortara, a fault for which he was afterwards court-
martiaHed and shot, and after some preliminary fighting Radetzky
won the decisive battle of Novara (March 23) which broke up
the Piedmontese army. The king, who had sought death in vain
all day, had to ask terms of Radetzky; the latter demanded
a slice of Piedmont and the heir to the throne (Victor
Emmanuel) as a hostage, without a reservation for
' the consent of parliament. Charles Albert, realizing
his own failure and thinking that his son might obtain
better terms, abdicated and departed at once for Portugal, where
be died in a monastery a few months later. Victor Emmanuel
went in person to treat with Radetzky on the 24th of March.
The Field-Marshal received him most courteously and offered
not only to waive the demand for a part of Piedmontese territory,
but to enlarge the kingdom, on condition that the constitution
should be abolished and the blue Piedmontese flag substituted
for the tricolor. But the young king was determined to abide
by his father's oath, and had therefore to agree to an Austrian
occupation of the territory between the Po, the Ticino and the
Sesia, and of half the citadel of Alessandria, until peace should
be concluded, the evacuation of all districts occupied by his
troops outside Piedmont, the dissolution of his corps of Lombard,
Polish and Hungarian volunteers and the withdrawal of his
fleet from the Adriatic.
Novasa set Austria free to reinstate the Italian despots.
Ferdinand at once re-established autocracy in Naples; (hough
the struggle in Sicily did not end until May, when Palermo,
after a splendid resistance, capitulated. In Tuscany disorder
continued, and although Guerrazzi, who had been appointed
dictator, saved the country from complete anarchy, a large part
of the population, especially among the peasantry, was still
loyal to the grand-dule. After Novara the chief question was
how to avoid an- Austrian occupation, and owing to the prevailing
confusion the town council of Florence took matters into its
own hands and declared the grand-duke reinstated, but on a
constitutional basis and without foreign help (April 1 2). Leopold
accepted as regards the constitution, but said nothing about
foreign intervention. Count Serristori, the grand-ducal com-
missioner, arrived in Florence on the 4th of May 1849; the
national guard was disbanded; and on the 25th, the Austrians
under d'Aspre entered Florence.
On the 28th of July Leopold returned to his capital, and while
that event was welcomed by a part of the people, the fact that
he had come under Austrian protection ended by destroying all
loyalty to the dynasty, and consequently contributed not a
little to Italian unity.
In Rome the triumvirate decided to defend the republic to
the last. The city was quieter and more orderly than it had
ever been before, for Mazzini and Ciceruacchio success- ^^^
fully opposed all class warfare; and in April the
defenders received a priceless addition to their strength in the
person of Garibaldi, who, on the outbreak of the revolution in
1848, had returned with a few of his followers from his exile
in South America, and in April 1849 entered Rome with some
500 men to fight for the republic. At this time France, as a
counterpoise to Austrian intervention in other parts of Italy,
decided to restore the pope, regardless of the fact that this
action would necessitate the crushing of a sister /v»«»
republic. As yet, however, no such intention was aadtt*
publicly avowed. On the 25th of April General Rommm
Oudinot landed with 8000 men at Civitavecchia, and *v***
on the 30th attempted to capture Rome by suprise, but was
completely defeated by Garibaldi, who might have driven the
French into the sea, had Mazzini allowed him to leave the city.
The French republican government, in order to gain time foe
reinforcements to arrive, sent Ferdinand de Lesseps to pretend
to treat with Mazzini, the envoy himself not being a party to
this deception. Mazzini refused to allow the French into the
city, but while the negotiations were being dragged on Oudinot 's
force was increased to 3 5,000 men. At the same time an Austrian
army was marching through (he Legations, and Neapolitan and
Spanish troops were advancing from the south. The Roman
army (20,000 men) was commanded by General RosseUi, and
included, besides Garibaldi's red-shirted legionaries, volunteers
from all parts of Italy, mostly very young men, many of them
wealthy and of noble family. The Neapolitans were ignominf-
ously beaten in May and retired to the frontier; on the 1st of
June Oudinot declared that he would attack Rome on the 4th,
but by beginning operations on the 3rd, when no attack was
expected, he captured an important position in the Pamphili
gardens.
In spite of this success, however, it was not until the end of
the month, and after desperate fighting, that the French pene-
trated within the walls and the defence ceased (June 29). The
Assembly, which had continued in session, was dispersed by the
French troops on the 2nd of July, but Mazzini escaped a week
later. Garibaldi quitted the city, followed by 4000 of his men,
and attempted to join the defenders of Venice. In spite of the
fact that he was pursued by the armies of four Powers, he
succeeded in reaching San Marino; but his force melted away
and, after hiding in the marshes of Ravenna, he fled across the
peninsula, assisted by nobles, peasants and priests, to the
Tuscan Coast, whence he reached Piedmont and eventually
America, to await a new call to fight for Italy (see Garibaldi).
After a heroic defence, conducted by Giuseppe Martincngo,
Brescia was recaptured In April by the Austrians under Lieut.
Field-Marshal von Haynau, the atrocities which Rtt^
followed earning for Haynau the name of "The tioaot
Hyena of Brescia." In May they seized Bologna, • v<m»j»*j*
and Ancona in June, restoring order in those towns Am9U ^*
by the same methods as at Brescia. Venice alone still held out;
after Novara the Piedmontese commissioners withdrew and
Manin again took charge of the government* The assembly
54
ITALY
fTHE R1S0RQ1MENTO
voted: " Venice lesisU the Austrian* at til costs," and the
atuens and soldiers, strengthened by the arrival of volunteers
from all parts of Italy, including Pepe, who was given the chief
command of the defenders, showed the most splendid devotion
in their hopeless task. By the end of May the city was blockaded
by land and sea, and in July the bombardment began. On the
24th the city, reduced by famine, capitulated on favourable
t«ms. Manin, Pepc and a few others were excluded from the
•mnesty and went into exile.
Thus were despotism and foreign predominance re-established
throughout Italy save in Piedmont. Yet the " terrible year "
was by no means all loss. The Italian cause had been crushed,
but revolution and war had strengthened the feeling of unity,
for_ Neapolitans had fought for Venice, Lombards for Rome,
riwiinontese for all Italy. Piedmont was shown to possess
the qualities necessary to constitute the nucleus of a great nation.
It was now evident that the federal idea was impossible, for none
of the princes except Victor Emmanuel could be trusted, and
that unity and freedom could not be achieved under a republic,
for nothing could be done without the Piedmontese army, which
was royalist to the core. All reasonable men were now convinced
that the question of the ultimate form of the Italian govern-
ment was secondary, and that the national efforts should be
concentrated on the task of expelling the Austrian*; the form
of government could be decided afterwards. Liberals were by no
means inclined to despair of accomplishing this task; for hatred
of the foreigners, and of the despots restored by their bayonets,
had been deepened by the humiliations and cruelties suffered
during the war into a passion common to all Italy.
When the terms of the Austro- Piedmontese armistice were
announced in the Chamber at Turin they aroused great indigna-
_ . tion, but the king succeeded in convincing the deputies
JJjJmjJ* that ^gy wcce mcv j ta bi e- tj, c pcac-g negotiations
war. dragged on for several months, involving two changes
of ministry, and D'Azeglio became premier. Through
Anglo-French mediation Piedmont's war indemnity was reduced
from 230,000,000 to 75,000,000 lire, but the question of the
amnesty remained. The king declared himself ready to go to
war again if those compromised in the Lombard revolution were
not freely pardoned, and at last Austria agreed to amnesty all
save a very few, and in August the peace terms were agreed upon.
The Chamber, however, refused to ratify them, and it was not
until the king's eloquent appeal from Moncalicri to his people's
loyalty, and after a dissolution and the election of a new parlia-
ment, that the treaty was ratified (January 9, 1850). The
situation in Piedmont was far from promising, the exchequer
was empty, the army disorganized, the country despondent and
suspicious of the king. If Piedmont was to be fitted for the part
which optimists expected it to play, everything must be built
up anew. Legislation had to be entirely reformed, and the bill
for abolishing the special jurisdiction for the clergy (foro ecclesi-
aslico) and other medieval privileges aroused the bitter opposition
of the Vatican as well as of the Piedmontese clericals. This
CjttiJ same year (1850) Cavour, who had been in parliament
for some time and had in his speech of the 71b of March
struck the first note of encouragement after the gloom of Novara,
became minister of agriculture, and in 1851 also assumed the
portfolio of finance. He ended by dominating the cabinet, but
owing to his having negotiated a union of the Right Centre and
the Left Centre (the Connubio) in the conviction that the country
needed the moderate elements of both parties, he quarrelled with
D'Azeglio (who, as an uncompromising conservative, failed to
see the value of such a move) and resigned. But D'Azeglio was
not equal to the situation, and he, loo, resigned in November
1852; whereupon the king appointed Cavour prime minister,
a position which with short intervals he held until his death.
The Austrian* in the period from 1849 to 1850, known as the
dfccnnw delta rcsistenxa (decade of resistance), were made to feel
that they were in a conquered country where they could have
no social intercourse with the people; for no self-respecting
Lombard or Venetian would even speak to an Austrian. Austria,
on the other hand, treated her Italian subjects with great severity.
The Italian provinces were the most heavily taxed in the
whole empire, and much of the money thus levied was spent
either for the benefit of other provinces or to pay for
the huge army of occupation and the fortresses in jjjj^jj^,
Italy. The promise of a constitution for the empire, ^^
made in 1849, was never carried out; the government
of Lombardo-Venetia was vested in Field-Marshal Radetzky;
and although only very few of the revolutionists were
excluded from the amnesty, the carrying of arms or the
distribution or possession of revolutionary literature was
punished with death. Long terms of imprisonment and the
bastinado, the latter even inflicted on women, were the penalties
for the least expression of anti-Austrian opinion.
The Lombard republicans had been greatly weakened by the
events of 1848, but Mazzini still believed that a bold act by a few
revolutionists would make the people rise en masu and expel
the Austrian*, A conspiracy, planned with the object, among
others, of kidnapping the emperor while on a visit to Venice and
forcing him to make concessions, was postponed in consequence
of the coup d'ilal by which Louis Napoleon became emperor
of the French (1852); but a chance discovery led to a large
number of arrests, and the state trials at Mantua, conducted in
the most shamelessly inquisitorial manner, resulted in five death
sentences, including that of the priest Tazzoli, and many of
imprisonment for long terms. Even this did not convince
Mazzini of the hopelessness of such attempts, for he was out of
touch with Italian public opinion, and he greatly weakened bis
influence by favouring a crack-brained outbreak at Milan on the
6th of February 1853, which was easily quelled, numbers of the
insurgents being executed or imprisoned. Radetzky, not
satisfied with this, laid an embargo on the property of many
Lombard emigrants who had settled in Piedmont and become
naturalized, accusing them of complicity. The Piedmontese
government rightly regarded this measure as a violation of the
peace treaty of 1850, and Cavour recalled the Piedmontese
minister from Vienna, an action which was endorsed by Italian
public opinion generally, and won the approval of France and
England.
Cavour's ideal for the present was the expulsion of Austria
from Italy and the expansion of Piedmont into a north Italian
kingdom; and, although he did not yet think of Italian unity
as a question of practical policy, he began to foresee it as a
future possibility. But in reorganizing the shattered finances of
the state and preparing it for its greater destinies, he had to
impose heavy taxes, which led to rioting, and involved the
minister himself in considerable though temporary 'unpopularity.
His ecclesiastical legislation, too, met with bitter opposition
from the Church.
But the question was soon forgotten in the turmoil caused by
the Crimean War. Cavour believed that by taking part in the
war his country would gain for itself a military status '
and a place in the councils of the great Powers, and hJJ*"*
establish claims on Great Britain and France for the
realization of its Italian ambitions. One section of public opinion
desired to make Piedmont's co-operation subject to definite
promises by the Powers; but the latter refused to bind them-
selves, and both Victor Emmanuel and Cavour realized that,
even without such promises, participation would give Piedmont
a claim. There was also the danger that Austria might join the
allies first and Piedmont he left isolated; but there were also
strong arguments on the other side, for while the Radical party
saw no obvious reason why Piedmont should fight other people's
battles, and therefore opposed the alliance, there was the risk
that Austria might join the alliance together with Piedmont,
which would have constituted a disastrous situation. Da
Bonnida, the minister for foreign affairs, resigned «^*_
rather than agree to the proposal, and other statesmen
were equally opposed to it. But after longnegotiations
the treaty of alliance was signed in January 1855, and
while Austria remained neutral, a well-equipped Pied-
montcse force of 15,000 men, under General La Marmora, sailed
for the Crimea. Everything turned out as Cavour had hoped.
THE RISORCIMENTO)
ITALY
55
The Piedmontese troops distinguished themselves in the field,
gaining the sympathies of the French and English; and at the
subsequent congress of Paris (1856), where Cavour himself was
Sardinian representative, the Italian question was discussed,
and the intolerable oppression of the Italian peoples by Austria
and the despots ventilated.
Austria at last began to see that a policy of coercion was
useless and dangerous, and made tentative efforts at conciliation.
Taxation was somewhat reduced, the censorship was made less
severe, political amnesties were granted, humaner officials were
appointed and the Congregations (a sort of shadowy consultative
assembly) were revived. In 1856 the emperor and empress
visited their Italian dominions, but were received with icy
coldness; the following year, on the retirement of Radetzky
at the age of ninety-three, the archduke Maximilian, an able,
cultivated and kind-hearted man, was appointed viceroy. He
made desperate efforts to conciliate the population, and succeeded
with a few of the nobles, who were led to believe in the possi-
bility of an Italian confederation, including Lombardy and
Venetia which would be united to Austria by a personal union
alone; but the immense majority of all classes rejected these
advances, and came to regard union with Piedmont with
increasing favour. 1
Meanwhile Francis V. of Modcna, restored to his duchy by
Austrian bayonets, continued to govern according to the traditions
of his house. Charles II. of Parma, after having been
reinstated by the Austrian*, abdicated in favour of his
son Charles III. a drunken libertine and a cruel tyrant
Jj*[ (May 1840); the latter was assassinated in 1854, and
^^ a regency under his widow, Marie Louise, was insti-
tuted during which the government became somewhat more
tolerable, although by no means free from political persecution;
in 1857 the Austrian troops evacuated the duchy. Leopold of
Tuscany suspended the constitution, and in 1852 formally
abolished it by order from Vienna? he also concluded a treaty of
semi-subjection with Austria and a Concordat with the pope for
granting fresh privileges to the Church. His government, how-
ever, was not characterized by cruelty like those of his brother
despots, and Guerrazzi and the other liberals of 1849, although
tried and sentenced to long terms of imprisonment, were merely
exiled. Yet the opposition gained recruits among all the ablest
and most respectable Tuscans. In Rome, after the restoration of
the temporal power by the French troops, the pope paid no
attention to Louis Napoleon's advice to maintain some form of
constitution, to grant a general amnesty, and to secularize the
administration. He promised, indeed, a consultative council of
state, and granted an amnesty from which no less than 95,000
persons were excluded: but on his return to Rome (12th April
1850), after he was quite certain that France had given up all
idea of imposing constitutional limitations on him, he re-estab-
lished his government on the old lines of priestly absolutism, and,
devoting himself to religious practices, left political affairs mostly
to the astute cardinal AntonelR, who repressed with great
severity the political agitation which still continued. At Naples
/^■jmcm * trifling disturbance in September 1849, led to the
fb« mt arrest of a large number of persons connected with the
Lm wm lB UnM Italiana, a society somewhat similar to the
fertapfrc Carbonari. The prisoners included Silvio Spaventa,
Luigi Settembrini, Carlo Boerio and many other cultured and
wort hy citizens. Many condemnations followed, and hundreds of
"politicals" were immured in hideous dungeons, a state of
things which provoked Gladstone's famous letters to Lord
Aberdeen, in which Bourbon rule was branded for all time as
" the negation of God erected Into a system of government."
But oppressive, corrupt and inefficient as it was, the government
was not confronted by the uncompromising hostility of the
whole people; the ignorant priest-ridden masses were either
indifferent or of mildly Bourbon sympathies; the opposition was
constituted by the educated middle classes and a part of the
> The popular cry of " Viva Verdi ! " did not merely express
enthusiasm for Italy's most eminent musician, but signified, in
• Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re d' Italia I "
nobility. The revolutionary attempts of Bentfvegna tn Sfaly
(1856) and of the Mazzinian Carlo Pisacane, who landed at
Sapri in Calabria with a few followers in 1857, failed from lack of
popular support, and the leaders were killed.
The decline of Maxxini's influence was accompanied by the
rise of a new movement in favour of Italian unity under Victor
Emmanuel, inspired by the Milanese marquis Giorgio
Pallavicini, who had spent 14 years in the Spielberg,
and by Manin, living in exile In Paris, both of them
ex-repubh'cans who had become monarchists. The
propaganda was organized by the Sicilian La Farina by means
of the Societd Rationale. All who accepted the motto " Unity,
Independence and Victor Emmanuel " were admitted into
the society. Many of the republicans and Mazzinians joined
it, but Mazzmi himself regarded ft with no sympathy. In the
Austrian provinces and in the duchies it carried all before it,
and gained many adherents in the Legations, Rome and Naples,
although in the latter regions toe autonomist feeling was still
strong even among the Liberals. In Piedmont itself it was at
first less successful; and Cavour, although he aspired ultimately
to a united Italy with Rome as the capital,* openly professed no
ambition beyond the expulsion of Austria and the formation of a
North Italian kingdom. But he gave secret encouragement to
the movement, and ended by practically directing its activity
through La Farina. The king, too, was in close sympathy with the
society's aims, but for the present it was necessary to hide this
attitude from the eyes of the Powers, whose sympathy Cavour
could only hope to gain by professing hostility to everything that
savoured of revolution. Both the king and his minister realised
that Piedmont alone, even with the help of the National Society,
could not expel Austria from Italy without foreign assfctsnet.
Piedmontcse finances had been strained to breaking-point to
organize an army obviously intended for other than merely
defensive purposes. Cavour now set himself to the task of
isolating Austria and securing an alliance for her expulsion.
A British alliance wouM have been preferable, but the British
government was too much concerned with the preservation of
European peace. The emperor Napoleon, almost alone
among Frenchmen, had genuine Italian sympathies. (Jj^JJ
But were he to intervene in Italy, the intervention lufy,
would not only have to be successful; It would have
to bring tangible advantages to France* Hence his hesitations
and vacillations, which Cavour steadily worked to overcome.
Suddenly on the 14th of January i8s8 Napoleon's life was
attempted by Felice Orsfni (q.v.) a Mazzinian Romagnol, who
beh'eved that Napoleon was the chief obstacle to the success of
the revolution in Italy. The attempt failed and its author was
caught and executed, but while it appeared at first to destroy
Napoleon's Italian sympathies and led to a sharp interchange of
notes between Paris and Turin, the emperor was really impressed
by the attempt and by Orshri's letter from prison exhorting him
to intervene in Italy. He realized how deep the Italian feeling
for independence must be, and that a refusal to act now might
result in further attempts on his life, as indeed Orsini's letter
stated. Consequently negotiations with Cavour were resumed,
and a meeting with him was arranged to take place at Piom-
bieres (20th and 21 st of July 1858). There it was agreed that
France should supply 200,000 men and Piedmont 100,000 for the
expulsion of the Austrians from Italy, that Piedmont should be
expanded into a kingdom of North Italy, that central Italy should
form a separate kingdom, on the throne of which the emperor
contemplated placing one of his own relatives, and Naples
another, possibly under Luden Murat; the pope, while retaining
only the " Patrimony of St Peter " (the Roman province), would
be president of the Italian confederation. In exchange for
French assistance Piedmont would cede Savoy and perhaps
Nice to France; and a marriage between Victor Emmanuel's
daughter Clothilde and Jerome Bonaparte, to which Napoleon
attached great importance, although not made a definite
condition, was also discussed. No written agreement, however,
was signed.
* La Farina's Epistdario, 8. 426.
ITALY
fTHERISOKHMan*
. _ , -' ,•* ** x *h*vh rvachvd him from all
' '^ ^- *^ * x- k " ^ iM«*'^f derations and after
>vv ^ «-*- \** *\ V 4%w»^w** rutin* t he king agreeing
w x * ; • * \ ■+* * ** V*»*^ ^ N *!***»*» ihc latter suddenly
* % " -^ -*- v ^ fcsV \ ^M»i*d *h* Ku*»Un suggestion thai
s^ «iM^ ^.V^****** k Austria agreed
'• ^^i v*\l M*lww*huiy urged the Sardinian
oA «>*'kl duAim and should not be
k * ^ »< ^ ^vt M*lwH*buiy urged the Sardinian
* * -- * x o- * x ** » >\v»»« »v*v»od to diwrm, or to accept
v 4 v \, o x .„.o * k ** ^ w*^'*» IVnItoom were admitted to
* 4 \. •- N \. + * vM C^^ !V**<v As neither the Sardinian
* V \. . *■ ' w \ « *■ * .,^ *** w ! ai y*«l to yield, the idea
v > - %^'?\ *^^ u 1 ^ Maimesbury now
* * \ \- •■ " >. \ »° * iv**«* *^™ a *** rm wmultaneously
V ?*\ * x "^"; * K ° I*"™**™ of Laibach
to plead
is course
Emmanuel
o back out
xx -* u, A* **' ""•---»"*• "iiea war seemed
'" -" v ^ ^ * tt »*Vm 5* Ualy * C8 *>ccially from
** v *•„<» ** lx . ,^ i«u» i ifdmont to enrol themselves
t ** v w „» ^* 7J^IW *««* volunteer corps (the com-
v . - * * * ^ >' ^^^^i t0g0 to ^edmont '
i> * ' x \ **• *^U« ihivMjltMiut «he country. Urged by
*,*»** v l v — -^; ^ *«»**' f ^"i?* the volunteer;
v *\; * *v* r^w" 1 "?
- *■■ -^ri^a aimed .. .
vt on the part of Austria, At
ascendant; the convention
but so far from its being
„* ^— ^ lu *" y C *! ,cd . oul on ^e 12th of
^ "* ,\t Ww* t » vour » J decision was known
kV *^ uU»«»* lu,n ^^^ Turin, summoning
* - - 1 v»»hH\ lhte« dtv * °^ .P*»n of invasion.
% ^ A "I^ili htf •• ,h * lur ? * fla,rs had taken, for
* v ^ "*\. .. ■ ^^ *_ Al a^«tnl « the aggressor. On the
ww, and the next day
roovewhichwasfollowed,
^^ h*a tinted It would be, by a French
.- s * H tk* mkl»»*ry events of the Italian war of
., •*■ VN '^^ wW ,K-i liaiAH Wars. The actions of
* > A *^ ,v^ \^U*iio(May y) and Melegnano (June
\ v x " ^ w NUa^MkU Ijwne *) and Solferino (June «4)
» * ' N 4fcv Vv»*uuu«, Uaribaldi's volunteers raised
s * * * \^,vm^iu*>» *ml held the field in the region of
" * "^ Vk» MU*ilno lhe allies prepared to besiege
fc *"*^ \tu-^ NAjtoteon suddenly drew back, un-
* \\ v>^^^»^ ^ voutinue the c&uiDaign. Firstly,
"'\,*ifcf *H»f* w» strong enough to attack the
si v^ »«« \U+ d«(« t» of his own army's organiza-
^■w S*.«*h ** lt«« intervention by Prussia, whose
^ %> i ^,^.umj|, thirdly, although really anxious
*^ . »4W* i\\\w Italy, he did not wish to create a
k* \\A\t M tht foot of the Alps, which, besides
„. , *^4l vUi^rr to France, might threaten the
* >b v *n+ Atni N«poleon believed that he could not
,v vn**mU ^-ote; fourthly, the war had been
^ v ****** u( (he great majority of Frenchmen
,^» w »Hmh r»pular. Consequently, to the
s^nn %h^W the allied forces were drawn up
\ ,-v*w*k vsilhout consulting Victor Emmanuel,
, .* .W ^h of July to Francis Joseph to ask
„ ,v\ >»«« agreed to. The king was now
_ „ x *^ C*«ttal» Vaillant, DeUa Rocca and
v.' 1
•ft
Ceutrml
Hess met at Villafranca and arranged an annistice until tk
i sth of August. But the king and Cavour were terribly upset by
this move, which meant peace without Venetia ; Cavour _
hurried to the king's headquarters at Monzambano ^ST
and in excited, almost disrespectful, language implored * mca ,
him not to agree to peace and to continue the war
alone, relying on the Piedmontese army and a general Italian
revolution. But Victor Emmanuel on this occasion proved the
greater statesman of the two; be understood that, hard as it
was, he must content himself with Lombardy for the present, lest
all be lost. On the nth the two emperors met at Villafrano,
where they agreed that Lombardy should be ceded to Piedmont,
and Venetia retained by Austria but governed by liberal methods;
that the rulers of Tuscany, Parma and Modena, who had been
again deposed, should be restored, the Papal Slates reformed,
the Legations given a separate administration and the pope
made president of an Italian confederation including Austria
as mistress of Venetia. It was a revival of the old impossible
federal idea, which would have left Italy divided and dominated
by Austria and France. Victor Emmanuel regretfully signed
the peace preliminaries, adding, however, pour u quint concent
(which meant that he made no undertaking with regard to
central Italy), and Cavour resigned office.
The Lombard campaign had produced important effects
throughout the rest of Italy. The Sardinian government had
formally invited that of Tuscany to participate in
the war of liberation, and on the grand-duke rejecting
the proposal, moderates and democrats combined to
present an ultimatum to Leopold demanding that he
should abdicate in favour of his son, grant a constitu-
tion and take part in the campaign. On his refusal Florence rose
as one man, and he, feeling that he could not rely on his troops,
abandoned Tuscany on the 37th of April 1859. A provisional
government was formed, led by Ubaldino Peruzxi, and was
strengthened on the 8th of May by the inclusion of Baron
Bettino Ricasoli, a man of great force of character, who became
the real head of the administration, and all through the ensuing
critical period aimed unswervingly at Italian unity. Victor
Emmanuel, at the request of the people, assumed the protector-
ate over Tuscany, where he was represented by the Sardinian
minister Boncompagni. On the 23rd of May Prince Napoleon,
with a French army corps, landed at Leghorn, his avowed object
being to threaten the Austrian fiank; 1 and in June these troops,
together with a Tuscan contingent, departed for Lombardy.
In the duchy of Modena an insurrection had broken out, and
after Magenta Duke Francis joined the Austrian army in
Lombardy, leaving a regency in charge. But on the 14th of
June the municipality formed a provisional government and
proclaimed annexation to Piedmont; L. C. Farini was chosen
dictator, and 4000 Modenese joined the allies. The duchess-
regent of Parma also withdrew to Austrian territory, and on
the nth of June annexation to Piedmont was proclaimed.
At the same time the Austrians evacuated the Legations and
Cardinal Milesi, the papal representative, departed. The muni-
cipality of Bologna formed a Ciuttla, to which Romagna and
the Marches adhered, and invoked the dictatorship of Victor
Emmanuel; at Perugia, too, a provisional government was
constituted under F. Guardabassi. But the Marches woe
soon reoccupied by pontifical troops, and Perugia fell, its capture
being followed by an indiscriminate massacre of men, women
and children. In July the marquis D'Azeglio arrived at Bologna
as royal commissioner.
After the meetings at VQlaf ranca Napoleon returned to France.
The question of the cession of Nice and Savoy bad not beea
raised; for the emperor had not fulfilled his part of the bargain,
that he would drive the Austrians out of Italy, since Venice was
yet to be freed. At the same time he was resolutely opposed
to the Piedmontese annexations in central Italy. But here
Cavour intervened, for he was determined to maintain the
annexations, at all costs. Although he had resigned, he remained
1 In reality the emperor was contemplating an Etrurian longdoca
with the prince at its head.
THE KlSORGfBf ENTOl
ITALY
57
in office until Rattazzi could form a new ministry; and while
officially recalling the royal commissioners according to the
preliminaries o/ Villafranca, he privately encouraged them to
remain and organize resistance to the return of the despots, if
necessary by force (see Cavour) Farini, who in August was
elected dictator of Parma as well as Modena, and Ricasoli, who
since, on the withdrawal of the Sardinian commissioner fion-
compagni, had become supreme in Tuscany, were now the men
who by their energy and determination achieved the annexation
of central Italy to Piedmont, in spite of the strenuous opposition
of the French emperor and the weakness of many Italian. Liberals.
In August Marco Minghetti succeeded in forming a military
league and a customs union between Tuscany, Romagna and
the duchies, and in procuring the adoption of the Piedmontesc
codes, and envoys were sent to Paris to mollify Napoleon.
Constituent assemblies met and voted for unity under Victor
Emmanuel, but the king could not openly accept the proposal
owing to the emperor's opposition, backed by the presence of
French armies in Lombard/; at a word from Napoleon there
might have been an Austrian, and perhaps a Franco-Austrian,
invasion of central Italy. But to Napoleon's statement that
be could not agree to the unification of Italy, as he was bound
by his promises to Austria at Villafranca, Victor Emmanuel
replied that he himself, after Magenta and Solferino, was bound
in honour to Enk his fate with that of the Italian people; and
General Manfredo Fanti was sent by the Turin government to
organize the army of the Central League, with Garibaldi under
him.
The terms of the treaty of peace signed at Zurich on the 10th
of November were practically identical with those of the prc-
TtvMvsi En" 114 " 6 * * Villafranca. It was soon evident, however,
j£2 tnat lne Italian question was far from being settled.
Central Italy refused to be bound by the treaty, and
offered the dictatorship to Prince Carignano, who, himself unable
to accept owingtoNapoleon'sopposition.suggestcd Boncompagni,
who was accordingly elected. Napoleon now realized that it
would be impossible, without running serious risks, to oppose
the movement in favour of unity. He suggested an international
congress on the question; inspired a pamphlet, Le Pape tt U
CeMgris. which proposed a reduction of the papal territory, and
wrote to the pope advising him to cede Romagna in order to
obtain better guarantees for the rest of his dominions. The
proposed congress fell through, and Napoleon thereupon raised
the question of the cession of Nice and Savoy as the price of
his consent to the union of the central provinces with the Italian
kingdom. In January 1866 the Rattazzi ministry fell, after
completing the fusion of Lombardy with Piedmont, and Cavour
wis again summoned by the king to the head of affairs.
Cavour well knew the unpopularity that would fall upon him
by consenting to the cession of Nice, the birthplace of Garibaldi,
and Savoy, the cradle of the royal house; but he realized the
necessity of the sacrifice, if central Italy was to be won. The
negotiations were long drawn out; for Cavour struggled to save
Nice and Napoleon was anxious to make conditions, especially
as regards Tuscany. At last, on the 24th of March, the treaty
was signed whereby the cession was agreed upon, but subject
to the vote of the populations concerned and ratification by the
Italian parliament. The king having formally accepted the
voluntary annexation of the duchies, Tuscany and Romagna,
appointed the prince of Carignano viceroy with Ricasoli as
governor-general (22nd of March), and was immediately after-
wards excommunicated by the pope. On the 2nd of April i860
the new Italian parliament, including members from central
Italy, assembled at Turin. Three weeks later the treaty of
Turin ceding Savoy and Nice to France was ratified, though
not without much opposition, and Cavour was fiercely reviled
for bin share in the transaction, especially by Garibaldi, who
even contemplated an expedition to Nice, but was induced to
desist by the king.
In May 1859 Ferdinand of Naples was succeeded by his son
Francis II., who gave no signs of any intention to change his
father's policy, and, in spite of Napoleon's advice, refused to
grant a constitution or to enter Into an alliance with Sardinia.
The result was a revolutionary agitation which in Sicily, stirred
up by Mazzini's agents, Rosalino Pilo and Francesco
Crispi, culminated, on the 5th of April i860, in open
revolt. An invitation had been sent Garibaldi to put Frmadt tt
himself at the head of the movement, at first he
bad refused, but reports of the progress of the insurrection
soon determined him to risk all on a bold stroke, and on the
5th of May he embarked at Quarto, near Genoa, with Btxio,
the Hungarian Tftrr and some 1000 picked followers, on two
steamers. The preparations for the expedition, openly made,
were viewed by Cavour with mixed feelings. With its object
he sympathized; yet he could not give ©racial sanction to
an armed attack on a friendly power, nor on the other hand
could he forbid an action enthusiastically approved by public
opinion. He accordingly directed the Sardinian admiral Persano
only to arrest the expedition should it touch at a Sardinian port;
while m reply to the indignant protests of the continental
powers he disclaimed all knowledge of the affair. On the nth
Garibaldi landed at Marsala, without opposition, defeated the
Neapolitan forces at Calatafimi on the 15th, and on the 17th
entered Palermo in triumph, where he proclaimed himself, in-
King Victor Emmanuel's name, dictator of Sicily By the end
of July, after the hard-won victory of Milazzo, the whole island,
with the exception of the citadel of Messina and a few unim-
portant ports, was in his hands.
From Cavourt point of view, the situation was now one of
extreme anxiety. It was certain that, his work in Sicily done,
Garibaldi would turn his attention to the Neapolitan dominions
on the mainland; and beyond these lay Umbria and the Marches
and — Rome. It was all-important that whatever victories
Garibaldi might win should be won for the Italian kingdom,
and, above all, that no ill-timed attack on the Papal States
should provoke an intervention of the powers. La Farina was
accordingly sent to Palermo to urge the immediate annexation of
Sicily to Piedmont. But Garibaldi, who wished to keep a free
hand, distrusted Cavour and scorned all counsels of expediency,
refused to agree; Sierly was the necessary base for his projected
invasion of Naples; it would be time enough to announce its'
union with Piedmont when Victor Emmanuel had been pro-,
dalmed king of United Italy in Rome. Foiled by the dictator's
stubbornness, Cavour had once more to take to underhand
methods; and, while continuing futile negotiations with King
Francis, sent his agents into Naples to stir up disaffection and
create a sentiment in favour of national unity strong enough, in
any event, to force Garibaldi's hand.
On the 8th of August, in spite of the protests and threats of
most of the powers, the Garibaldians began to cross the Straits,
and in a short time 20,000 of them were on the main-
land The Bourbonists in Calabria, utterly dis-
organized, broke before the invincible red-shirts, and
the 40,000 men defending the Salerno- A vclli no line made
no better resistance, being eventually ordered to fall back
on the Volturno. On the 6th of September King Francis, with
his family and several of the ministers, sailed for Gaeta, and the
next day Garibaldi entered Naples alone in advance of the army,
and was enthusiastically welcomed. He proclaimed himself
dictator of the kingdom, with Bertani as secretary of state, but
as a proof of his loyalty he consigned the Neapolitan fleet to
Persano.
His rapid success, meanwhile, inspired both the French
emperor and the government of Turin with misgivings. There
was a danger that Garibaldi's entourage, composed of
ex-Mazzinians, might induce him to proclaim a republic JJ^JJ""
and march on Rome; which would have meant ntwrnL
French intervention and the undoing of all Cavour 's
work. King Victor Emmanuel and Cavour both wrote to
Garibaldi urging him not to spoil all by aiming at too much.
But Garibaldi poured scorn on all suggestions of compromise;
and Cavour saw that the situation could only be saved by
the armed participation of Piedmont in the liberation of
south Italy.
5»
ITALY
[THE RISOIbGtMENTO
The rftastira was, indeed, sufficiently critical The unrest
la Naples had spread into Urabria and the Marches, and the
p*p*l troops, under General Lamoriciere, were preparing to
suppress it. Had they succeeded, the position of the Pied-
montese in Romagna would have been imperilled, had they
(ailed, the road would have been open for Garibaldi to march
oa Rome. In the circumstances, Cavour decided that Piedmont
must anticipate Garibaldi, occupy Umbria and the Marches
and place Italy between the red-shirts and Rome. His excuse
was the pope's refusal to dismiss his foreign levies (September 7)
On the nth of September a Piedmontese army of 35,000 men
crossed the frontier at La Cattolica; on the 18th the pontifical
army was crushed at Castelfidardo; and when, on the 29th,
Ancona fell, Umbria and the Marches were in the power of
Piedmont. On the 15th of October King Victor Emmanuel
crossed the Neapolitan border at the head of his troops.
It had been a race between Garibaldi and the Piedmontese
" If we do not arrive at the Volturno before Garibaldi reaches
La Cattolica," Cavour had said, " the monarchy is lost, and Italy
will remain in the prison-house of the Revolution." * Fortun-
ately for his policy, the red-shirts had encountered a formidable
obstacle to their advance in the Neapolitan army entrenched
on the Volturno under the guns of Capua. On the 19th of
September the Garibaldians began their attack on this position
with their usual impetuous valour; but they were repulsed
again and again, and it was not till the and of October, after
a two days' pitched battle, that they succeeded in carrying the
position. The way was now open for the advance of the Pied-
montese, who, save at Isernia, encountered practically no
resistance. On the 29th Victor Emmanuel and Garibaldi met,
and on the 7th of November they entered Naples together
Garibaldi now resigned his authority into the king's hands and,
refusing the title and other honours offered to him, retired to his
island home of Caprera.*
Gaeta remained still to be taken. The Piedmontese under
CiakUni had begun the siege on the 5th of November, but it was
Rtogmh not unt ^ tiie Iotn of January 1861, when at the
thmmiu* instance of Great Britain Napoleon withdrew his
«•*#* squadron, that the blockade could be made complete.
•t'luZZ ° n thc lii ^ °* Fcbru » r y v *°* fortress surrendered,
Francis and his family having departed by sea for
papal territory The citadel of Messina capitulated on the 22nd,
and Civitella del Tronto, the last stronghold of Bourbonism,
on the 21st of March. On the 18th of February the first Italian
parliament met at Turin, and Victor Emmanuel was proclaimed
king of Italy The new kingdom was recognized by Great
Britain within a fortnight, by France three months later, and
subsequently by other powers. It included the whole peninsula
except Venetia and Rome, and these the government and the
nation were determined to annex sooner or later
There were, however, other serious problems calling for im-
mediate attention. The country had to be built up and converted
g^ummm ' rom an a RS' orn erntton of scnttercd medieval princi-
o§tb»a*w P 3 '' 1 '* 9 ' nto * unified modern nation. The first question
nvtn. which arose was that of brigandage in the south. Brigand-
fl,^,!. age had always existed in the Neapolitan kingdom, largely
BrtMf- ow ' n K to the poverty of the people; but the evil was now
^^ aggravated by the mistake of the new government in
dismissing the Bourbon troops, and then calling them out
again as recruits. A great many turned brigands rather than serve
again, and together with the remaining adherents of Bourbon rule and
malefactors of all kind 3, were made use of by the ex-king and his
tntouroge to harass the Italian administration. Bands of desperadoes
were formed, commanded by the most infamous criminals and by
foreigners who came to fight in what they were led to believe was
an Italian Vendet, but which was in reality a campaign of butchery
and plunder. Villages were sacked and burnt, men, women and
children mutilated, tortured or roasted alive, and women outraged.
The authors of these deeds when pursued by troops fled into papal
territory, where they were welcomed by the authorities and allowed
to refit and raise fresh recruits under the aegis of the Church. The
prime organizers of the movement were King Francis's uncle, the
cutt-u of Trapani, and Mon*. dc M6rode. a Belgian ecclesiastic who
1 N- Bianchi. Cavour. p. 118.
* H* tsfced for the Neapolitan viccroyalty for life, which the king
**rr «wrl> refused.
brigandage was entrusted to Generals La Marmora and < .
but irt spite of extreme severity, justifiable in the circumstances, ft
took four or five years completely to suppress the movement. Its
vitality, indeed, was largely due to the mistakes made by the
new administration, conducted as this was by officials ignorant of
outhern conditions and out of sympathy with a people far more
primitive than in any other part of the peninsula. Politically, its
sole outcome was to prove the impossibility of allowing the continu-
ance of an independent Roman state in the heart of Italy.
Another of the government's difficulties was the (juestioa of what
to do with Garibaldi's volunteers. Fanti. the minister of war, had
three armies to incorporate in that of Piedmont, viz. that _.
of central Italy, that of the Bourbons and that of Garibaldi. SS.
The first caused no difficulty; the rank and file of the raZa
second were mostly disbanded, but a number of the officers fcM ,
werc taken into the Italian army; the third offered a more
serious problem. Garibaldi demanded that all his officers should be
given equivalent rank in the Italian army, and in this he had the
support of Fanti. Cavour, on the other hand, while anxious to deal
generously with the Garibaldians, recognized the impossibility of such
a course, which would not only have offended the conservative spirit
of the Piedmontese military caste, which disliked and despised
irregular troops, but would almost certainly have introduced into the
army an element of indiscipline and disorder.
On the 1 8th of April the question of the volunteers was
discussed in one of the most dramatic sittings of the
Italian parliament. Garibaldi, elected member for Naples,
denounced Cavour in unmeasured terms for his treatment of the
volunteers and for the cession of Nice, accusing him of leading
the country to civil war These charges produced a tremendous
uproar, but Bixio by a splendid appeal for concord succeeded
in calming the two adversaries. On the 23rd of April they were
formally reconciled in the presence of the king, but the scene of
the 1 8th of April hastened Cavour's end. In May the Roman
question was discussed in parliament. Cavour had often declared
that in the end the capital of Italy must be Rome, for it alone of
all Italian cities had an unquestioned claim to moral supremacy,
and his views of a free church in a free state were well known.
He had negotiated secretly with the pope through unofficial
agents, and sketched out a scheme of settlement of the Roman
question, which foreshadowed in its main features the law of
papal guarantees. But it was not given him to see this problem
solved, for his health was broken by the strain of the n^m
last few years, during which practically the whole ^^r
administration of the country was concentrated in his
hands. He died after a short illness on the 6th of June 1861,
at a moment when Italy had the greatest need of his statesman-
ship.
Ricasoli now became prime minister, Cavour raving advised
the king to that effect The financial situation was far from
brilliant, for the expenses of the administration of
Italy were far larger than the total of those of all the
separate states, and everything had to be created or
rebuilt. The budget of i86t showed a deficit of
344,000,000 lire, while the service of the debt was
1 10,000,000, deficits were met by new loans issued on unfavour-
able terms (that of July 1861 for 500,000,000 lire cost the govern-
ment 714,833,000), and government stock fell as low as 36. It
was now that the period of reckless finance began which, save for
a lucid interval under Sella, was to last until nearly the end of the
century Considering the state of the country and the coming
war for Venice, heavy expenditure was inevitable, but good
management might have rendered the situation less dangerous.
Ricasoli, honest and capable as he was, failed to win popularity;
his attitude on the Roman question, which became more un-
compromising after the failure of his attempt at conciliation,
and his desire to emancipate Italy from French predominance,
brought down on him the hostility of Napoleon. He fell in
March 1862, and was succeeded by Rattaizi, who being more
pliable and intriguing managed at first to please every-
body, including Garibaldi At this time the extremists
and even the moderates were full of schemes for liberat-
ing Venice and Rome Garibaldi had a plan, with which the
premier was connected, for attacking Austria by raising a revolt
in the Balkans and Hungary, and later he contemplated s raid
TftE MSORGRfENTO]
ITALY
59
into the Trentino; but the government, seeing the danger of such
an attempt, arrested several Garibaldians at Sarnico (near
Brescia), and in the imeute which followed several persons were
shot. Garibaldi now became an opponent of the ministry, and
in June went to Sicily, where, after taking counsel
with his former followers, he decided on an immediate
Affair t raid on Rome. He summoned his legionaries, and in
A^rT August crossed over to Calabria with 1000 men. His
JJJJf* intentions in the mam were still loyal, for he desired
to capture Rome for the kingdom; and he did his
best to avoid the regulars tardily sent against him. On the
29th of August 1862, however, he encountered a force under
Pallavidni at Aspromonte, and, although Garibaldi ordered his
men not to fire, some of the raw Sicilian volunteers discharged a
few volleys which were returned by the regulars. Garibaldi
himself was seriously wounded and taken prisoner. He was shut
up in the fortress of Varignano, and after endless discussions as to
whether he should be tried or not, the question was settled by an
amnesty. The affair made the ministry so unpopular
that it was forced to resign. Farini, who succeeded,
retired almost at once on account of ill-health, and
Minghetti became premier, with Visconti-Venosta as minister
for foreign affairs. The financial situation continued to be
seriously embarrassing, deficit was piled on deficit, loan upon
loan, and the service of the debt rose from 00,000,000 lire in
i860 to 220,000,000 in 1864.
Negotiations were resumed with Napoleon for the evacuation
of Rome by the French troops; but the emperor, though he saw
p ramcr0 that the temporal power could not for ever be supported
tufy mm* by French bayonets, desired some guarantee that the
UmQ o m aa evacuation should not be followed, at all events
•* ,,(,Bft immediately, by an Italian occupation, lest Catholic
opinion should lay the blame for this upon France. Ultimately
the two governments concluded a convention on the 15th of
September 1864, whereby France agreed to withdraw her troops
from Rome so soon as the papal army should be reorganized,
or at the outside within two years, Italy undertaking not to
attack it nor permit others to do so, and to transfer the capital
from Turin to some other city within six months. 1 The change of
capital would have the appearance of a definite abandonment of
the Roma capitate programme, although in reality it was to be
merely atappa (stage) on the way. Theconvention was kept secret,
but the last clause leaked out and caused the bitterest
feeling among the people of Turin, who would have
been resigned to losing the capital provided it were
transferred to Rome, but resented the fact that it was
to be established in any other city, and that the con-
vention was made without consulting parliament. Demonstra-
tions were held which were repressed with unnecessary violence,
and although the change of capital was not unpopular in the rest of
Italy, where the Piemontaismo of the new regime was beginning
to arouse jealousy, the secrecy with which the affair was arranged
and the shooting down of the people in Turin raised such a stwrn
of disapproval that the king for the first time used his privilege
of dismissing the ministry. Under La Marmora's ad-
ministration the September convention was ratified,
and the capital was transferred to Florence the follow-
ing year. This affair resulted in an important
political change, for the Picdmontese deputies, hitherto the
bulwarks of moderate conservatism, now shifted to the Left or
constitutional opposition.
Meanwhile, the Venetian question was becoming more and
more acute. Every Italian felt the presence of the Austrians in
the lagoons as a national humiliation, and between
1859 and 1866 countless plots were hatched for their
expulsion. But, in spite of the sympathy of the king,
the attempt to raise armed bands in Venetia had no success, and
it became dear that the foreigner could only be driven from the
peninsula by regular war. To wage this alone Italy was still too
weak, and it was necessary to look round for an ally. Napoleon
1 The counterblast of Pius IX. to this convention was the encyclical
Quanta Curaoi Dec 8, 1864, followed by the famous SyUabus.
was sympathetic; he desired to see the Austrians expelled, and
the Syllabus of Pius IX., which had stirred up the more aggressive
elements among the French clergy against his government, had
brought him once more into harmony with the views of Victor
Emmanuel; but he dared not brave French public opinion by
another war with Austria, nor did Italy desire an alliance
which would only have been bought at the price of further
cessions. There remained Prussia, which, now that the Danish
campaign of 1864 was over, was completing her prepara-
tions for the final struggle with Austria for the hegemony
of Germany; and Napoleon, who saw in the furthering of
Bismarck's plans the surest means of securing his own influence
in a divided Europe, willingly lent his aid in negotiating a Prusso-
Italian alliance. In the summer of 1865 Bismarck made formal
proposals to La Marmora; but the pourparlers were interrupted by
the conclusion of the convention of Gastcin (August 14), to which
Austria agreed partly under pressure of the Prusso-Italian entente.
To Italy the convention seemed like a betrayal; to /v«**>-
Napolcon it was a set-back which he tried to retrieve by ttmOma
suggesting to Austria the peaceful cession of Venetia to ^ffiS
the Italian kingdom, in order to prevent any danger of ^^
its alliance with Prussia. This proposal broke on the refusal of the
emperor Francis Joseph to cede Austrian territory except as the
result of a struggle; and Napoleon, won over by Bismarck at
the famous interview at Biarritz, once more took up the idea of
a Prusso-Italian offensive and defensive alliance. This was
actually concluded on the 8th of April 1866. Its terms, dictated
by a natural suspicion on the part of the Italian government,
stipulated that it should only become effective in the event of
Prussia declaring war on Austria within three months. Peace
was not to be concluded until Italy should have received Venetia,
and Prussia an equivalent territory in Germany.
The outbreak of war was postponed by further diplomatic
complications. On the 12th of June Napoleon, whose policy
throughout had been obscure and contradictory, signed a secret
treaty with Austria, under which Venice was to be handed over
to him, to be given to Italy in the event of her making a separate
peace. La Marmora, however, who believed himself bound in
honour to Prussia, refused to enter into a separate arrangement.
On the x6th the Prussians began hostilities, and on the 20th
Italy declared war.
Victor Emmanuel took the supreme command of the Italian
army, and La Marmora resigned the premiership (which was
assumed by Ricasoli), to become chief of the staff.
La Marmora had three army corps (130,000 men)
under his immediate command, to operate on the
Mincio, while ChUdini with 80,000 men was to operate on the
Po. The Austrian southern army consisting of 95,000 men was
commanded by the archduke Albert, with General von John
as chief of the staff. On the 23rd of June La Marmora crossed
the Mincio, and on the 24th a battle was fought at Custozza,
under circumstances highly disadvantageous to the Italians,
which after a stubborn contest ended in a crushing Austrian
victory. Bad generalship, bad Organization and the jealousy
between La Marmora and Delia Rocca were responsible for this,
defeat. Custozza might have been afterwards retrieved, for
the Italians had plenty of fresh troops besides Cialdini's army;
but nothing was done, as both the king and La Marmora believed
the situation to be much worse than it actually was. On the
3rd of July the Prussians completely defeated th« m-u^m!
Austrians at Koniggrita, and on the 5th Austria jJJUJJ*
ceded Venetia to Napoleon, accepting his mediation jrfes.
in favour of peace. The Italian iron-dad fleet com-
manded by the incapable Persano, after wasting much time at
Taranto and Ancona, made an unsuccessful attack on the
Dalmatian island of Lissa on the 18th of July, and on the aoth
was completely defeated by the Austrian squadron, consisting
of wooden ships, but commanded by the capable Admiral
Tegcthoff.
On the 22nd Prussia, without consulting Italy, made an armis-
tice with Austria, while Italy obtained an eight days' truce on
condition of evacuating the Trentino, which had almost entirely
6o
i
UP.
vrry
fallen into the hands of Garibaldi and his volunteers. Ricasoli
wished to go on with the war, rather than accept Venetia as a
gift from France, but the king and La Marmora saw that
peace must be made, as the whole Austrian army of 350,000
men was now free to fall on Italy. An armistice was accord-
ingly signed at Cormons on the 12th of August, Austria
handed Venetia over to General Leboeuf, representing
V *!2 Napoleon, and on the 3rd of October peace between
louir. Austria and Italy was concluded at Vienna. On the
19th Leboeuf handed Venetia over to the Venetian
representatives, and at the plebiscite held on the 21st and 22nd,
647,246 votes were returned in favour of union with Italy, only
69 against it. When this result was announced to the king by
a deputation from Venice he said: " This is the finest day of
my life, Italy is made, but it is not complete." Rome was
still wanting.
Custozza and Lissa were not Italy's only misfortunes in 1866.
There had been considerable discontent in Sicily, where the
government had made itself unpopular. The pricst-
JfJT* te hood and the remnants of the Bourbon party fomented
I86&* an agitation, which in September culminated in an
attack on Palermo by 3000 armed insurgents, and in
similar outbreaks elsewhere. The revolt was put down owing
to the energy of the mayor of Palermo, Marquis A. Di Rudini,
and the arrival of reinforcements. The Ricasoli cabinet fell
over the law against the religious houses, and was succeeded
by that of Rattazzi, who with the support of the Left
was apparently more fortunate. The French regular
troops were withdrawn from Rome in December 1866,
but the pontifical forces were largely recruited in France and
commanded by officers of the imperial army, and service under
the pope was considered by the French war office as equivalent
to service in France. This was a violation of the letter as well
as of the spirit of the September convention, and a stronger
and more straightforward statesman than Rattazzi would have
declared Italy absolved from its provisions. Mazzini now wanted
to promote an insurrection in Roman territory, whereas Garibaldi
advocated an invasion from without. He delivered a scries
of violent speeches against the papacy, and made open prepara-
tions for a raid, which were not interfered with by the govern-
ment; but on the 23rd of September 1867 Rattazzi had him
suddenly arrested and confined to Caprera. In spite of the
vigilance of the warships he escaped on the 14th of
^j^f * October and landed in Tuscany. Armed bands had
1,^ already entered papal territory, but achieved nothing
in particular. Their presence, however, was a sufficient
oro» for Napoleon, under pressure of the clerical party, to
scad another expedition to Rome (26th of October). Rattazzi,
a body of troops to enter papal territory with no
definite object, now resigned, and was succeeded by
Menabrea. Garibaldi joined the bands on the 23rd,
bat his ill-armed and ill-disciplined force was very
ienar to his volunteers of '49, '6o and '66. On the 24th he
*ftand Monte Rotondo, but did not enter Rome as the expected
l uiwmiwa bad not broken out. On the 29th a French force,
wdn «*. FaiBy, arrived, and on the 3rd of November a battle
^^ rf took place at Mentana between 4000 or 5000 rcd-
Mn *■"*** *od a somewhat superior force of French and
Wmtyk 1I1 The Garibaldians, mowed down by the
sn Tiwk dmaepU rifles, fought until their last cartridges
wnofe«aea.aml retreated the next day towards the Italian
fcxao kx*K loo prisoners.
T)t jli» «i Ueauna caused considerable excitement through-
«* S*f*,»ad \fe Roman question entered on an acute stage
N»*w«d» »Cgsiea fo tavourite expedient of a congress,
W \J« ptoposaV ta^ fo^ ^^ t0 Great Britain's refusal
^jm?** 1 ** *** *•**. *he ?Kncb premier, declared in
the U»irt*, <^ d tfcttjrt*, 1&7) that France could never
P«tov v^\\^ ra l0 ^^ lm ^ allilU( j e of France
•"JOJ^^m^myAV^^uiUaly which had begun
A* bl tZ*JT** *** W**k ** «* »low to make use
ITALY P™ EISOUGIMENTO
sides with France against Germany in the struggle between the
two powers which he saw to be inevitable. At the same time
Napoleon was making overtures both to Austria and to Italy,
overtures which were favourably received. Victor Emmanuel
was sincerely anxious to assist Napoleon, for in spite of Nice
and Savoy and Mentana he felt a chivalrous desire to hdp the
man who had fought for Italy. But with the French at Civita-
vecchia (they had left Rome very soon after Mentana) a war for
France was not to be thought of, and Napoleon would not promise
more than the literal observance of the September convention.
Austria would not join France unless Italy did the same, and
she realized that that was impossible unless Napoleon gave way
about Rome. Consequently the negotiations were suspended.
A scandal concerning the tobacco monopoly led to
the fall of Menabrea, who was succeeded in December
1869 by Giovanni Lanza, with Visconti-Venosta at
the foreign office and Q. Sella as finance minister. The latter
introduced a sounder financial policy, which was maintained
until the fall of the Right in 1876. Mazzini, now openly hostile
to the monarchy, was seized with a perfect monomania for in-
surrections, and promoted various small risings, the only effect
of which was to show how completely his influence was gone.
In December 1869 the XXI. oecumenical council began its
sittings in Rome, and on the 18th of July 1870 proclaimed the
infallibility of the pope (see Vatican Council). Two days
previously Napoleon had declared war on Prussia, and immedi-
ately afterwards ho withdrew his troops from Civitavecchia;
but he persuaded Lanza to promise to abide by the September
convention, and it was not until after Worth and Gravelotte
that he offered to give Italy a free hand to occupy Rome. Then
it was too late; Victor Emmanuel asked Thiers if he could
give his word of honour that with 100,000 Italian troops France
could, be saved, but Thiers remained silent. Austria replied
like Italy: " It is too late." On the 9th of August Italy made
a declaration of neutrality, and three weeks later Visconti-
Venosta informed the powers that Italy was about to occupy
Rome. On the 3rd of September the news of Sedan reached
Florence, and with the fall of Napoleon's empire the September
convention ceased to have any value. The powers having
engaged to abstain from intervention in Italian affairs, Victor
Emmanuel addressed a letter to Pius IX. asking him in the name
of religion and peace to accept Italian protection instead of the
temporal power, to which the pope replied that he r-f—
would only yield to force. On the nth of September ooapa-
General Cadorna at the head of 60,000 men entered t k ^J^
papal territory. The garrison of Civitavecchia sur- *•«••
rendered to Bixio, but the 10,000 men in Rome, mostly French,
Belgians, Swiss and Bavarians, under Kanzler, were ready to
fight. Cardinal Antonelli would have come to terms, but the
pope decided on making a sufficient show of resistance to prove
that he was yielding to force. On the 20th the Italians began
the attack, and General Maze" de la Roche's division having
effected a breach in the Porta Pia, the pope ordered the garrison
to cease fire and the Italians poured into the Eternal City followed
by thousands of Roman exiles. By noon the whole city on the
left of the Tiber was occupied and the garrison laid down their
arms; the next day, at the pope's request, the Leonine City
on the right bank was also occupied. It had been intended to
leave that part of Rome to the pope, but by the earnest desire
of the inhabitants it too was included in the Italian kingdom.
At the plebiscite there were 133,681 votes for union and 1507
against k. In Jury 1872 King Victor Emmanuel made his
solemn entry into Rome, which was then declared the capital
of Italy. Thus, after a struggle of more than half a century, in
spite of apparently insuperable obstacles, the liberation and
the unity of Italy were accomplished.
Bibliography.— A vast amount of material on the Risorgimento
has been published both in Italy and abroad as well as numerous
works of a literary and critical nature. The most detailed Italian
history of the period is Carlo Tivaroni's Storia critica det Ri%t*n-
mento Italian* in 9 vols. (Turin. 1886-18971. based on a diligent study
of the original authorities and containing a Urge amount ol inform*-
' tion; the author is a Mazrinian. which fact should be taken into
«p»-t9«a
ITALY
6>
with . is
F.Bc b-
1881V 3-
l«8 7 ) a)
uevc »,,
Paris, be
rnentJ 'ia
(8 vol k.
See a >'s
G/*«/ nt
for th ia
d'ltal vn
ef Ifa ys
aeeun ss,
1872- //
Jbgiw or
Englk «/
Italy d,
for accuracy, fairness and synthesis, as well as for charm of style,
one of the very best books on the subject in any language: .Bolton
King's History of Italian Unity (2 vols., London, 1890) is bulkier and
less satisfactory, but contains a useful bibliography. A succinct
account of the chief events of the period will be found in Sir Spencer
Walpote's History of Twenty-Five Years (London, 19x14). See also
the Cambrid ge M odern History, vols. x. a " ' "* * %
where full bibliographies will be found.
the Cambridg Modern History, vols. x. and xi. (Cambridge, IQ07, &c.),
F. Hjstoey, 1870-1902
The downfall of the temporal power was hailed throughout
Italy with unbounded enthusiasm. Abroad, Catholic countries
If-Trr at first received the tidings with resignation, and
taw Protestant countries with joy. In France, where the
g»»_ f* Government of National Defence had replaced the
*•"** Empire, Cremieux, as president of the government
delegation at Tours, hastened to offer his congratulations to
Italy. The occupation of Rome caused no surprise to the
French government, which had been forewarned on nth
September of the Italian intentions. On that occasion Jules
Favre had recognised the September convention to be dead, and,
while refusing explicitly to denounce it, had admitted that unless
Italy went to Rome the city would become a prey to dangerous
agitators. At the same time he made it clear that Italy would
occupy Rome upon her own responsibility. Agreeably surprised
by this attitude on the part of France, Visconti-Vcnosta lost
no time in conveying officially the thanks of Italy to the French
government. He doubtless foresaw that the language of Favre
and Cremieux would not be endorsed by the French Clericals.
Prussia, while satisfied at the fall of the temporal power, seemed
to fear lest Italy might recompense the absence of French opposi-
tion to the occupation of Rome by armed intervention in favour
of France. Bismarck, moreover, was indignant at the connivance
of the Italian government in the Garibaldian expedition to
Dijon, and was irritated by Visconti-Venosta's plea in the
Italian parliament for the integrity of French territory. The
course of events in France, however, soon calmed German
Apprehensions. The advent of Thiers, his attitude towards
the petition of French bishops on behalf of the pope, the recall
of Senard, the French minister at Florence — who had written to
congratulate Victor Emmanuel on the capture of Rome — and
the instructions given to his. successor, the comte de Choiseul,
to absent himself from Italy at the moment of the king's official
entry into the new capital (2nd July 1871), together with the
haste displayed in appointing a French ambassador to the Holy
See, rapidly cooled the cordiality of Franco-Italian relations, and
reassured Bismarck on the score of any dangerous intimacy
between the two governments.
The friendly attitude of France towards Italy during the
period immediately subsequent to the occupation of Rome
seemed to cow and to dishearten the Vatican. For
X/Wotfr a f ew wce j ca tjjg relations between the Curia and the
v^JLm. Italian authorities were marked by a conciliatory
spirit. The secretary-general of the Italian foreign
office, Baron Blanc, who had accompanied General Cadorna
to Rome, was received almost daily by Cardinal Antondli,
papal secretary of state, in order to settle innumerable questions
arising out of the Italian occupation. The royal commissioner
for finance, Giacomefli, had, aa a precautionary measure, seised
the pontifical treasury: but upon being informed by Cardinal
Antonelli that among the funds deposited in the treasury were
x, 000,000 crowns of Peter's Pence offered by ,the faithful to the
pope in person, the commissioner was authorized by the Italian
council of state not only to restore this sum, but also to indemnify
the Holy See for moneys expended for the service of the October
coupon of the pontifical debt, that debt having been taken over
by the Italian state. On the 20th of September Cardinal Antonelli
further apprised Baron Blanc that he was about to issue drafts
for the monthly payment of the 50,000 crowns inscribed in the
pontifical budget for the maintenance of the pope, the Sacred
College, the apostolic palaces and the papal guards. The
Italian treasury at once honoured all the papal drafts, and thus
contributed a first instalment of the 3,225,000 lire per annum
afterwards placed by Article 4 of the Law of Guarantees at the
disposal of the Holy See. Payments would have been regularly
continued had not pressure from the French Clerical party
coerced the Vatican into refusing any further instalment.
Once in possession of Rome, and guarantor to the Catholic
world of the spiritual independence of the pope, the Italian
government prepared juridically to regulate its
relations to the Holy See. A bill known as the Law of JJJjJ^*
Guarantees was therefore framed and laid before aatetu
parliament. The measure was an amalgam of Cavour's
scheme for a " free church in a free state," of Ricasoli's Free
Church Bill, rejected by parliament four years previously,
and of the proposals presented to Pius IX. by Count Ponxa di
San Martino in September 1870. After a debate lasting nearly
two months the Law of Guarantees was adopted in secret ballot
on the 21st of March 1871 by 185 votes against 106.
It consisted of two parts. The first, containing thirteen articles,
recognized (Articles 1 and 2) the person of the pontiff as sacred and
intangible, and while providing for free discussion of religious
questions, punished insults and outrages against the pope in the
same way as insults and outrages against the king. Royal honours
were attributed to the pope (Article 3), who was further guaranteed
the same precedence as that accorded to him by other Catholic
sovereigns, and the right to maintain his Noble and Swiss guards.
Article 4 allotted the pontiff an annuity of 3,225,000 lire (£129,000)
for the maintenance of the Sacred College, the sacred palaces, the
congregations, the Vatican chancery and the diplomatic service.
The sacred palaces, museums and libraries were, by Article 5.
exempted from all taxation, and the pope was assured perpetual
enjoyment of the Vatican and Lateran buildings and gardens, and of
the papal villa at Castel Gandolfo. Articles 6 and 7 forbade access
of any Italian official or agent to the above-mentioned palaces or to
any eventual conclave or oecumenical council without special author-
ization from the pope, conclave or council. Article 8 prohibited the
seizure or examination of any ecclesiastical papers, documents,
books or registers of purely spiritual character. Article 9 guaranteed
to the pope full freedom for the exercise of his spiritual ministry, and
provided for the publication of pontifical announcements on the
doors of the Roman churches and basilicas. Article 10 extended
immunity to ecclesiastics employed by the Holy See, and bestowed
upon foreign ecclesias t ics in Rome the personal rights of Italian
citizens. By Article 11, diplomatists accredited to the Holy See,
and papal diplomatists while in Italy, were placed on the same footing
as diplomatists accredited to the Quirinal. Article 12 provided for
the transmission free of cost in Italy of all papal telegrams and
correspondence both with bishops and foreign governments, and
sanctioned the establishment, at the expense of the Italian 6tate,
of a papal telegraph office served by papal officials in communication
with the Italian postal and telegraph system. Article 13 exempted
all ecclesiastical seminaries, academies, colleges and schools for the
education of priests in the city of Rome from all interference en
the part of the Italian government.
This portion of the law, designed to reassure foreign Catholics,
met with little opposition; but the second portion, regulating the
relations between state and church in Italy, was sharply criticized
by deputies who, like Sella, recognized the ideal of a " free church in
a free state " to be an impracticable dream. The second division of
the law abolished (Article 14) all restrictions upon the right of
meeting of members <* " * ~
relinquished it" --*—
pointment of i
kingdom. Bishops were further dispensed from swearing fealty to
the xing, though, except in Rome and suburbs, the choice of bishops
was limited to ecclesiastics of Italian nationality. Article 16
abolished the need for royal exequatur and placet for ecclesiasticftl
publications, but subordinated the enjoyment of temporalities by
6*
ITALY
|tf»*i*t
biihppe and priests to the concession of stmts caqvahir and plaat.
Article 17 maintained the independence of the ecclesiastical juris-
diction in spiritual and disciplinary matters, but reserved for the
state the exclusive right to carry out coercive measures.
On the lath of July 1871, Articles 268, 360 and 270 of the
Italian Penal Code were so modified as to make ecclesiastics
liable to imprisonment for periods varying from six months to
five years, and to fines from 1000 to 3000 lire, for spoken or
written attacks against the laws of the state, or for the fomenta-
tion of disorder. An encyclical of Pins IX. to the bishops of the
Catholic Church on the 15th of May 1871 repudiated the Law of
Guarantees, and summoned Catholic princes to co-operate in
restoring the temporal power. Practically, therefore, the law
has remained a one-sided enactment, by which Italy considers
herself bound, and of which she has always observed the spirit,
even though the exigencies of self-defence may have led in some
minor respects to non-observance of the letter. The annuity
payable to the pope has, for instance, been made subject to
quinquennial prescription, so that in the event of tardy recogni-
tion of the law the Vatican could at no time claim payment of
more than five years' annuity with interest.
For a few months after the occupation of Rome pressing
questions incidental to a new change of capital and to the
administration of a new domain distracted public attention from
the real condition of Italian affairs. The rise of the Tiber and
the flooding of Rome in December 1870 (tactfully used by
Victor Emmanuel as an opportunity for a first visit to the new
capital) illustrated the imperative necessity of reorganizing the
drainage of the city and of constructing the Tiber embankment.
In spite of pressure from the French government, which desired
Italy to ?w<mV»'" Florence as the political and to regard Rome
merely as the moral capital of the realm, the government offices
and both legislative chambers were transferred in 1871 to the
Eternal City. Early in the year the crown prince Humbert with
the Princess Margherita took up their residence in the Quirinal
Palace, which, in view of the Vatican refusal to deliver up the
keys, had to be opened by force. Eight monasteries were
expropriated to make room for the chief state departments,
pending the construction of more suitable edifices. The growth
of Clerical influence in France engendered a belief that Italy
would soon have to defend with the sword her newly-won unity,
while the tremendous lesson of the Franco-Prussian War con-
vinced the military authorities of the need for thorough military
reform. General Ricotti Magnani, minister of war, therefore
framed an Army Reform Bill designed to bring the Italian army
as nearly as possible up to the Prussian standard. Sella, minister
of finance, notwithstanding the sorry plight of the Italian
exchequer, readily granted the means for the reform. "We
must arm," he said, "since we have overturned the papal
throne," and he pointed to France as the quarter from which
attack was most likely to come.
Though perhaps less desperate than during the previous decade,
the condition of Italian finance was precarious indeed. With
p M taxation screwed up to breaking point on personal and
real estate, on all forms of commercial and industrial
activity, and on salt, flour and other necessaries of life; with a
deficit of £8,500,000 for trje current year, and the prospect of a
further aggregate deficit of £12,000,000 during the next quin-
quennium, Sella's heroic struggle against national bankruptcy
was still far from a successful termination. He chiefly had
borne the brunt and won the laurels of the unprecedented fight
against deficit in which Italy had been involved since 1862.
As finance minister In the RattaMJ cabinet of that year he had
been confronted with a public debt of nearly £120,000,000, and
with an immediate deficit of nearly £18,000,000. In 1864, as
minister in the La Marmora cabinet, he had again to face an
excess of expenditure over income amounting to more than
£14,600,000. By the seizure and sale of Church lands, by the
sale of state railways, by " economy to the bone" and on one
supreme occasion by an appeal to taxpayers to advance a year's
quota of the land-tax, he had met the most pressing engagements
of that troublous period. The king was persuaded to forgo
one-fifth of his dvfl list, ministers and the higher dvfl servants
were required to relinquish a portion of their meagre s a l a ries ,
but, in spite of all, Sella had found himself in 1865 compelled
to propose the most hated of fiscal burdens— a grist tax on
cereals. This tax (macitutio) had long been known in Italy.
Vexatious methods of assessment and collection had made it so
unpopular that the Italian government in 1859-1860 had thought
it expedient to abolish it throughout the realm. Sella hoped
by the application of a mechanical meter both to obviate the
odium attaching to former methods of collection and to avoid the
maintenance of an army of inspectors and tax-gatherers, whose
stipends had formerly eaten up most of the proceeds of the
impost. Before proposing the reintroduction of the tax, SeOa
and his friend Ferrara improved and made exhaustive experi-
ments with the meter. The result of their efforts was laid before
parliament in one of the most monumental and most painstaking
preambles ever prefixed to a bill. Sella, nevertheless, fell before
the storm of . opposition which his scheme aroused. Scialoja,
who succeeded him, was obliged to adopt a similar proposal,
but parliament again proved refractory. Ferrara, successor of
Sdaloja, met a like fate; but Count Cambray-Digny, finance
minister in the Menabrea cabinet of 1868-1869, driven to find
means to cover a deficit aggravated by the interest on the
Venetian debt, succeeded, .with Sella's help, in forcing a Grist
Tax Bill through parliament, though in a form of which Sella
could not entirely approve. When, on the 1st of January i860,
the new tax came into force, nearly half the flour-mills in Italy
ceased work. In many districts the government was obliged
to open mills on its own account. Inspectors and tax-gatherers
did their work under police protection, and in several parts of
the country riots had to be suppressed manu miiitari. At first
the net revenue from the impost was less than £1,100,000; but
under Sella's firm administration (1 869-1 873), and in consequence
of improvements gradually introduced by him, the net return
ultimately exceeded £3,200,000. The parliamentary opposition
to the impost, which the Left denounced as " the tax on hunger,**
was largely factitious. Few, except the open partisans of national
bankruptcy, doubted its necessity; yet so. strong was the current
of feeling worked up for party purposes by opponents of the
measure, that Sella's achievement in having by its means saved
the financial situation of Italy deserves to rank among the most
noteworthy performances of modern parliamentary statesman-
ship.
Under the stress of the appalling financial conditions
represented by chronic deficit, crushing taxation, the heavy
expenditure necessary for the consolidation of the kingdom, the
reform of the army and the interest on the pontifical debt, Sella,
on the nth of December 1871, exposed to parliament the
financial situation in all its nakedness. He recognized that
considerable improvement had already taken place. Revenue
from taxation had risen in a decade from ^000,000 to
£20,200,000; profit on state monopolies had increased from
£7,000,000 to £9400,000; exports had grown to exceed imports;
income from the working of telegraphs had tripled itself; rail-
ways had been extended from 2200 to 6200 kilometres, and the
annual travelling public had augmented from 15,000,000 to
25,000,000 persons. The serious feature of the situation lay
less In the income than in the " intangible " expenditure, namely,
the vast sums required for interest on the various forms of public
debt and for pensions. Within ten years this category of outlay
had increased from £8,000,000 to £28,800,000. During the same
period the assumption of the Venetian and Roman debts, losses
on the issue of loans and the accumulation of annual deficits,
had caused public indebtedness to rise from £92,000,000 to
£328,000,000, no less than £100,000,000 of the latter sum having
been sacrificed in premiums "and commissions to bankers and
underwriters of loans. By economies and new taxes Sella
had reduced the deficit to less than £2,000,000 in 1871, but for
1872 he found himself confronted with a total expenditure of
£8,000,000 in excess of revenue. He therefore proposed to make
over the treasury service to the state banks, to increase the
forced currency, to raise the stamp and registration duties and
■B7»-l9ttJ
ITALY
63
im impose a new tax on textJe fabrics. An optional conversion
of sundry internal loans into consolidated stock at a lower rate of
interest was calculated to effect considerable saving. The battle
over these proposals was long and fierce. But for the tactics of
Rattazzi, leader of the Left, who, by basing bis opposition on
party considerations, impeded the secession of Minghetti and a
part of the Right from the ministerial majority, Sella would have
been defeated. On the 23rd of March 1872, however, he suc-
ceeded in carrying his programme, which not only provided for
the pressing needs of the moment, but laid the foundation of the
much- needed equilibrium between expenditure and revenue.
In the spring of 1873 it became evident that the days of the
Lanza-Sella cabinet were numbered. Fear of the advent of a
Radical administration under Rattazzi alone prevented the
Minghettian Right from revolting against the government. The
Left, conscious of its strength, impatiently awaited the moment
of accession to power. Sella, the real head of the Lanza cabinet,
was worn out by four years' continuous work and disheartened
by the perfidious misrepresentation in which Italian politicians,
particularly those of the Left, have ever excelled. By sheer force
of will he compelled the Chamber early in 1873 to adopt some
minor financial reforms, but on the 29th of April found himself
in a minority on the question of a credit for a proposed state
arsenal at Taranto. Pressure from all sides of the House, how-
ever, induced the ministry to retain office until after the debate
on the application to Rome and the Papal States of the Religious
Orders Bill (originally passed in 1866) — a measure which, with
the help of Ricasoli, was carried at the end of May. While
leaving intact the general houses of the various confraternities
(except that of the Jesuits), the bill abolished the
JJJjJj** corporate personality of religious orders, handed over
Bta. their schools and hospitals to civil administrators,
placed their churches at the disposal of the secular
clergy, and provided pensions for nuns and monks, those who
had families being sent to reside with their relatives, and those
who by reason of age or bereavement had no home but their
monasteries being allowed to end their days in religious houses
specially set apart for the purpose. The proceeds of the sale of
the suppressed convents and monasteries were partly converted
into pensions for monks and nuns, and partly allotted to the
municipal charity boards which had undertaken the educational
and charitable functions formerly exercised by the religious
orders. To the pope was made over £16,000 per annum as a
contribution to the expense of maintaining in Rome represen-
tatives of foreign orders; the Sacred College, however, rejected
this endowment, and summoned all the suppressed confraternities
to reconstitute themselves under the ordinary Italian law of
association. A few days after the passage of the Religious Orders
Bill, the death of Rattazzi (5th June 1873) removed all probability
of the immediate advent of the Left. Sella, uncertain of the
loyalty of the Right, challenged a vote on the immediate dis-
cussion of further financial reforms, and on the 23rd of June was
overthrown by a coalition of the Left under Depretis with a
part of the Right under Minghetti and the Tuscan Centre under
CorrentL The administration which thus fdl was unquestionably
the* most important since the death of Cavotur. It had completed
national unity, transferred the capital to Rome, overcome the
chief obstacles to financial equilibrium, initiated military reform
and laid the foundation of the relations between state and church.
The succeeding Minghetti-Visconti-Venosta cabinet— which
held office from the 10th of July 1873 to the 1 8th of March 1876 —
M^m LK U continued in essential points the work of the preceding
administration. Minghetti's finance, though less dear-
sighted and less resolute than that of Sella, was on the whole,
prudent and beneficial. With the aid of Sella he concluded
conventions for the redemption of the chief Italian railways from
their French and Austrian proprietors. By dint of expedients be
gradually overcame the chronic deficit, and, owing to the normal
increase of revenue, ended his term of office with the announce-
ment of a surplus of some £7204000. The question whether this
surplus was real or only apparent has been much debated, but
there is no reason to doubt its substantial reality. It left out of
account & am of £1,006,000 for railway construction which was
covered by credit, but, on the other hand, took no note of
£360,000 expended in the redemption of debt Practically,
therefore, the Right, of which the Minghetti cabinet was the last
representative administration, left Italian finance with a surplus
of £80,000* Outside the all-important domain of finance, the
attention of Minghetti andhis colleagues was principally absorbed
by strife between church and state, army reform and railway
redemption. For some time after the occupation of Rome the
pope, in order to substantiate the pretence that his spiritual
freedom had been diminished, avoided the creation of cardinals
and the nomination of bishops. On the 22nd of December 1873,
however, he unexpectedly created twelve cardinals, and subse-
quently proceeded to nominate a number of bishops. Visconti*
Venosta, who had retained the portfolio for foreign affairs in the
Minghetti cabinet, at once drew the attention of the European
powers to this proof of the pope's spiritual freedom and of the
imaginary nature of his " imprisonment " in the Vatican. At
the same time he assured them that absolute liberty would be
guaranteed to the deliberations of a conclave. In relation to the
Church in Italy, Minghetti's policy was less perspicacious.
He let it be understood that the announcement of the appoint-
ment of bishops and the request for the royal exequatur might be
made to the government impersonally by the congregation of
bishops and regulars, by a municipal council or by any other
corporate body— a concession of which the bishops were quick to
take advantage, but which so irritated Kalian political opinion
that, in July 1875, the government was compelled to withdraw
the temporalities of ecclesiastics who had neglected to apply for
: the exequatur, and to evict sundry bishops who had taken posses-
sion of their palaces without authorization from the state.
Parliamentary pressure further obliged Bonghi, minister of
public instruction, to compel clerical seminaries either to forgo
the instruction of lay pupils or to conform to the laws of the
state in regard to inspection and examination, an ordinance
which gave rise to conflicts between ecclesiastical and lay
authorities, and led to the forcible dissolution of the Mantua
seminary and to the suppression of the Catholic university in
Rome.
More noteworthy than its management of internal affairs
were the efforts of the Minghetti cabinet to strengthen and.
consolidate national defence, AppaHed by the weak-
ness, or rather the non-existence, of the navy, Admiral ^^j^^
Saint-Bon, with his coadjutor Signor Brin, addressed nMruu
himself earnestly to the task of recreating the fleet,
which had never recovered from the effects of the disaster of
Lfesa, During his three years of office he laid the foundation
upon which Brin was afterwards to build up a new Italian navy.
Simultaneously General Ricotti Magnani matured the army
reform scheme which he had elaborated under the preceding
administration. His bill, adopted by parliament on the 7th of
June 187 5, still forms the ground plan of the Italian army.
It was fortunate for Italy that during the whole period 1860-
1876 the direction of her foreign policy remained in the experi-
enced hands of Visconti-Venosta, a statesman whose PfHgm
trustworthiness, dignity and moderation even political j»*y
opponents have been compelled to recognize £>iplo- JjJjT **•
malic records fail to substantiate the accusations of
lack of initiative and instability of political criterion currently
brought against him by contemporaries. As foreign minister of
a young state which had attained unity in defiance of the most
formidable religious organization in the world and in opposition
to the traditional policy of France, it could but be Viscontl-
Venosta's aim to uphold the dignity of his country while convinc-
ing European diplomacy that United Italy was an element of
order and progress, and that the spiritual independence of the
Roman pontiff had suffered no diminution. Prudence, moreover,
counselled avoidance of all action likely to serve the predominant
anti-Italian party in France as a pretext for violent intervention
in favour of the pope. On the occasion of the Metrical Congress,
which met in Paris in 187a, he, however, successfully protested
against the recognition of the Vatican delegate, Father Secchi,
rtV
ict
tat
C
Ua
Ua\
fiv
WT
O
c
h
h
P
c- «*»-
^.^ »# SMg**
. . , v ;a.»?ii for
\^»*y wtotions
. \, v,. * x*7^ both
v ■ . ;*i mtuaitr to
^. - ^ -N*^* ftom lbcir
„ * .». «* ***«d Victor
\"vwM, **l tbo Italian
,. .« ^tbt acceptance
v «^w**i by a further
" v v *A*M*I« of a visit
- **' . „.*»» ,V lui«o occupation
" ,. ■- tM *\" *.>************ and con-
* ..**■*- H ^ysw* with the German
v .*» **" '" , V v* *M»ed their sovereign
^ v .. - * J *»>*\i*»«U German invita-
K «.••«-***! au* *» *bt *7th to the a*nd
N ^ , x~** *** ^ tfct tind to the a6th of
\ " — v * * ^m* ^1 accorded in both
^ K * , k '*** ^iw^ the contemporaneous
v ^^17 ^o«» pamphlet, Mere Light on
~ * ■ * ' "*~lli \\\*i***n» between the Italian
1 -^* ^^^^eatiwlyconndential. Visconti-
- v v ' ~ x< '^C^vrT * *■*** w*** 1 * 4 thc chancellor's
. ^ * Kv ^ w ^ Guarantees and to engage in an
^ ^ *"** w^iheroyal journey contributed
. v. * * - \ . r^J vi ^ial relations between Italy
sV s . k h* • . \ TT^, ^ich were further strengthened
v ^ r^^ »>*«<*!» J^P lo Victor E" ™"' 1
,W H V>-l I
* ^Tawl by that of the German emperor
v^!V>T*Uwy**r. Meanwhile Thiers had
- v ~* : tti^ nSZ. ** ^ ttd * dc, ? dcd
* " vU "*1 ****** lu*« rebtioni by recaUing from
-.w t ^»--« £«J£* Orf**u». M which since i8 7 ohadbeen
v ^^^1^, ihTSiposal of the pope m case he
^"Tl^t^K^ ^ToreignpoUcyofVisconU.
t * a* » W m.v» to have reinforced the international position
YV\\ *.ttv* **«»» «l dignity, and without the vacillation
^ J ^t *«>wU»v.. wKkh was to characterfxe the ensuing
. i.i**** »-»! *>■** *l * be I eft»
*" ik ui* w iW K^M m tbt t«th of March 1876 was an event
* -*wl i*vfcM*»**tY ••hI *n many respects adversely to affect
*vT v*w *J h*^*» b*rt vvr>-. Except at rare and not auspicious
„,*av iW KvgM bad beM office from 1840 to 1876. Its
" J! «*• *»*uied m the popular mind with severe tdmmistra-
" a wm^v to tbt> democratic elements represented by
". **ia 0«f< IM^^» •«<* Bertani; ruthless imposition
*" " >****• w i»m w order to meet the financial engagements
"^, ^* h*r^f b¥ tbt vicissitudes of her Risorgimento;
^L vv^xmv* fw Piedmontcse, Lombards and Tuscans,
"" «»> J ^ uf i f fcatlon, not always scrupulous In Its choice
^ k wtctittve power and the most important
DeprrttB
__ , fcM» of the state for the imsmUrU, or date
""^ .** « *s own adherents. For years the men ol the
''" ^ wtK *gi to inoculate the electorate with suspicion ol
^..^ *» ssethods and with hatred of the imposts which
v „ p.^viiaekss knew to be indispensable to sound finance*
^•v w the grist tax especially; the agitators of the Left
^ ^K«d their party in a radically lake position. Moreover,
v xMt«ption of the railways by the state — contracts for which
^ »««fi signed by Sella in 187 s on behalf of the Minghetti
,*}tMt with Rothschild at Basel and with the Austrian govern-
tv'tt at Vienna— had been fiercely opposed by the Left, although
t» members were for the most part convinced ol the utility
vl the operation. When, at the beginning of March 1876, these
contracts were submitted to parliament, a group ol Tuscan
deputies, under Ccsare Correnti, joined the opposition, and on
the 18th of March took advantage of a chance motion concerning
the date of discussion of an interpellation on the grist tax to
place the Minghetti cabinet in a minority. Depretis, ex-pro-
dictator of Sicily, and successor of Rattazziin the leadership
of the Left, was entrusted by the king with the formation ol a
Liberal ministry. Besides the premiership, Depretis assumed the
portfolio ol finance; Nicotera, an ex-Caribaldian of
somewhat tarnished reputation, but a man of energetic
and conservative temperament^ was placed at the
ministry of the interior; public works were entrusted
to ZanardeUi, a Radical doctrinaire of considerable juridical
attainments; General Mezzacapb and Signor Brin replaced
General Ricotti Magnaniand Admiral Saint-Bon at the war office
and ministry of marine; while to Mancini and Coppino, pro-
minent members of the Left, were allotted the portfolios of jus-
tice and public instruction. Great difficulty was experienced in
finding a foreign minister willing to challenge comparison with
Visconti-Venosta. Several diplomatists in active service were
approached, but, partly on account of their refusal, and partly
from the desire of the Left, to avoid giving so important a post
to a diplomatist bound by ties of friendship or of interest to the
Right, the choice fell upon Melegari, Italian minister at Bern.
The new ministers had long since made monarchical p rof es si o ns
of faith, but, up to the moment of taking office, were nevertheless
considered to be tinged with an almost revolutionary hue. The
king alone appeared to feel no misgiving. His shrewd sense of
political expediency and his loyalty to constitutional principles
saved him from the error of obstructing the advent and driving
into an anti-dynastic attitude politicians who had succeeded
in winning popular favour. Indeed, the patriotism and loyalty
of the new ministers were above suspicion. Danger lay rather
in entrusting men schooled in political conspiracy and in un-
scrupulous parliamentary opposition with the government of a
young state still beset by enemies at home and abroad. As an
opposition party the Left had lived upon the facile credit of
political promises, but had no well-considered programme nor
other discipline nor unity of purpose than that born ol the
common eagerness of its leaders for office and their common
hostility to the Right. Neither Depretis, Nicotera, Crispi,
Cairoli nor ZanardeUi was disposed permanently to recognise
the superiority of any one chief. The dissensions which broke
out among them within a few months of the accession of their
party to power never afterwards disappeared, except at rare
moments when it became necessary to unite in preventing the
return of the Conservatives. Considerations such as these could
not be expected to appeal to the nation at large, which hailed
the advent of the Left as thc dawn of an era of unlimited popular
sovereignty, diminished administrative pressure, reduction of
taxation and general prosperity. The programme of Depretis
corresponded only in part to these expectations. Its chief
points were extension of the franchise, incompatibility of a
parliamentary mandate with an official position, strict jy^
enforcement of the rights of the State in regard to the .»■■■■
Church, protection of freedom of conscience, mainten- •#<*•
ance of the military and naval policy inaugurated by the *****
Conservatives, acceptance of the railway redemption contracts,
consolidation of the financial equilibrium, aboUtion of the forced
ii|fr-*9<*J
ITA£Y
65
currency, and, eventually, fiscal reform. The long-promised
abolition of the grot tax was not explicitly mentioned, opposition
to the railway redemption contracts was transformed into
approval, and the vaunted reduction of taxation replaced by
lip-service to the Conservative deity of financial equilibrium.
The railway redemption contracts were in fact immediately
voted by parliament, with a clause pledging the government
to legislate in favour of farming out the railways to private
Nicotera, minister of the interior, began his administration
of hone affairs by a sweeping change in the ptrsonnd of the
prefects, sub-preiects and public prosecutors, but found himself
obliged to incur the wrath of his supporters by prohibiting
Radical meetings likely 10 endanger public order, and by enunciat-
ing administrative principles which would have befitted an
inveterate Conservative, in regard to the Church, he instructed
the prefects strictly to prevent infraction of the law against
religious orders. At the same time the cabinet, as a whole,
brought in a Clerical Abuses Bill, threatening with severe
punishment priests guilty of disturbiag the peace of families,
of opposing the laws of the stale, or of fomenting disorder.
Depretis, for his part, was compelled to declare impracticable
the immediate abolition of the grist lax, and to frame a bill for
the increase of revenue, acts which caused the secession of some
sixty Radicals and Republicans from the ministerial majority,
and gave the signal for an agitation against the premier similar
to that which he himself bad formerly undertaken against the
Right. The first general election under the Left (November
1876) had yielded the cabinet the overwhelming majority of
*ji Ministerialists against 87 Conservatives, but the very size
of the majority rendered it unmanageable. The Clerical Abuses
Bill provoked further dissensions: Nicotera was severely
affected by revelations concerning his political past; Zanardelli
re/used to sanction the construction of a railway in Calabria
in which Nicotera was interested; and Depretis saw fit to com-
pensate the supporters of his bill for the increase of revenue
by decorating at one stroke sixty ministerial deputies with the
Order of the Crown of Italy. A further derogation from the
ideal of democratic austerity was committed by adding £80,000
per annum to the kings civil list ( 14th May 1877) and by burden-
ing the state exchequer with royal household pensions amounting
to £tofioo a year. The civil list, which the law of the 10th of
August 1 86a had fixed at £650,000 a year, but which had been
voluntarily reduced by the king to £530,000 in 1864* and to
£400.000 in 1867, was thus raised to £570,000 a year. Almost
the only respect in which the Left could boost a decided im-
provement over the administration of the Right was the energy
displayed by Nicotera in combating brigandage and the mafia
in Calabria and Sicily. Successes achieved in those provinces
failed, however, to save Nicotera from the wrath of the Chamber,
and on the 14th of December 187-4 a cabinet crisis arose over a
question concerning the secrecy of telegraphic correspondence.
Depretis thereupon reconstructed his administration, excluding
Nicotera, Melegari and Zanardelli, placing Crispi at the home
office, entrusting Magliaoi with finance, and himself assuming
the direction of foreign affairs.
In regard to foreign affairs, the dlbut of the Left as a governing
party was scarcely more satisfactory than its borne policy.
Since the war of 1866 the Left had advocated an Italo-
2jf*^ Prussian alliance in opposition to the Francophil
ttmA^iu tendencies of the Right. On more than one occasion
Bismarck had maintained direct relations with the
chiefs of the Left, and had in 1870 worked to prevent a Franco-
Italian alliance by encouraging the " party of action " to press
for the occupation of Rome. Besides, the Left stood for anti-
clericalism and for the retention by the Slate of means of coercing
the Church, in opposition to the men of the Right, who, with
the exception of Sella, favoured Cavour's ideal of " a free Church
in a free Stale," and the consequent abandonment of state
control over ecclesiastical government. Upon the outbreak of
the Prussian Kutturkampf the Left had pressed the Right to
introduce an Italian counterpart to the Prussian May laws,
especially as the attitude of Thiers and the hostility of the
French Clericals obviated the need for sparing French sus-
ceptibilities. Visconti-Venosta and Minghetti, partly from
aversion to a Jacobin policy, and partly from a conviction that
Bismarck sooner or later would undertake his Cong nach Canossa,
regardless of any tacit engagement he might have assumed
towards Italy, bad wisely declined to be drawn into any infraction
of the Law of Guarantees. It was, however, expected that the
chiefs of the Left, upon attaining office, would turn resolutely
towards Prussia in search of a guarantee against the Clerical
menace embodied in the regime of Marshal Macmahon. On the
contrary, Depretis and Melegari, both of whom were imbued
with French Liberal doctrines, adopted towards the Republic
an attitude so deferential as to arouse suspicion in Vienna and
Berlin. Depretis recalled Nigra from Paris and replaced him by
General Cialdini, whose ardent plea for Italian intervention
jn favour of France in 1870, and whose comradeship with Marshal
Macmahon in 1850, would, it was supposed, render him persona
gratiaima to the .French government. This calculation was
falsified by events. Incensed by the elevation to the rank of
embassies of the Italian legation in Paris and the French legation
to the Quirinal, and by the introduction of the Italian bill
against clerical abuses, the French Clerical party not only attacked
Italy and her representative, General Cialdini, in the Chamber
of Deputies, but promoted a monster petition against the Italian
bill. Even the coup d'ilal of the 16th of May 1877 (when
Macmahon dismissed the Jules Simon cabinet for opposing the
Clerical petition) hardly availed to change the attitude of
Depretis. As a precaution against an eventual French attempt
to restore the temporal power, orders were hurriedly given to
complete the defences of Rome, but in other respects the Italian
government maintained its subservient attitude. Yet at that
moment the adoption of a clear line of policy, in accord with
the centra] powers, might have saved Italy from the loss of
prestige entailed by her bearing in regard to the Russo-Turkish
War and the Austrian acquisition of Bosnia, and might have
prevented the disappointment subsequently occasioned by the
outcome of the {Congress of Berlin. In the hope of inducing
the European powers to " compensate" Italy for the increase
of Austrian influence on the Adriatic, Crispi undertook in the
autumn of 1877, with the approval of the king, and in spite of
the half-disguised opposition of Depretis, a semi-official mission
to Paris, Berlin, London and Vienna. The mission appears
not to have been an unqualified success, though Crispi afterwards
affirmed in the Chamber (4U1 March 1886) that Depretis might in
1877 " have harnessed fortune to the Italian chariot." Depretis,
anxious only to avoid " a policy of adventure/' let slip whatever
opportunity may have presented itself, and neglected even to
deal energetically with the impotent but mischievous Italian
agitation for a " rectification " of the llalo-Austrian frontier.
He greeted the treaty of San Stefano (3rd March 1878) with
undisguised relief, and by the mouth of the king, congratulated
Italy (7th March 1878) on having maintained with the powers
friendly and cordial relations " free from suspicious precautions,"
and upon having secured for herself " that most precious of
alliances, the alliance of the future "—a phrase of which the
empty rhetoric was to be bitterly demonstrated by the Berlin
Congress and the French occupation of Tunisia.
The entry of Crispi into the Depretis cabinet (December 1877)
placed at the ministry of the interior a strong hand and sure eye
at a moment when they were about to become im- cHtpL
perativcly necessary. Crispi was the only man of truly
statesmanlike calibre in the ranks of the Left. Formerly a friend
and disciple of Maxsini, with whom he had broken 00 the quest ion
of the monarchical form of government which Crispi believed
indispensable to the unification of Italy, he had afterwards been
one of Garibaldi's most efficient coadjutors and an active member
of the " party of action." Passionate, not always scrupulous in
his choice and use of political weapons, intensely patriotic, loyal
with a loyalty based rather oc reason than sentiment, quick-
witted, prompt in action, determined and pertinacious, be
possessed in eminent degree many qualities lacking in other
66
Liberal chieftains. Hardly had be assumed office when the
unexpected death o! Victor Emmanuel II. (oth January
Death* ot l8?8 ^ stirred national feeling to an unprecedented
victor depth, and placed the continuity of monarchical in-
Bmmmaatl stitutions in Italy upon trial before Europe. For thirty
**■* yezrs Victor Emmanuel had been the centre point
*** of national hopes, the token and embodiment of the
struggle for national redemption. He had led the country out of
the despondency which followed the defeat of Novara and the
abdication of Charles Albert, through all the vicissitudes of
national unification to the final triumph at Rome. His dis-
appearance snapped the chief link with the heroic period, and
removed from the helm of 'state a ruler of large heart, great
experience and civil courage, at a moment when elements of
continuity were needed and vital problems of internal reorganiza-
tion had still to be faced Crispi adopted the measures necessary
to ensure the tranquil accession of King Humbert with a quick
energy which precluded any Radical or Republican demonstra-
tions. His influence decided the choice of the Roman Pantheon
as the late monarch's burial-place, in spite of formidable pressure
from the Picdmontese, who wished Victor Emmanuel II. to Test
with the Sardinian kings at Superga. He also persuaded the
new ruler to inaugurate, as King Humbert I., the new dynastical
epoch of the kings of Italy, instead of continuing as Humbert IV.
the succession of the kings of Sardinia. Before the commotion
caused by the death of Victor Emmanuel had passed away, the
decease of Pius IX. (7th February 1878) placed further demands
upon Crispi 's sagacity and promptitude. Like Victor Emmanuel,
Pius IX. had been bound up with the history of the Risorgimento,
but, unlike him, had represented and embodied the anti-national,
reactionary spirit. Ecclesiastically, he had become the instru-
ment of the triumph of Jesuit influence, and had in turn set his
seal upon the dogma of the Immaculate Conception, the Syllabus
and Papal Infallibility. Yet, in spite of all, his jovial disposition
and good-humoured cynicism saved him from unpopularity, and
rendered his death an occasion of mourning. Notwithstanding
the pontiff's bestowal of the apostolic benediction in artxeulo
mortis upon Victor Emmanuel, the attitude of the Vatican had
remained so inimical as to make it doubtful whether the conclave
would be held in Rome. Crispi, whose strong anti-clerical con-
victions did not prevent him from regarding the papacy as pre-
eminently an Italian institution, was determined both to prove
to the Catholic world the practical Independence of the govern-
ment of the Church and to retain for Rome so potent a centre of
universal attraction as the presence of the future pope. The
Sacred College having decided to hold the conclave abroad, Crispi
assured them of absolute freedom if they remained in Rome, or of
protection to the frontier should they migrate, but warned
them that, once evacuated, the Vatican would be occupied in the
name of the Italian government and be lost to the Church as
headquarters of the papacy. The cardinals thereupon overruled
their former decision, and the conclave was held in Rome, the
new pope, Cardinal Pceci, being elected on the 20th of February
1878 without let or hindrance. The Italian government not only
Uo Xttt. Piwog 11 ^ lnc Chamber during the conclave to prevent
unseemly inquiries or demonstrations on the part of
deputies, but by means of Mandni, minister of justice, and
Cardinal di Pietro, assured the new pope protection during the
settlement of his outstanding personal affairs, an assurance of
which Leo XIII. on the evening after his election, took full
advantage. At the same time the duke of Aosta, commander of
the Rome army corps, ordered the troops to render royal honours
to the pontiff should he officially appear In the capita). King
Humbert addressed to the pope a letter of congratulation upon
his election, and received a courteous reply. The improve-
ment thus signalized in the relations between Quirinal and
Vatican was further exemplified on the t8th of October 1878,
when the Italian government accepted a papal formula with
regard to the granting of the royal exequatur for bishops,
whereby they, upon nomination by the Holy See, recognized
state control over, and made application for, the payment of
their temporalities.
Italy h*7o-»*>»
The Depretts-drispi cabinet did not long survive the opening
of the new reign. Crispi's position was shaken by a morally
plausible but juridically untenable charge of bigamy, cmtmo.
while on the 8th of March the election of Cairoti, an ***•*•
opponent of the ministry and head of the extremer section of the
Left, to the presidency of the Chamber, induced Depretis to
tender his resignation to the new king. Cairoli succeeded in
forming an administration, in which his friend Count Coni,
Italian ambassador at Constantinople, accepted the portfolio of
foreign affairs, Zanardelli the ministry of the interior, and Seismit
Doda the ministry of finance. Though the cabinet had no stable
majority, it induced the Chamber to sanction a commercial
treaty which had been negotiated with France and a general
" autonomous " customs tariff. The commercial treaty was,
however, rejected by the French Chamber in June 1878, a cir-
cumstance necessitating the application of the Italian general
tariff, which implied a 10 to 20% increase In the duties on the
principal French exports. A highly imaginative financial exposi-
tion by Seismit Doda, who announced a surplus of £2,400.000,
paved the way for a Grist Tax Reduction Bill, which Cairoli had
taken over from the Depretis programme. The Chamber,
though convinced of the danger of this reform, the perils of which
were incisively demonstrated by Sella, voted by an overwhelming
majority for an immediate reduction of the impost by one-
fourth, and its complete abolition within four years. Cairoli's
premiership was, however, destined to be cut short by an attempt
made upon the king's life in November 1878, during a royal visit
to Naples, by a miscreant named Passanante. In spite of the
courage and presence of mind of Cairoli, who received the dagger
thrust intended for the king, public and parliamentary indigna-
tion found expression in a vote which compelled the ministry to
resign.
Though brief, Cairoli's term of office was momentous in regard
to foreign affairs. The treaty of San Stefano had led to the
convocation of the Berlin Congress, and though Count
Corti was by no means ignorant of the rumours con- JJJfflwi
cerning secret agreements between Germany, Austria cfcaww*.
and Russia, and Germany, Austria and Great Britain,
he scarcely seemed alive to the possible effect of such agreements
upon Italy. Replying on the 9th of April 1878 to interpellation*
by Visconti -Venosta and other deputies on the impending
Congress of Berlin, he appeared free from apprehension lest
Italy, isolated, might find herself face to face with a change of
the balance of power in the Mediterranean, and declared that
in the event of serious complications Italy would be " too much
sought after rather than too much forgotten." The policy of
Italy in the congress, he added, would be to support the interests
of the young Balkan nations. Wrapped in this optimism, Const
Corti proceeded, as first Italian delegate, to Berlin, where he
found himself obliged, on the 28th of May, to join reluctantly in
sanctioning the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
On the 8th of July the revelation of the Anglo-Ottoman treaty
for the British occupation of Cyprus took the congress by surprise.
Italy, who had made the integrity of the Ottoman empire a
cardinal point of her Eastern policy, felt this change of the
Mediterranean status quo the more severely inasmuch as, in
order not to strain her relations with France, she had turned a
deaf ear to Austrian, Russian and German advice to prepare to
occupy Tunisia in agreement with Great Britain. Count Corti
had no suspicion that France had adopted a less disinterested
attitude towards similar suggestions from Bismarck and Lord
Salisbury. He therefore returned from the German capital
with 4I clean" but empty hands, a plight which found marked
disfavour in Italian eyes, and stimulated anti-Austrian Irre-
dentism. Ever since Venetia had been ceded by
Austria to the emperor Napoleon, and by him to Italy, J£^
after the war of t866, secret revolutionary com-
mittees had been formed in the northern Italian provinces to
prepare for the " redemption " of Trent and Trieste. For
twelve years these committees had remained comparatively in-
active, but in 1878 the presence of the ex-Garibaldian Cairoli
at the head of the government, and popular dissatisfaction at the
i»t • n» * \
ITALY
67
spread of Austrian my on the Adriatic, encouraged 'them to
begin a series of noisy demonstrations. On the evening of the
signature at Berlin of the clause sanctioning the Austrian occupa-
tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an Irredentist riot took place
before the Austrian consulate at Venice. The Italian govern-
ment attached little importance to the occurrence, and believed
that a diplomatic expression of regret would suffice to alky
Austrian irritation. Austria, indeed, might easily have been
persuaded to ignore the Irredentist agitation, had not the
equivocal attitude of Cairoli and Zanardelli cast doubt upon the
sincerity of their regret. The former at Pa via (15th October
1878), and the Utter at Arco (3rd November), declared publicly
that Irredentist manifestations could not be prevented under
existing laws, but gave no hint of introducing any law to sanction
their prevention. " Repression, not prevention " became the
official formula, the enunciation of which by Cairoli at Favia
cauaed Count Corti and two other ministers to resign.
The mil of Cairoli, and the formation of a second Depretis
cabinet in 1878, brought no substantial change in the attitude
of the government towards Irredentism, nor was the position
improved by the return of Cairoli to power in the following July.
Though aware of Bismarck's hostility towards Italy, of the
conclusion of the Austro-Gennan alliance of 1870, and of the
undisguised ill-will of France, Italy not only made no attempt
to crush an agitation as mischievous as it was futile, but granted
a state funeral to General Avezsana, president of the Irredentist
League. In Bonghi's mordant phrase, the foreign policy of
Italy during this period may be said to have been characterised
by M enormous intellectual impotence counterbalanced by equal
moral feebleness." Home affairs were scarcely better managed.
Parliament had degenerated into a congeries of personal groups,
whose members were eager only to overturn cabinets in order
to secure power for the leaders and official favours for themselves.
Depretis, who had succeeded Cairoli in December 1878, fell in
July 1870, after a vote in which Cairoli and Nicotera joined the
Conservative opposition. On 12th July Cairoli formed a new
administration, only to resign on 24th November, and to recon-
struct his cabinet with the help of Depretis. The administration
of finance was as chaotic as the condition of parliament. The
£7,400,000 surplus announced by Seismk Doda proved to be a
myth. Nevertheless Magliani, who succeeded Seismit Doda,
had neither the perspicacity nor the courage to resist the abolition
of the grist tax. The first vote of the Chamber for tbe immediate
diminution of the tax, and for its total abolition on 1st January
ammmrm 1883, had been opposed by the Senate. A second bill
Haamcm ' was passed by tbe Chamber on 18th July 1879, pro-
viding for the immediate repeal of the grist tax on minor cereals,
and for its total abolition on 1st January 1884. While approving
the repeal in regard to minor cereals, the Senate (24th January
1880) again rejected the repeal of the tax on grinding wheal as
prejudicial to national finance. After the general election of
1880, however, the Ministerialists, aided by a number of factious
Conservatives, passed a third bill repealing the grist tax on
wheat (10th July 1880), the repeal to take effect from the 1st of
January 1884 onwards. Tbe Senate, in which the partisans of
the ministry had been increased by numerous appointments od
hoc, finally set the seat of hs approval upon the measure. Not-
withstanding this prospective loss of revenue, parliament showed
great reluctance to vote any new impost, although hardly a year
previously it had sanctioned (30th June 1870) Depretis's scheme
for spending during the next eighteen years £43,200,000 in
building 5000 kilometres of railway, an expenditure not wholly
justified by the importance of the lines, and useful principally
as a source of electoral sops for the constituents of ministerial
deputies. The unsatisfactory financial condition of the Florence,
Rome and Naples municipalities necessitated stale help, but
the Chamber nevertheless proceeded with a light heart (23rd
February 1881) to sanction the issue of a foreign loan for
£jo,ooo T ooo, with a view to the abolition of theforcedcurrency,
thus adding to the burdens of the exchequer a load which
three years later again dragged Italy into the gulf of chronic
deficit.
In no modern country is error or incompetence on the part
of administrator* more swiftly followed by retribution than in
Italy; both at home and abroad she is hemmed in 9)mmtmtm
by political and economic conditions which leave """^
littk margin for folly, and still less for " mental and moral
insufficiency/' such as had been displayed by tbe Left. Nemesis
came in the spring of t88i, in tbe form of the French invasion
of Tunisia. Guiccioli, the biographer of Sella, observes that
Italian politicians find it especially hard to resist " the temptation
of appearing crafty." The men of the Left believed themselves
subtle enough to retain the confidence and esteem of all foreign
powers while coquetting at home with elements which some
o£ these powers had reason to regard with suspicion. Italy,
in constant danger from France, needed good relations with
Austria and Germany, but could only attain the goodwill of
the former by firm treatment of the revolutionary Irredentist
agitation, and of the latter by clear demonstration of Italian
will and ability to cope with all anti-monarchical forces. Depretis
and Cairoli did neither the one nor the other. Hence, when
opportunity offered firmly to establish Italian predominance in
the central Mediterranean by an occupation of Tunisia, they
found themselves deprived of those confidential relations with
the central powers, and even with Great Britain, which might
nave enabled them to use the opportunity to full advantage.
The conduct of Italy in declining tbe suggestions received from
Count Andrassy and General Ignatiev on the eve of the Russo-
Turkish War— that Italy should seek compensation in Tunisia
for tbe extension of Austrian sway in the Balkans— and in
subsequently rejecting the German suggestion to come to an
arrangement with Great Britain for the occupation of Tunisia as
compensation for the British occupation of Cyprus, was certainly
due to fear lest an attempt on Tunisia should lead to a war with
France, for which Italy knew herself to be totally unprepared.
This very unpreparedness, however, rendered still less excusable
her treatment of the Irredentist agitation, which brought her
within a hairVbreadtb of a conflict with Austria. Although
Cairoli, upon learning of the Anglo-Ottoman convention in regard
to Cyprus, had advised Count Corti of the possibility that Great
Britain might seek to placate France by conniving at a French
occupation of Tunisia, neither he nor Count Corti had any
inkling of the verbal arrangement made between Lord Salisbury
and Waddington at the instance of Bismarck, that, when con-
venient, France should occupy Tunisia, an agreement afterwards
confirmed (with a reserve as to the eventual attitude of Italy)
in despatches exchanged in July and August 1878 between the
Quai d'Orsay and Downing Street. Almost up to the moment
of the French occupation of Tunisia the Italian government
believed that Great Britain, if only out of gratitude for the bearing
of Italy in connexion with the Dutcigno demonstration in the
autumn of 1880, would prevent French acquisition of the Regency.
Ignorant of the assurance conveyed to France by Lord Granville
that the Gladstone cabinet would respect the engagements of
the Beaconsfield-Salisbury administration, Cairoli, in deference
to Italian public opinion, endeavoured to neutralize the activity
of the French consul Roustan by the appointment of an equally
energetic Italian consul, Maccto. The rivalry between these
two officials in Tunisia contributed not a little to strain Franco-
Italian relations, but it is doubtful whether France would have
precipitated her action had not General Menabrea, Italian
ambassador in London, urged his government to purchase tbe
Tunis-Goletta railway from the English company by which it
had been constructed. A French attempt to purchase the hne
was upset in the English courts, nrtd the railway was finally
secured by Italy at a price more than eight times its real value.
This pertinacity engendered a belief in France that Italy was
about to undertake in Tunisia a more aggressive policy than
necessary for the protection of her commercial Interests. Roustan
therefore hastened to extort from the bey concessions calculated
to neutralize the advantages which Italy had hoped to secure
by the possession of the Tunis- Goletta line, and at the same time
the French government prepared at Toulon an expeditionary
corps for the occupation of the Regency. In the spring of 1881
ITALY
[1B70-10A*
mA rr%lr tribe waft reported to have attacked a French force
'^jffcri* 11 border, and on the oth of April Roustan informed
J»^ "^T of Tunis that France would chastise the assailants.
^J^^l^ issued futile protests to the powers. On the 26th of
c ^ > ^2^ island of Tabarca was occupied by the French, Bizerta
sraM *~/~^d <> n tDC and °* M *y» ftnd on th * I2ln of Mav ^ ^Y
» ^J*tS« treaty of Bardo accepting the French protectorate.
cx^** CY xi<^ ertoolc toe '"Aintenance of order in the Regency,
*** c ^ nt , rtxed. the representation of Tunisia in all dealings with
c* ^^SJiaJi tries-
x*^ -^*» incus * 0011 al ^^ French ««if rfe main was the
It-^J-*^^^ account of the apparent duplicity of the government
&£>^* j^cpublic On the nth of May the French foreign
«,*»^ partheleiny Saint Hilaire, had officially assured the
ii*>* ! ^^Ir»*> aSSador m Paris that France " had «» thought of
\^L Tunisia °* *»y P*rt of Tunisian territory, beyond
„. ijit3 of ^ K-rounur country." This assurance, dictated
&X%^ , PfL "Ferry to Barthelemy Saint Hilaire in the presence of
o£< J 1^0 am bassa<,or » and Dv nim telegraphed e* </air to Rome,
t*** I ' 1 "*iS<i erCci a Dmdm * P ,ed « e that France would not materially
^s ^^^J^V/as/** ^afl in Tunisia. Documents subsequently published
t ^fl>« whal attenuated the responsibility of Ferry and
: SS^* 1 * for this breach of faith, and have shown that the
^^ t *f^rce» "» Tunisia acted upon secret instructions from
Yjc**"^, V*r rC « mmi$tcr of war m thc Fcrr y cabinet, who pursued
^^Betrically opposed to the official declarations made
L | e r and the foreign minister. Even had this circum-
fcnown at the time, it could scarcely have mitigated
resentment of the whole Italian nation at an event
, considered tantamount not only to the destruction-
-cx.^ ^—^spirations to Tunisia, but to the ruin of the interests
"fca****^ ,c*nr* Italian colony and to a constant menace against
^i the Sicilian and south Italian coasts.
_^ar thus struck at Italian influence in the Mediter-
fc»*- -^a-cea politicians to sink for a while their personal
t» unite in presenting a firm front to foreign
ub regard to Tunisia might not have been
of good. Unfortunately, on this, as on
deputies proved themselves incapable of
M promote general welfare. While excitement
^te u. its height, but before the situation was
to the disadvantage of Italy, Cairoli
, .fat *» resign by a vote of want of confidence in
a^^^^rTrV^a^ politician capable of dealing adequately
^" ZM0 "^L s m «■» **• leider of ^ Ri «ht, and to him the
mA 1 1***^. T*e action leaders of the Left, though divided
t»«**5*7^i^awa*s aad mutually incompatible ambitions,
* i*- -0 * jn «•& ed which could befall Italy would be the
tp** 13 **' ^^ v |*««r, and conspired to preclude the
veua - L ** ^jfc. .ssxsd An attempt by Depretis to re-
****** lls^gpo. a—*** I** vcd fruitless, and after eleven
w« » < , - g | ^.mm***. *J»t Humbert was obliged, on the
tH*.***** ' v-T^Br^w^raSMtioiL The conclusion
t*.*^ *** 4 «**.« a» **• ♦* May, however, compelled
M xu tm **xt*x**—* * I**" 11 * wdwwJon. Again SeUa
U»— 'a*, *.-••*** wag-in-the-manger policy of
•* **"'' .,, yjwq^a^ laccari ni, in conjunction with
■** -wo.-* «awr«awme Conservatives, proved
not. U— — **— >uccceded in recomposing
«**' "* B ?'!Z^ B r< watM *jmK Mancini being placed at the
lae of the army
union, the new
>lic opinion was
e of some Italian
ie return of the
i, in response to
Jte a part of the
on of borne and
Anexion with the
■ s to the basilica
de
Ca
seti
whi
adv.
tbel
to th
Hum
his el
ment
Vatica
when (
regard
whercb;
state co
their tern
l*f*«- w
irriute Italian feeling, but little excuse can be offered for the
failure of the Italian authorities to maintain public order. In
conjunction with the occupation of Tunisia, the effect of these
disorders was to exhibit Italy as a country powerless to defend
its interests abroad or to keep peace at home. The scandal and
the pressure of foreign Catholic opinion compelled Depretis to
pursue a more energetic policy, and to publish a formal declaration
of the intangibility of the Law of Guarantees.
Meanwhile a conviction was spreading that the only way of
escape from the dangerous isolation of Italy lay in closer agree-
ment with Austria and Germany. Depretis tardily
recognized the need for such agreement, if only to JJj^JiJ?
remove the " coldness and invincible diffidence " which, A iJjf
by subsequent confession of Mandni, then characterized
the attitude of the central powers; but he was opposed to any
formal alliance, test it might arouse French resentment, while the
new Franco-Italian treaty was still unconduded, and the foreign
loan lor the abolition of the forced currency had still to be
floated. He, indeed, was not disposed to concede to public
opinion anything beyond an increase of the army, a measure
insistently demanded by Garibaldi and the Left. The Right like*
wise desired to strengthen both army and navy, but advocated
cordial relations with Berlin and Vienna as a guarantee against
French domineering, and as a pledge that Italy would be vouch-
safed time to effect her armaments without disturbing financial
equilibrium. The Right also hoped that closer accord with
Germany and Austria would compel Italy to conform her home
policy more nearly to the principles of order prevailing in
those empires. More resolute than Right or Left was the
Centre, a small group led by Sidney Sonnino, a young
politician of unusual fibre, which sought in the press and in
parliament to spread a conviction that the only sound basis for
Italian policy would be dose alliance with the central powers and
a friendly understanding with Great Britain in regard to Mediter-
ranean affairs. The principal Italian public men were divided in
opinion on the subject of an alliance. Peruazi, Lanza and
Bonghi pleaded for equal friendship with all powers, and
especially with France; Crispi, Minghetti, Cadorna and others,
including Blanc, secretary-general to the foreign office, openly
favoured a pro-Austrian policy. Austria and Germany, however,
scarcely reciprocated these dispositions. The Irredentist agita-
tion had left profound traces at Berlin as well as at Vienna, and
had given rise to a distrust of Depretis which nothing had yet
occurred to allay. Nor, in view of the comparative weakness el
Italian armaments, could eagerness to find an ally be deemed
conclusive proof of the value of Italian friendship. Count di
Robilant. Italian ambassador at Vienna, warned his government
not to yield too readily to pro-Austrian pressure, lest the dignity
of Italy be compromised, or her desire for an alliance be granted
on onerous terms. Mancini, foreign minister, who was as anxious
as Depretis for the conclusion of the Franco-Italian commercial
treaty, gladly followed this advice, and limited his efforts to the
maintenance of correct diplomatic relations with the central
powers. Except in regard to the Roman question, the advantages
and disadvantages of an Italian alliance with Austria and
Germany counterbalanced each other. A rapprochement with
France and a continuance of the Irredentist movement could not
fail to arouse Austro-German hostility; but, on the other band,
to draw near to the central powers would inevitably accentuate
the diffidence of France. In the one hypothesis, as in the other,
Italy could count upon the moral support of Great Britain, but
could not make of British friendship the keystone of a Continental
?>licy. Apart from resentment against France on account of
urusia there remained the question of the temporal power of the
pope to turn thescale in favour of Austria and Germany. Danger
of foreign interference in the relations between Italy and thepapacy
had never been so great since the Italian occupation of Rome, as
when, in the summer of 1881. the disorders during the transfer of
the remains of Phis IX. had lent an unwonted ring of plausibility
to the papal complaint concerning the " miserable " position of .
the Holy See. Bismarck at that moment had entered upon bis
pilgrimage to Canossa," and was anxious to obtain from the
I47O-I90*)
ITALY
69
VwXicm the support of Gennan Catholics. What resistance
could Italy have offered had the German chancellor* seconded by
Austria, and assuredly supported by France, called upon Italy to
revise the Law of Guarantees in conformity with Catholic
exigencies, or had be taken the initiative of making papal in-
dependence the subject of an international conference ? Friend'
ship and alliance with Catholic Austria and powerful Germany
could alone lay this spectre. This was the only immediate
advantage Italy could hope to obtain by drawing nearer the
central Powers.
The political conditions of Europe favoured the realization
of Italian desires. Growing rivalry between Austria and Russia
in the Balkans rendered the continuance of the " League of the
Three Emperors" a practical impossibility. The Austro-
German alliance of 1879 formally guaranteed the territory of
the contracting parties, but Austria could not count upon
effectual help from Germany in case of war, since Russian attack
upon Austria would certainly have been followed by French
attack upon Germany. As in 1860*1870, it therefore became a
matter of the highest importance lor Austria to retain full
disposal of all her troops by assuring herself against Italian
aggression. The tsar, Alexander III., under the impression of
the assassination of his father, desired, however, the renewal
of the Drdkaiscrbumd, both as a guarantee of European peace
and as a conservative league against revolutionary parties.
The Gennan emperor shared this desire, but Bismarck and the
Austrian emperor wished to substitute for the imperial league
some more advantageous combination. Hence a tacit under*
standing between Bismarck and Austria that the latter should
profit by Italian resentment against France to draw Italy into
the orbit of the Austro-German alliance. For the moment
Germany was to hold aloof lest any active initiative on her part
should displease the Vatican, of whose help Bismarck stood
m need.
At the beginning of August 1881 the Austrian press mooted the
idea of a visit from King Humbert to the emperor Francis
Joseph. Count di Robilanl, anxious that Italy should not seem
to beg a smile from the central Powers, advised Maacini to receive
with caution the suggestions of the Austrian press. Depretis
took occasion to deny, in a form scarcely courteous* the prob-
ability of the visit. Robilant'* opposition to a precipitate
acceptance of the Austrian hint was founded upon fear lest King
Humbert at Vienna might be pressed to disavow Irredentist
aspirations, and upon a desire to arrange for a visit of the emperor
Francis Joseph to Rome in return for King Humbert's visit to
Vienna. Seeing the hesitation of the Italian government, the
Austrian and German semi-official press redoubled their efforts
to bring about the visit. By the end of September the idea
had gained such ground in Italy that the visit was practically
settled, and on the 7th of October Mancisi informed Robilant
(who was then in Italy) of the fact. Though be considered
such precipitation impolitic, Robilant, finding that confidential
information of Italian intentions had already been conveyed
to the Austrian government, sought an interview with King
Humbert, and on the 1 7th of October started for Vienna to settle
the conditions of the visit. Depretis, fearing to jeopardize the
impending conclusion of the Franco-Italian commercial treaty,
would have preferred the visit to take the form of an act of
personal courtesy between sovereign*. The Austrian govern mem,
for its part, desired; that the kiog should be accompanied by
Depretis, though not by Mancini, lest the presence of the Italian
foreign minister should lend to the occasion too mar Led a political
character. Mancini, unable to brook exclusion, insisted, how*
evw% upon accompanying the king. King Humbert with
Queen Margberita reached Vienna on the morning of the 37th
of October* and stayed at the Hofburg until the 31st of October.
The visit was marked by the greatest cordiality. Count Robilant'!
fear* of inopportune pressure with regard to Irrcdsntism
proving groundless; Both in Germany and Austria the visit
was construed as a preliminary to the adhesion of Italy to tho
Austrp-Gennan alliance. Count Haizfddl. on behalf of the
German. Foreign Office, informed the .Italian ambassador in
Berha that whatever was done at Vienna would be regarded at
having been done in the German capital. Nor did nascent
irritation in France prevent the conclusion of the Franco-Italian
co m me r cial treaty, which was signed at Paris on the 3rd of
November.
In Italy public opinion as a whole was favourable to the visit,
especially as it was not considered an obstacle to tbc projected
increase of the army and navy. Doubts, however, soon sprang up
as to its effect upon the minds of Austrian statesmen, since on
the 8th of November the language employed by Kallay and Count
Andrissy to the Hungarian delegations on the subject of
Irredentism was scarcely calculated to soothe Italian suscepti-
bilities. But on oth November the European situation was
suddenly modified by the formation of the Gambetta cabinet!,
and, in view of the policy of revenge with which Gambetta was
supposed to be identified, it became imperative for Bismarck to
assure himself that Italy would not be enticed into a Francophil
attitude by any concession Gambetta might offer. As usual
when dealing with weaker nations, the German chancellor re-
sorted to intimidation. He not only re-established the Prussian
legation to the Vatican, suppressed since 1874, and omitted
from the imperial message to the Reichstag (17th November
1881) all reference to King Humbert's visit to Vienna, but took
occasion on the 20th of November to refer to Italy as a country
tottering on the verge of revolution, and opened in the German
semi-official press a campaign in favour of an international
guarantee for the independence of the papacy. These manoeuvres
produced their cflect upon Italian public opinion. In the long
and important debate upon foreign policy in the Italian Chamber
of Deputies (6th to oth December) the fear was repeatedly
expressed lest Bismarck should seek to purchase the support
of German Catholics by raising the Roman question. Mancini,
still unwilling frankly to adhere to the Austro-German alliance,
found his policy of "friendship all round "impeded byGambettas
uncompromising attitude in regard to Tunisia. Bismarck never*
thekss continued his press campaign in favour of the temporal
power until, reassured by Gambetta 's decision to send Roustan
back to Tunis to complete as minister the an ti- Italian programme
begun as consul, be finally instructed his organs to emphasize
the common interests of Germany and Italy on the occasion of
the opening of the St Got hard tunnel. But the effect of toe
German press campaign could not be effaced in * day. At
the new, year's reception of deputies King Humbert aroused
enthusiasm by a significant remark that Italy intended to remain
" mistress in her own house "; while Mancini addressed to Count
de Launay, Italian ambassador in Berlin, a haughty despatch,
repudiating the supposition that the pope might (as Bismarck ian
emissaries had suggested to the Vatican) obtain abroad greater
spiritual liberty than in Rome, or that closer relations between
Italy and Germany „ such as were required by the interests and
aspirations, of the two countries* could be made in any way
contingent upon a modification of Italian freedom of action in
regard to home affairs.
The sudden fall of Gambetta (aoth January . xfi&t) having
removed the fear of immediate European complications, the
cabinet* of Berlin and Vienna again displayed diffidence towards
Italy. So great wss Bismarck's distrust of Italian parliamentary
instability, his doubts of Italian capacity for offensive warfare
Snd his fear of the Francophil tendencies of Depretis, that for
many weeks the Italian ambassador at Berlin was unable to
obtain audienceof the chancellor. But for the Tunisian question
Italy might again have been drawn 'into the wake el France.
Mancini tried to impede the organization/Of French rule in the
Regency by Musing to recognize ike treaty of Baruo, yet so
careless was Bismarck of Italian susceptibilities that he in-
structed the. German consul at Tunis to recognize French decrees.
Partly under the influence of these circumstances, and partly
in response' to persuasion by Baron Blanc secretary ^general
for foreign affairs, Mancini instructed Count di Robilant, tQropen
negotiations for an halo-Austrian alliance— instrudioc* which
Robilant neglected until questioned by Count Kalnoky on the sub-
ject. The first exchange «c ideas between the tveo Government*
C-
p t
the
fat-''
tb* v
j*urih tr
public fc
for«»« n **;
transfer of
ofS****!'
Kataiky, somewhat Oerical-minded,
the integrity of ail kalian
unwilling to guarantee to
i of Treat and Trieste. Mancini,
: 2ae jasLjct aflianceto provide for reciprocal
of the contracting Powers,
i Aastria-Hungary in the Balkans,
pledging themselves to support
Without some such proviso
i, be exposed single-handed
At the request of Kakioky, Mancini
■ — ii-iiiw, but the illness of himself
with an untoward discussion in the
r «f the Austrian emperor to return in
-i vat t» Vienna, caused negotiations to
r i m^m r 1 bad refused to receive the
k 3» fcsiae om a visit to the Quirinal, and
to return King Humbert's
inzar -a afisai the ieehngs of bis Catholic subjects.
. rm £zx sJiL:> :he ltaban parliament adopted the
f a special credit of £5,100.000 for the"
■a v-wjenr* nys* by which the war footing of the
r-«jfc xsec jj scady 850/100 men and the ordinary
- xr -1 jooooo per annum. Garibaldi, who,
-^ ifi-^ii* «f Tunis, had ardently worked for
c nc anxu aai thus the satisfaction of seeing his
t his death at Caprcra, on the 2nd
3&c * ha spirit a child, in character a man
c iimH i ** f^^Mi' bad remained the nation's
n ■ M 1 tew whose place none could aspire
: ir is adbrveaaents and sorrow for ras death
nwtn"»g wherein king and
Bvaic* his death, and almost con-
j of the Army Bill, negotiations
Eacoungco from Berlin, Kamoky
guarantee, but declined
Mancini had therefore
_ j that the lilies would act in
Dcpretis made some opposition,
law! Ac Wwty of triple alliance was signed
t u/ dtfc ** wv» *<* *** promulgation of
j iwmmm iti — »- »» ^^ Though partial
" ^^ ^^ a^it. the exact tenor of the
"T- -v* ah»« has never been divulged.
—a" * k* Wen cwdttded for a period of
S ^ZTw Mafefcri the contracting parties
Tt 1^ W^^»^ of any one of them.
* * TJL* ****«• to be adopted by
^-* «*hrf itom France, or from
^ The Italian General
^ the event of war against
* |mc . »orth~we*tcrn frontier
• " ^ n*L * %h»ch the war strength is
- -^^^^^aaesped^t,
— w * T~L tShee France or Russia.
^.r - ~^^^onwo»agamsltwo
• -***-« - ^^tT^i .K. treaty and
* narck
nthe
talian
with
1 who
with
*« to
HHj),
truce
talUn
t»Ht,
.» hit
ITALY (1870-1901
revealed the existence of the treaty, thereby irritating France
and destroying Deprelis's secret hope of finding in the triple
alliance the advantage of an Auslro-Gcrman guarantee without
the disadvantage of French enmity. In Italy the revelation
of the treaty was hailed with satisfaction except by the Clericals,
who were enraged at the blow thus struck at the restoration
of the pope's temporal power, and by the Radicals, who feared
both the inevitable breach with republican France and the
reinforcement of Italian constitutional parties by intimacy
with strong monarchical states such as Germany and Austria.
These very considerations naturally combined to recommend
the fact to constitutionalists, who saw in it, besides the territorial
guarantee, the elimination of the danger of foreign interference
in the relations between Italy and the Vatican, such as Bismarck
had recently threatened and such as France was believed ready
to propose.
Nevertheless, during its first period (1882-1887) the triple
alliance failed to ensure cordiality between the contracting
Powers. Mancini exerted himself in a hundred ways to soothe
French resentment. He not only refused to join Great Britain
in the Egyptian expedition, but agreed to suspend Italian
consular jurisdiction in Tunis, and deprecated suspicion of
French designs upon Morocco. His efforts were worse than
futile. France remained cold, while Bismarck and Kalnoky,
distrustful of the Radicalism of Dcprctis and Mancini, assumed
towards their ally an attitude almost hostile. Possibly Germany
and Austria may have been influenced by the secret treaty signed
between Austria, Germany and Russia on the 21st of March
1884, and ratified during the meeting of the three emperors at
Skierniewice in September of that year, by which Bismarck, in
return for " honest brokerage " in the Balkans, is understood
to have obtained from Austria and Russia a promise of bene*
volent neutrality in case Germany should be " forced " to make
war upon a fourth power— France. Guaranteed thus against
Russian attack, Italy became in the eyes of the central powers
a negligible quantity, and was treated accordingly. Though
kept in the dark as to the Skierniewice arrangement, the Italian
government soon discovered from the course of events that the
triple alliance had practically lost its object, European peace
having been assured without Italian co-operation. Meanwhile
France provided Italy with fresh cause for uneasiness by abating
her hostility to Germany. Italy in consequence drew nearer
to Great Britain, and at the London conference on the Egyptian
financial question sided with Great Britain against Austria and
Germany. At the same time negotiations took place with
Great Britain for an Italian occupation of Mossawa, and Mancini,
dreaming of a vast Anglo-Italian enterprise against the Mabdi,
expatiated in the spring of 1885 upon the glories of on Anglo-
Italian alliance, an indiscretion which drew upon him a scarcely-
veiled dCmenti from London. Again speaking in the Chamber,
Mancini claimed for Italy the principal merit in the conclusion
of the triple alliance, but declared that the alliance left Italy
full liberty of action in regard to interests outside its scope,
" especially as there was no possibility of obtaining protection
for such interests from those who by the alliance had not under-
taken to protect them." These words, which revealed the
absence of any stipulation in regard to the protection of Italian
interests in the Mediterranean, created lively dissatisf actios ia
Italy and corresponding satisfaction in France. They hastened
Mancini's downfall (17th June 1885), and prepared the advent
of count di Robilant, who three months later succeeded Mancini
at the Italian Foreign Office. Robilant, for whom the Skiernie-
wice pact was no secret, followed a firmly independent policy
throughout the Bulgarian crisis of 1885-1886, declining to be
drawn into any action beyond that required by the treaty of
Berlin and the protection of Italian interests in the Balkans.
Italy, indeed, came out of the Eastern crisis with enhanced
prestige and with her relations to Austria greatly improved.
Towards Prince Bismarck Robilant maintained an attitude
of dignified independence, and as, in the spring of 1886, the
moment for the renewal of the triple alliance drew near, he
profited by the development of the Bulgarian crisis and the
•H*-t9M|
ITALY
■71
threatened Franco-Russian understanding to secure from the
central powers " something more " than the bare territorial
guarantee of the original treaty. Tins "something more"
consisted, at least in part, of the arrangement, with the help of
Austria and Germany, of an Anglo-Italian naval understanding
having special reference to the Eastern question, but providing
for common action by the British and Italian fleets in the
Mediterranean m case of war. A vote of the Italian Chamber on
the 4th of February 1887, in connexion with the disaster to Italian
troops at Dogali, in Abyssinia, brought about the resignation
of the Deprelis- Robilant cabinet. The crisis dragged for three
months, and before its definitive solution by the formation of a
Depretis-Crispi ministry, Robilant succeeded (17th March 1887)
in renewing the triple alliance on terms more favourable to
Pint n- Italy than those obtained in 1882. Not only did he
mrwmlot secure concessions from Austria and Germany corre-
*Jf^**» sponding in some degree to the improved state of the
1flh " rf Italian army and navy, but, in virtue of the Anglo-
Itafian understanding, assured the practical adhesion of Great
Britain to the European policy of the central powers, a triumph
probably greater than any registered by Italian diplomacy
since the completion of national unity.
The period between May 1881 and July 1887 occupied, in the
region of foreign affairs, by the negotiation, conclusion and
renewal of the triple alliance, by the Bulgarian crisis
and by the dawn of an Italian colonial policy, was
marked at home by urgent political and economic
problems, and by the parliamentary phenomena known as
ir&sformismo. On the 29th of June 1881 the Chamber adopted a
Franchise Reform Bill, which increased the electorate from
600,000 to 2,000,000 by lowering the fiscal qualification from
40 to 19-80 lire in direct taxation, and by extending the suffrage
to all persons who had passed through the two lower standards
of the elementary schools, and practically to all persons able
to read and write. The immediate result of the reform was to
increase the political influence of large cities where the proportion
of illiterate workmen was lower than in the country districts,
and to exclude from the franchise numbers of peasants and small
proprietors who, though of more conservative temperament
and of better economic position than the artizan population of
the Urge towns, were often unable to fulfil the scholarship
qualification. On the 12th of April 1883 the forced currency was
formally abolished by the resumption of treasury payments
m gold with funds obtained through a loan of £14,500.000 issued
in London on the 5th of May 1882. Owing to the hostility of
the French market, rt>e loan was covered with difficulty, and,
though the gold premium fell and commercial exchanges were
temporarily facilitated by the resumption of cash payments.
k is doubtful whether these advantages made up for the burden of
£640,000 additional annual interest thrown upon the exchequer.
On the 6th of March 1885 parliament finally sanctioned the
conventions by which state railways were farmed out to three
private companies — the Mediterranean, Adriatic and Sicilian.
The railways redeemed in 1875-1876 had been worked in the
interval by the government at a heavy loss. A commission of
inquiry reported in favour of private management. The conven-
tions, concluded for a period of sixty years, but terminable by
either party after twenty or forty years, retained for the state
the possession of the lines (except the southern railway, viz.
the line from Bologna to Brindisi belonging to the Societa
Meridionale to whom the Adriatic lines were now farmed), but
sold rolling stock to the companies, arranged various schedules
of state subsidy for lines projected or in course of construction,
guaranteed interest on the bonds of the companies and arranged
tor the division of revenue between the companies, the reserve
fund and the state. National control of the railways was secured
by a proviso that the directors must be of Italian nationality.
Deprelis and his colleague Genala, minister of public works,
experienced great difficulty in securing parliamentary sanction for
the conventions, not so much on account of their defective
character, as from the opposition of local interests anxious to
extort new lines from the government. In fact, the conventions
were only voted by a majority of twenty-three votes after the
government had undertaken to increase the length of new slate-
built lines from 1500 to 2500 kilometres. Unfortun-
ately, the calculation of probable railway revenue on **« «*
which the conventions had been based proved to be ^LL
enormously exaggerated. For many years the 37 J %
of the gross revenue (less the cost of maintaining the rolling
stock, incumbent on the state) scarcely sufficed to pay the
interest on debts incurred for railway construction and on
the guaranteed bonds. Gradually the increase of traffic con-
sequent upon the industrial development of Italy decreased
the annual losses of the state, but the position of the government
in regard to the railways still remained so unsatisfactory as to
render the resumption of the whole system by the state on the
expiration of the first period of twenty years in 1005 inevitable.
Intimately bound up with the forced currency, the railway
conventions and public works was the financial question in
general. From 1876, when equilibrium between w a^mm^
expenditure and revenue had first been attained,
taxation yielded steady annual surpluses, which in 1881 reached
the satisfactory level of £2,120,000. The gradual abolition of
the grist tax on minor cereals diminished the surplus in 1882
to £236,000, and in 1883 to £1 10,000, while the total repeal of the
grist tax on wheat, which took effect on the 1st of January 1884,
coincided with the opening of a new and disastrous period of
deficit. True, the repeal of the grist tax was not the
only, nor possibly even the principal, cause of the deficit.
The policy of " fiscal transformation " inaugurated by the
Left increased revenue from indirect taxation from £17,000,000
in 1876 to more than £24,000,000 in 1887, by substituting
heavy corn duties for the grist tax, and by raising the
sugar and petroleum duties to unprecedented levels. But
partly from lack of firm financial administration, partly
through the increase of military and naval expenditure (which
in 1887 amounted to £9,000,000 for the army, while special
efforts were made to strengthen the navy), and principally
through the constant drain of railway construction and public
works, the demands upon the exchequer grew largely to exceed
the normal increase of revenue, and necessitated the contraction
of new debts. In their anxiety to remain in office Deprctis and
the finance minister, Magliani, never hesitated to mortgage
the financial future of their country. No concession could be
denied to deputies, or groups of deputies, whose support was
indispensable to the life of the cabinet, nor, under such conditions,
was it possible to place any effective check upon administrative
abuses in which politicians or their electors were interested.
Railways, roads and harbours which contractors had undertaken
to construct for reasonable amounts were frequently made to
cost thrice the original estimates. Minghetti, in a trenchant
exposure of the parliamentary condition of Italy during this
period, cites a case in which a credit for certain public works
was, during a debate in the Chamber, increased by the govern-
ment from £6,600,000 to £9,000,000 in order to conciliate local
political interests. In the spring of 1887 Genala, minister of
public works, was taken to task for having sanctioned expenditure
of £80,000,000 on railway construction while only £40,000,000
had been included in the estimates. As most of these credits
were spread over a series of years, succeeding administrations
found their financial liberty of action destroyed, and were
obliged to cover deficit by constant issues of consolidated stock.
Thus the deficit of £940,000 for the financial year 1885-1886
rose to nearly £2,920,000 in 1887-1888, and jn 1888-1889
attained the terrible level of £9400,000.
Nevertheless, in spile of many and serious shortcomings,
the long series of Deprelis administrations was marked by the
adoption of some useful measures. Besides the realization of
the formal programme of the Left, consisting of the repeal of
the grist tax, the abolition of the forced currency, the extension
of the suffrage and the development of the railway system*
Deprelis bid the foundation for land lax re-assessment by intro-
ducing a new cadastral survey. Unfortunately, the new survey
was made largely optional, so that provinces which had reasr*
•72
ITAtY
(1*70-1909
i» hope for a diminution of land tax under a revised assessment
hastened to complete their survey, while others, in which the
average of the land tax was below a normal assessment,
neglected to comply with the provisions of the scheme. An
important undertaking, known as the Agricultural Inquiry,
brought to light vast quantities of information valuable for
future agrarian legislation. The year 1885 saw the introduction
and adoption of a measure embodying the principle of employers'
liability for accidents to workmen, a principle subsequently
extended and more equitably defined in the spring of 1809.
An effort to encourage the development of the mercantile marine
was made in the same year, and a convention was concluded
with the chief lines of passenger steamers to retain their fastest
vessels as auxiliaries to the fleet in case of war. Sanitation and
public hygiene received a potent impulse from the cholera
epidemic of 1884, many of the unheal thiest quarters in Naples
and other cities being demolished and rebuilt, with funds chiefly
furnished by the stale. The movement wa6 strongly supported
by Kmg Humbert, whose intrepidity in visiting the most
dangerous spots at Busca and Naples while the epidemic was
at its height, reassuring the panic-stricken inhabitants by his
presence, excited the enthusiasm of his people and the admiration
of Europe.
During the accomplishment of these and other reforms the
condition of parliament underwent profound change. By degrees
_„ ^_ the administrations of the Left had ceased to rely
solely upon the Liberal sections of the Chamber, and
had carried their most important bills with the help
of the Right. This process of transformation was not exclusively
the work of Depretis, but had been initialed as early as 1873,
when a portion of the Right under Minghetti had, by joining
the Left, overturned the Lanza-Sclla cabinet. In 1876 Minghetti
himself had fallen a victim to a similar defection of Conservative
deputies. The practical annihilation of the old Right in the
elections of 1876 opened a new parliamentary era. Reduced in
number to less than one hundred, and radically changed in spirit
and composition, the Right gave way, if not to despair, at least
to a despondency unsuited to an opposition parly. Though on
more than one occasion personal rancour against the men of
the Moderate Lcfl prevented the Right from following Bella's
advice and regaining, by timely coalition with cognate parlia-
mentary elements, a portion of its former influence, the bulk of
the party, with singular inconsistency, drew nearer and nearer
to the Liberal cabinets. The process was accelerated by Sella 's
fitness and death (14th March 1884), an event which cast profound
discouragement over the more thoughtful of the Conservatives
and Moderate Liberals, by whom Sella had been regarded as a
supreme political reserve, as a statesman whose experienced
vigour and patriotic sagacity might have been trusted to lift
Italy from any depth of folly or misfortune. By a strange
Anomaly the Radical measures brought forward by the Left
diminished instead of increasing the distance between it and the
Conservatives. Numerically insufficient to reject such measures,
and lacking the fibre and the cohesion necessary for the pursuance
of a far-sighted policy, the Right thought prudent not to employ
lit fttrengih in uncompromising opposition, but rather, by sup*
porting the government, to endeavour to modify Radical legisla-
I Ion In a Conservative sense. In every case the calculation proved
f.ill.ifiou*. Radical measures were passed unmodified, and the
KUhl was compelled sadly to, accept the accomplished fact.
Thin (l was with the abolition of the grist tax, the reform of the
litffrnge, the railway conventions and many other bills. When,
In ( utafce of lime, the extended suffrage increased the Republican
and Kulrtinf Radical elements in the Chamber, and the Liberal
*' |S 11 Inn hy " (composed of Crispi, Cairoli, Nlcotcra, Zanardelli
*•«>! U,»n mini) assumed an attitude of bitter hostility to Depretis,
itw Kighl. obeying the impulse of Minghetti, rallied openly
l*» lM«rvik lending him aid without which his prolonged term
o| v**sv w«mM rinve been impossible. The result was parlia-
\»» ui o\ t h n»t. Iiftptl/fd trasformismo. In May 1883 this process
u .wj s'ltt, ul rrtngnftlon by the elimination of the Radicals
* 1 ,ii it Mi *ttd flauiirlni from the pcpictis cabinet, while in
the course of 1884 a Conservative, Signor Biancheif, was elected
to the presidency of the Chamber, and another Conservative,
General Ricoui, appointed to the War Office. Though Depretis,
at the end of hjs life in 1887, showed signs of repenting of the
confusion thus created, he had established & parliamentary
system destined largely to sterilize and vitiate the political hie
of Italy,
Contemporaneously with the vicissitudes of home and foreign
policy under the Left there grew up in Italy a marked tendency
towards colonial enterprise. The tendency itself dated
from i860, when a congress of the Italian chambers of
commerce at Cenoa had urged the Lanza cabinet to
establish a commercial dep6t on the Red Sea. On the nth of
March 1870 an Italian shipper, Signor Rubaltino, had bought the
bay of Assab, with the neighbouring island of Darmakich, from
Bcheran, sultan of Rahcita, for £1880, the funds being furnished
by the government. The Egyptian government being unwilling
to recognize the sovereignly of Bcheran over Assab or his right
to sell territory to a foreign power, V'isconti-Vcnosta thought it
opportune not then to occupy Assab. No further step was taken
until, at the end of 1879, Rubattino prepared to establish a
commercial station at Assab, The British government made
inquiry as to his intentions, and on the 19th of April 1880
received a formal undertaking from Cairoli that Assab wouM
never be fortified nor be made a military establishment. Mean-
while (January 1880) stores and materials were landed, and Assab
was permanently occupied. Eighteen months later a party of
Italian sailors and explorers under Lieutenant Biglieri and
Signor Ciulictti were massacred in Egyptian territory. Egypt,
however, refused to make thorough inquiry into the massacre,
and was only prevented from occupying Rahcita and coming into
conflict with Italy by the good offices of Lord Granville, who
dissuaded the Egyptian government from enforcing its sove-
reignty. On the 20th of September 1881 Bcheran formally
accepted Italian protection, and in the following February am
Anglo-Italian convention established the Italian tide to Assab
on condition that Italy should formally recognise the suzerainty
of the Porte and of the khedive over the Red Sea coast, and
should prevent the transport of arms and munitions of war
through the territory of Assab. This convention was never
recognized by the Porte nor by the Egyptian government. A
month later (10th March 1882) Rubattino made over his establish-
ment to the Italian government, and on the 12th of June the
Chamber adopted a bill constituting Assab an Italian crowa
colony.
Within four weeks of the adoption of this bill the bombardment
of Alexandria by the British fleet (nth July 1882) opened as
era destined profoundly to affect the colonial position of
Italy. The revolt of Arabi Pasha (September 1881) T** ^ _
had led to the meeting of an ambassadorial conference
at Constantinople, promoted by Mancini, Italian
minister for foreign affairs, in the hope of preventing European
intervention in Egypt and the permanent establishment of an
Anglo-French condominium to the detriment of Italian influence.
At the opening of the conference (23rd June 1882) Italy secured
the signature of a self-denying protocol whereby all the great
powers undertook to avoid isolated action; but the rapid develop-
ment of the crisis in Egypt, and the refusal of France to co-
operate with Great Britain in the restoration of order, necessitated
vigorous action by the latter alone. In view of the French
refusal, Lord Granville on the 27th of July invited Italy to join
in restoring order in Egypt; but Mancini and Depretis, in
spite of the efforts of Crispi, then in London, declined the
offer. Financial considerations, lack of proper transports for an
expeditionary corps, fear of displeasing France, dislike of a
" policy of adventure,*' misplaced deference towards the ambassa-
dorial conference in Constantinople, and unwillingness to thwart
the current of Italian sentiment in favour of the Egyptian
" nationalists," were the chief motives of the Italian refusal,
which had the effect of somewhat estranging Great Britain and
Italy. Anglo-Italian relations, however, regained their normal
cordiality two years later, and found expression in the support
••re-nw]
ITAL^
73*
lent by Ttaly to the British proposal at t be London conference -•*
the Egyptian question July 1884). About the same time
Manctni was informed by the Italian agent in Cairo thit Great
Britain would be well disposed towards an extension of Italian
influence on the Red' Sea coast. Having sounded Lord GranvHle,
Mancini received encouragement to seize Beflul and Massawa,
in view of the projected restriction of the Egyptian zone of
military occupation consequent on the Mahdbl rising in the
Sudan. Lord Granville further inquired whether Italy would
co-operate in pacifying the Sudan, and received an affirmative
reply. Italian action was hastened by news that, in December
1884, an exploring party under Signer Biandri, royal com*
mi ssioner for Assab, had been massacred in the Aussa (DanakH)
country, an event which aroused m Italy a desire to punish the
assassins and to obtain satisfaction for the Still unpunished
aaassacre of Signer Giulietti and his companions. Partly to
satisfy public opinion, partly in order to profit by the favourable
disposition of the British government, and partly in the hope of
remedying the error committed in 1882 by refusal to co-operate
with Great Britain in Egypt, the Italian government in January
1885 despatched an expedition under Admiral Cainri and Colonel
Saletta to occupy Massawa and Beihil. The occupation, effected
on the 5th of February, was accelerated by fear lest Italy tpight
be forestalled by Prance or Russia, both of which powcre were
inspected of desiring to establish themselves firmly on the Red
Sea and to exercise a protectorate over Abyssinia, News of the
occupation reached Europe simultaneously with the tidings of the
fill of Khartum, an event which disappointed Italian hopes 1 of
military co-operation with Great Britain in the Sudan. The
resignation of the Gladstone-Granvillc cabinet further precluded
the projected Italian occupation of Suakin, and the Italians,
wisely refraining from an independent attempt to succour
Kassala, then besieged by the Mabdists, bent their efforts to the
increase of their zone of occupation around Massawa. The ex-
tension of the Italian tone excited the suspicions of John, negus
of Abyssinia, whose apprehensions were assiduously fomented
by Alula, fas of Tigre, and by French and Greek adventure rs.
Measures, apparently successful, were taken to reassure the negus,
but shortly afterwards protection inopportunely accorded by
Italy to enemies of Ras Alula, induced the Abyssinians to enter
upon hostilities. In January 1886 Ras Alula raided the village of
Wa, to the west of Zula, but towards the end of the year (23rd
November) Wa was occupied by the irregular troops of General
Gene, who had superseded Colonel Salettaat Massawa. Angered
by this step, Ras Alula took prisoners the members of an Italian
exploring party commanded by Count Salimbcni, and held them
as hostages for the cvacuat ion of Wa. General Gcni nevertheless
reinforced Wa and pushed forward a detachment to Saati. Oh
the 75th of January 1887 Ras Alula attacked Saati, but Was
repulsed with loss. On the following day, however, the Abys-
sinians succeeded in surprising, near the village of Dogali, an
Italian force of 524 officers and men under Colonel Dc Cristoforis,
who were convoying provisions to the garrison of Saati.
The Abyssinians, 20.000 strong, speedily overwhelmed
the small Italian force, which, after exhausting its
ammunition, was destroyed where it stood. One man only
escaped. Four hundred and seven men and twenty-three officers
were killed out right , and one officer and eighly-one men wounded.
Dead and wounded alike were horribly mutilated by order of
Alula. Fearing a new attack. General Gene withdrew his forces
from Saati, Wa and Arafali; but the lasses of the Abyssinians
at Saati and Dogali had been so heavy as to dissuade Alula from
further hostilities.
In Italy the disaster of Dogali produced consternation, and
caused the fall of the Dcpretis-Robllant cabinet. The Chamber,
iltjMfafci **&* * or r ^ ven 8^« voted a credit of £700,000, and
sanctioned the despatch of reinforcements. Mean-
while Signor Crispi, who, though averse from colonial adventure,
desired to vindicate Italian honour, entered the Dcprctis cabinet
as minister of the interior, and obtained from parliament a new
credit of £800,000 In November 1SS7 a strong expedition under
General di San Marzano raised the strength of the Massawa
fDoftJ.
garrison' to neatly 20,000 men. The British government;
desirous of preventing an iCalo-Abyssinlan conflict, which could
bat strengthen the position 01 the Mahdists, despatched Mr
(afterwards Sir) Gerald Pdrul from Massawa on the *oth of
October to mediate with the negus. The mission proved fruitless.
Portal returned to Massawa on the 25th of December 1887, and
warned the Italians that John was preparing to attack them in
the foBowmg spring with an army of 100,000 men. On the a8th :
of March 1888 the negus indeed descended from the Abyssinian
high plateau in the direction of Saati, but finding the Italian posi-
tion too strong to be carried by assault, temporized and opened '
negotiations for peace. His tactics failed to entice the Italians
from their position, and on the 3rd of April sickness among his
men compelled John to withdraw the Abyssinian army. The negus
next marched against Menelek, king of Sboa, whose neutrality
Italy had purchased with 5000 Remington rifles and a supply of
ammunition, but found him With 80,000 men too strongly en-
trenched to be successfully attacked. Tidings of a new Mahdist
incursion into Abyssinian territory reaching the negus induced
him to postpone the settlement of his quarrel with Menelek until
the dervishes had been chastised. Marching towards the Blue
Nile, he joined battle with the Mahdists] but ori the roth of
March 1889 was killed, in the hour of victory, near Gallabat.
His death gate rise to an Abyssinian war of succession between
Mangasha, natural son of John, and Menelek, grandson of the-
Negus ScIla»SeIlassi£. Menelek, by means of Count Antonett,
resident in the Shoa country, requested Italy to execute a
diversion in his favour by occupying Asmara and other points on
the high plateau. Antonelli profited by the situation to obtain
Menelek's signature to a treaty fixing the frontiers of the Italian :
colony and defining Italo^Abysstnian relations. The treaty,:
signed at Uccialli on the 2nd of May 1800, arranged for
regular intercourse between Italy and Abyssinia and* Jjjjjft
conceded to Italy a portion of the>hfeh plateau, with '
the positions of Halat, Saganeiti and Asmara. The main point
of the treaty, however, lay in clause 17:—
*' His Majesty the king of kings of Ethiopia consents to make Use
of the government of His Majesty the king of Italy for the treatment
of all questions concerning other powers and governments*"
Upon this clause Italy founded her claim to a protectorate over
Abyssinia. In September 1889 the treaty of Uccialli was ratified'
in Italy by Menelek's lieutenant, the Ras Makonnen. Makonnen
further concluded with the Italian premier. Crisp*, a convention
whereby Italy recognized Menelek as emperor of Ethiopia,
Menelek recognized the Italian colony, and arranged for* a special
I tafo- Abyssinian currency and for a roan Ori the nth of October
Italy communicated article ty of the treaty of Uccialli to the
European powers, interpreting it as a valid title to an Italian
protectorate over Abyssinia, Russia alone neglected to take note'
of the communication, and persisted in the hostile attitude she
had assumed at the moment of the occupation of Massawa.
Meanwhile the Italian mint coined thalers bearing the portrait
of Ring Humbert, with an inscription referring to the Italian
protectorate, and on the 1st of January f 800 a royal decree con-
ferred upon the colony the name of ** Eritrea. 1 '
In the colony itself General Balchsscra, who had replaced
Oeneral Saletta, delayed the movement against Mangashft
desired by Menelek. The Italian general would have
preferred to wait until his intervention was requested JJjJ^T
by both pretenders to the Abyssinian throne. Pressed A fy$$tai§,
by the home government, he, however, Instructed a
native ally to occupy the important positions of Keren and.
Asmara, and prepared himself to take the offensive against
Mangasha and Ras Alula. The latter retreated south oi the.
river Mareb, leaving the whole of the cjs-Mareb territory, includ-
ing the provinces of Hamasen, Agamch, Sera* and Okule-Kusai,
in Italian hands, Oeneral Orero, successor of Baldissera, pushed 1
o (Tensive action more vigorously, and on the 36th of January
1890 entered Adowa, a city considerably to the south of the
Mareb— an imprudent step which aroused Menelek's suspicions,
and had hurriedly to be retraced. Mangasha, seeing further
resistance to be useless, submitted to Menelek, who ai the end
74
ITALY
lifeo-iOAS.
of February ratified at Makalle the additional convention to
the treaty of Uccialli, but refused to recognize the Italian occupa-
tion of the Mareb. The negus, however, conformed to article
17 of the treaty of Uccialli by requesting Italy to represent
Abyssinia at the Brussels anti-slavery conference, an act which
strengthened Italian illusions as to Menelek's readiness to submit
to their protectorate. Menelek had previously notified the chief
European powers of bis coronation at En tot to (14th December
1889), but Germany and Great Britain replied that such notifica-
tion should have beeu made through the Italian government.
Germany, moreover, wounded Menelek's pride by employing
merely the title of " highness." The negus took advantage of
the incident to protest against the Italian text of article 17,
and to contend that the Amharic text contained no equivalent
for the word "consent," but merely stipulated that Abyssinia
" might " make use of Italy in her relations with foreign powers.
On the 28th of October 1890 Count AntoneUi, negotiator of the
treaty, was despatched to settle the controversy, but on arriving
at Adis Ababa, the new residence of the negus, found agreement
impossible either with regard to the frontier or the protectorate.
On the 10th of April 1801, Menelek communicated to the powers
his views with regard to the Italian frontier, and announced
his intention of re-establishing the ancient boundaries of Ethiopia
as far as Khartum to the north-west and Victoria Nyanza to the
south. Meanwhile the marquis de Rudini, who had succeeded
Crispi as Italian premier, had authorized the abandonment of
article 17 even before he had heard of the failure of Antonelli's
negotiations. Rudini was glad to leave the whole dispute in
abeyance and to make with the local ras, or chieftains, of the
high plateau an arrangement securing for Italy the cis-Mareb
provinces of Serae" and Okule-Kusai under the rule of an allied
native chief named Bath-Agos. Rudini, however, was able
to conclude two protocols with Great Britain (March and April
1 801) whereby the British government definitely recognized
Abyssinia as within the Italian sphere of influence in return for
an Italian recognition of British rights in the Upper Nile.
The period 1887-1890 was marked in Italy by great political
activity. The entry of Crispi into the Depretis cabinet as
minister of the interior (4th April 1887) introduced
into the government an element of vigour which had
long been lacking. Though sixty-eight years of age,
Crispi possessed an activity, a rapidity of decision
and an energy in execution with which none of his contemporaries
could vie Within four months the death of Depretis (29th
July 1887) opened for Crispi the way to the premiership. Besides
assuming the presidency of the council of ministers and retaining
the ministry of the interior, Crispi took over the portfolio of
foreign affairs which Depretis had held since the resignation of
Count di Robilant. One of the first questions with which he
had to deal was that of conciliation between Italy and the
Vatican. At the end of May the pope, in an allocution to the
cardinals, had spoken of Italy in terms of unusual cordiality,
and had expressed a wish for peace. A few days later Signor
Bonghi, one of the framers of the Law of Guarantees, published
in the Nuova Antologta a plea for reconciliation on the basis of
an amendment to the Law of Guarantees and recognition by
the pope of the Italian title to Rome. The chief incident of the
movement towards conciliation consisted, however, in the
publication of a pamphlet entitled La Conciliaxione by Father
Tosti. a close friend and confidant of the pope, extolling the
advantages of peace between Vatican and Quirinal. Tosti's
pamphlet was known to represent papal ideas, and Tosti himself
was persona grata to the Italian government. Recon-
* *%£ f dilation seemed within sight when suddenly Tosti's
to*. pamphlet was placed on the Index, ostensibly on
account of a phrase, "The whole of Italy entered
Rome by the breach of Porta Pia; the king cannot restore
Rome to the pope, since Rome belongs to the Italian people "
On the 4th of June 1887 the official Vatican organ, the Ossenatore
Romano, published a letter written by Tosti to the pope condition-
ally retracting the views expressed in the pamphlet The letter
had been written at the pope's request, on the understanding
a**
that it should not be published. On the 15th of June the pope
addressed to Cardinal Rampolla del Tindaro, secretary of state,
a letter reiterating in uncompromising terms the papti daim to
the temporal power, and at the end of July Cardinal Rampolla
reformulated the same claim in a circular to the papal nuncios
abroad. The dream of conciliation was at an end, but the Tosti
incident had served once more to illustrate the true position of
the Vatican in regard to Italy. It became clear that neither the
influence of the regular clergy, of which the Society of Jesus
is the most powerful embodiment, nor that of foreign clerical
parties, which largely control the Peter's Pence fund, would
ever permit renunciation of the papal claim to temporal power.
France, and the French Catholics especially, feared lest concilia -
tion should diminish the reliance of the Vatican upon frma
France, and consequently French hold over the ©/**•
Vatican. The Vatican, for its part, felt its claim to "^*gf*
temporal power to be too valuable a pecuniary asset V*"**
and too efficacious an instrument of church discipline lightly
to be thrown away. The legend of an "imprisoned pope,"
subject to every whim of his gaolers, had never failed to arouse
the pity and loosen the purse-strings of the faithful; dangerous
innovators and would-be reformers within the church could be
compelled to bow before the symbol of the temporal power, and
their spirit of submission tested by their readiness to forgo
the realization of their aims until the head of the church should
be restored to bis rightful domain. More important than all
was the interest of the Roman curia, composed almost exclusively
of Italians, to retain in its own hands the choice of the pontiff
and to maintain the predominance of the Italian element and
the Italian spirit in the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Conciliation
with Italy would expose the pope and his Italian entourage to
suspicion of being unduly subject to Italian political influence—
of being, in a word, more Italian than Catholic. Such a suspicion
would inevitably lead to a movement in favour of the inter-
nationalization of the curia and of the papacy. In order to
avoid this danger it was therefore necessary to refuse all com-
promise, and, by perpetual reiteration of a claim incompatible
with Italian territorial unity, to prove to the church at large
that the pope and the curia were more Catholic than Italian.
Such rigidity of principle need not be extended to the affairs
of everyday contact between the Vatican and the Italian
authorities, with regard to which, indeed, a tacit modus titendi
was easily attainable. Italy, for her part, could not go back
upon the achievements of the Risorgimcnto by restoring Rome
or any portion of Italian territory to the pope. She had hoped
by conciliation to arrive at an understanding which should have
ranged the church among the conservative and not among the
disruptive forces of the country, but she was keenly desirous
to retain the papacy as a preponderatingly Italian institution,
and was ready to make whatever formal concessions might have
appeared necessary to reassure foreign Catholics concerning the
reality of the pope's spiritual independence. The failure of the
conciliation movement left profound irritation between Vatican
and Quirinal, an irritation which, on the Vatican side, found
expression in vivacious protests and in threats of leaving Rome,
and, on the Italian side, in the deposition of the syndic of
Rome for having visited the cardinal- vicar, in the anti-clerical
provisions of the new penal code, and in the inauguration (9th
June 1889) of a monument to Giordano Bruno on the very site
of bis martyrdom.
The internal situation inherited by Crispi from Depretis was
very unsatisfactory. Extravagant expenditure on railways
and public works, loose administration of finance, the cost of
colonial enterprise, the growing demands for the army and
navy, the impending tariff war with France, and the over-
speculation in building and in industrial ventures, which had
absorbed all the floating capital of the country, had combined
to produce a state of affairs calling for firm and radical treatment
Crispi, burdened by the premiership and by the two most
important portfolios in the cabinet, was, however, unable to
exercise efficient control over all departments of state. Neverthe-
less his administration was by no means unfruitful. Zanardelli,
tflyfr-190^
ITALY
75
minister of justice, secured In June 1888 the adoption of a new
penal code; state surveillance was extended to the opcrt pie,
or charitable institutions, municipal franchise was reformed
by granting what was practically manhood suffrage with
residential qualification , provision being made for minority
representation; and the central state administration was
reformed by a bill fixing the number and functions of the various
ministries. The management of finance was scarcely satisfactory,
for though Giolitti, who had succeeded Magliani and Perazzi
at the treasury, suppressed the former's illusory " pension fund,"
be lacked the fibre necessary to deal with the enormous deficit
of nearly £10,000,000 in 1888-1889, the existence of which both
Perazzi and he had recognized. The most successful feature
of Crispi's term of office was his strict maintenance of order and
the suppression of Radical and Irredentist agitation So
vigorous was his treatment of Irredentism that he dismissed
without warning his colleague Seismit Doda, minister of finance,
for having failed to protest against Irredentist speeches delivered
in his presence at Udine. Firmness such as this secured for him
the support of all constitutional elements, and after three years'
premiership his position was infinitely stronger than at the
outset. The general election of 1800 gave the cabinet an almost
unwieldy majority, comprising four-fifths of the Chamber. A
lengthy term of office seemed to be opening out before him when,
on the 31st of January 1801, Crispi, speaking in a debate upon
an unimportant bill, angrily rebuked the Right for its noisy
interruptions. The rebuke infuriated the Conservative deputies,
who. protesting agatnst Crispi's words in the name of the " sacred
memories " of their party, precipitated a division and placed
the cabinet in a mmoiity The incident, whether due to chance
or guile, brought about the resignation of Crispi A few days
later lie was succeeded in the premiership by the marquis di
Rudini. leader of the Right, who formed a coalition cabinet with
Nkotera and a part of the Left.
The sudden fall of Crispi wrought a great change in the
character of Italian relations with foreign powers His policy
frjtoj had been characterized by extreme cordiality towards
Austria and Germany, by a dose understanding with
Great Britain in regard to Mediterranean questions, and by an
apparent animosity towards France, which at one moment
seemed Nkely to lead to war. Shortly before the fall of the
Depretis-Robilant cabinet Count Robilant had announced the
intention of Italy to denounce the commercial treaties with
France and Austria, which would lapse en the 31st of December
1887, and had intimated his readiness to negotiate new treaties
On the 24th of June 1887, in view of a possible rupture of com-
mercial relations with France, the Depretis-Cnspi cabinet
introduced a new general tariff. The probability of the conclu-
sion of a new Franco-Italian treaty was small, both on account
of the protectionist spirit of France and of French resentment
at the renewal of the triple alliance, but even such slight proba-
bility vanished after a visit paid to Bismarck by Crispi (October
1887) within three months of his appointment to the premiership-
Crispi entertained no a priori animosity towards France, but was
strongly convinced that Italy must emancipate herself from the
position of political dependence on her powerful neighbour
which had vitiated the foreign policy of the Left. So far was he
from desiring a rupture with France, that be had subordinated
acceptance of the portfolio of the interior in the Depretis cabinet
to an assurance that the triple alliance contained no provision
for offensive warfare. But his ostentatious visit to Friedrichsruh,
and a subsequent speech at Turin, la which, while professing
sentiments of friendship and esteem for France, be eulogized
the personality of Bismarck, aroused against him a hostility
on the part of the French which be was never afterwards able
to allay. France was equally careless of Italian susceptibilities,
and in April 1888 Goblet made a futile but irritating attempt
to enforce at Massawa the Ottoman regime of the capitulations
in regard to non-Italian residents. In such circumstances the
negotiations for the new commercial treaty could but fail, and
though the old treaty was prolonged by special arrangement
for two months, differential tariffs were put in force on both sides
of the frontier on the 29th of February 1888. The value of
French exports into Italy decreased immediately by one-half,
while Italian exports to France decreased by nearly two-thirds.
At the end of 1880 Crispi abolished the differential duties against
French imports and returned to the general Italian tariff, but
France declined to follow his lead and maintained her prohibitive
dues. Meanwhile the enthusiastic reception accorded to the
young German emperor on the occasion of his visit to Rome in
October 1888, and the cordiality shown towards King Humbert
and Crispi at Berlin in May 1889, increased the tension of Franco-
Italian relations; nor was it until after the fall of Prince
Bismarck in March 1890 that Crispi adopted towards the Republic
a more friendly attitude by sending an Italian squadron to salute
President Carnot at Toulon. The chief advantage derived
by Italy from Crispi's foreign policy was the increase of con-
fidence in her government on the part of her allies and of Great
Britain. On the occasion of the incident raised by Goblet with
regard to Massawa, Bismarck made it clear to France that, in
case of complications, Italy would not stand alone; and when
in February 1888 a strong French fleet appeared to menace
the Italian coast, the British Mediterranean squadron demon-
strated its readiness to support Italian naval dispositions.
Moreover, under Crispi's hand Italy awoke from the apathy
of former years and gained consciousness of her place in the
world. The conflict with France, the operations in Eritrea,
the vigorous interpretation of the triple alliance, the questions
of Morocco and Bulgaria, were all used by him as means to
stimulate national sentiment With the instinct of a true
statesman, he felt the pulse of the people, divined their need for
prestige, and their preference for a government heavy-handed
rather than lax. How great had been Crispi's power was seen
by contrast with the policy of the Rudini cabinet which succeeded
him in February 1891. Crispi's so-called " megalomania " gave
place to retrenchment in home affairs and to a deferential
attitude towards all foreign powers The premiership s*co*4
of Rudini was hailed by the Radical leader, CavaJJotti, n—wioi
as a pledge of the non-renewal of the triple alliance, ^J™* 1-
against which the Radicals began a vociferous campaign AWB9C *'
Their tactics, however, produced a contrary effect, for Rudini,
accepting proposals from Berlin, renewed the alliance in June
1891 for a period of twelve years. None of Rudini's public
utterances justify the supposition that he assumed office with the
intention of allowing the alliance to lapse on its expiry in May
1892, indeed, he frankly declared it to form the basis of his
foreign policy. The at t itude of several of his colleagues was more
equivocal, but though they coquetted with French financiers
in the hope of obtaining the support of the Paris Bourse for
Italian securities, the precipitate renewal of the alliance destroyed
all probability of a dose understanding with France. The desire
of Rudini to live on the best possible terms with all powers was
further evinced in the course of a visit paid to Monza by M. de
Giers in October 1891, when the Russian statesman was apprised
of the entirely defensive nature of Italian engagements under
the triple alliance. At the same time he carried to a successful
conclusion negotiations begun by Crispi for the renewal of
commercial treaties with Austria and Germany upon terms
which to some extent compensated Italy for the reduction of
her commerce with France, and concluded with Great Britain
conventions for the delimitation of British and Italian spheres
of influence in north-east Africa. In borne affairs his administra-
tion was weak and vacillating, nor did the economies effected
in naval and military expenditure and in other departments
suffice to strengthen the position of a cabinet which bad dis-
appointed the hopes of its supporters. On the 14th of April
1892 dissensions between ministers concerning the financial
programme led to a cabinet crisis, and though Rudmi succeeded
in reconstructing his administration, he was defeated in the
Chamber on the 5th of May and obliged to resign. King Humbert,
who, from lack of confidence in Rudini, had declined ofeMtt
to allow him to dissolve parliament, entrusted Signor
Giolitti, a Piedmontese deputy, sometime treasury minister
in the Crispi cabinet, with the formation of a ministry of
76
ITALY
i^n^wm
the Left, which contrived. 16* obtain si* months' supply oft
account, and dissolved the Chamber.
The ensuing general election (November 1892), marked by
unprecedented violence and abuse of official pressure upon
A ^ the electorate, fitly ushered tn what proved to be
the most unJortunate period of Italian history since
Che completion of national unity. The influence of
Gioliui was based largely upon the favour of a court clique,
and especially of Rattazzi, minister of the royal household.
Early in 1805 a scandal arose in connexion with the manage*
ment of state banks, and particularly of the Banc* Romaua,
whose managing director, Tanlongo, had issued £2,500,000 of
duplicate bank-notes. Gioliui scarcely improved matters by
creating Tanlongo a member of the senate, and by denying in
parliament the existence of any mismanagement. The senate,
however, manifested the utmost hostility to Tanlongo, whom
Gioliui, in consequence of an interpellation in the Chamber,
was compelled to arrest. Arrests of other prominent persons
followed, and on the 3rd of February the Chamber authorized
the prosecution of De Zerbi, a Neapolitan deputy accused of
corruption. On the 20th of February De Zerbi suddenly
expired. For a time Gioliui successfully opposed inquiry into
the conditions of the state banks, but on the 21st of March was
compelled to sanction an official investigation by a parliamentary
commission composed of seven members. On the 23rd of
November the report of the commission was read to the Chamber
amid intense excitement. It established that all Italian cabinets
since 1880 had grossly neglected the state banks; that the two
preceding cabinets had been aware of the irregularities committed
by Tanlongo; that Tanlongo had heavily subsidized the press,
paying as much as £20,000 for that purpose in 1888 alone;
that a number of deputies, intruding several ex-ministers, bad
received from him loans of a considerable amount, which they
had apparently made no effort to refund; that Giolitti had
deceived the Chamber with regard to the state banks* and was
open tosuspicionof having.af ter the arrest of Tanlongo, abstracted
a number of documents from the tatter's papers before placing
the remainder in the bands of the judicial authorities. In spite
of the gravity of the charges formulated against many prominent
men. the report merely *' deplored " and " disapproved " of
their conduct, without proposing penal proceedings. Fear of
extending still farther a scandal which had already attained
huge dimensions, and the desire to avoid any further shock to
national credit, convinced the commissioners of the expediency
of avoiding a long series of prosecutions. The report, however,
sealed the fate of ihe£iolitti cabinet, and on the 24th of November
h resigned amid general execration.
Apart from the lack of scruple manifested by Giolitti in the
bank scandals, he exhibited incompetence in the conduct of
foreign and home affairs. On the 16th and 18th of
August 1893 a number of Italian workmen were
massacred at Aigues-Mortea, The French authorities,
under whose eyes the massacre was perpetrated, did
nothing to prevent or repress it, and the mayor of Marseilles
even refused to admit the wounded Italian workmen to the
municipal hospital. These occurrences provoked an ti Trench
demonstrations in many parts of Italy, and revived the chronic
Italian rancour against France. The Italian foreign minister.
Brio, began by demanding the punishment of the persons
guilty of the massacre, but hastened to accept as satisfactory the
anodyne measures adopted by the French government.- Giobiti
removed the prefect of Rome for not having prevented ah
expression -of popular anger, and presented formal excuses to
the French consul ai Messina for a demonstration against that
consulate. -In. the fallowing. December the French tribunal at
Angoultme acquitted alL the authors at the massacre. At
home Giolitti displayed the same weakness. Riots at Naples
in August 1803 and symptoms of unrest in Sicily found him*
as usual, unprepared and vacillating. The dosing of the French
market to Sicilian produce, the devastation wrought by the
phylloxera and the decrease of the sulphur trade had combined
to produce in Sicily a discontent of which Socialist agitators
took advantage to organixe the workmen of the towns and
the peasants ofc the country bio groups known as fascu
The movement had no well-denned object. Here
and there it was based upon a bastard Socialism, JjjJ^T*
in other places it was made a means of municipal *±^
party warfare under the guidance of the local mafia,
and in some districts it was simply popular effervescence against
the local octrois on bread and flour. As early as January 1803 a
conflict had occurred between the police and the populace, in
which several men, women and children were killed , an occurrence
used by the agitators further to inflame the populace. Instead
Of maintaining a firm policy, Giolitti allowed the movement
to spread until, towards the autumn of 1893, he became alarmed
and drafted troops into the island, though in numbers insufficient
to restore order, At the moment of his fall the movement
assumed the aspect of an insurrection, and during the interval
between bis resignation (24th November) and the formation
of a new Crispi cabinet (toth December) conflicts between the
public farces and the rioters were frequent. The return of Crispi
to power— a return imposed by public opinion as that of the only
man capable of dealing with the desperate situation— marked
the turning-point of the crisis. Intimately acquainted with
the conditions of his native island, Crispi adopted efficacious
remedies. The/tori were suppressed, Sicily was filled with troops,
the reserves were called out, a state of siege proclaimed, military
courts instituted and the whole movement crushed in a few
weeks. The chief agitators were either sentenced to heavy
terms of imprisonment or were compelled to flee the country.
A simultaneous insurrection at Massa Carrara was crushed
with similar vigour. GrispTs methods aroused great outcry
in the Radical press, but the severe sentences of the military
courts were in time tempered by the Royal prerogative of
amnesty.
But it was not alone in regard to public order that heroic
measures were necessary. The financial situation inspired
serious misgivings. While engagements contracted FSuAmJl j
by Depretis in regard to public works had more than (riaiBm
neutralized the normal increase of revenue from taxa-
tion, the whole credit of the state had been affected by the
severe economic and financial crises of the years 1S80-1S03.
The state banks, already hampered by maladministration,
were encumbered by. huge quantities of real estate which bad
been taken over as compensation for unredeemed mortgages*
Baron Sidney Sonnino, minister of finance in the Crispi cabinet,
found a prospective deficit of £7.080.000. and in spite of economies
was obliged to face an actual deficit of more than £6,000,000,
Drastic measures were necessary to limit expenditure and to
provide new sources of revenue. Sonnino applied, and sub-
sequently amended, the Bank Reform Bill passed by the previous
Administration (August 10, 1893) for the creation of a supreme
state bank, the Bank of Italy, which was entrusted with the
liquidation of the insolvent Banca Romana. The new law
forbade the state banks to lend money on real estate, limited
their powers of discounting bills and securities, and reduced the
maximum of their paper currency. In order to diminish the
gold premium, which under Giolitti had risen to 16%, forced
currency was given to the existing notes of the banks of Italy,
Naples and Sicily, while special state notes were issued to meet
immediate currency needs. Measures were enforced to prevent
Italian holders of consols from sending their coupons abroad to
be paid in gold, with the result that, whereas in 1893 £3**40,000
had been paid abroad in. gold for the service of the January
coupons and only £680,000 in paper in Italy, the same coupon
was paid a year later with only £1 ,360,000 abroad and £2.540,000
at home. Economies for more than £1 ,000,000, were immediately
effected, taxes, calculated to produce £2,440,000, were proposed
to be placed upon land, incomes, salt and com, while the existing
income-tax upon consols (fixed at 8% by Cambray-Digny an
1868, and raised to 13*20% by Sella in 1870) was increased to
20% irrespectively of the stockholders' nationality. These
proposals met with opposition so fierce as to cause a cabinet
crisis, but Sonnino who resigned office as minister of Anance,
i*k<9o>] ITALY
returned to power as minster of the treasury, promulgated some
of his proposals by royal decree, and in spite of vehement
opposition secured their ratification by the Chamber. The tax
upon consols, which, in conjunction with the other severe fiscal
measures, was regarded abroad as a pledge that Italy intended
at all costs to avoid bankruptcy, caused a rise in Italian stocks.
When the Crispi cabinet fell in March 1896 Sonnino had the
satisfaction of seeing revenue increased by £3,400,000, expendi-
ture diminished by £2,600,000, the gold premium reduced from
16 to 5%, consolidated stock at 95 instead of 72, and, notwith-
standing the expenditure necessitated by the Abyssinian War 1 ,
financial equilibrium practically restored.
While engaged in restoring order and in supporting Sonnlno's
courageous struggle against bankruptcy, Crispi became the
AMmr ^ object of fierce attacks from the Radicals, Socialists
•aCHsp*. tm * anarchists. On the 16th of June an attempt by
an anarchist named Lego, was made on Crispi '5 life;
on the 24th of June President Carnot was assassinated by the
anarchist Caserio; and on the 30th of June an Italian journalist
was murdered at Leghorn for a newspaper attack upon anarchism
— a series of outrages which led the government to frame and
parliament to adopt (nth July) a Public Safety Bill for the pre-
vention of anarchist propaganda and crime. At the end of July
the trial of the persons implicated in the Banca Romana scandal
revealed the fact that among the documents abstracted by Giolitti
from the papers of the bank manager, Tanlongo, were several
bearing upon Crispi's political and private life. On the nth of
December Giolitti laid these and other papers before the Chamber,
in the hope of ruining Crispi, but upon examination most of them
were found to be worthless, and the rest of so private a nature as
to be unfit for publication. The eft>ct of the incident was rather
to increase detestation of Giolitti than to damage Crispi. The
latter, inJeed, prosecuted the former for libel and for abuse of
his position when premier, but after many vicissitudes, including
the flight of Giolitti to Berlin in order to avoid arrest, the
Chamber refused authorization for the prosecution, and the
matter dropped. A fresh attempt of the same kind was then
made against Crispi by the Radical leader Cavallotti, who
advanced unproven charges of corruption and embezzlement.
These attacks were, however, unavailing to shake Crispi's
position, and m the general election of May 1895 his government
obtained a majority of nearly 200 votes. Nevertheless public
confidence in the efficacy of the parliamentary system and in the
honesty of politicians was seriously diminished by these un-
savoury occurrences, which, in combination with the acquittal of
all the defendants in the Banca Romana. trial, and the abandon-
ment of the proceedings against Giolitti, reinforced to an alarm-
ing degree the propaganda of the revolutionary parties.
The foreign policy of the second Crispi Administration, in
which the portfolio of foreign affairs was held by Baron Blanc,
was, as before, marked by a cordial interpretation of
tla the triple alliance, and by close accord with Great
^a. Britain. In the Armenian question Italy seconded with
energy the diplomacy of Austria and Germany, while
the Italian fleet joined the British Mediterranean squadron in a
demonstration off the Syrian coast. Graver than any foreign
question were the complications in Eritrea. Under the arrange-
ment concluded in 1891 by Rudini with native chiefs in regard
to the Italo-Abysstnian frontier districts, relations with Abyssinia
had remained comparatively satisfactory. Towards the Sudan,
however, the Mahdists, who had recovered from a defeat inflicted
by an Italian force at Agordat in 1890, resumed operations in
December 1893. Colonel Arimondi, commander of the colonial
forces in the absence of the military governor. General Baratieri,
attacked and routed a dervish force 10,000 strong on the 21st of
December. The Italian troops, mostly native levies, numbered
only 2200 men. The dervish loss was more than rooo killed,
while the total Italian casualties amounted to less than 230.
General Baratieri. upon returning to the colony, decided to
execute a coup it main against the dervish base at Kassata, both in
order to relieve pressure from that quarter and to preclude a com-
bined Abyssinian and dervish attack upon the colony at the end of
77
1894. The protocol concluded with Great Britain on the r 5th of
April 1 891 , already referred to, contained a clause to the effect that,
were Kassala occupied by the Italians, the place should be trans-
ferred to the Egyptian government as soon as the latter should
be in a position to restore order in the Sudan. Concentrating a
little army of 2000 men, Baratieri surprised and captured Kassala
on the 17th of July 1894, and garrisoned the place with native
levies under Italian officers. Meanwhile Menelek, jealous of the
extension df Italian influence to a part of northern SomaUand
and to the Benadir coast, had, with the sapport of France and
Russia, completed his preparations for asserting his authority as
independent ruler of Ethiopia. On the nth of May 1893 be
denounced the treaty of Ucrialli, but the Giolitti cabitiet, absorbed
by the bank scandals, paid no heed to his action. Possibly an
adroit repetition in favour of Mangasha and against Menelek of
the policy formerly followed in favour of Menelek against the
negus John might have consolidated Italian influence in Abyssinia
by preventing the ascendancy of any single chieftain. The
Italian government, however, neglected this opening, and
Mangasha came to terms with Menelek. Consequently the
efforts of Crispi and his envoy, Colonel Piano, to conclude a new
treaty with Menelek in June 1894 not only proved unsuccessful,
but formed a prelude to troubles on the Itolo-Abyssinian frontier.
Bath-Agos, the native chieftain who ruled the Oku)6-Kusai and
the ds-Mareb provinces on behalf of Italy, intrigued with
Mangasha, ras of the trans-Mareb province of Tigr£, and with
Menelek, to raise a revolt against Italian rule on the high
plateau. In December 1894 the revolt broke out, but Major
Toselli with a small force marched rapidly against Bath Agos,
whom he routed and killed at Halai. General Baratieri. having
reason to suspect the complicity of Mangasha in the revolt, called
upon him to furnish troops for a projected Italo-Abyssinian
campaign against the Mahdists. Mangasha made no reply, and
Baratieri crossing the March advanced to Adowa, but four days
later was obliged to return northwards. Mangasha thereupon
took the offensive and attempted to occupy the village of Coatit
in Okule-Kusai, but was forestalled and defeated by Baratieri on
the 13th of January 1895. Hurriedly retreating to Senate, hard
pressed by the Italians, who shelled Senate on the evening of the
15th of January, Mangasha was obliged to abandon his camp and
provisions to Baratieri, who also secured a quantity of corre-
spondence establishing the complicity of Menelek and Mangasha
in the revolt of Bath-Agos.
The comparatively facile success achieved by Baratieri
against Mangasha seems to have led him to undervalue his
enemy, and to forget that Menelek, negus and king
of Shoa, had an interest in allowing Mangos hi to be ojjjn?"
crushed, in order that the imperial authority and the
superiority of Shoan over Tigrin arms might be the more strikingly
asserted. After obtaining the establishment of an apostolic
prefecture in Eritrea under the charge of Italian Franciscans,
Baratieri expelled from the colony the French Lazarist mission-
aries for their alleged complicity in the Bath-Agos insurrection,
and in March -1895 undertook the conquest of Tigr*. Occupyihg
Adigrat and Makalle, he reached Adowa on the 1st of April, and
thence pushed forward to Axum, the holy city of Abyssinia. These
places were garrisoned, and during the rainy season Baratieri
returned to Italy, where he was received with unbounded
enthusiasm. Whether he or the Crispi cabinet had any inkling
of the enterprise to whkh they were committed by the occupa-
tion of Tigrl is more than doubtful. Certainly Baratieri made
no adequate preparations to repel an Abyssinian attempt to
reconquer the province. Early in September both Mangasha
and Menelek showed signs of activity, and on the 20th of Sep-
tember Makonncn, ras of Harrar, who up till then had ben,
regarded as a friend and quasi-ally by Italy, expelled all Italians
from bis territory and marched with 30,600 men to jom the
ttegus. On returning to Eritrea, Baratieri mobilized his native
reserves and pushed forward columns under Major Toselli and
General Arimondi as far south as Amba Magi. Mangasha fell
back before the Italians, who obtained several minor successes;
but on the 6th of December ToscUTs column, 2000 strong, *hicb
'H
ITAIiY
[xa70-t901
thwuth a misunderstanding continued t* hold Amba Akgi, was
«lm,«i wmlhiKiitfU by the Abyssinian vanguard of 40,000 men.
twill «ml all but throe ofiicers and 300 men fell at their posts
4MH a lUiHWlr resistance. Arimondi, collecting the survivors
,q ihr lWlh wluinn, retreated to Makalle and Adigrat. At
MaUW, howc\er, he left a small garrison in the fort, which on
th» 11 h «( January 1896 was invested by the Abyaanian •nny.
|ti<t*,ttftt attempts to capture the fort having failed, Mcnelek
*»d Makonntn opened negotiations with Baratieri for itscapitula-
turn and on tho aist of January the garrison, under Major
IUIIIauo, who hod heroically defended the position, were per-
mit trd to mnrch out with the honours of war. Meanwhile
lUimirti rcicived reinforcements from Italy, but remained
undecided as lo the best plan of campaign. Thus a month was
lost, during which the Abyssinian army advanced to Hauscn,
a position slightly south of Adowa, The Italian commander
attempted to treat with Menelek, but his negotiations merely
enabled the Italian envoy, Major Salsa, to ascertain that the
Abyuinlftni were nearly 100,000 strong mostly armed with
lilies and well supplied with artillery. Tho Italians, including
ctimp-tollowera, numbered less than 35,000 men, a force too
small for effective action, but too large to be easily provisioned
at aoo m. from its base, in a roadless, mountainous country,
slmosl devoid of water. For a moment Baratieri thought of
retreat, especially as the hope of creating a diversion from Zaila
towards Harrar had failed in consequence of the British refusal
to permit the landing of an Italian force without the consent
of France. The defection of a number of native allies (who,
however, were attacked and defeated by Colonel Stevani on
the 18th of February) rendered the Italian position still more
precarious, but Baratieri, unable to make up bis mind, continued
to manoeuvre in the hope of drawing an Abyssinian attack.
These futile tactics exasperated the home government, which
oil the 22nd of February despatched General Baldissera, with
strong reinforcements, to supersede Baratieri. On the 25th of
February Crispi telegraphed to Baratieri, denouncing bis opera-
tions as " military phthisis/' and urging him to decide upon
some strategic plan. Baratieri, anxious probably to obtain
some success before the arrival of Baldissera, and alarmed by
the rapid diminution of his stores, which precluded further
immobility, called a council of war (2Qth of February) and
obtained the approval of the divisional commanders for a plan
of attack. During the night the army advanced towards
Adowa in three divisions, under Generals Dabormida, Arimondi
and Albertone, each division being between 4000 and 5000
strong, and a brigade 5300 strong under General
Ellena remaining in reserve. All the divisions,
save that of Albertone, consisted chiefly of Italian
troops. During the march Albertone's native division mistook
the road, and found itself obliged to delay in the Arimondi column
by retracing its steps. Marching rapidly, however, Albertone
outdistanced the other columns, but, in consequence of allowing
his men an hour's rest, arrived upon the scene of action when
the Abyssinians, whom it had been hoped to surprise at dawn,
were ready to receive the attack. Pressed by overwhelming
forces, the Italians, after a violent combat, began to give way.
The Dabormida division, unsupported by Albertone, found
itself likewise engaged in a separate combat against superior
numbers. Similarly the Arimondi brigade was attacked by
30,000 Sboans, and encumbered by the debris of Albertone's
troops. Baratieri vainly attempted to push forward the reserve,
but the Italians were already overwhelmed, and the battle— or
rather, series of distinct engagements— ended in a general rout.
The Italian loss is estimated to have been more than 6000,
of whom jus were whites. Between 3000 and 4000 prisoners
were taken by the Abyssinians, including General Albertone,
while Generals Arimondi and Dabormida were killed and General
Kllena wounded. The Abyssinians lost more than 5000 killed
and 8000 wounded. Baratieri, after a futile attempt to direct
tho retreat, fled in haste and reached Adi-Caje before the debris
of his army. Thence he despatched telegrams to Italy throwing
blame for the defeat upon his tr<~~ * ~— — <*ing whidi sub*
SET EUro *
sequent evidence proved to be as unjustifiable as it was unsoMier-
like. Placed under court-martial for his conduct, Baratieri
was acquitted of the charge for having been led lo give battle
by other than military considerations, but the sentence ** deplored
that in such difficult circumstances the command should have
been given to a general so inferior to the exigencies of the
situation."
In Italy the news of the defeat of Adowa caused deep dis-
couragement and dismay. On the 5th of March the Crispi
cabinet resigned before an outburst of indignation which the
Opposition had assiduously fomented, and five days later a new
cabinet was formed by General Rkotti-Magnani, who, however,
made over the premiership to the marquis di Rudini. The latter,
though leader of the Right, had long been intriguing with
Cavallotti, leader of the Extreme Left, to overthrow Crispi, but
without the disaster of Adowa his plan would scarcely have
succeeded. The first act of the new cabinet was to confirm
instructions given by its predecessor to General Baldissera (who
had succeeded General Baratieri on the 2nd of March) to treat
for peace with Menelek if he thought desirable. Baldissera
opened negotiations with the negus through Major Salsa, and
simultaneously reorganized the Italian army. The negotiations
having failed, he marched to relieve the beleaguered garrison
of Adigrat; but Menelek, discouraged by the heavy losses at
Adowa, broke up his camp and returned southwards
to Shoa. At the same time Baldissera detached 2*22^
Colonel Stevani with four native battalions to relieve mta t.
Kassala, then hard pressed by the Mahdists. Kassala
was relieved on the 1st of April, and Stevani a few days later
severely defeated the dervishes at Jebel Mokram and Tucrufi
Returning from Kassala Colonel Stevani rejoined Baldissera,
who on the 4th of May relieved Adigrat after a well-executed
march. By adroit negotiations with Mangasha the Italian
general obtained the release of the Italian prisoners in Tigrt,
and towards the end of May withdrew his whole force north of
the Mareb. Major Nerazzini was then despatched as special
envoy to the negus to arrange terms of peace. On the 26th of
October Nerazzini succeeded in concluding, at Adis Ababa,
a provisional treaty annulling the treaty of Ucdalli, recognizing
the absolute independence of Ethiopia, postponing for one year
the definitive delimitation of the Italo-Abyssinian boundary,
but allowing the Italians meanwhile to hold the strong Mareb-
Belcsa-Muna line; and arranging for the release of the Italian
prisoners after ratification of the treaty in exchange for an
indemnity of which the amount was to be fixed by the ItaLan
government The treaty having been duly ratified, and an
indemnity of £400,000 paid to Menelek, the Shoan prisoners were
released, and Major Nerazzini once more returned to Abyssinia
with instructions to secure, if possible, Menekk's assent to tie
definitive retention of the Mareb-Belesa-Muna line by Italy.
Before Nerazzini could reach Adis Ababa, Rudini, in order
partially to satisfy the demands of his Radical supporters for
the abandonment of the colony, announced in the Chamber the
intention of Italy to limit her occupation to the triangular zone
between the points Asmara, Keren and Massawa, and. possibly,
to withdraw to Massawa alone This declaration, of which
Menelek was swiftly apprised by. French agents, rendered it
impossible to Nerazzini to obtain more than a boundary leaving
to Italy but a small portion of the high plateau and ceding to
Abyssinia the fertile provinces of Serae and Okule-Kusai The
fall of the Rudini cabinet in June 1808, however, enabled
Signor Ferdinando Martini and Captain Cicco di Cola, who had
been appointed respectively civil governor of Eritrea and minister
resident at Adis Ababa, to prevent the cession of Serai and Okule-
Kusai, and to secure the assent of Mcnelek to Italian retention
of the Mareb-BelesarMuna frontier. Eritrea has now approxi-
mately the same extent as before the revolt of Bath-Ago*,
except in regard (1) to Kassala, which was transferred to the
Anglo-Egyptian authorities on the 25th of December 1897, in
pursuance of the above-mentioned Anglo-Italian convention,
and (2) to slight rectifications of its northern and eastern bound-
aries by conventions concluded between the Eritrean and tho
itm w wl
KTALY
79
Anglo-Egyptian authorities. UfldirSigiiOffFcftlhMdoliutSM's
Able srf ministration (1898-1906) the cost of the colony to Italy
was reduced and its trade and agriculture have vastly improved.
While marked in regard to Eritrea by vacillation and un-
dignified readiness to yield to Radical clamour, the policy of
the marquis di Rudini was in other respects chiefly characterized
by a desire to demolish Crispi and his supporters. Actuated by
rancour against Crispi, he, on the 29th of April 1806, authorized
the pubacation of a Green Book on Abyssinian affairs, in which,
without toe consent of Great Britain, the confidential Anglo-
Italian negotiations in regard to the Abyssinian war were
disclosed. This publication, which amounted to a gross breach
of diplomatic confidence, might have endangered the cordiality of
Aagio-Italian relations, had net the esteem of the British
government for General Ferrero, Italian ambassador in London,
induced it to overlook the incident. Fortunately for Italy,
the marquis Visconti Venosta shortly afterwards consented
to assume the portfolio of foreign affairs, which had been resigned
by Duke Caetani di Sermoneta, and again to place, after an
interval of twenty years, his unrivalled experience at the service
of has country. In September 1806 he succeeded in concluding
with France a treaty with regard to Tunisia in place of the old
Italo-Tunisian treaty, denounced by the French Government a
year previously. During the Greco-Turkish War of 1897 Visconti
Venosta laboured to maintain the European concert, joined
Great Britain in preserving Greece from the worst consequences
of her folly, and Lent moral and material aid in establishing an
autonomous government in Crete. At the same time he mitigated
the Francophil tendencies of some of bis colleagues, accompanied
King Humbert and Queen Margherita on their visit to Homburg
in September 1807, and, by loyal observance of the spirit of the
triple alliance, retained for Italy the confidence of her allies
without forfeiting the goodwill of France.
The home administration of the Rudini cabinet compared
unfavousably with that of foreign affairs. Bound by a secret
understanding with the Radical leader Cavallotti, an able but
unscrupulous demagogue, Rudini was compelled to how to
Radical exigencies. He threw all the influence of the government
against Crispi, who was charged with complicity in embezzlements
perpetrated, by Favilla, managing director of the Bologna
branch of the Bank of Naples. After being subjected to persecu-
tion for nearly two years, Grispi's character was substantially
vindicated by the report of a parliamentary commission ap-
pointed to inquire into his relations with Favilla. True, the
commission proposed and the Chamber adopted a vote of censure
upon Crispi's conduct in 1804, when, as premier and minister
of the interior, he had borrowed £12,000 from Favilla to replenish
the secret service fund, and had subsequently repaid the money
as instalments for secret service were in due course furnished by
the treasury. Though irregular, his action was to some extent
justified by the depletion of the secret service fund under Giolitti
and by the abnormal circumstances prevailing in i8Q3-r8o4t
when he bad been obliged to quell the insurrections in Sicily
and Massa-Carrara. But the Rudini-Cavallotti alliance was
destined to produce other results than those of the campaign
against Crispi Pressed by Cavallotti, Rudini in March 1897
dissolved the Chamber and conducted the general election in
such a way as to crush by government pressure the partisans of
Crispi, and greatly to strengthen the (Socialist, Republican and
Radical) revolutionary parties. More than ever at the mercy
of the Radicalsand of their revolutionary allies, Rudini continued
so to administer public affairs that subversive propaganda
and associations obtained unprecedented extension. The effect
was seen in May 1898, when, in consequence of a rise in the
price of bread, disturbances occurred in southern Italy, The
corn duty was reduced to meet the emergency, but the disturbed
"-g. area extended to Naples, Foggia, Bari, Minervino-
JJJ* 0f Murge, Molfetta and thence along the line of railway
£J£ which skirls the Adriatic coast. At Faenza, Piacenza,
Cremona, Pavia and Milan, where subversive associa-
tions were stronger, it assumed the complexion of a political revolt.
From the 7 th to the 9th of May Milan remained practically in
the hands of the mob. A palace was tacked, barricades were
erected and for forty-eight hours the troops under General
Bava-Beccaris, notwithstanding the employment of artillery,
were unable to restore order. In view of these occurrences,
Rudini authorized the proclamation of a state of siege at Milan,
Florence, Leghorn and Naples, delegating the suppression of
disorder to special military commissioners. By these means
order was restored, though not without considerable loss of life
at Milan and elsewhere. At Milan alone the official returns
confessed to eighty killed and several hundred wounded, a total
generally considered below the real figures. As in 1894, excess-
ively severe sentences were passed by the military tribunals
upon revolutionary leaders and other persons considered to have
been implicated In the outbreak, but successive royal amnesties
obliterated these condemnations within three years.
No Italian administration since the death of D-pretis under-
went so many metamorphoses as that of the marquis di Rudini.
Modified a first time within five months of its forma*
lion (July 1896) in connexion with General Ricotti's
Army Reform Bil, and again in December 1897,
when ZanardeUi entered the cabinet, it was recon-
structed for a third time at the end of May 1898 upon the
question of a Public Safety Bill, but fell for the fourth and last
time on the xSth of Tune 1808, on account of public indignation
at the results of Rudmi's home policy as exemplified in the May
riots. On the soth of June Rudini was succeeded in the premier-
ship by General Ltrigi Pettoux, a Savoyard, whose only title to
office was the confidence of the king. The Pelloux cabinet
possessed no dear programme except in regard to the Public
Safety Bill, which it had taken over from its predecessor. Pre-
sented to parliament in November 1898, the bill was read a
second time in the following spring, but its third reading was
violently obstructed by the Socialists, Radicals and Republicans
of the Extreme Left. After a series of scenes and scuffles the
bill was promulgated by royal decree, the decree being post-
dated to allow time for the third reading. Again obstruction
precluded debate, and on the 22nd of July 1899 the decree
automatically acquired force of law, pending the adoption of
a bill of indemnity by the Chamber. In February 1900 it was,
however, quashed by the Supreme court on a point of procedure,
and the Public Safety Bfll as a whole had again to be presented
to the Chamber. In view of the violence of Extremist obstruc-
tion, an effort was made to reform the standing orders of the
Lower House, but parliamentary feeling ran so high that Genera)
Pelloux thought it expedient to appeal to the country. The
general election of June 1900 not only failed to reinforce the
cabinet, but largely increased the strength of the extreme
parties (Radicals, Republicans and Socialists), who in the new
Chamber numbered nearly roo out of a total of 508. General
Pelloux therefore resigned, and on the 24th of June a moderate
Liberal cabinet was formed by the aged Signor Saracco, president
of the senate* Within five weeks of its formation King Humbert
was shot by an anarchist assassin named Bresci while leaving
an athletic festival at Monza, where his Majesty had distributed
the prizes (29th July 1900). The death of the unfortunate
monarch, against whom an attempt had previously
been made by the anarchist Acciarito (22nd April
1897), caused an outburst of profound sorrow and
indignation. Though not a great monarch, King
Humbert had, by his unfailing generosity and personal courage,
won the esteem and affection of his people. During the cholera
epidemic at Naples and Busca in 1884, and the Ischla earth-
quake of 1885, be, regardless of danger, brought relief and en-
couragement to sufferers, and Kscued many lives. More than
£100,000 of his civil list was annually devoted to charitable pur-
poses. Humbert was succeeded by his only son, Victor Aeetaaliao
Emmanuel III. (b. November ir, 1869), a liberal- o/Kiag
minded and well-educated prince, who at the time of victor
his father's assassination was returning from a cruise Bmmummi
in the eastern Mediterranean. The remains of King UL
Humbert were laid to rest in the Pantheon at Rome beside
those of his father, Victor Emmanuel II. (9th August). Two
OtKtB?
8o
ITALY
(190*4919
day* bier Victor Emmanuel IIL swore fidelity to the con-
stitution before the assembled Houses of Parliament and in
the presence of his consort, Elena, of Montenegro, whom he had
married in October 1806.
The later course of Italian foreign polky was marked by
many vicissitudes. Admiral Canevaro, who had gained distinc-
tion as commander of the international forces in
Crete (1806-1808), assumed the direction of foreign
affairs in the first period of the Pelloux administration.
His diplomacy, though energetic, lacked steadiness. Soon after
taking office he completed the negotiations begun by the Rudini
administration for a new commercial treaty with France (October
1898), whereby Franco-Italian commercial relations were placed
upon a normal footing after a breach which had lasted for more
than ten years. By the despatch of a squadron to South
America be obtained satisfaction for injuries inflicted thirteen
years' previously upon an Italian subject by the United States
of Colombia. In December 1808 he convoked a diplomatic
conference in Rome to discuss secret means for the repression
of anarchist propaganda and crime in view of the assassination
of the empress of Austria by an Italian anarchist (Luccheni),
but it is doubtful whether results of practical value were achieved.
The action of the tsar of Russia in convening the Peace Conference
at The Hague in May 1900 gave rise to a question as to the right
of the Vatican to be officially represented, and Admiral Canevaro,
supported by Great Britain and Germany, succeeded in prevent-
ing the invitation of a papal delegate. Shortly afterwards his
term of office was brought to a close by the failure of an attempt
to secure for Italy a coaling station at Sanmen and a sphere
of influence in China; but his policy of active participation in
Chinese affairs was continued in a modified form by his successor,
the Marquis Visconti Venosta, who, entering the reconstructed
Pelloux cabinet in May 1899, retained the portfolio of foreign
affairs in the ensuing Saracco administration, and secured the
despatch of an Italian expedition, aooo strong, to aid in repress-
ing the Chinese outbreak and in protecting Italian interests
in the Far East (July 1900). With characteristic foresight,
Visconti Venosta promoted an exchange of views between Italy
and France in regard to the Tripolitan hinterland, whkh the
Anglo-French convention of 1899 had placed within the French
sphere of influence — a modification of the statu* quo ante con-
sidered highly detrimental to Italian aspirations in Tripoli.
For this reason the Anglo-French convention had caused pro-
found irritation in Italy, and had tended somewhat to diminish
the cordiality of Anglo-Italian relations. Visconti Venosta
is believed, however, to have obtained from France & formal
declaration that France would not transgres? the limits assigned
to her influence by the convention. Similarly, in regard to
Albania, Visconti Venosta exchanged notes with Austria with
a view to the prevention of any misunderstanding through the
conflict between Italian and Austrian interests in that part of
the Adriatic coast. Upon the fall of the Saracco cabinet (ojth
February 1901) Visconti Venosta was succeeded at the foreign
office by Signor Prinetti, a Lombard manufacturer of strong
temperament, but without previous diplomatic experience.
The new minister continued in most respects the policy of his
predecessor. The outset of his administration was marked
by Franco-Italian fetes at Toulon (10th to 14th April 1901),
when the Italian fleet returned a visit paid by the French
Mediterranean squadron to Cagliari in April 1800; and by the
despatch of three Italian warships to Prevesa to obtain satis-
faction fur damage done to Italian subjects by Turkish officials.
The Saracco administration, formed after the obstructionist
crisis of 1899-1 900 as a cabinet of transition and pacification* was
7«m*» overthrown in February 1001 in consequence of its
*<*• vacillating conduct towards s dock strike at Genoa.
a*mti It was succeeded by a Zanardelli cabinet, in which the
Cmblttt portfolio of the interior was allotted to Gioliiti. Com-
posed mainly of elements drawn from the Left, and dependent
for a majority upon the support of the subversive groups of the
Extreme Left, the formation of this cabinet gave the signal for a
vast working-class movement, during whkh ihe Socialist party
sought to extend its political influence by means of strikes and
the organization of labour leagues among agricultural labourers
and artisans. The movement was confined chiefly to the
northern and central provinces. During the first six months of
100 1 the strikes numbered 600, and involved more than 1 ,000,000
workmen. (H. W. S.)
G. 1902-1909
In 1901*1001 the social economic condition of Italy was a
matter of grave concern. The strikes and other economic agita-
tions at this time may be divided roughly into three Labaur
groups: strikes in industrial centres for higher wages, umbtf.
shorter hours and better labour conditions generally;
strikes of agricultural labourers in northern Italy for better con-
tracts with the landlords; disturbances among the south Italian
peasantry due to low wages, unemployment (particularly in
Apulia), and the claims of the labourers to public land occupied
illegally by the landlords, combined with local feuds and the
struggle for power of the various influential families. The
prime cause in most cases was the unsatisfactory economic
condition of the working classes, which they realized all the more
vividly for the very improvements that had been made in it,
while education and better communications enabled them to
organize themselves. Unfortunately these genuine grievances
were taken advantage of by the Socialists for their own purposes,
and strikes and disorders were sometimes promoted without
cause and conciliation impeded by outsiders who acted from
motives of personal ambition or profit. Moreover, while many
strikes were quite orderly; the turbulent character of a part of
the Italian people and their hatred of authority often converted
peaceful demands for better conditions into dangerous riots, in
which the dregs of the urban population (known as leppisti or the
mala vita) joined.
Whereas in the past the strikes had been purely local and due
to local conditions, they now appeared of more general and
political character, and the " sympathy " strike came to be a
frequent and undesirable addition to the ordinary economic
agitation. The most serious movement at this time was that of
the railway servants. The agitation had begun some fifteen
years before, and the men had at various times demanded better
pay and shorter hours, often with success. The next demand
was for greater fixity of tenure and more regular promotion, as
well as for the recognition by the companies of the railwayman's
union. On the ath of January 190a, the employees of the
Mediterranean, railway advanced these demands at a meeting ai
Turin, and threatened to strike if they were not satisfied. By the
beginning of February the agitation had spread all over Italy, and
the government was faced by the possibility of a strike which
would paralyse the whole economic life of the country. Then the
Turin gas men struck, and a general " sympathy " strike broke
out in that city in consequence, which resulted in scenes of
violence lasting two days. The government called out all the
rail way men who were army reservists, but continued to keep
them at their railway work, exercising military discipline over
them and thus ensuring the continuance of the service. At the
same time it mediated between the companies and the employees,
and in June a settlement was formally concluded between the
ministers of public works and of the treasury and the directors of
the companies concerning the grievances of the employees.
One consequence of the agrarian agitations was the increased
use of machinery and the reduction in the number of hands
employed, which if it proved advrjuageous to the landlord and to
the few labourers retained, who received higher wages, resulted
in an increase of unemployment. The Socialist party, which had
grown powerful under a series of weak-kneed administrations,
now began to show Signs of division, on the one hand there was
the revolutionary wing, led by Signor Enrico Ferri, the Mantuaa
deputy, which advocated a policy of uncompromising class
warfare, and on the other the rijtrmisti, or moderate Socialists,
led by Signor Fflippo Turati, deputy for Milan, who adopted a
more conciliatory attitude and were ready to ally themselves wSth
other parliamentary parties. Later trie division took another
aspect, the extreme wing rjemgconstfeuted by^ ihtsindhcalhti, who
were opposed to all legislative parliamentary action and favoured
only direct revolutionary propaganda by means of the siniacati or
unions which organized strikes and demonstrations. In March
1002 agrarian strikes organized by the leghe broke out in the
district of Copparo and Pokstne (lower valley of the Po), owing
to a dispute about the labour contracts, and in Apulia on account
of unemployment. In August there were strikes among the dock
labourers of Genoa and the iron workers of Florence; the latter
agitation developed into a general strike in that city, which
aroused widespread indignation among the orderly part of the
population and ended without any definite result. At Como
15,000 textile workers remained on strike for nearly a month, but
there were no disorders.
The year 1003, although not free from strikes and minor
disturbances, was quieter, but in September 1004 a very serious
situation was brought about by a general economic
JJjJ^ and political agitation. The troubles began with the
,994, disturbances at Buggeru in Sardinia and CasteUuzzo in
Sicily, in both of which places the troops were compelled
to use their arms and several persons were killed and wounded;
at a demonstration at Sestri Ponente in Liguria to protest
against what was called the Buggeru •' rriassacrc," four cara-
bineers and eleven rioters were injured. The Monza labour
exchange then took the initiative of proclaiming a general strike
throughout Italy (September rsth> as a protest against the
government for daring to maintain order. The strike spread to
nearly all the industrial centres, although m many places it was
limited to a few trades. At Milan it was more serious and fasted
longer than elsewhere, as the movement was controlled by the
anarchists under Arturo Labriola; the hooligans committed
many acts of savage violerice, especially against those workmen
who refused to strike, and much property was wilfuHy destroyed.
At Genoa, which was in the hands of the UppisH for a couple of
days, three persons were killed and 50 wounded, including 14
policemen, and railway communications were interrupted for a
short time. Venice was cut off from the mainland for two days
and all the public services were suspended. Riots broke out also
in Naples, Florence, Rome and Bologna. The deputies of the
Extreme Left, instead of using their irifluence in favour of
purification, could think of nothing better than to demand an
immediate convocation of parliament m order that they might
pment a bill forbidding t he troops and police to use their arms in
alt conflicts between capital and labour, whatever the provocation
might be. This preposterous proposal was of course not even
discussed, and the movement caused a strong feeling of reaction
against Socialism and of hostility to the government for its
weakness; for, however much sympathy there might be with the
genuine grievances of the working classes, the September strikes
were of a frankly revolutionary character and had been fomented
by professional agitators and kept going by the dregs of the
people. The mayor of Venice sent a firm and dignified protest to
the government for its inaction, and the people of Liguria raised
a large subscription in favour of the troops, in recognition of
their gallantry and admirable discipline during the troubles.
Early in 1005 there was a fresh agitation among the railway
servants, who were dissatisfied with the clauses concerning
u^. . the personnel in the bill for the purchase of the lines
J32** by the state. They initiated a system of obstruction
which hampered and delayed the traffic without alto-
gether suspending it. On the 17th of April a general railway
strike was orrtered by the union, but owing to the action of the
authorities, who for once showed energy, the traffic was carried
on. Other disturbances of a serious character occurred among
the steelworkers of iTerni, at Grammichele in Sicily and at
Alessandria. The extreme parties now began to direct especial
attention to propaganda in the army, with a view to destroying
Us cohesion and thus paralysing the action of the government,
The campaign was conducted on the lines of the anti-militarist
movement m France identified with the name of Herv6. Fortu-
nately, however, this pohcy was not successful, as military service
h less unpopular in Italy than in many other countries; aggr ess iv e
XV 2*
8f
militarism is quite unknown, and without it anti-murtarism can
gain no foothold. No serious mutinies have ever occurred in
the Italian army, and the only results of the propaganda were
occasional meetings of hooligans, where Hcrvcist sentiments
were expressed and applauded, and a few minor disturbances
among reservists unexpectedly called back to the colours.
In the army itself the esprit de corps and the sense of duty and
discipline nullified the work of the propagandists.
In June and July 1907 there were again disturbances among
the agricultural labourers of Ferrara and Rovigo, and a wide-
spread strike organized by the leghe throughout those —j. to
provinces caused very serious losses to all concerned, jjjfc
The legkisH, moreover, were guilty of much criminal
violence; they committed one murder and established a veritable
reign of terror, boycotting, beating and wounding numbers of
peaceful labourers who would not join the unions, and brutally
maltreating solitary policemen and soldiers. The authorities,
however, by arresting a number of the more prominent leaders
succeeded m restoring order. Almost immediately afterwards an
agitation of a still less defensible character broke out in various
towns under the guise of anti-clericalism. Certain scandals
had come to light in a small convent school at Greco near Milan.
This was seized upon as a pretext for violent anti-clerical demon-
strations all over Italy and for brutal and unprovoked attacks
on unoffending priests; at Spezia a church was set on fire and
another dismantled, at Marino Cardinal Merry del Val was
attacked by a gang of hooligans, and at Rome the violence of,
the teppisti reached such a pitch as to provoke reaction on the
part of all respectable people, and some of the aggressors were
very roughly handled. The Socialists and the Freemasons were
largely responsible for the agitation, and they filled the country
with stories of other priestly and conventual immoralities,
nearly all of which, except the original case at Greco, proved to
be without 'foundation. In September 1007 disorders in
Apulia over the rcpartitipn of communal lands broke out anew/
and were particularly serious 'at Ruvo, Bari, Cerignola and:
Satriano del Colic. In some cases there was foundation for the-
labourers' claims, but unfortunately the movement got into the.
hands of professional agitators and common swindlers, and
. the leader, a certain Giampctruzzi, who at one time seemed to
be a worthy Colleague of Marcelin Albert, was afterwards tried
and condemned for having cheated his own followers.
• In October 1907 there was again a general strike at Milan,
which was rendered more serious on account of . the action of
the railway servants, and extended to other cities; traffic
was disorganized over a large part of northern Italy, until the
government, being now owner of the railways, dismissed the
ringleaders from the service. This had the desired effect, and
although the Sindacalo dei jcrrovieri (railway servants' union)
threatened a general railway strike if the dismissed men were
not reinstated, there was no further trouble. In the spring of
1908 there were agrarian strikes at Parma; the labour contracts
had pressed hardly On the peasantry, who had cause for complaint;
but while some improvement had been effected in the new
contracts, certain unscrupulous demagogues, of whom Alceste
De Ambris, representing the " syndacalist " wing of the Socialist
party, was the chief, organized a widespread agitation. The
landlords on their part organized an agrarian union to defend
their interests and enrolled numbers of non-union labourers to
carry on the necessary work and save the crops. Conflicts
occurred between the strikers and the independent labourers
and the police; the trouble spread to the city of Parma, where
violent scenes occurred when the labour exchange was occupied,
by the troops, and many soldiers and policemen, whose behaviour
as usual was exemplary throughout, were seriously wounded.
The agitation ceased in June with the defeat of the strikers,
but not until a vast amount of damage had been done to the
crops and all had suffered heavy losses, including the government,'
whose expenses for the maintenance of public order ran into tens'
of millions of lire. The failure of the strike caused the Socialists
to quarrel among themselves and to accuse each other of dis-'
•honesty in the management of party funds; it appeared in fact
8a
ITALY
that the Urge sums collected throughout Italy on behalf of the
strikers had been squandered or appropriated by the " syndi-
calist" leaders. The spirit of indiscipline had begun to reach
the lower classes of state employees, especially the school teachers
and the postal and telegraph clerks, and at one time it seemed
as though the country were about to face a situation similar to
that which arose in France in the spring of 1909. Fortunately,
however, the government, by dismissing the ringleader, Dr
Campanozzi, in time nipped the agitation in the bud, and it
did attempt to redress some of the genuine grievances. Public
opinion upheld the government in its attitude, for all persons
of common sense realized that the suspension of the public
services could not be permitted for a moment in a civilized
country.
In parliamentary politics the most notable event in 1902
was the presentation of a divorce bill by Signor ZanardeUi's
government; this was done not because there was any
real demand for it, but to please the doctrinaire
tfta. anti-clericals and freemasons, divorce being regarded
not as a social institution but as a weapon against
Catholicism. But while the majority of the deputies were
nominally in favour of the bill, the parliamentary committee
reported against it, and public opinion was so hostile that an
anti-divorce petition received 3,500,000 signatures, including
not only those of professing Catholics, but of free-thinkers and
Jews, who regarded divorce as unsuitable to Italian conditions.
The opposition outside parliament was in fact so overwhelming
that the ministry decided to drop the bill. The financial situa-
tion continued satisfactory; a new loan at 3$% was voted by
the Chamber in April 1002, and by June the whole of it had been
placed in Italy. In October the rate of exchange was at par,
the premium on gold had disappeared, and by the end of the
year the budget showed a surplus of sixteen millions.
In January 1003 Signor Prinetti, the minister for foreign
affairs, resigned on account of ill-health, and was succeeded by
Admiral Morin, while Admiral Bettolo took the latter's
jgf* place as minister of marine. The unpopularity of
the ministry forced Signor Giolitti, the minister of the
interior, to resign (June 1003), and he was followed by Admiral
Bettolo, whose administration had been violently attacked by
the Socialists; in October Signor Zanardc^i, the premier,
resigned on account of his health, and the king entrusted the
formation of the cabinet to Signor Giolitti. The latter accepted
the task, and the new administration included Signor Tittoni,
late prefect of Naples, as foreign minister, Signor Luigi Luzzatli,
the eminent financier, at the treasury, General Pedotti at the
war office, and Admiral Mirabello as minister of marine. Almost
immediately after his appointment Signor Tittoni accompanied
the king and queen of Italy on a state visit to France and then
to England, where various international questions were discussed,
and the cordial reception which the royal pair met with in London
and at Windsor served to dispel the small cloud which.had arisen
in the relations of the two countries on account of the Tripoli
agreements and the language question in Malta. The premier's
programme was not well received by the Chamber, although
the treasury minister's financial statement was again satisfactory.
The weakness of the government in dealing with the strike riots
caused a feeling of profound dissatisfaction, and the so-called
" experiment of liberty," conducted with the object of conciliat-
ing the extreme parties, proved a dismal failure. In October
1004, after the September strikes, the Chamber was dissolved,
and at the general elections in November a ministerial majority
was returned, while the deputies of the Extreme Left (Socialists,
Republicans and Radicals) were reduced from 107 to 04, and
a few mild clericals elected. The municipal elections in several
of the larger cities, which had hitherto been regarded as strong-
holds of socialism, marked an overwhelming triumph for the
constitutional parties, notably in Milan, Turin and Genoa, for
the strikes had wrought as much barm to the working classes
as to the bourgeoisie. In spite of its majority the Giolitti
caolnet, realizing that it had lost its hold over the country,
resigned in March 1905.
Signor Fortis then became premier and minister of the interior,
Signor Maiorano finance minister and Signor Carcano treasury
minister, while Signor Tittoni, Admiral Mirabello 1M _
and General Pedotti retained the portfolios they had JJJ*
held in the previous administration. The new govern-
ment was colour less in the extreme, and the premier's programme
aroused no enthusiasm in the House, the most important bill
presented being that for the purchase of the railways, which was
voted in June 1905. But the ministry never had any real bold
over the country or parliament, and the dissatisfaction caused
by the modus vivendi with Spain, which would have wrought
much injury to the Italian wine-growers, led to demonstrations
and riots, and a hostile vote in the Chamber produced a cabinet
crisis (December 17, 1905) ; Signor Fortis, however, reconstructed
the ministry, inducing the marquis di San Giuliano to accept the
portfolio of foreign affairs. This last fact was significant, as
the new foreign secretary, a Sicilian deputy and a specialist on
international politics, had hitherto been one of Signor Sonnino*s
staunchest adherents; his defection, which was but one of many,
showed that the more prominent members of the Sonnino party
were tired of waiting in vain for their chief's access to power.
Even this cabinet was still-born, and a hostile vote in the Chamber
on the 30th of January 1006 brought about its fall.
Now at last, after waiting so long, Signor Sonnino's hour had
struck, and he became premier for the first time. This result
was most satisfactory to all the best elements in the
country, and great hopes were entertained that the B99 ,
advent of a rigid and honest statesman would usher
in a new era of Italian parliamentary life. Unfortunately at
the very outset of its career the composition of the new cabinet
proved disappointing j for while such men as Count Guicriardim,
the minister for foreign affairs, and Signor Luzzattt at the
treasury commanded general approval, the choice of Signor
Sacchi as minister of justice and of Signor Pantano as minister
of agriculture and trade, both of them advanced and militant
Radicals, savoured of an unholy compact between the prem i er
and his erstwhile bitter enemies, which boded ill for the success
of the administration. For this unfortunate combination Signor
Sonnino himself was not altogether to blame; having lost many
of his most faithful followers, who, weary of waiting for office,
had gone over to the enemy, he had been forced to seek support
among men who had professed hostility to the existing order ol
things and thus to secure at least the neutrality of the Extreme
Left and make the public realize that the " reddest " of
Socialists, Radicals and Republicans may be tamed and rendered
harmless by the offer of cabinet appointments. A similar
experiment had been tried in France not without success.
Unfortunately in the case of Signor Sonnino public opinion
expected too much and did not take to the idea of such a com-
promise. The new premier's first act was one which cannot be
sufficiently praised: he suppressed all subsidies to journalists,
and although this resulted in bitter attacks against him in the
columns of the " reptile press " it commanded the approval of
all right-thinking men. Signor Sonnino realized, however, that
his majority was not to be counted on: " The country is with
me," he said to a friend, " but the Chamber is against me."
In April 1006 an eruption of Mount Etna caused the destruction
of several villages and much loss of life and damage to property;
in appointing a committee to distribute the relief funds the premier
refused to include any of the deputies of the devastated districts
among its members, and when asked by them for the reason of
this omission, he replied, with a frankness more characteristic
of the man than pontic, that he knew they would prove more
solicitous in the distribution of relief for their own electors than
for the real sufferers. A motion presented by the Socialists in
the Chamber for the immediate discussion of a bill to prevent
" the massacres of the proletariate " having been rejected by
an enormous majority, the 28 Socialist deputies resigned their
seats; on presenting themselves for re-election their number
was reduced to 25. A few days later the ministry, having received
an adverse vote on a question of procedure, sent in its resignation
(May 17).
ITALY
«3
The fall of Signor Sonnino, the disappointment caused by the
aoa-fulfilment of the expectations to which his advent to power
had given rise throughout Italy and the dearth of influential
statesmen, made the return to power of Signor Giolitti inevitable.
An appeal to the country might have brought about a different
result, but it is said that opposition from the highest quarters
rendered this course practically impossible. The change of
government brought Signor Tittoni back to the foreign office;
Signor Maiorano became treasury minister, General Vigand
minister of war, Signor Cocco Ortu, whose chief claim to con-
sideration was the fact of his being a Sardinian (the island had
rarely been represented in the cabinet) minister of agriculture,
Signor Gianturco of justice, Signor Massimini of finance, Signor
Schanser of posts and telegraphs and Signor Fusinato of educa-
tion. The new ministry began auspiciously with the conversion
of the public debt from 4% to 3}%, to be eventually reduced
*° 3s %• This operation had been prepared by Signor Luzzatti
under Signor Sonnino 's leadership, and although carried out by
Signor Maiorano it was Luzzatti who deservedly reaped the
honour and glory; the bill was presented, discussed and voted
by both Houses on the 29th of June, and by the 7th of July the
conversion was completed most successfully, showing on how
sound a basis Italian finance was now placed. The surplus for
the year amounted to 65,000,000 lire. In November Signor
Gianturco died, and Signor Pietro Bertolini took his place as
minister of public works; the latter proved perhaps the ablest
member of the cabinet, but the acceptance of office under Giolitti
of a man who had been one of the most trusted and valuable
fieutenants of Signor Sonnino marked a further step in the
ilpingolade of that statesman's party, and was attributed to
the fact that Signor Bertolini resented not having had a place
in the late Sonnino ministry. General Vigand was succeeded
in December by Senator Casana, the first civilian to become
minister of war in Italy. He made various reforms which were
badly wanted in army administration, but on the whole the
experiment of a civilian " War Lord " was not a complete
success, and in April 1909 Senator Casana retired and was suc-
ceeded by General Spingardi, an appointment which received
general approval.
The elections of March 1009 returned a chamber very slightly
different from its predecessor. The ministerial majority was
over three hundred, and although the Extreme Left was some-
what increased in numbers it was weakened in tone, and many
of the newly elected " reds " were hardly more than pale pink.
Meanwhile, the relations between Church and State began to
show signs of change. The chief supporters of the claims of the
papacy to temporal power were the clericals of France
Zm f flftf ^ and Austria, but in 'the former country they had lost
all influence, and the situation between the Church and
the government was becoming every day more strained.
With the rebellion of her " Eldest Daughter," the Roman
Church could not continue in her old attitude of uncompromising
hostility towards United Italy, and the Vatican began to realize
the foUy of placing every Italian in the dilemma of being eilkar a
good Italian or a good Catholic, when the majority wished to be
both. Outside of Rome relations between the clergy and the
authorities were as a rule quite cordial, and in May 1903 Cardinal
Sarto, the patriarch of Venice, asked for and obtained an audience
with the king when he visited that city, and the meeting which
followed was of a very friendly character. In July following Leo
XIII. died, and that same Cardinal Sarto became pope under the
style of Pius X. The new pontiff, although nominally upholding
the claims of the temporal power, in practice attached but little
importance to it. At the elections for the local bodies the
Catholics had already been permitted to vote, and, availing
themselves of the privilege, they gained seats in many municipal
councils and obtained the majority in some. At the general
parliamentary elections of 1904 a few Catholics had been elected
as such, and the encyclical of the 1 xth of June 1005 on the political
organization of the Catholics, practically abolished the non
expedil. In September of that year a number of religious institu-
tions in the Near East, formerly under the protectorate of the
French government, in view of the rupture between Church and
State in France, formally asked to be placed under Italian pro*
tection, which was granted in January 1007. The situation thus
became the very reverse of what it had been in Crispi's time, 1
when the French government, even when anti-clerical, protected
the Catholic Church abroad for political purposes, whereas the
conflict between Church and State in Italy extended to foreign
countries; to the detriment of Italian political interests. A more
difficult question was that of religious education in the public
elementary schools. Signor Giolitti wished to conciliate the
Vatican by facilitating religious education, which was desired
by the majority of the parents, but he did not wish to offend the
Freemasons and other anti-clericals too much, as they could
always give trouble at awkward moments. Consequently the
minister of education, Signor Rava, concocted a body of rules
which, it was hoped, would satisfy every one: religious instruction
was to be maintained as a necessary part of the curriculum, but
in communes where the majority of the municipal councillors
were opposed to it it might be suppressed; the council in that
case must, however, facilitate the teaching of religion to those
children whose parents desire it. In practice, however, when the
council has suppressed religious instruction no such facilities are
given. At the general elections of March 1009, over a score of
Clerical deputies were returned, Clericals of a very mild tone who
had no thought of the temporal power and were supporters of the
monarchy and anti-socialists; where no Clerical candidate was
in the field the Catholic voters plumped for the constitutional
candftlate against all representatives of the Extreme Left. On
the other hand, the attitude of the Vatican towards Liberalism
within the Church was one of uncompromising reaction, and
under the new pope the doctrines of Christian Democracy and
Modernism were condemned in no uncertain tone. Don Romolo
Murri, the Christian Democratic leader, who exercised much
influence over the younger and more progressive clergy, having
been severely censured by the Vatican, made formal submission,
and declared his intention of retiring from the struggle. But he
appeared again on the scene in the general elections of 1009, as a
Christian Democratic candidate; he was elected, and alone of the
Catholic deputies took his seat in the Chamber on the Extreme
Left, where all his neighbours were violent anti-clericals.
At 5 a.m. on the 28th of December 1908, an earthquake of
appalling severity shook the whole of southern Calabria and the
eastern part of Sicily, completely destroying the cities Bttth*
of Reggio and Messina, the smaller towns of Canhello, «■■*» «r
Scilla, Villa San Giovanni, Bagnara, Palmi, Mctito, 2ST**'
Porto Salvo and Santa Eufemia, as well as a large
number of villages. In the case of Messina the horror of the
situation was heightened by a tidal wave. The catastrophe was
the greatest of its kind that has ever occurred in any country;
the number of persons killed was approximately 150,000, while
the injured were beyond calculation.
The characteristic feature of Italy's foreign relations during
this period was the weakening of the bonds of the Triple Alliance
and the improved relations with France, while the
traditional friendship with England remained un-
impaired. Franco-Italian friendship was officially
cemented by the visit of King Victor Emmanuel and Queen
Elena in October 1003 to Paris where they received a very cordial
welcome. The visit was returned in April 1904 when M.
Loubet, the French president, came to Rome.; this action was
strongly resented by the pope, who, like his predecessor since
1870, objected to the presence of foreign Catholic rulers in Rome,
and led to the final rupture between France and the Vatican.
The Franco-Italian understanding had the effect of raising
Italy's credit, and the Italian rente, which had been shut out
of the French bourses, resumed its place there once more, a fact
which contributed to increase its price and to reduce the unfavour-
able rate of exchange. That agreement also served to clear up
the situation in Tripoli; while Italian aspirations towards
Tunisia had been ended by the French occupation of that
territory, Tripoli and Bengazi were now recognized as coming
within the Italian " sphere of influence." The Tripoli hinterland,
Foreign
8+
ITALY
fl90»-l909
however, was in danger of being absorbed by otber powers
having large African interests; the Anglo-French declaration
of the a*at of March 1899 in particular aecmod likely to interfere
with Italian activity.
1 The Triple Alliance was maintained and renewed as far as
paper documents were concerned (in June root it was reconfirmed
for 1a years), but public opinion was no longer so favourably
disposed towards lL Austria's petty persecutions of her Italian
subjects in the irtedente provinces, her active propaganda
incompatible with Italian interests in the Balkans, and the anti-
Italian war talk of Austrian military circles, imperilled the
relations of the two " allies "; it was remarked, indeed, that the
object of the alliance between Austria and Italy was to prevent
war between them. Austria had persistently adopted a j\>licy
of pin-pricks and aggravating police provocation toward* the
Italians of the Adriatic Littoral and of the Trentino, while
encouraging the Slavonic clement in the former and the Germans
in the latter. One of the causes of ill-feeling was the university
question; the Austrian government had persistently refused
to create an Italian university for its Italian subjects, fearing
lest it should become a hotbed of " irredentism," the Italian-
apcakiAg students being thus obliged to attend the German-
Austrian universities. An* attempt at compromise resulted in
the institution of an Italian law faculty at Innsbruck, but this
aroused the violent hostility of the German students and populace,
• ° ?* VC proof oi ***** ^P*" *" civilization by an unprovoked
attack on the Italians in October 1002. Further acts of violence
*crc committed by the Germans in 1003, which led to anti-
Auatrian demonstrations in Italy. The worst tumults occurred
alt ? v *? nbcr ,0 °4, when Italian students and professors were
bv aK J** InnsDruck without provocation; being outnumbered
w self ^Jf ** tD 0ne the Itauans werc forced l0 use their revolvers
Ami I i? 611 ^ Md several persons were wounded on both sides,
whil J * A n dcmonslra l*ons occurred periodically also at Vienna,
(Italia ,n ?^ malia and Cr <>atia Italian fishermen and workmen
of half 1 atJ * cns » not natives) were subject to attacks by gangs
dents" 4 I age Croats » wnich led to frequent diplomatic " inci-
lowarda tK fu 5 th . cr cause °* resentment was Austria's attitude
of the * Vatic *n» inspired by the strong clerical tendencies
Austrian 1>PCrlal iwnilv » ^ indeed of a large section of the
Balkan Pco P* e * Bul thc most serious point at issue was the
serious m^**- 1 *?"* * ta * ian P u °lic opinion could not view without
was coJ!! 1581 ^ 11 ^ 8 the active political propaganda which Austria
discussed U £ tm ? m Albania. The two governments frequently
denying v siluatlon » but although they had agreed to a self-
part of AH DanCe wherebv cach bound itself not to occupy any
w f chardl t!!** t * r " torv ' Austria's declarations and promises
Italy, th r ™ 6 . 0111 by the activity of her agents in the Balkans,
schools e *f' Qrc i instituted a counter-propaganda by means of
too* a*f* v commw cial agencies. The Macedonian troubles of
ince by ih rought A "st"a and Italy into conflict. The accept-
rtient of a powers oi lne MUrzsteg programme and the appoint-
^ Austrian and Russian financial agents in Macedonia
1 tier J* dv * nla « e f °r Austria and a set-back for Italy; but the
corn ° a &ucccss in lhc appointment of General de Giorgis
*? *l«I na ?^ er of the international Macedonian gendarmerie;
A R • ained ' ^th the support of Great Britain, France
A nd Kussia, th© assignment of the partly Albanian district of
**? n *rv r to the Italian officers of that corps.
In Y^tober joo8 came the bombshell of the Austrian annexa-
tion 01 Bosnia, announced to King Victor Emmanuel and to
otb« r rul *« by autograph letters from the emperor-king. The
pew* caused the most widespread sensation, and public opinion
jo Italy was greatly agitated at what it regarded as an act of
brigandage on the part of Austria, when Signor Tittoni in a speech
it Carate Brianza (October 6th) declared that " Italy might await
events with serenity, and that these could find her neither unpre-
pared nor isolated." These words were taken to mean that Italy
would receive compensation to restore the balance of power
upset in Austria's favour. When it was found that there was
to be no direct compensation for Italy a storm of indignation
v *s aroused against Austria, and also against Signor Tittoni.
On the 29th of October, however, Austria abandoned her
military posts in the sandjak of Novibazar, and the frontier
between Austria and Turkey, formerly an uncertain one, which
left Austria a half-open back door to the Aegean, was now a
distinct line of demarcation. Thus the danger of a "pacific
penetration " of Macedonia by Austria became more remote.
Austria also gave way on another point, renouncing her right to
police the Montenegrin coast and to prevent Montenegro from
having warships of its own (paragraphs 5, 6 and n of art. 29 of
the Berlin Treaty) in a note presented to the Italian foreign
office on the xath of April 1909. Italy had developed some
important commercial interests in Montenegro, and anything
which strengthened the position of that principality was a
guarantee against further Austrian.encroachments. The harbour
works in the Montenegrin port of Antivari, commenced in
March 1905 and completed early in 1909, were an Italian
concern, and Italy became a party to the agreement for the
Danube-Adriatic Railway (June 2, 1008) together with Russia,
France and Servia; Italy was to contribute 35,000,000 lire out
of a total capital of 100,000,000, and to be represented by four
directors out of twelve. But the whole episode was a warning
to Italy, and the result was a national movement for security.
Credits for the army and navy were voted almost without a
dissentient voice; new battleships were laid down, the strength
of the army was increased, and the defences of the exposed
eastern border were strengthened. It was clear that so long as
Austria, bribed by Germany, could act in a way so opposed to
Italian interests in the Balkans, the Triple Alliance was a
mockery, and Italy could only meet the situation by being
prepared for all contingencies.
no great scientific importance, and Cesare Balbo's Sammaho
(Florence, 1856) presents the main outlines of the subject with
brevity and clearness. For the period of the French revolution and
the Napoleonic wars see F. Lcmmi's Le Origini del risorgtmenit
italiano (Milan, 1906); E. Bonnal de Ganges, La Chute dune rf*
publiaue [Venise) (Paris, 1885); D. Carutti, Storia delta cvrte di
Savoia durante la rivoluzione e V impero Jranccse (a vols*, Turin,
1892) ; G. de Castro, Sloria d' Italia dal 1797 al 1814 (Milan, 1881);
A. Dufourcq, Le Regime jacobin en Jtalte, 1796-1700 (Paris, 1900);
A. Franchetti, Storia d" Italia dal 1780 al 1700 (Milan, 1878): P.
Gaffarel, Bonaparte et Us ripubliquei itatienmes (ifoti-ijoo) (Paris,
189S); R. M. Johnston, The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy
(2 vols., with full bibliography, London, 1904); E. Ramondira,
U Italia durante la dominazione francese (Naples, 1882); E, Ruth,
Cesehuhte des italienischen Volhes unter der uapoleonischen Herrschafl
(Leipzig, 1859). For modern timet* see Bolton King's History of
Italian Unity (1899) and Bolton King and Thomas Okey s Italy
To-day (1901). With regard to the history of separate provinces xt
may suffice to notice N. Machiavelirt Storia fiorenlina, B. Corio*s
Sloria di Milano, G. Capponi's Storia delta ttpubblica di Firenu
(Florence, 1875). P. Villari s / primi due secoli delta storia di Firenu
(Florence, 1905), F. Pagano's I storia del regno di Napoit (Palermo-
Naples, 1832, &c-), P. Romanin's Storia documentata d\ Venma
(Venice. 1853), M. Amari's Musulmani di Sicitia (1854-1875),
F. Gregorovius't Cesehiehte der Stadl Rom (Stuttgart, 1881), A. von
Reumont* CeuhuhU der Stadl Rom (Berlin. 1867). L- Cibrario's
Storia delta monorchia picmonicse (Turin, 1840), and D. Caruttfi
ITEM— ITIN3ERARIUM
85
Storia itfta. dMomweia deOa eerie di Sofia .(Rome, 1875). The
Archivii storici and Deputasi&ni di storia patria of the various Italian
towns and provinces contain a great deal of valuable material for
local history. From the point of view of papal history, L. von
Ranke's History of the Popes (English edition, London, 1870), M.
Creighton's History of the Papacy (London, 1897) and L. Pastor's
Gesckickteder Pdpste (Freiburg 1. B., 1886-1896), should be mentioned.
From the point of view 01 general culture, Jacob Burckhardt's
Culinr der Renaissance in Italic* (Basel, i860), E. Guinet's Revolu-
tions d'ludit (Paris, 1857)1 and j. A. Symonds's Renaissance in Italy
(5 vols., London, 1875, &c) should be consulted. (JL V.*)
ITEM (a Latin adverb meaning M also/' " likewise ")> originally
wed adverbially in English at the beginning of each separate
head in a list of articles* or each detail in an account book or
ledger or in * legal document. The word is thus applied, as a
noun, to the various heads in any such- enumeration and also
to a piece of information or news.
ITHACA (m«j), vulgarly Thiaki (&&«*), next to Paxo
the smallest of the seven Ionian Islands, with an area of about
44 sq. m. It forms an eparchy of the nomos of Cepbalonia in
the kingdom of Greece, and its population, which was 9873 in
1870, is now about 13,000. The island consists of two mountain
masses, connected by ft narrow isthmus of hills, and separated
by a wide inlet of the sea known as the Gulf of Mob. The northern
and greater mass culminates in the heights of Anoi (3650 ft.),
and the southern in Hagfos Stephanos, or Mount MerovigU
(2100 ft.).. Vathy (Bo0fr-"deep "), the chief town and port
of the island, lies at the northern foot of Mount Stephanos,
iu whitewashed houses stretching for about a mile round the
deep bay in the Gulf of Molo* to which it owes its name. As
there are only one or two small stretches of arable land m Ithaca,
the inhabitants are dependent on commerce for their grain
supply; and olive oil, wine and currants are the principal
products obtained by the cultivation of the thin stratum of
soil that covers the calcareous rocks. Goats are fed in con-
siderable number on the brushwood pasture of the hills; and
hares (in spite of Aristotle's supposed assertion of their absence)
are exceptionally abundant. The island is divided into four
districts: Vathy, Aeto (or Eagle's Cliff), Anoge (Anoi) or
Upland, and Exoge (Exoi) or Outland.
The name has remained attached to the island from the
earliest historical times with but little interruption of the tradi-
tion; though in Brampton's travels (12th century) and in the
old Venetian maps we find it called Fale ox Val de Compar, and
at a later date it not unfrequently appears as Little Cepbalonia.
This last name indicates the general character of Ithacan history
(if history it can be called) in modern and indeed in ancient times;
for the fame of the island is almost solely due to its position
in the Homeric story of Odysseus. Ithaca, according to the
Homeric epos, was the royal seat and residence of King Odysseus.
The island is incidentally described with no small variety of
detail, picturesque and topographical; the Homeric localities
for which counterparts have been sought are Mount Neritos,
Mount Neion, the harbour of Phorcys, the town and palace of
Odysseus, the fountain of Arethusa, the cave of the Naiads, the
stalls of the swineherd Eumaeus, the orchard of Laertes, the
Korax or Raven Cliff and the island Asteris, where the suitors
lay in ambush for Telemachus. Among the " identificationists "
there are two schools, one placing the town at Polis on the west
coast in the northern half of the island (Leake, Gladstone, &c),
and the other at Aeto on the isthmus. The latter site, which
was advocated by Sir William Cell (Topography and Antiquities
of Ithaca, London, 1807), was supported by Dr H. Schliemann,
who carried on excavations in 1873 and 1878 (seeH. Schliemann,
llhaque, U Pttoponncst, Troie, Paris, 1869, also published in
German; his letter to The Times, 26th of September, 187S;
and the author's life prefixed to Ilios, London, 1880). But
his results were mainly negative. The fact is that no amount
of ingenuity can reconcile the descriptions given in the Odyssey
with the actual topography of this island. Above all, the passage
in which the position of Ithaca is described offers great difficulties.
" Now Ithaca lies low, farthest up the sea line towards the
darkness, but those others face the dawning and the sun "
(Butcher and Lang). Such a passage fits very ill an island
lying, as Ithaca does, just to the east of Cephalonfe. Accordingly
Professor W. Ddrpfeld has suggested that the Homeric Ithaca
is not the island which was called Ithaca by the later Greeks,
but must be identified with Leucas (Santa Maura, q.v.). He
succeeds in fitting the Homeric topography to this latter island,
and suggests that the name may have been transferred in con-
sequence of a migration of the inhabitants. There is no doubt
that Leucas fits the Homeric descriptions much better than
Ithaca; but, on the other hand, many scholars maintain that
it is a mistake to treat the imaginary descriptions of ft poet as
if they were portions of a guide-book, or to look, in the author
of the Odyssey, for a dose familiarity with the geography of the
Ionian islands.
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(S a.) ,
ITHACA, a city and the county-seat of Tompkins county.
New York, U.S.A., at the southern end of Cayuga Lake, 60 m.
S.W. of Syracuse. Pop. (1890) 11,079, (rooo) 13,136, of whom
13 10 were foreign-born, (19 10 census) 14,802. It is served
by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western and the Lehigh
Valley railways and by interurban electric line; and steam-
boats ply on the lake. Most of the city is in the level valley,
from which it spreads up the heights on the south, east and
west. The finest residential district is East Hill, particularly
Cornell and Cayuga Heights (across Fall Creek from the Cornell
campus). Ren wick Beach, at the head of the lake, is a pleasure
resort. The neighbouring region is one of much beauty, and is
frequented by summer tourists. Near the city are many water-
falls, the most notable being Taughannock Falls (9 m. N.), with
a fall of 215 ft. Through the city from the east run Fall, Cas-
cadilla and Six Mile Creeks, the first two of which have cut
deep gorges and have a number of cascades and waterfalls,
the largest, Ithaca Fall in Fall Creek, being 120 ft. high. Six
Mile Creek crosses the south side of the city and empties into
Cayuga Inlet, which crosses the western and lower districts,
often inundated in the spring. The Inlet receives the waters of
a number of small streams descending from the south-western
hills. Among the attractions In this direction are Buttermilk
Falls and ravine, on the outskirts of the city. Lick Brook Falls
and glen and Enfield Falls and glen, the last 7 m. distant.
Fall Creek furnishes good water-power. The city has various
manufactures, including fire-arms, calendar clocks, traction
engines, electrical appliances, patent chains, incubators, auto-
phones, artesian well drills* salt, cement, window glass and wall*
paper. The value of the factory product increased from
$1,500,604 in 1000 to $2,080,002 in 1005, or 38-6%. Ithaca
is also a farming centre and coal market, and much fruit is grown
in the vicinity. The city is best known as the seat of Cornell
University (q.vj. It has also the Ezra Cornell Free Library
of about 28,000 volumes, the Ithaca Conservatory of Music,
the Cascadilla School and the Ithaca High School. Ithaca
was settled about 1789, the name being given to it by Simeon
De Witt in 1,806. It was incorporated as a village in 1821, and
was chartered as a city in x888. At Buttermilk Falls stood
the principal village of the Tutelo Indians, Coreorgoncl,
settled in 1753 and destroyed in 1779 by ft detachment of
Sullivan's force.
ITINERARIUM (i.e. road-book, from Lat. iter, road), a term
applied to the extant descriptions of the ancient Roman roads
and routes of traffic, with the stations and distances. It is
usual to distinguish two classes of these, 1 liner aria adnotata or
scripta and J liner aria picla—-lht former having the character
of a book, and the latter being a kind of travelling map. Of
the Itineraria Scripta the most Important are: (1) //. Antonini
(see Antonini Ixinxbarium), which consist* of two parts, the
86
ITIUS PORTUS— TTRf
one dealing with roads in Europe, Asia and Africa, and the other
with familiar sea-routes— the distances usually being measured
from Rome; (a) //. Hierasatynritanum or Burdigalcnse, which
belongs to the 4th century, and contains the route of a pilgrimage
from Bordeaux to Jerusalem and from Heraclea by Rome to
Milan (ed. G. Parthcy and M. Finder, 1848, with the Ilinerarium
Autonini); (3) //. Altxcndri, containing a sketch of the march-
route of Alexander the Great, mainly derived from Arrian and
prepared for Const an tius's expedition in aj>. 340-34$ against
the Persians (ed. D. Volkmann, 1871). A collected edition of
the ancient itineraria, with ten maps, was issued by Fortia
d'Urban, Rtcueil des iUntraires anciens (184$). Of the Itineraria
Picta only one great example has been preserved. This is the
famous Tabula Peulingcriana, which, without attending to the
shape or relative position of the countries, represents by straight
lines and dots of various sizes the roads and towns of the whole
Roman world (facsimile published by K. Miller, x888; see also
Map).
ITIUS PORTUS, the name given by Caesar to the chief harbour
which he used when embarking for his second expedition to
Britain in 54 B.C. {De bcllo Callica, v. 2). It was certainly
near the uplands round Cape Grisnez (Promuntorium Ilium),
but the exact site has been violently disputed ever since the
renaissance of learning. Many critics have assumed that Caesar
used the same port for his first expedition, but the name does not
appear at all in that connexion (B. G. iv. 31-23). This * act >
coupled with other considerations, makes it probable that the
two expeditions started from different places. It is generally
agreed that the first embarked at Boulogne. The same view
was widely held about the second, but T. Rice Holmes in an
article in the Classical Review (May 1000) gave strong reasons
for preferring Wissant, 4 m. east of Grisnez. The chief reason is
that Caesar, having found he could not set sail from the small
harbour of Boulogne with even 80 ships simultaneously, decided
that he must take another point for the sailing of the " more
than 800" ships of the second expedition. Holmes argues
that, allowing for change in the foreshore since Caesar's time,
800 specially built ships could have been hauled above the
highest spring-tide level, and afterwards launched simultaneously
at Wissant, which would therefore have been " commodissimus "
(v. 2) or opposed to " brevissimus traiectus " (iv. 21).
See T. R. Holmes in Classical Review (May 1909), in which he
girt tally revises the conclusions at which he arrived in his A ncient
rtlain (1907), pp. 552-594; that the first expedition started from
Boulogne is accepted, «.f. by H. Stuart Jones, in Enfluh Historical
Review (1909), xxiv. 215; other authorities in Holmes's article.
170. HIROBTJMI, Prince (1841-1009), Japanese statesman,
was born in 1841, being the son of Ito J0z6, and (like his father)
began life as a retainer of the lord of Choshu, one of the most
powerful nobles of Japan. Choshu, in common with many of his
fellow Daimyos, was bitterly opposed to the rule of the shogun
or tycoon, and when this rule resulted in the conclusion of the
treaty with Commodore M. C. Perry in 1854, the smouldering
discontent broke out into open hostility against both parties
to the compact. In these views Ito cordially* agreed with
his chieftain, and was sent on a secret mission to Yedo to report
to his lord on the doings of the government. This visit had the
effect of causing Ito to turn his attention seriously to the study
of the British and of other military systems. As a result he
persuaded Choshu to remodel his army, and to exchange the
bows and arrows of his men for guns and rifles. But Ito felt
that his knowledge of foreigners, if it was to be thorough, should
be sought for in Europe, and with the connivance of Choshu he,
in company with Inouye and three other young men of the same
rank as himself, determined to risk their lives by committing
the then capital offence of visiting a foreign country. With great
secrecy they made their way to Nagasaki, where they concluded
an arrangement with the agent of Messrs Jardine, Matheson & Co.
for passages on board a vessel which was about to sail for
Shanghai (1863). At that port the adventurers separated, three
of their number taking ship as passengers to London, while Ito
and Inouye preferred to work their passages before the mast
in the " Pegasus," bound for the same destination. For a year these
two friends remained in London studying English methods
but then events occurred in Japan which recalled them to then
country. The treaties lately concluded by the shogun with the
foreign powers conceded the right to navigate the strait of
Shimonoseki, leading to t he Inland Sea. On the northern shores
of this strait stretched the feudal state ruled over by Prince
Choshu, who refused to recognize the clause opening the strait,
and erected batteries on the shore, from which he opened fire
on all ships which attempted to force the passage. The shogun
having declared himself unable in the circumstances to gfve effect
to the provision, the treaty powers determined to take the
matter into their own hands. Ito, who was better aware than
his chief of the disproportion between the fighting powers of
Europe and Japan, memorialized the cabinets, begging that
hostilities should be suspended until he should have had time to
use his influence with Choshu in the interests of peace. With
this object Ito hurried back to Japan. But his efforts were
futile. Choshu refused to give way, and suffered the conse-
quences of his obstinacy in the destruction of his batteries and
in the infliction of a heavy fine. The part played by Ito in these
negotiations aroused the animosity of the more reactionary of
his fellow-clansmen, who made repeated attempts to assassinate
him. On one notable occasion he was pursued by his enemies
into a tea-house, where he was concealed by a young lady beneath
the floor of her room. Thus began a romantic acquaintance,
which ended in the lady becoming the wife of the fugitive.
Subsequently (1868) Ito was made governor of Hiogo, and in the
course of the following year became vice-minister of finance.
In 187 1 he accompanied Iwakura on an important mission to
Europe, which, though diplomatically a failure, resulted in the
enlistment of the services of European authorities on military,
naval and educational systems.
After his return to Japan Ito served in several cabinets as
head of the bureau of engineering and mines, and in 1886 be
accepted office as prime minister, a post which, when he resigned
in ioox, he had held four times. In 1882 he was sent on s
mission to Europe to study the various forms of constitutional
government; on this occasion he attended the coronation of the
tsar Alexander III. On his return to Japan he was entrusted
with the arduous duty of drafting a constitution. In 1890 he
reaped the fruits of his labours, and nine years later be was
destined to witness the abrogation of the old treaties, and the
substitution in their place of conventions which place Japan on
terms of equality with the European states. In all the great
reforms in the Land of the Rising Sun Ito played a leading part.
It was mainly due to his active interest in military and naval
affairs that he was able to meet Li Hung-chang at the end of
the Chinese and Japanese War (1895) as the representative of
the conquering state, and the conclusion of the Anglo- Japanese
Alliance in 1902 testified to his triumphant success in raising
Japan to the first rank among civilized powers. As a reward for
his conspicuous services in connexion with the Chinese War Ito
was made a marquis, and in 1897 he accompanied Prince Arisu-
gawa as a joint representative of the Mikado at the Diamond
Jubilee of Queen Victoria. At the close of 1001 he again, though
in an unofficial capacity, visited Europe and the United States;
and in England he was created a G.C.B. After the Russo-
Japanese War (190s) he was appointed resident general in Korea,
and in that capacity he was responsible for the steps taken to
increase Japanese influence in that country. In September
roo7 he was advanced to the rank of prince. He retired from
his post in Korea in July 1909, and became president of the
privy council in Japan. But on the *6th of October,
when on a visit to Harbin, he was shot dead by a Korean
He is to be distinguished from Admiral Count Yuko Ito (b. 1843),
the distinguished naval commander.
ITRI. a town of Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserts,
6 m. by road N.W. of Formia. Pop. (1901) 5797. The town is
picturesquely situated 690 ft. above sea-level, in the mountains
which the Via Appia traverses between Fondi and Formia.
ITURBIDE-i-IVAN
87
Inteiestiig remains of the substruction wall supporting the
ancient road axe preserved in Itri itself; and there are many
remains of ancient buildings near it. The brigand Fra Diavolo,
the hero of Aubcr's opera, was a native of ltri, and the place
was once noted for brigandage.
ITURBIDE (or Ytumxdx), AUOUSTIN DE (1783-1824),
emperor of Mexico from May 1822 to March 1823, was born on
the 27th of September 1793, at Valladolid, now Mordia, in
Mexico, where his father, an Old Spaniard from Pampeluna,
had settled with his Creole wife. After enjoying a better educa-
tion than was then usual in Mexico, Iturbide entered the military
service, and in 1810 held the post of lieutenant in the provincial
regiment of his native city. In that year the insurrection under
Hidalgo broke out, and Iturbide, more from policy, it would seem,
than from principle, served in the royal army. Possessed of
splendid courage and brilliant military talents, which fitted him
especially for guerilla warfare, the young Creole did signal service,
and rapidly rose in military rank. In December 1813 Colonel
Iturbide, along with General Llano, dealt a crushing blow to
the revolt by defeating Morelos, the successor of Hidalgo, in the
battle of Valladolid; and the former followed it up by another
decisive victory at Puruaran in January 1814. Next year Don
Augustin was appointed to the command of the army of the north
and to the governorship of the provinces of Valladolid and
Guanajuato, but in 1816 grave charges of extortion and violence
were brought against him, which kd to his recall. Although
the general was acquitted, or at least although the inquiry was
dropped, he did not resume his commands, but retired into private
life for four years, which, we are told, he spent in a rigid course
of penance for his former excesses. In 1820 Apodaca, viceroy
of Mexico, received instructions from the Spanish cortes to
proclaim the constitution promulgated in Spain in 181 2, but
although obliged at first to submit to an order by which his
power was much curtailed, be secretly cherished the design of
reviving the absolute power for Ferdinand VII. in Mexico.
Under pretext of putting down the lingering remains of revolt,
he levied troops, and, placing Iturbide at their head, instructed
him to proclaim the absolute power of the king. Four years of
reflection, however, had modified the general's views, and now,
led both by personal ambition and by patriotic regard for his
country, Iturbide resolved to espouse the cause of national,
independence. His subsequent proceedings— how he issued the
Plan of IguaJc, on the 24th of February 1821, how by the refusal
of the Spanish cortes to ratify the treaty of Cordova, which he
bad signed with O'Donoju, he was transformed from a mere
champion of monarchy into a candidate for the crown, and how,
hailed by the soldiers as Emperor Augustin L on the 18th of
May 1822, he was compelled within ten months, by his arrogant
neglect of constitutional restraints, to tender his abdication to
a congress which he had forcibly dissolved-rwill be found
detailed under M exico. Although the congress refused to accept
bis abdication on the ground that to do so would be to recognize
the validity of his election, it permitted the ex-emperor to retire
to Leghorn in Italy, while in consideration of his services in 1820
a yearly pension of £5000 was conferred upon him. But Iturbide
resolved to make one more bid for power; and in 1824, passing
from Leghorn to London, he published a Statement, and on the
11 th of May set sail for Mexico. The congress immediately issued
an act of outlawry against him, forbidding him to set foot on
Mexican soil on pain of death. Ignorant of this, the ex-empcror
landed in disguise at Soto la Marina on the 14th of July. He was
almost immediately recognized and arrested, and on the 19th of
July 1824 was shot at Padilla, by order of the state of Tamaulipas,
without being permitted an appeal to the general congress.
Don Augustin de Iturbide is described by his contemporaries
a* being of handsome figure and ingratiating manner. His
brilliant courage and wonderful success made him the idol of
big soldiers, though towards his prisoners he displayed the most
cold-blooded cruelty, boasting in one of his despatches of having
honoured Good Friday by shooting three hundred excommuni-
cated wretches. Though described as amiable in his private
Ufev he teems in bis public career to have been ambitious and
unscrupulous, and by his haughty Spanish temper, impatient
of all resistance or control, to have forfeited the opportunity
of founding a secure imperial dynasty. His grandson Augustin
was chosen by the ill-fated emperor Maximilian as his successor.
See Statement of some of the principal events in the public- life of
Auptstin de Iturbide, written by himself (Eng. trans., 1824).
ITZA, an American-Indian people of Mayan stock, inhabiting
the country around Lake Peten in northern Guatemala. Chichen-
Itza, among the most wonderful of the ruined cities of Yucatan,
was the capital of the Itzas. Thence, according to their traditions
they removed, on the breaking up of the Mayan kingdom in 1420,
to an island in the lake where another city was built. Cortes
met them in 1525, but they preserved their independence till
1697, when the Spaniards destroyed the city and temples, and a
library of sacred books, written in hieroglyphics on bark fibre.
The Itzas were one of the eighteen semi-independent Maya
states, whose incessant internecine wars at length brought
about the dismemberment of the empire of Xibalba and the
destruction of Mayan civilization.
ITZEHOE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
SchJeswig-Holstein, on the St6r, a navigable tributary of the
Elbe, 3 2 m. north-west of Hamburg and 15 m. north of Gluckstadt.
Pop. (1000) 15,649. The church of St Lawrence, dating from
the 1 2th century, and the building in which the Holstein estates
formerly met, are noteworthy. The town has a convent founded
in 1256, a high school, a hospital and other benevolent institu-
tions. Itzehoe is a busy commercial place. Its sugar refineries
are among the largest in Germany. Ironfounding, shipbuilding
and wool-spinning are also carried on, and the manufactures
include machinery, tobacco, fishing-nets, chicory, soap, cement
and beer. Fishing employs some of the inhabitants, and the
markets for cattle and horses are important. A considerable
trade is carried on in agricultural products and wood, chiefly
with Hamburg and Alton*.
Itzehoe is the oldest town in Holstein. Its nucleus was a
castle, built in 809 by Egbert, one of Charlemagne's counts,
against the Danes. The community which sprang up around
it was diversely called Esseveldoburg, Eselsfleth and Ezeho.
In X20i the town was destroyed, but it was restored in x 224. To
the new town the Lubeck rights were granted by Adolphus IV.
in 123$, and to the old town in 1303. During the Thirty
Years' War Itzehoe was twice destroyed by the Swedes, in 1644
and 1657, but was rebuilt on each occasion. It passed to Prussia
in 1 867, with the duchy of Schleswig-Holstein.
1UKA, the county-seat of Tishomingo county, Mississippi,
U.S.A., about 25 m. S.E. of Corinth in the N.E. corner of the
state and 8 m. S. of the Tennessee river. Pop. (1900) 882;
(19x0) 1221. It is served by the Southern railway, and has
a considerable trade in cotton and farm products. Its mineral
springs make it a health resort. In the American Civil War,
a Confederate force under General Sterling Price occupied the
town on the 14th of September 1862, driving out a small Union
garrison; and on the 19th of September a partial engagement
took place between Price and a Federal column commanded by
General Rosecrans, in which the Confederate losses were 700
and the Union 790. Price, whose line of retreat was threatened
by superior forces under General Grant, withdrew from Iuka
on the morning of the 20th of September.
IUUJS, in Roman legend: (a) the eldest son of Ascanjus
and grandson of Aeneas, founder of the Julian gens {gens lulia)*
deprived of his kingdom of Latium by his younger brother
Silvius (Dion. Halic. I 70); (b) another name for, or epithet
of, Ascanius.
IVAN (John), the name of six grand dukes of Muscovy and
tsars of Russia.
Ivan I., called KaUta, or Money-Bag (d. X341), grand duke
of Vladimir, was the first sobiratd,ot" gatherer "of the scattered
Russian lands, thereby laying the foundations of the future
autocracy as a national institution. This he contrived to do by
adopting a policy of complete subserviency to the khan of the
Golden Horde, who, in return for a liberal and punctual tribute,
permitted him to aggrandize himscli at the expense of the lc&<*r
88
IVAtt
pisit&et. Moscow and Tver were tbe first t6 fall, the latter
Inr received from the hand of the khan, after devastating it
rth a host of 50,000 Tatars (1327). When Alexander of Tver
fed to the powerful dty of Pskov, Ivan, not strong enough to
*: ick Pskov, procured the banishment of Alexander by the aid
cc tie metropolitan, Theognost, who threatened Pskov with an
kizrr±cu In 1330 Ivan extended his influence over Rostov
fcr zht drastic methods of blackmail and hanging. But Great
Xrr^rrod was too strong for him, and twice he threatened that
r-pzi- r ro vain. In 1340 Ivan assisted the khan to ravage the
cn=^-3s of Prince Ivan of Smolensk, who had refused to pay the
<~r^r — ary tribute to the Horde. Ivan*s own domains, at any
rxi£ i^ring his reign, remained free from Tatar incursions, and
^rrsperrd correspondingly, thus attracting immigrants and
tie^r wnhh from the other surrounding principalities. Ivan
was z =ost careful, not to say niggardly economist, keeping an
exact account of every village or piece of plate that his money-
bigs ao^ired, whence his nickname. The most important
e*'*a£ ci his reign was the transference of the metropolitan see
tr:aj V-i Jimir to Moscow, which gave Muscovy the pre-eminence
ever *;: the other Russian states, and made the metropolitan
t^or ecclesiastical police-superintendent of the grand duke.
r*- j Metropolitan Peter built the first stone cathedral of Moscow,
arrr v -s s uccesso r , Theognost, foDowed suit with three more stone
cV-irciaes. Simultaneously Ivan substituted stone walls- for the
4-TTt wooden ones of the KremT, or citadel, which made
M .-sesrw a stiM safer place of refuge.
V S- M Sctov'ev, History of Russia (Rus.), vol. in. (St Petersburg,
• j****-* «*?«*Wv. The Principality of Moscow in the first half of the
1 iRos.) (St Petersburg, 1878).
T* ^*c IT. <r$*6-x35Q), grand duke of Vladimir, a younger son
>s **• KxLta. was born in 1326. In 1353 he succeeded his
• *.- ^corVr Simeon as grand duke, despite the Competition
. '*—™v* Coast ant ine of Suzdal, the Khan Haaibek preferring
, ■ ^^;-Ht the y&htik, or letter of investiture, upon Ivan rathor
* >}vr Constantino. At first the principalities of Suzdal,
: * * » *tvl the republic of Novgorod refused to recognise him
-.'M iuie. and waged war with him till 1354.. The authority
•- c-t id duchy sensibly diminished during the reign- of
„ * "l T*hr surrounding principalities paid but little attention
, vsvw, and Ivan, '* a meek, gentle and merciful prince,"
»m !«* i great extent by the tuisyatsky, or chiliarcb, Alexis
• ■»*. *••»'. after his murder by the jealous boyflrS in 1357, by
* v x v <^ He died m 1359. Like most of his predecessors,
^ ^ Jist will, divided his dominions among his children.
' _^ s . -n tfevaisky. History of Russia (Rus.), vol. li. (Moscow,
" ^ » v " t t *44fl*-tjos), grand duke of Muscovy, son of Vasily
\ * s. A s k h the Blind, grand duke of Moscow, and Maria
" ".*. i-x •* •■*. WA * °° rn *n 1440. He was co-regent with his
v ■ ** t 4 * t»tter years of his life and succeeded him in
** ;m.i ttnaviottsly pursued the unifying policy of his
»<*or*» Vtvtrthcless cautious to timidity, like most of
^ „»! t*ie house of Rurik, he avoided as far as possible
\ r „ vvtu^n with his neighbours until all the circum-
**,*%** <\cept tonally favourable, always preferring to
'*\ t „.**% gradually, circuit ously and subtcrraneously.
' " v ^ >* thw time become a compact and powerful state,
■ * * t% *\ Sad grown sensibly weaker, a condition of things
*• x * w u> the speculative activity of a statesman of
% • t ^.^ " " character. His first enterprise was a war
>. ^.v»vo< Novgorod, which, alarmed at the growing
*■ v .*».v*>. n *d placed herself beneath the protection
\* * * s * vJ Poland, an alliance regarded at Moscow
, * *•* ■■* , 4 ^ uv from orthodoxy. Ivan took the field
** * <%*** * tiro, and after his generals had twice
. x * \ , 4 „ * j« tS* republic, at Shelona and on the Dvma,
**■ * ^^1 *l u7« t the Novgorodtans were forced to
. . x "" ..v< > ',Wv obtained on engaging to abandon for
_ . *■•* ^ ..t»4*ct ceding a considerable portion of their
* ■ *" K ^iftf>*tniwp*' * koo roubles.
^**v*Mcc destroying
Novgorod altogether; but though he frequently violated it*
ancient privileges in minor matters, the attitude of the republic
was so wary that his looked-for opportunity did not come tifl
1477. In that year the ambassadors of Novgorod played into
his hands by addressing him in public audience as " Gosudar "
(sovereign) instead of " Gospodin " (" Sir ") as heretofore. Ivan
at once seized upon this as a recognition of his sovereignty,
and when the Novgorodians repudiated their ambassadors, be
marched against them. Deserted by CasinurlV., and surrounded
on every side by the Muscovite armies, which included a Tatar
contingent, the republic recognized Ivan as autocrat, and
surrendered (January 14, 1478) all her prerogatives and
possessions (the latter including the whole of northern Russia
from Lapland to the Urals) into his hands. Subsequent revolts
(1477-1488) were punished by the removal tn masse of the
richest and most ancient families of Novgorod to Moscow,
Vyatka and other central Russian cities. After this, Novgorod,
as an independent state, ceased to exist. The rival republic
of Pskov owed the continuance of its own political existence to
the readiness with which it assisted Ivan against its ancient
enemy. The other principalities were virtually absorbed, by
conquest, purchase or marriage contract — Yaroslavl in 1463,
Rostov in 1474, Tver in 1485.
Ivan's refusal to share his conquests with his brothers, and
his subsequent interference with the internal politics of their
inherited principalities, involved him in several wars with them,
from which, though the princes were assisted by Lithuania,
he emerged victorious. Finally, Ivan's new rule of government,
formally set forth in his last wtU to the effect that the domains of
all his kinsfolk, after thefr deaths, should pass directly to the
reigning grand duke instead of reverting, as hitherto, to the
princes' heirs, put an end once for all to these semi-independent
princdets. The further extension of the Muscovite dominion
was facilitated by the death of Casfmir IV. m 140?, when Poland
and Lithuania once more parted company. The throve of
Lithuania was now occupied by CashmY* son Alexander, a weak
and lethargic prince so incapable of defending his posses-
sions against the persistent attacks of the Muscovites that he
attempted to Save them by a matrimonial compact and wedded
Helena, Ivan's daughter. But' the clear determination of
Ivan to appropriate as much of Lithuania as possible at last
compelled Alexander m 1409 to take up arms against his fatbeY*
in-law. The Lithuanians were routed at Vedrosha (July 14,
1500), and in 1503 Alexander was glad to purchase peace by
ceding to Ivan Chernigov, Starodub, Novgorod-Syeversk and
sixteen other towns.
It was in the reign of Ivan IIL that Muscovy rejected the
Tatar yoke. In 1480 Ivan refused to pay the customary tribute
to the grand Khan Ahmed. When, however, the grand khaa
marched against him, Ivan's courage began to fail, and only
the stern exhortations of the high-spirited bishop of Rostov,
Vassian, could induce him to take the field. All through the
autumn the Russian and Tatar hosts confronted each other on
opposite sides of the Ugra, till the nth of November, when
Ahmed retired into the steppe. In the following year the grand
khan, while preparing a second expedition against Moscow,
was suddenly attacked, routed and slain by Ivak, the khan of
the Nogai Tatars, whereupon the Golden Horde suddenly fell
to pieces. In 1487 Ivan reduced the khanate ot Kazan (one of
the offshoots of the Horde) to the condition of a vassal-state,
though in his later years H broke away from his suzerainty.
With the other Mahommedan powers, the khan of the Crimea
and the sultan of Turkey, Ivan's relations were pacific and
even amicable. The Crimean khan, MengU Girai, helped too
against Lithuania and facilitated the opening of diplomatic
intercourse between Moscow and Constantinople, whore the
first Russian embassy appeared in 1495.
The character of the government of Muscovy under Ivan IIL
changed essentially and took on an autocratic form wWch it
had never had before, This was due not merely to the natural
consequence of the hegemony of Moscow over the other Russian
lands, but even more to the simultaneous growth •of new and
IXTAN
/!.'
exotic principles falling upon a soil already prepared lor them.
After the fall of Constantinople, orthodox canonists were in-
clined to regard the Muscovite grand dukes as the successors
by the Byzantine emperors. This movement coincided with a
change in the family circumstances of Ivan 111. After the
death of his first consort, Maria of Tver (1467), at the suggestion
of Pope Paul II. (1469), who hoped thereby to bind Russia to the
holy see, Ivan III. wedded the Catholic Zoe Palaeologa (better
known by her orthodox name of Sophia), daughter of Thomas,
despot of the Morea, who claimed the throne of Constantinople
as the nearest relative of the last Greek emperor. The princess,
however, clave to her family traditions, and awoke imperial
ideas in the mind of her consort. It was through her influence
that the ceremonious etiquette of Constantinople (along with
the imperial double-headed eagle and all that it implied) was
adopted by the court of Moscow. The grand duke henceforth
held aloof from his boyars. The old patriarchal systems of
government vanished. The boyars were no longer consulted.
on affairs of state. The sovereign became sacrosanct, while
the boyars were reduced to the level of slaves absolutely de-
pendent on the will of the sovereign. The boyars naturally
resented so insulting a revolution, ami struggled against it, at
first with some success. But the clever Greek lady prevailed
in the end, and it was her son Vasily, not Maria of Tver's son,
Demetrius, who was ultimately crowned co-regent with his
father (April 14, 1502). It was in the reign of Ivan III. that
the first Russian " Law Book," or code, was compiled by the
scribe Gusev. iVaa did his utmost to promote civilization in
his realm, and with that object invited many foreign masters
and artificers to settle in Muscovy, the most noted of whom was
the Italian Ridolfo di FiOravante, nicknamed Aristotle because
of his extraordinary knowledge, who built the cathedrals of the
Assumption (Uspenski) and of Saint Michael or the Holy Arch-
angels in the Kreml.
Sea P. Pierling, Manage <Tun tsar am Vatican, Ivan III el Sophie
Paliologue (Paris. 1891) ;£. I. Kashprovsky. The Struggle of loan II J.
With Sigismund I. (Rus.) (Nizhni. 1899); 5. M. Solovev, History of
Russia (Ru*.). vol. t. (St Petersburg. 1895).
Ivan IV., called " the Terrible " (1 530-1 584), tsar of Muscovy,
was the son of Vastly [Basil) III. Ivanovich, grand duke of
Muscovy, by his second wife, Helena Glinska. Bern on the
25th of August 1530, he was proclaimed grand duke on the
death of his father (1533), and took the government into his own
bands in 1544, being then fourteen years old. Ivan IV. was in
every respect precocious; but from the first there was what
we should now call a neurotic strain in his character. His father
died when he was three, his mother when he was only seven, and
he grew up In a brutal and degrading environment where he
learnt to hold human life and human dignity in contempt. He
was maltreated by the leading boyars whom successive revolu-
tions placed at the head of affairs, and hence he conceived an
inextinguishable hatred of their whole order and a corresponding
fondness for the merchant class, their natural enemies. At a
very early age he entertained an exalted Idea of his own divine
authority, and his studies were largely devoted to searching
in the Scriptures and the Slavonic chronicles for sanctions and
precedents for the exercise and development of his right divine.
He first asserted his power by literally throwing to the dogs the
last of his boyar tyrants, and shortly afterwards announced his
intention of assuming the title of tsar, a title which his father
and grandfather had coveted but never dared to assume publicly.
On the 10th of January 1547, he was crowned the first Russian
tsar by the metropolitan of Moscow; on the 3rd of February
in the same year he selected as his wife from among the virgins
gathered from all parts of Russia for his inspection, Anastasla
Zakharina-Koshkina, the scion of an ancient and noble family
better known by its later name of Romanov.
Hitherto, by his own showing, the private life of the young
tsar had been unspeakably abominable, but his sensitive con-
science (he was naturally religious) induced him, in 1550, to
summon a Ztmsky Sobor or national assembly, the first of Its
kind, to which he made a curious public confession of the sins
of his youth, and at the same time promised that the realm of
Hussa (for whose dilapidation he blamed the boyar regents)
should henceforth be governed justly and mercifully. In 1531
the tsar submitted to a synod Of prelates a hundred questions
as to the best mode of remedying existing evils, for which reason
the decrees of this synod are generally called stoglav or cenluria.
The decennium extending from 1550 to 1560 was the good period
of Ivan IV.'s reign, when he deliberately broke away from his
disreputable past and surrounded himself with good men of
lowly origin. It was not only that he hated and distrusted the
boyars, but he was already statesman enough to discern that they -
could not be fitted into the new order of things which he aimed at
introducing. Ivan meditated the regeneration of Muscovy, and
the only men who could assist him in his task were men who
could look steadily forward to the future because they had no
past to look back upon, men who would unflinchingly obey their
sovereign because they owed their whole political significance to
him alone. The chief of these men of good- will were Alexis
Adashev and the monk Sylvester, men of so obscure an origin
that almost every detail of their lives is conjectural, but both
of them, morally, the best Muscovites of theif day. Their in-
fluence upon the young tsar was profoundly beneficial, and the
period of their administration coincides with the most glorious
period of Ivan's reign— the period of the conquest of Kazan and
Astrakhan.
Tn the course of 1551 one of the factions' of Kazan offered
the whole khanate to the young tsar, and on the 20th of August
1552 he stood before its walls with an army of 150,000 men and
50 guns. The siege was long and costly; the army suffered
severely; and only the tenacity of the tsar kept it in camp for
six weeks. But on the 2nd of October the fortress, which had
been heroically defended, was taken by assault. The conquest
of Kazan was an epoch-making event in the history of eastern
Europe: It was not only the first territorial conquest from the
Tatars, before whom Muscovy had humbled herself for genera-
tions; at Kazan Asia, in the name of Mahomet, had fought
behind its last trench against Christian Europe marshalled
beneath the banner of the tsar of Muscovy. For the first time the
Volga became a Russian river. Nothing could now retard the
natural advance of the young Russian state towards the east and
the south-east. In 1554 Astrakhan fell almost without a blow.
By 1560 all the Finnic and Tatar tribes between the OVa and the
Kama had become Russian subjects. Ivan was also the first
tsar who dared to attack the Crimea. In 1555 he sent Ivan
Sheremetev against Pcrekop, and Shcremctev routed the Tatars
In a great two days' battle at Sudbishcnska. Some of Ivan's
advisers, including both Sylvester and Adashev, now advised
him to make an end of the Crimean khanate, as he had already
made an end of the khanates of £azan and Astrakhan. But
Ivan, wiser in his generation, knew that the thing was impossible,
in view of the immense distance to be traversed, and the pre-
dominance of the Grand Turk from whom it would have to be
wrested. It was upon Livonia that his eyes were fixed, which
was comparatively near at hand and promised him a seaboard
and direct communication with western Europe. Ivan IV., like
Peter I. after him, clearly recognized the necessity of raising
Muscovy to the level of her neighbours. He proposed to do so
by promoting a wholesale immigration into his tsardom of
master-workmen and skilled artificers. But all his neighbours,
apprehensive of the consequences of a civilized Muscovy, com-
bined to thwart him. Charles V. even went so far as to disperse
123 skilled Germans, whom Ivan's agent had collected and
brought to Lflbeck for shipment to a Baltic port. After this,
Ivan was obliged to help himself as best he could. His oppor-
tunity seemed to have come when, in the middle of the x6tb
century, the Order of the Sword broke up, and the possession
of Livonia was fiercely contested between Sweden, Poland and
Denmark. Ivan intervened in 1558 and quickly captured
Narva, Dorpat and a dozen smaller fortresses; then, in 1560,
Livonia placed herself beneath the protection of Poland} and
King Sigismund II. warned Ivan off the premises.
By this time, Ivan had entered upon the second and. evil
portion of his reign. As early as 1553 he had ceased to trust
9°
IVAN
« v lve^er and Adashev, owing to thdr extraonUnaiy backward-
f-** In supporting the claims oC his infant son to the throne
°^V Y& himself lay at the point of death. The ambiguous and
W ^ratcful conduct of the tsar's intimate friends and proteges
ux **Y"t- occasion has never been satisfactorily explained, and he
Z n A mood reason to resent it. Nevertheless, on his recovery,
Xk * M ^ htohis credit, he overlooked it, and they continued to direct
nt jy*:\L £ or »U years longer. Then the dispute about the Crimea
,^es W& lvan Dccamc convinced that they were mediocre
* X< Y7{ c ia>Th* as well as untrustworthy friends. In 1560 both of
* fh/r« SJa*PPC***i from the scene, Sylvester into a monastery
»t h^ own request, while Adashev died the same year, in honour-
Jbl^jaUc as a general in Livonia. The death of his deeply
kJJ^-^J. consort Anastasia and his son Demetrius, and the
!|Z?rti<>a* of his one bosom friend Prince Kurbsky, about the
,^ * ixric, seem to have infuriated Ivan against God and man.
TW*V»*e the next ten years (1560-1570) terrible and horrible
th^fjt t» append » thc 'calm of Muscovy. The tsar himself
UvtOFs** * n atmosphere of apprehension, imagining that every
*• lm«.ncl was against him. On the 3rd of December 1564 he
"^ n ^^m jfyfoscow with his whole family. On the 3rd of January
? J lt ^_i declared in an open letter addressed to the metropolitan
i?i,^»ti- »•"«?«•■. ~
«Jwa>r:
plore^* ■ r ~^j^ trenched himself within a peculiar institution, the
90 » **y*~- ^ ~r u separate estate." Certain towns and districts all
The common people, whom he had
favoured at the expense of the boyars, thereupon im-
l-^ixn to come back on his own terms. He consented to do
^ entrenched himself within
t*»w-»^ or " ~
°P ric *L^ xsSA ia. were separated from the rest of the realm, and their
over "*^*_ gr were assigned to the maintenance of the tsar's new
revet* ^^^^^a household, which was to consist of 1000 carefully
court ~ _,-S*»ovars and lower dignitaries, with their families and
U»
tbe midst of whom Ivan henceforth lived exclusively.
ja fr-t/i was no constitutional innovation. The duma, or
The **2^ ~&LiR attended to all the details of the administration;
coun^t* boyars still retained their ancient offices and dignities.
the C *J~« < — . clifference was that the tsar had cut himself off from
"T^e °* a ^^ < j they were net even to communicate with him except
The oprichniki,
**\JZ^ortiinary and exceptional occasions.
^ ..^STth* exclusive favourites of the tsar, 1 .,, ...
* ^^^^re^ts, hardened the tsar's heart against all outsiders,
^^ 2Xi*xa>\0& **** topuaity upon every one beyond the charmed
**"- rsm ^&xar first and most notable victim was Philip, the
' =rrSf - ~frviivpdfit m °' Moscow, who was strangled for condemn-
« snfr "" ^ptiLhimn as an unchristian institution, and refusing to
r ~ T^^r (X5«9)- Ivan a*" 1 stopped at Tver, to murder St
t^/«iiS«e cm his way to destroy the second wealthiest city
jggg — Great Novgorod. A delator of infamous char-
acter, had accused the authorities of the city to the
B &ujsn Irtn » without even confronting the Nov-
^ZZ liar accuser, proceeded at the end of 1569 to
a*^ ravaging the land, his own land, like a wild
^e city on the 8th of January 1570, and for
Is, systematically and deliberately, day after
of every class of the population. Every
house, warehouse and farm within a
a wrecked, plundered and left roofless,
_ xl cattle destroyed. Not till the 13th
30 useable remnants of the population
_ t ai bouses and cultivate their fields
scrsoes- '
at itsafeery war, with Sweden and Poland
. tt -waecaion of Livonia and Esthonia,
at . x?t. lean's generals (he himself rarely
.juihY"^ — r-M at first, and bore down
^-■tsearN capturing scores of fortresses
_ --r-« tie superior military efficiency of
"*» «ns**r prevailed. Ivan was also un-
\ uitogonist Stephen B&thory,
%e Agp. Thus nil his strenuous
aroo to nothing. The West
.^•♦m T\"*c«»i* ol Zapoli (Jonimrv irth
paMLjjwia i'oiouk to B
M
wl
Ver
Iva
with
dom.
ofCa
as an
against
defeated
during U
«ue for pe ;
*ver the p ( ,
northern co!
Fromhencefor **"*
the truce of Ilyusa he at the same time abandoned Ingria to tbe
Swedes. The Baltic seaboard was lost to Muscovy for another
century and a half. In his latter years Ivan cultivated friendly
relations with England, in the hope of securing some share in the
benefits of civilization from the friendship of Queen Elizabeth,
one of whose ladies, Mary Hastings, he wished to marry, though
his fifth wife, Martha Nagaya, was still alive. Towards the end
of his life Ivan was partially consoled for his failure in the west
by the unexpected acquisition of the kingdom of Siberia in the
east, which was first subdued by the Cossack hetman Ermak
or Yermakin 1581.
In November 1580 Ivan in a fit of ungovernable fury at some
contradiction or reproach, struck his eldest surviving son Ivan,
a prince of rare promise, whom he passionately loved, a blow
which proved fatal. In an agony of remorse, he would now have
abdicated " as being unworthy to reign longer "; but his
trembling boyars, fearing some dark ruse, refused to obey any one
but himself. Three years later, on the 18th of March 1584,
while playing at chess, he suddenly fell backwards in his chair
and was removed to his bed in a dying condition. At the last
moment he assumed the hood of the strictest order of hermits,
and died as the monk Jonah.
Ivan IV. was undoubtedly a man of great natural ability. His
political foresight was extraordinary. He anticipated the
ideals of Peter the Great, and only failed in realizing them because
his material resources were inadequate. But admiration of his
talents must not blind us to his moral worthkasnesa, nor is it
right to cast the blame for his excesses on the brutal and vicious
society in which he lived. The same society which produced his
infamous favourites also produced St Philip of Moscow, and by
refusing to listen to St Philip Ivan sank below even the not very
lofty moral standard of his own age. He certainly left Muscovite
society worse than he found it, and so prepared the way for
the horrors of " the Great Anarchy." Personally, Ivan was tall
and well-made, with high shoulders and a broad chest. His eyes
were small and restless, his nose hooked, he had a beard and
moustaches of imposing length. His face had a sinister, troubled
expression; but an enigmatical smite played perpetually
around his lips. He was the best educated and the hardest
worked man of his age. His memory was astonishing, hit
energy indefatigable. As far as possible he saw to everything
personally, and never sent away a petitioner of the lower orders.
See S. M. Solov'cv, History 0/ Russia (Rus.) vol. v. (St Petersburg;
jg--» * "Inickncr, Ceschichle Russlands bis turn Ende dts 18 ten
Jt r (Gotha, 1896); E. Tikhomirov, The first Tsar at
M an IV. (Rus.) (Moscow, 1888); L. G. T. Tidandcr,
K n Sverige och Ryssland aren 1555~'S57 (Vesteraa, 1888);
P. Un Arbitrage pontifical au XVI* suae enire la Polagne
el (Bruxclles, 1890); V. V. Novodvon»ky, The Struggle (or
L\ 0-1582 (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1904); K. Walisaewski,
It bU (Paris, 1904); R. N. Bain, Slavonic Europe, ch. 5
(C , 1907).
.. (1666-1606), tsar of Russia, was the ton of Tsar
Alexius Mikhailovich and his first consort Miloslavxkoya.
Physically and mentally deficient, Ivan was the mere tool of the
party in Muscovy who would have kept the children of the tsar
Alexis, by his second consort Natalia Naruishktna, from the
throne. In 1682 the party of progress, headed by Artamon
Matvyecv and the tsaritsa Natalia, passed Ivan over and placed
his half-brother, the vigorous and promising little tsarevkh
Peter, on the throne. On the 23rd of May, however, the Naruisb-
kin faction was overthrown by the strycllsi (musketeers), secretly
worked upon by Ivan's half-sister Sophia, and Ivan was associ-
ated as tsar with Peter. Three days later be was proclaimed
" first tsar," in order still further to depress the Naruishkins, and
place the government in the hands of Sophia exclusively. In
1689 the name of Ivan was used as a pretext by Sophia in her
attempt to oust Peter from the throne altogether. Ivan was
made to distribute beakers of wine to his sister's adherents with
his own hands, but subsequently, beneath the influence of has
uncle Prozorovsky, be openly declared that " even for his sister's
1 Ivan V., if we count from the first grand duke of that name, as
»ncnt Ktmian historians do; Ivan II., if, with the minority, wre
Icon from Ivan the Terrible as the first Russian tsar.
IVANGOROD— IVORY, SIR J.
sake, he would quarrel no longer with his deer brother/' During
the reign of his colleague Peier, Ivan V. took no part whatever
in affairs, but devoted himself " to incessant prayer and rigorous
fasting." On the 9th of January 1684 be married Praskovia
Saltuikova, who bore him five daughters, one of whom, Anne,
ultimately ascended the Russian throne. In his last years Ivan
was a paralytic. He died on the 29th of January 1696.
See R. Nitbet Bain. The First Romanovs (Loudon. 1905); M. P.
Pogodia. The First Seventeen Years of the Life of Peter the Great (Rus.)
(Moscow, 1875).
Ivan VI. (1740-1764), emperor of Russia, was the son of
Prince Antony Ulrich of Brunswick, and the princess Anna
L e opoldovna of Mecklenburg, and great-nephew of the empress
Anne, who adopted him and declared him her successor on the
5th of October 1740, when he was only eight weeks old. On the
death of Anne (October 17th) he was proclaimed emperor, and
on the following day Ernest Jobann Biren, duke of Courland,
was appointed regent. On the fall of Biren (November 8th),
the regency passed to the baby tsar's mother, though the govern-
ment was in the hands of the capable vice-chancellor, Andrei
Osterman. A little more than twelve months later, a coup
aVHat placed the tsesarevna Elizabeth on the throne (December
6, 1 741), and Ivan and his family were imprisoned in the
fortress of Diinamtlnde (Ust Dvinsk) (December 13, 1742)
after a preliminary detention at Riga, from whence the new
empress had at first decided to send them home to Brunswick.
In June 1744 they were transferred to Kholmogory on the White
Sea, where Ivan, isolated from bis family, and seeing nobody
but his gaoler, remained for the neat twelve years. Rumours
of his confinement at Kholmogory having leaked out, he was
secretly transferred to the fortress of SchlUsselburg (1756),
where he was still more rigorously guarded, the very commandant
of the fortress not knowing who " a certain arrestant " com-
mitted to his care really was. On the accession of Peter III.
the condition of the unfortunate prisoner seemed about to be
ameliorated, for the kind-hearted emperor visited and sym-
pathized with him; but Peter himself was overthrown a few
weeks later. In the instructions sent to Ivan's guardian, Prince
Churmtyev, the latter was ordered to chain up bis charge, and
even scourge him should he become refractory. On the accession
of Catherine still more stringent orders were sent to the officer
in charge of " the nameless one." If any attempt were made
from outside to release him, the prisoner was to be put to death;
in no circumstances was he to be delivered alive into any one's
hands, even if his deliverers produced the empress's own sign-
manual authorizing his release. By this time, twenty years of
solitary confinement had disturbed Ivan's mental equilibrium,
though he does not seem to have been actually insane. Never-
theless, despite the mystery surrounding him, he was well aware
of his imperial origin , and always called himself jM«<tor(sovercign) .
Though instructions had been given to keep him ignorant, he
had been taught his tetters and could read his Bible. Nor could
his residence at Schlttsselburg remain concealed for ever, and
its discovery was the cause of his ruin. A sub-lieutenant of the
garrison, Vasily Mirovich, found out all about him, and formed
a plan for freeing and proclaiming him emperor. At midnight
on the 5th of July 1764, Mirovich won over some of the garrison,
arrested the commandant, Berednikov, and demanded the
delivery of Ivan, who there and then was murdered by his
gaolers in obedience to the secret instructions already in their
possession.
See R. Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peler the Great (London, 1897) J
M. Setnevsky, Ivan Vt. Antonovich (Rus.) (St Petersburg. 1866);
A. Bruckner, The Emperor Ivan VI. and hu Family (Rus.) (Moscow,
J 874); V, A, Bilbasov, Getekkhte Catherine 11. (voL ii.. Berlin.
1891-1893). (R. N. B.)
IVANGOROD, a fortified town of Russian Poland, In the
government of Lublin, 64 m. by rail S.E. from Warsaw, at the
confluence of the Wicprz with the Vistula. It is defended by
nine forts on the right bank of the Vistula and by three on the
left bank, and, with Warsaw, Novo-Ceorgievsk and Brest-
Lltovsk, forms the Polish " quadrilateral."
91
IVAJC0VO-V0ZMESENSK, a. town of middle Russia, in the
government of Vladimir, 86 m. by rail N. of the town of Vladimir.
Pop. (1887) 22,000; (xooo) 64,628. It consists of what were
originally two villages— Ivanovo, dating from the 16th century,
and Voanesensk, of much more recent date— united into a town
in x86x. Of best note among the public buildings are the
cathedral, and the church of the Intercession of the Virgin,
formerly associated with an important monastery founded in
1579 and abandoned in 1754. One of the colleges of the town
contains a public library. Linen-weaving was introduced in
1751, and in 1776 the manufacture of chintzes was brought from
SchlUsselburg. The town has cotton factories, calico print-works,
iron-works and chemical works.
1VARR BE1MLAUSI (d. 873), son of Ragnar Lothbrok, the
great Viking chieftain, is known in English and Continental
annals as Inuaer, Ingwar or Hingwar. He was one of the
Danish leaders in the Sheppey expedition of 855 and was perhaps
present at the siege of York in 867. The chief incident in his
life was his share in the martyrdom of St Edmund in 870. He
seems to have been the leader of the Danes on that occasion,
and by this act he probably gained the epithet " crudehssimus "
by which he is usually described. It is probable that he is to be
identified with Imhar, king of the Norsemen of all Ireland and
Britain, who was active in Ireland between the years 852 and
873, the year of his death.
IVIZA, Ibita or Ivi£A, an Island in the Mediterranean Sea,
belonging to Spain, and forming part of the archipelago known as
the Balearic Islands (?.*.). Pop. (1900) 23,524; area 228 sq. m.
Iviza lies 50 m. S.W. of Majorca and about 60 m. from Cape San
Martin on the coast of Spain. Its greatest length from north-east
to south-west is about 25 m. and its greatest breadth about 13 m.
The coast is indented by numerous small bays, the principal of
which are those of San Antonio on the north-west, and of Iviza
on the south-east. Of all the Balearic group, Iviza is the most
varied in its scenery and the most fruitful The hilly parts
which culminate in the Pico de Atalayasa (1560 ft.), are richly
wooded. The climate is for the most part mild and agreeable,
though the hot winds from the African coast are sometimes
troublesome. Oil, corn and fruits (of which the most important
are the fig, prickly pear, almond and carob-bean) are the principal
products; hemp and flax are also grown, but the inhabitants are
rather indolent, and their modes of culture are very primitive.
There are numerous salt-pans along the coast, which were
formerly worked by the Spanish government. Fruit, salt, char-
coal, lead and stockings of native manufacture are exported.
The imports are rice, flour, sugar, woollen goods and cotton.
The capital of the island, and, indeed, the only town of much
importance — for the population is remarkably scattered — is
Iviza or La Ciudad (6527), a fortified town on the south-east
coast, consisting of a lower and upper portion, and possessing
a good harbour, a 13th-century Gothic collegiate church and an
ancient castle. Iviza was the see of a bishop from 1782 to 1851.
South of Iviza Hes the smaller and more irregular island of
Formentera (pop., xooo, 2243; area, 37 sq. m.), which is said to
derive its name from the production of wheat. With Iviza ft
agrees both in general appearance and in the character of its
products, but it is altogether destitute of streams. Goats and
sheep are found in the mountains, and the coasts are greatly
frequented by flamingoes. Iviza and Formentera are the principal
islands of the lesser or western Balearic group, formerly known
as the Pityusae or Pine Islands.
IVORY, 8IR JAKES (1765-184 2), Scottish mathematician,
vitpj& born in Dundee in 1765. In X779 he entered the university
of St Andrews, distinguishing himself especially in mathematics.
He then studied theology; but, after two sessions at St Andrews
and one at Edinburgh, he abandoned all idea of the church, and
in 1786 he became an assistant-teacher of mathematics and
natural phflosoghy in a newly established academy at Dundee.
Three years later he became partner in and manager Of a flax-
spinning company at Douglastown in Forfarshire, still, however,
prosecuting ih moments of leisure his favourite studies. He was
itially a self-trained mathematician, and was not only deeply
«9^
IVORY
versed in andent and modern geometry, but also had a hill
Jc no wled«e of the analytical methods and discoveries of the comi-
gx^nted mathematicians. His earliest memoir, dealing with an
3j*aJ.y tical expression for the rectification of the ellipse, is pub-
lislieci in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
(x 796); and this and his later papers on " Cubic Equations "
(x 79O) and " Kepler's Problem " (1802) evince great facility
in lfa*e handling of algebraic formulae. In 1804 after the dis-
lolution of the flax-spinning company of which he was manager,
he ol> gained one of the mathematical chairs in the Royal Military
College at Marlow (afterwards removed to Sandhurst); and till
tj,^. year 1816, when failing health obliged him to resign, be dis-
charged his professional duties with remarkable success. During
lfri& period he published in the Philosophical Transactions several
important memoirs, which earned for him the Copley medal in
,g m ^ Axtd ensured his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society
£0 x 3* S» & special importance in the history of attractions is
th^ fi*"st. °* tne9e cafk'er memoirs (/>**/. 7>d*w., 1809), in which
tj,^ r> roblem of the attraction of a homogeneous ellipsoid upon an
external point is reduced to the simpler case of the attraction of
ant,*, fcusr but related ellipsoid upon a corresponding point interior
to £ t ^ This theorem is known as Ivory's theorem. His later
>*-& in the Philosophical Transactions treat of astronomical
Actions, of planetary perturbations, of equilibrium of fluid
3SC s T &c. For his investigations in the first named of these
h ,-^c^ived a royal medal in i8a6 and again in 1839. Jn 1831,
_ f3<? recommendation of Lord Brougham, King William IV.
00 *_ «d him a pension of £300 per annum, and conferred on him
5J 1 1 ^moverian Guelphic order of knighthood. Besides being
j-!L^ = :t.l.> r connected with the chief scientific societies of his own
ri"VT* *~y* tbc Royal Sociclv of Edinburgh, the Royal Irish Aca-
V*l* ^. &c, he was corresponding member of the Royal Academy
,2^5 L-wmtc* both of Paris and Berlin, and of the Royal Society of
refa
Got «- * r*fi* n \ He ^j" 1 ,* 1 London on the 21st of September 1842.
r*o-
^ erf h«* ^fV**?*** w *** &****&* of Scientific Papers of
,— /-o A y (Fr * ,wir * i Ut * ** Mf )» strictly speaking a term confined
1 V^^ material represented by the tusk of the elephant, and for
10 *" V*»e * v ~ ia, P 1 * 1 **** 8 a 1 ™ * 1 entirely to that of the male elephant
£"^L #*-»«* both the male and female elephant produce good-sued
*» -^" . in the Indian variety the female is much less bountifully
"^^j^d, and in Ceylon perhaps not more than 1 % of either sex
"*■ ,y *usks at all. Ivory is in substance very dense, the pores
^ compact and filled with a gelatinous solution which
t t*s to the beautiful polish which may be given to it
it easy to work. It may be placed between bone and
abrous than bone and therefore less easily torn or
«•■ — .pui For a scientific definition it would be difficult to find
*r ***■ -^ *a* dun that given by Sir Richard Owen. He says: >
* f!T " . j^— -* ***? ■» °° w restricted to that modification of den-
, "*^ r .^^ substance which in transverse sections or fractures
**~^ j_r*» * ^ crcn \ colours, or striae, proceeding in the
" **» forming by their decussations minute curvi-
■pos spaces." These spaces are formed by an
« exceedingly minute tubes placed vciy close
«tt«anb in all directions. It is to this
that ivory owes its fine grain and
ssr-^y aad the peculiar marking resembling
; <* -se case of a watch, by which many people
l i r^'n^ -t from celluloid or other imitations.
feasor teeth of the animal, which,
a semisolid vascular pulp, grow
e_ffaikcring phosphates and other
as in the formation of
^. 1* ia layers, the inside layer
is embedded in the
%ts some distance up in a
is it is prolonged
4. a thread or as it is
k. d *Jk tooth. The
_ ■ ^ ' u the central
part. Besides the elephant's tooth or tusk we recognize as ivory,
for commercial purposes, the teeth of the hippopotamus, walrus,
narwhal, cachalot or sperm-whale and of some animals of the
wild boar class, such as the warthog of South Africa. Practically,
however, amongst these the hippo and walrus tusks are the only
ones of importance for large work, though boars' tusks come to the
sale-rooms in considerable quantities from India and Africa*
Generally speaking, the supply of ivory imported into Europe
comes from Africa; some is Asiatic, but much that is shipped
from India is really African, coming by way of Zanzibar and
Mozambique to Bombay. A certain amount is furnished by the
vast stores of remains of prehistoric animals still existing through-
out Russia, principally in Siberia in the neighbourhood of the
Lena and other rivers discharging into the Arctic Ocean. The
mammoth and mastodon seem at one time 10 have been common
over the whole surface of the globe. In England tusks have been
recently dug up — for instance at Dungeness — as long as 12 ft.
and weighing 300 lb. The Siberian deposits have been worked
for now nearly two centuries. The store appears to be as in-
exhaustible as a coalfield. Some think that a day may come
when the spread of civilisation may cause the utter disappearance
of the elephant in Africa, and that it will be to these deposits
that we may have to turn as the only source of animal ivory.
Of late years in England the use of mammoth ivory has shown
signs of decline. Practically none passed through the London
sale-rooms during 1003-1006. Before that, parcels of 10 to 20
tons were not uncommon. Not all of it is good; perhaps about
half of what comes to England is so, the rest rotten; specimens,
however, are found as perfect and m as fine condition as if
recently killed, instead of having lain hidden and preserved for
thousands of years in the icy ground. There is a considerable
literature (see Shooting) on the subject of big-game bunting,
which includes that of the elephant, hippopotamus and smaller
tusk-bearing animals. Elephants until comparatively r ecent
times roamed over the whole of Africa irora the northern deserts
to the Cape of Good Hope. They are still abundant in Central
Africa and Uganda, but civilization has gradually driven them
farther and farther into the wilds and impenetrable forests of
the interior.
The quality of ivory varies according to the districts whence
it is obtained, the soft variety of the eastern parts of the con-
tinent being the most esteemed. When in perfect condition
African ivory should be if recently cut of a warm, transparent,
mellow tint, with as little as possible appearance of grain or
mottling. Asiatic ivory is of a denser white, more open in
texture and softer to work. But it is apt to turn yellow sooner,
and is not so easy to polish. Unlike bone, ivory requires no
preparation, but is fit for immediate working. That from the
neighbourhood of Cameroon is very good, then ranks the ivory
from Loango, Congo, Gabun and Arabriz; next the Gold Coast,
Sierra Leone and Cape Coast Castle. That of French Sudan
is nearly always " ringy," and some of the Ambria variety also.
We may call Zanzibar and Mozambique varieties soft; Angola
and Ambriz all hard. Ambru ivory was at one time much es-
teemed, but there is comparatively little now. Siam ivory is
rarely if ever soft. Abyssinian has its soft side, but Egypt is
practically the only place where both descriptions axe largely
distributed. A drawback to Abyssinian ivory is a prevalence
of a rather thick bark. Egyptian is liable to be cracked, from
the extreme variations of temperature; more so. formerly
than now, since better methods of packing and transit are used.
Ivory is extremely sensitive to sudden extremes of temperature;
for this reason billiard balls should be kept where the temperature
is fairly equable.
The market terms by which descriptions of ivory are dis-
tinguished are liable to mislead. They refer to ports of shipment
rather than to places of origin. For instance, " Ma^ta " ivory
is a well-understood terra, yet there are ao ivory producing
animals in that island.
Tusks should be regular and tapering in shape, not very
curved or twisted, (or economy in cutting; the coat fine, thin,
nd transparent. The substance of ivory is so elastic
IVORY
93
and flexible that excellent riding-whips have been cut longi-
tudinally from whole tusks. The size to which tusks grow and
are brought to market depends on race rather than on size of
elephants. The latter run largest in equatorial Africa. Asiatic
b«U elephant tusks seldom exceed 50 lb in weight, though
lengths of 9 ft. and up to 150 lb weight are not entirely un-
known. Record lengths for African tusks are the one presented
to George V., when prince of Wales, on his marriage (1803),
measuring 8 ft. 7$ in. and weighing 165 lb, and the pair of tusks,
which were brought to the Zanzibar market by natives in 189*,
weighing together over 450 tt>. One of the latter is new in the
Natural History Museum at Sduth Kensington ; the other is
in Messrs Rodgers & Co.'s collection at Sheffield. For length
the longest known are those belonging to Messrs Rowland Ward,
Piccadilly, which measure, n ft. and it fL 5 in. respectively,
with a combined weight of 293 lb. Osteodentine, resulting from
the effects of injuries from spearheads or bullets, is sometimes
found in tusks. This formation, resembling stalactites, grows
with the task, the bullets or iron remaining embedded without
trace of their entry.
The most important commercial distinction of the qualities
of ivory is that of the hard and soft varieties. The terms are
difficult to define exactly Generally speaking, hard ox bright
ivory is distinctly harder to cut with the saw or other tools.
It is, as it were, glassy and transparent. Soft contains more
moisture, stands differences of climate and temperature better,
and does not crack so easily. The expert is guided by the shape
of the tooth, by the colour and quality of the bark or skin, and
by the transparency when cut, or even before, as at the point
of the tooth. Roughly, a line might be drawn almost centrally
down the map of Africa, on the west of which the hard quality
prevails, on the east the soft. In choosing ivory for example
for knife-handles— people rather like to see a pretty grain,
strongly marked; but the finest quality in the hard variety,
whkh is generally used for them, is the closest and freest from
grain. The curved or canine teeth of the hippopotamus are
valuable and come in considerable quantities to the European
markets. Owen describes this variety as " an extremely dense,
compact kind of dentine, partially defended on the outside by
a thin layer of enamel as hard as porcelain; so hard as to strike
fire with steel." By reason of this hardness it is not at all liked
by the turner and ivory workers, and before being touched by
them the enamel has to be removed by acid, or sometimes by
heating and sudden cooling, when it can be scaled off. The
texture is slightly curdled, mottled or damasked. Hippo ivory
was at one time largely used for artificial teeth, but now mostly
for umbrella and stick-handles; whole (in their natural form)
for fancy door-handles and the like. In the trade the term is
not •' riverhorse " but " seahorse teeth." Walrus ivory is less
dense and coarser than hippo, but of fine quality— what there
is of it, for the oval centre which has more the character Of
coarse bone unfortunately extends a long way up. At one
time a large supply came to the market, but of late years there
has been an increasing scarcity, the animals having been almost
exterminated by the ruthless persecution to which they have
been subjected in their principal haunts In the northern seas.
It is little esteemed now, though our ancestors thought highly
of it. Comparatively large slabs are to be found in medieval
sculpture of the nth and 12th centuries, and the grips of most
oriental swords, ancient and modern, are made from it. The
ivory from the single tusk or horn of the narwhal is not of much
commercial value except as an ornament or curiosity. Some
horns attain a length of 8 to 10 ft., 4 »«• thick at the hase. It
is dense in substance and of a fair colour, but owing to the
central cavity there is little of it fit for anything larger than
napkin-rings.
Ivory in Commerce, and its Industrial Applications.— Mmvst
the whole of the importation of ivory to Europe was until recent
years confined to tendon, the principal distributing mart pf
the world. Put the opening up of the* Congo trade has placed
the port of Antwerp in a position which has equalled and, for
a time, may surpass that of London. Other important markets
are Liverpool and Hamburg; and Germany, France and Portu-
gal have colonial possessions in Africa, from which it is imported.
America is a considerable importer for its own requirements.
From the German Cameroon alone, according to Schilling,
there were exported during the ten years ending 1005, 452,100
kilos of ivory, Mr Buxton estimates the amount of ivory im-
ported into the United Kingdom at about 500 tons. If we give
the same to Antwerp we have from these two ports alone no less
than 1000 tons a year to be provided. Allowing a weight so
high as 30 ft) per pair of tusks {which is far loo high, perhaps
twice too? high) we should have here akme between thirty and
forty thousand elephants to account for. It is true that every
pair of tusks that comes to the market represents a dead elephant,
but not necessarily by any means a slain or even a recently killed
one, as is popularly supposed and unfortunately too often
repeated. By far the greater proportion is the resalt of 6tores
accumulated by natives, a good part coming from animals whkh
have died a natural death. Not 20% is live ivory or recently
killed ; the remainder Is known In the trade e&dead ivory.
In [837 the principal London Ivory importers imported 3000 cwL
cwt. The big! * " - *—
tesin
_ i7 percw ...... „ ....
were, according to Board of Trade returns, in 1890. 14.349 cwt.;
in 1850, 8000 cwt.
At the July sales in 1905 a
highest price up to #855 was £53 per cwt.
. , 15a record price was reached for billiard-ball
teeth of £167 per cwt. The total imports into the United Kingdom
were, according to Board of Trade returns, in 1890. 14.3
in 1895, 10.91 1 cwt.; in 1900, 9889 cwt.; in 1904, 9045 cwt.
••■■"- 's(i ' ' * *
■ ovj, iw,^ii iwi. , in iyw t yovy vwi. , in iyu^, V-^+j i"i.
From Messrs Hate & Son's (ivory brokers, 10 Fenchurch Avenue)
_ wy Report of the second querte
It appears that the following were c
Ivory Report of the second quarterly sales in London. April 1906,
offered: —
Tons.
From Zanzibar. Bombay, Mozambique and Siara 17
Egyptian 19}
West Coast African It
Lisbon
Abyssinian. >
Sea horse (hippopotamus teeth)
Walrus .....
Waste ivory ....
i!
55
J
67*
Hard ivory was scarce. West Coast African was principally of the
Gabun description, and aomeof very fine quality. There was very
little inquiry for walrus. The highest price* ranged as follows'.
Soft East Coast tusks (Zanzibar, Mozambique, Bombay and Siam).
ioa to 143 lb. each £po, 10s. to £75. 10s. per cwt. Billiard-ball
scriveUoes,£icapercwt. Cut points for billiard-balls (3! in. to 2| to
3 inj £114 to £151 per cwt. Seahorse (for best), 3s. 6d. to 4s. id
per to. Boars' tusks, 6d. to 7d. per lb.
QuanUlies of ioory offered to Public auction (from Messrs Hale eV
Son's Reports).
Zanzibar, Bombay, Mozambique and Siam
Egyptian
Abyssinian .... . . .
West Coast African
Lisbon
Seahorse teeth and Boars' tusks .
»903-
1004.
1905.
Tons.
81
49*
22!
46!
3
Tons.
391
3
Tons.
81}
11 1
if
2031
7
200
9i
11
210$
209!
*3«1
Fluctuations in prices of ioory at the London Sale- Room (from Messrs
HoJe 6V Son's Charts, wkkh show the prices at each quarters?
sale from 18ft).
Billiard Ball pieces ....
Averages—
Hard^ Egyptian 36 to 50 lb. .
Soft East Indian $0* to 70 ft.
West Coast African 50 to 70 lb.
Hard East African 50 to 70 lb. .
1870.
(880.
1890.
19OO.
»905
£55
1
3*
37
£90
38
55
57
49
£112
64.
£68
29
-%
48
£167
48
72
61
9+
IVORY
C
&
he
*P
at
tiflc
shos
arco
linear
»mmei
arrange
almost
tic engii
a fc guide
EkphanL
starting it
during ti, c
earthy mat
**U> genco
<*'ag the last
oouc sockets i
fonkaJ form, :
'omciinjcs cali,
v*r iaycr, or i
were offered from Gabun. Angola, aod Cameroon (from the last
3 1 tons). To the port of Antwerp the imports were 6830 cwt. in
1004 and 6570 cwt. in 1905; of which 5310 cwt. and 4890 cwt.
respectively were from the Congo State.
The leading London sales are held quarterly in Mincing Lane, a
very interesting and wonderful display of tusks and ivory of all
kinds being laid out previously for inspection In the great warehouses
known as the " Ivory Floor '' in the London docks. The quarterly
Liverpool tales follow the London ones, with a short interval.
The important part which ivory plays in the industrial arts
not only for decorative, but also for domestic applications is
hardly sufficiently recognized. Nothing is wasted of this valuable
product. Hundreds of sacks full of cuttings and shavings, and
scraps returned by manufacturers after they have used what they
reottti* for their particular trade, come to the mart. The dust is
used for polishing, and in the preparation of Indian ink, and even
lor food in the form of Ivory jelly. The scraps come in for in-
laying and for the numberless purposes in which ivory is used for
small doasoslk and decorative objects. India, which has been
catted the backbone of the trade, takes enormous quantities
ef is* rings left in the turning of billiard-balls, which serve as
went*'* bangles, or for making small toys and models, and in
etfcct characteristic Indian work. Without endeavouring to
ftjassmie all the applications, a glance may be cast at the most
i*uv*t*at of those which consume the largest quantity. Chief
**#*£ these is the manufacture of billiard-balb, of cutlery
htiwfet, of piancr»fcoys and of brushware and toilet articles.
WU*T\^h*JH dofftand the highest quality of ivory; for the best
hslfc the soft description is employed, though recently, through
«ht ttMitpNrtio* of bomoline and similar substitutes, the hard
**» hi** more usod In order that the weight may be assimilated
i« >fc*t *| the artinvial kind. Therefore the most valuable tusks
« «K sir thtt* adapted (or the billiard-ball trade. The term used
k • *M*lfc*«k %> o*d ** *PPN ca " l0 lcelh P ro P«r for the purpose,
wtwtti* «w4 over about 7 R>. The division of the tusk into
sttttlto **ve* for subsequent manufacture, in order to avoid
v*»» u a SMI w *f importance.
*i* **NuitNk*\i*tt diagrams ("!•• * Iftd *) • now the method;
iw ^iTUw^* w^hsi»«g (rem an Imaginary centre of the curve
r.CmX U*fw sew*** ll» various trades have their own
t^£^l^ W SU«*g the most of the material In making
f*NV«iM ajwesww ^ billiard-ball of the
English size the first
thing to be done is to
rough out, from the
cylindrical section, a
sphere about al in. in
diameter, which will
eventually be a »/w or
sometimes for pro-
fessional players a lit-
tle larger. One hemi-
sphere— as shown in
the diagrams (fig. 2)
-T*» first turned, and
the resulting ring de-
tached with a parting
tool. The diameter
'• .accurately taken
and the subsequent
removals taken off in
other directions. The
M" U then fixed in
f wooden chuck, the
a~ .li*" u ey,lr| acr re-
ar the other hemisphere,
turned dead true.
n for ball-making
I the ball tn e „£
•a*** .to the bark
4jyfc% ***** ***•*■*
V Hn those portions
>tn« of billiard-balls
L.-.-L— J 1 jt U * Ual
[^the distributing
*•* But this i» a
•at** tin* to some
^^m«kesth*m
. - Billiard
** temperature is
But although ball teeth rose in .1905 to £167 a cwt.. the price of
billiard-balls was the same in 1905 as it was in 1885. Roughly
speaking, there are about twelve different qualities aod prices of
billiard-balls, and eight of pyramid-and pool-balls, the latter ranging
from half a guinea to two guineas each.
The ivory for piano-keys is delivered to the trade in the shape
of what are known as heads and tails, the former lor the parts
which come under the fingers, the latter for that running up
between the black keys. The two are joined afterwards on the
keyboard with extreme accuracy. Piano-keys are bleached, but
organists for some reason or other prefer unbleached keys.
The soft variety is mostly used for high-class work and preferably
of the Egyptian type.
The great centres of the ivory industry for the ordinary
objects of common domestic use are in England, for cutlery
handles Sheffield, for billiard-balls and piano-keys London. For
Stock ItoMd £ hiWNianck SMI
SK
Fig. 2.
cutlery a large firm such as Rodgers & Sons uses an average of
some twenty tons of ivory annually, mostly of the hard variety.
But for billiard-balls and piano-keys America is now a large
producer, and a considerable quantity is made in France and
Germany. Brush backs are almost wholly in English hands.
Dieppe has long been famous for the numberless little ornaments
and useful articles such as statuettes, crucifixes, little book-
covers, paper-cutters, combs, serviette-rings and articles dt
Paris generally. And St Claude in the Jura, and Geislingen
In Wtirtemberg, and Erbach in Hesse, Germany, are amongst
the most important centres of the industry. India and China
supply the multitude of toys, models, chess and draughtsmen,
puzzles, workbox fittings and other curiosities.
Vegetable Ivory \ 6>c— Some allusion may be made to vegetable
ivory and artificial substitutes. The plants yielding the vegetable
ivory of commerce represent two or more species of an anomalous genus
of palms, and are known to botanists as PhytcUpkas. They are natives
of tropical South America, occurring chiefly on the banks of the
river Magdalena, Colombia, always found in damp localities, not
only, however, on the lower coast region as in Darten, but also at
a considerable elevation above the sea. They are mostly found in
separate groves, not mixed With other trees or shrubs. The plant is
severally known as the " tagua " by the Indians on the banks of the
Magdalena, as the " anta " on the coast of Darien, and as the M pulli-
punta " and " homero " in Peru. It is stemless or short-stemmed,
and crowned with from twelve to twenty very long pinaatifid leaves.
The plants are dioecious, the males forming higher, more erect
and robust trunks than the females. The male inflorescence is in
the form of a simple fleshy cylindrical spadix covered with flowers;
the female flowers are also in a single spadix, which, however, is
shorter than in the male. The fruit consists of a congkwneratcd
head composed of six or seven drupes, each containing from six to
nine seeds, and the whole being enclosed in a walled woody covering
forming altogether a globular head as large as that of a man. A
single plant sometimes bears at the same time from six to eight of
these large heads of fruit, each weighing from 20 to 15 lb. In its very
young state the seed contains a dear insipid fluid, whkh travellers
take advantage of to allay thirst. As it gets older this fluid becomes
milky and of a sweet taste, and it gradually continues to change
both in taste and consistence until it becomes so hard as to make it
valuable as a substitute for animal ivory. In their youngand fresh
state the fruits are eaten with avidity by bears, hoes and other
animals. The seeds, or nuts as they are usually called when fully
ripe and hard, are used by the American Indians for making small
ornamental articles and toys. They are imported into Britain itj
considerable quantities, frequently under the name of Coroso
nuts, a name by which the fruits of some species of AttaUa (another
palm with hard ivory-Kke seeds) are known in Central America--
their uses being chiefly for small articles of turnery. Of vegetable
ivory Great Britain imported in 1004 laoo tons, of which about 4©*
tons were reexported, principally to Germany. It Is mainly aad
•ty used for coat buttons. ,
y artificial compounds have, from time to time, been tned as
tea for ivory; amongst them potatoes treated with sulphuric
IVORY
95
add. Celluloid b familiar to as nowaday*. Itichefonnotboasoline.
into which it » said to enter, it is used largely for billiard balls; and
a new French substitute— a caseine made from milk, called gallalith —
has begun to be much used for piano keys in the cheaper sorts of
instrument. Odontotite is mammoth ivory, which through lapse of
time and from surroundings becomes converted into a substance
known as fossil or blue ivory, and u used occasionally in jewelry
as turquoise, which it very much resembles. It results from the
tusks of antediluvian mammoths buried in the earth for thousands
of years, during which time under certain conditions the ivory
becomes slowly penetrated with the metallic salts- which give it the
peculiar vivid blue colour of turquoise.
Ivory Sculpture and the Decorative Arts.— Thcuse of ivory as
a material peculiarly adapted for sculpture and decoration has
been universal in the history of civilization. The earliest
examples which have come down to us take as back to pre-
historic times, when, so far as our knowledge goes, civilisation
as we understand it had attained no higher degree than that of
the dwellers in caves, or of the most primitive races. Throughout
succeeding ages there is continued evidence that no other
substance — except perhaps wood, of which we have even fewer
ancient examples— has been so consistently connected with
man's art-craftsmanship. It is hardly too much to say that to
follow properly the history of ivory sculpture involves the study
of the whole world's art in all ages. It will take us back to the
most remote antiquity, for we have examples of the earnest
dynasties of Egypt and Assyria. Nor is there entire default
when we come to the periods of the highest civilization of Greece
and Rome. It has held an honoured place in all ages for the
adornment of the palaces of the great, not only in sculpture
proper but in the rich inlay of panelling, of furniture, chariots
and other costly articles. The Bible teems with references to
its beauty and value. And when, in the days of Phcidias, Greek*
sculpture had reached the highest perfection, we learn from
ancient writers that colossal statues were constructed — notably
the " Zeus of Olympia " and the " Athena of the Parthenon."
The faces, hands and other exposed portions of these figures
were of ivory, and the question, therefore, of the method of
production of such extremely large slabs as perhaps were used
has been often debated. A similar difficulty arises with regard
to other pieces of considerable size, found, for example, amongst
consular diptychs. It has been conjectured that some means of
softening and moulding ivory was known to the ancients, but
as a matter of fact though it may be softened it cannot be again
restored to its original condition. If up to the 4th century we
are unable to point to a large number of examples of sculpture
in ivory, from that date onwards the chain is unbroken, and
during the five or six hundred years of unrest and strife from the
decline of the Roman empire in the 5th century to the dawn of
the Gothic revival of art in the nth or 12th, ivory sculpture
alone of the sculptural arts carries on the preservation of types
and traditions of classic times in central Europj. Most import- 1
ant indeed is the role which existing examples of
ivory carving play in the history of the last two cen-
turies of the consulates of the Western and Eastern
empires. Though the evidences of decadence in art
may be marked, the close of that 'period brings us
down to the end of the reign of Justinian (527-563).
Two centuries later the iconoclastic persecutions in the
Eastern empire drive westward and compel to settle
there numerous colonies of monks and artificers.
Throughout the Carlovingian period, the examples of
ivory sculpture which we possess in not inconsiderable
quantity are of extreme importance in the history
of the early development of Byzantine art in Europe.
And when the Western world of art arose from its
torpor, freed itself from Byzantine shackles and
traditions, and began to think for itself, it is to the
sculptures in ivory of the Gothic art of the 13th
und 14th centuries that we turn with admiration
of their exquisite beauty of expression. Up to about the
14th century the influence of the church was everywhere
predominant in all matters relating to art. In ivories,
as in mosaics, enamels or miniature painting it Would be
difficult to find a dozen examples, from the age of Constantine
onwards, other than sacred ones or of sacred symbolism. But
as the period of the Renaissance approached, the influence of
romantic literature began to assert itself, and a feeling and style
similar to those which are characteristic of the charming series
of religious art In ivory, so touchingly conceived and executed,
meet us in many objects m ivory destined for ordinary domestic
uses and ornament. Mirror cases, caskets for jewelry or toilet
purposes, combs, the decoration of arms, or of saddlery or of
weapons of the chase, are carved and chased with scenes of real
life or illustrations of the romances, which bring home to us in a
vivid manner details of the manners and customs, amusements,
dresses and domestic life of the times. With the Renaissance
and a return to classical ideas, joined with a love of display and
of gorgeous magnificence, art in ivory takes a secondary place.
There is a want of simplicity and of originality. It is the period
of the commencement of decadence. Then comes the period
nicknamed rococo, which persisted so long. Ivory carving
follows the vulgar fashion, is content with copying or adapting,
and until the revival in our own times is, except in rare instances,
no longer to be classed as a fine art. It becomes a trade and is in
the hands of the mechanic of the workshop. In this necessarily
brief and condensed sketch we have been concerned mainly with
ivory carving in Europe. It will be necessary to give also,
presently, some indications enabling the inquirer to follow the
history — or at least to put him on the track of it — not only in the
different countries of the West but also in India, China and Japan.
Prehistoric Ivory Carvings. — These are the result of investiga-
tions made about the middle of the 19th century in the cave
dwellings of the Dordogne in France and also of the lake dwellings
of Switzerland. As records they are unique in the history of
art. Further than this our wonderment is excited at finding
these engravings or sculptures in the round, these chiselled
examples of the art of the uncultivated savage, conceived and exe-
cuted with a feeling of delicacy and restraint which the most
modern artist might envy. Who they were who executed them
must be left to the palaeontologist and geologist to decide.
We can only be certain that they were contemporary with the
period when the mammoth and the reindeer still roved freely in
southern France. The most important examples are the sketch
of the mammoth (see Painting, Plate I.), on a slab of ivory
now in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes, the head and
shoulders of an ibex carved in the round on a piece of reindeer
horn, and the figure of a woman (instances of representations
of the' human form are most rare) naked and wearing a necklace
and bracelet. Many of the originals arc in the museum at St
Germain-en-Laye, and casts of a considerable number are in the
British Museum.
Ancient Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek and Roman Ivories.-^Vit
know from ancient writers that the Egyptians were skilled In
Fig. 3.— Panel with Cartouche, Nineveh.
ivory carving and that they procured ivory in large quantities
from Ethiopia. The Louvre possesses examples of a kind of
flat castanets or clappers, in the form of the curve of the tusks
themselves, engraved in outline, beautifully modelled v — '-
M*
IVORY
tomtit^ lh# Upoini points; and largt quantities of small
»»I»imU, tiuUuhua a Ik»* of plain form and simple decoration
Uvuuiunl lt\Mn tta luauibcd praenoracn as the fifth dynasty,
ntuMit mvv* *,i\ the Uritifch Museum and the museum at Cairo
Atv*tUtMMM|Mi*tiv«ly rich. But no other collection in the world
ttml.tltti hvuh m\ interesting collection of ancient Assyrian
Ivuiu * n» \\u\[ in the Uritish Museum. Those exhibited, number
*«m»» HI t v Impoiunt pieces, and many other fragments are, on
»« » »\\i\\ ul | heir fragility or state of decay, stowed away. The
tulUition la tha result of the excavations by Layard about 1840
dm Ihu supposed site of Nineveh opposite the modern city of
Mtikul, When found they were so decomposed from the lapse
ul Umc us scarcely to bear touching or the contact of the external
sir- Layard hit upon the ingenious plan of boiling in a solution
of Kvluiinc and thus restoring to them the animal matter which
hud dried up in the course of centuries. Later, the explorations
of Hinders Pctric and others at Abydos brought to light a con-
siderable number of sculptured fragments which may be even
two thousand years older than those of Nineveh. They have
been exhibited in London and since distributed amongst various
museums at home and abroad.
Consular and Official and Private Dipiychs. — About fifty of
the remarkable plaques called " consular diptychs." of the time
of the three last centuries
of the consulates of the
Roman and Creek empire
have been preserved. They
range in date from perhaps
mid-fourth to mid-sixth cen-
turies, and as with two or
three exceptions the dates
are certain it would be diffi-
cult to overestimate their
historic or intrinsic value.
The earliest of absolutely
certain date is the diptych
of Aosta (a.d. 408), the first
alter the recognition of
Christianity; or, if the
Monza diptych represents,
as some think, the Consul
Stilicon, then we may refer
back six years earlier. At
any rate the edict of Thco-
dosius in aj>. 384, concern-
ing the restriction of the use
of ivory to the diptychs of
the regular consuls, is evi-
dence that the custom must
have been long estab-
lished. According to some
authorities the beautif ulleaf
of diptych in the Liverpool
Museum (fig. 4) isaconsular
one and to be ascribed to
Marcus Julius Philippus
(a.d. 248). Similarly the
From pbou> fay w a. Mansdi & Ox Gherardesca leaf in the
Fie 4.— Leaf of diptych showing British Museum may be
combats with stags; in the Liver- accepted as of the Consul
pool Museum. Marcus Aurelius (a.d. 508).
But the whole question of
the half dozen earliest examples is con ject uraJ. With a few notable
exceptions they show decadence in art. Amongst the finest may
be cited the leaf with the combats with stags at Liverpool, the dip-
tych of Probianus at Berlin and the two leaves, one of Anas-
tasius, the other of Orestes, in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
The literature concerning these diptychs is voluminous, from the
time of the erudite treatise by Cori published in 1759 to the
present day. The latest of certain date is that of Basilius,
consul of the East in 541 . the last of the consuls. The diptychs
of private individuals or of officials number about sixteen, and
in the case of the private ones have a far greater artistic value
Of these the Victoria and Albert Museum possesses the most
beautiful leaf of perhaps the finest example of ancient ivory
sculpture which has come down to us, diptychon Mcle re tense,
representing a Bacchante (fig. 5). The other half, which is much
injured, is in the Cluny Museum., Other important pieces are
the Aesculapius and Hygeia at Liverpool, the Hippolytus and
Phaedra at Brescia, the Barberini in the Bargello and at Vienna
and the Rufius Probianus at Beilin. Besides the diptychs
ancient Greek and Roman
ivories before the recognition |
of Christianity are compara-
tively small in number and are |
mostly in the great museums of I
the Vatican, Naples, the British 1
Museum, the Louvre and the I
Cluny Museum. Amongst them 1
are the statuette of Pcnthea,
perhaps of the 3rd century
(Cluny), a large head of a
woman (museum of Vienna) .-
and the Bellerophon (British
Museum), nor must those of j
the Roman occupation in !
England and other countries be I
forgotten. Notable instances ij
are the plaque and ivory mask
found at Caerlcon. Others are
now in the Guildhall and British
Museums, and most continental
European museums have ex-
amples connected with their
own history.
Early Christian and Early
Byzantine Ivories. — The few
examples we possess of Christian
ivories previous to the time of
Constantine are not of great
importance from the point of
view of the history of art. But
after that date the ivories which Fig. 5.— Leaf of Roman dip-
we may ascribe to tie con- «»«*j «P™* •.SrSffi
turies from the end of the Museum.
4th to at least the end of the
oth become of considerable interest, on account of their connexion
with the development of Byzantine art in western Europe.
With regard to exact origins and dates opinions are largely
divergent. In great part they are due to the carrying on of
traditions and styles by which the makers of the sarcophagi
were inspired, and the difficulties of ascription are increased
when in addition to the primitive elements the influence of
Byzantine systems introduced many new ideas derived from
many extraneous sources. The questions involved are of no
small archaeological, iconographical and artistic importance,
but it must be admitted that we are reduced to conjecture in
many cases, and compelled to theorize. And it would seem to be
impossible to be more precise as to dates than within a margin
of sometimes three centuries. Then, again, we are met by the
question how far these ivories are connected with Byzantine
art; whether they were made in the West by immigrant Greeks,
or indigenous works, or purely imported productions. Some
German critics have endeavoured to construct a system of
schools, and to form definite groups, assigning them to Rome,
Ravenna, Milan and Monza. Not only so, but they claim to be
precise in dating even to a certain decade of a century. But it
is certainly more than doubtful whether there is sufficient
evidence on which to found such assumptions. It is at least
probable that a considerable number of the ivories whose dates
arc given by such a number of critics so wide a range as from
the 4th to the 10th century are nothing more than the work of
the monks of the numerous monasteries founded throughout
the Carlovingian empire, copying and adapting from whatever
IVORY
97
i into their hands. Many of them were Greek immigrant*
exiled at the time of the iconoclastic persecutions* To these
must be added the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon missionaries, who
brought with them and disseminated their own national feeling
and technique. We have to take into account also the relations
which existed not only with Constantinople but also with the
great governing provinces of Syria and Egypt. Where all our
information is so vague, and in the face of so much conflicting
opinion amongst authorities, it is not unreasonable to hold with
regard to very many of these ivories that instead of assigning
them to the age of Justinian or even the preceding century we
ought rather to postpone their dating from one to perhaps three
centuries later and to admit that we cannot be precise even
within these limits. It would be impossible to follow here the
whole of the arguments relating to this most important period
of the development of ivory sculpture or to mention a tithe of the
examples which illustrate it. Amongst the most striking the
earliest is the very celebrated leaf of a diptych in the British
Museum representing an archangel (6g. 6). It is generally
admitted that we have no ivory
of the 5th or 6th centuries or in
fact of any early medieval period
which can compare with it in
excellence of design and work-
manship. There is- no record (it
is believed) from whence the
museum obtained the ivory.
There are at least plausible
grounds for surmising that it is
identical with the "Angelas
longus eburncus " of a book-
cover among the books brought
to England by St Augustine
which is mentioned in a list of
things belonging to Christchurch,
Canterbury (sec Dart, A pp. p.
xviii.). The dating of the four
Passion plaques, also in the
British Museum, varies from the
5th to the 7lh century. But-
although most recent authorities
accept the earlier date, the
present writer holds strongly that
they arc not anterior to, at
earliest, the 7th century. Even
then they wiH remain, with the
exception of the Monza oil flask
and perhaps the St Sabina doors,
the earliest known representation
Fmpfaoc0byW.A.Mai»cU&Ca of the crucifixion. The ivory
Fig. 6.-Lcaf of Diptych, vase > w,lh < 0ver - in the Bm ' sh
representing Archangel; in Museum, appears to possess de-
tbe British Museum. fined elements of the farther
East, due perhaps to the rela-
tions between Syria and Christian India or Ceylon. Other
important early Christian ivories arc the series of pyxes,
the diptych in the treasury of St Ambrogio at Milan, the
chair of Maximian at Ravenna (most important as a type
piece), the panel with the "Ascension" in the Bavarian
National Museum, the Brescia casket, the " Lorsch " bookcovers
of the Vatican and Victoria and Albert Museum, the Bodleian
and other bookcovers, the St Paul diptych in the Bargello at
Florence and the " Annunciation " plaque in the Trivulxio
collection. So far as unquestionably oriental specimens of
Byzantine art are concerned they are few in number, but we have
in the famous Harbaville triptych in the Louvre a super-
excellent example.
Gothic Ivories. — The most generally charming period of ivory
sculpture is unquestionably that which, coincident with the
Gothic revival in art, marked the beginning of a great and
lasting change. The formalism imposed by Byzantine traditions
gave place to a brighter, more delicate and tenderer conception.
This golden age of the Ivory carver— at its best In the 13th cen-
tury— was still in evidence during the rath, and although there
is the beginning of a transition in style in the 15th century, the
period of neglect and decadence which set in about the beginning
of the 16th tiardly reached the acute stage until well on into the
1 7th. To review the various developments both of religious art
which reigned almost alone until the 14th century, or of the
secular side as exemplified in the delightful mirror cases and
caskets carved with subjects from the romantic stories which
were so popular, would be impossible here. Almost every great
museum and famous private collection abounds in examples
of the well-known diptychs and triptychs and little portable
oratories of this period. Some, as in a famous panel in the
British Museum, are marvels of minute workmanship, others of
delicate openwork and tracery. Others, again, are remarkable
for the wonderful way in which, in the compass of a few inches,
whole histories and episodes of the scriptural narratives are
expressed in the most vivid and telling manner. Charming above
all arc the statuettes of the Virgin and Child which French and
Flemish art, especially, have handed down to us. Of these the
Victoria and Albert Museum possesses a representative colkc-
FiG. 7. — Mirror Case, illustrating the Storming of the Castle of ,
Love; in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
tion. Another series of interest is that of the crozicrs or pastoral »
staves, the development of which the student of ivories will be
careful to study in connexion with the earlier ones and the
tau -headed staves. In addition there are shrines, reliquaries,
bookcovers, liturgical combs, portable altars, pyxes, holy water
buckets and sprinklers J? abtlla or lit urgical fans, rosaries, mtmento
rtori, paxes, small figures and groups, and almost every conceiv-
able adjunct of the sanctuary or for private devotion. It is to
French or Flemish art that the greater number and the most
beautiful must be referred. At the same time, to take one
example only— the diptych and triptych of Bishop Grandison
in the British Museum— we have evidence that English ivory
carvers were capable of rare excellence of design and workman-
ship. Nor can crucifixes be forgotten, though they are of
extreme rarity before the r7th century. A most beautiful 13th-
century figure for one— though only a fragment— is in the Victoria
and Albert Museum. Amongst secular objects of this period,
besides the mirror cases (fig. 7) and caskets, there are hunting
horns (the earlier ones probably oriental, or more or less faith-
fully copied from oriental models), chess and draughtsmen
(especially the curious set from the isle of Lewis), combs, marriage
coffers (at one period remarkable Italian ones of bone), memor-
andum tablets, seals, the pommels and cantles of saddles and a
98
IVORY COAST
unique harp bow in the Louvre. The above enumeration will
alone suffice to show that the inquirer must be referred for
<ktAHs to the numerous works which treat of medieval ivory
sculpture.
Ivory Stulpture from the 16th to the tgth Century.— Compared
with the wealth of ivory carving of the two preceding centuries,
t** » $ih, and especially the 16th, centuries are singularly poor in
really fine work. But before we arrive at the period of real
decadence we shall come across such things as the knife of
Diana of Poitiers in the Louvre, the sceptre of Louis XIII., the
Rothschild hunting horn, many Italian powder horns, the
German Psyche in the Louvre, or the " Young Girl and Death **
in the Munich Museum, in which there is undoubtedly originality
*nd talectt of the first order. The practice of ivory carving
kecam* extremely popular throughout the 17th and 18th
centuries, especially in the Netherlands and in Germany, and the
amount of ivory consumed must have been very great. But,
with race exceptions, and these for the most part Flemish, it is
art of an inferior kind, which seems to have been abandoned to
** co **l -rate sculptors and the artisans of the workshop. There is
hit* origioahty, the rococo styles run riot, and we seem to be
ec*>J*flan«i to wade through an interminable series of gods and
sN^-JossjeSv bacchanalians and satyrs, pseudo-classical copies
t?vNtx the antique and imitations of the schools of Rubens. As a
cuter of fact few great museums, except the German ones,
core to include in their collections examples of these periods.
^^^ exceptions are made in the case of Flemish sculptors of
*~»»^ talent as Francois Duquesnoy (Fiammingo), Gerard van
^^ ** *r Lucas Fayd'herbe. In a lesser degree, in Germany,
V "^V* Angertnair, Lconhard Kern, Bcrnhard Strauss,
fc.vcv^ Kruger and Rauch miller; and, in France, Jean Guiller-
»"» v tVavkJ Ve Marchand and Jean Cavalier. Crucifixes were
r- ^*vi oat in enormous numbers, some of not inconsiderable
i*^ Vet. for the most part, they represent anatomical exercises
<• u*n ^g ^ sightly from a pattern of which a celebrated one
a- **s.< x xt to Faislenbergcr may be taken as a type. Tankards
*\>i k!^ aa*J some, notably the one in the Jones collection, than
• k -v ^ «vt*Lap* ao finer example exists, arc also of a high standard.
VW ^vv,? '* work b well illustrated by the charming series of
* v % *^««w in the Victoria and Albert Museum known as the
* *.n*t. ^ toyV* Amongst the crowd of objects in ivory
j* £ . oa; ^<«;<«i of the early t8th century, the many examples
• v -4t*v4» v w^kwents known as rappoirs, or tobacco graters,
->m X tvtsved. It may perhaps be necessary to add that
. v *<?* N v vtaacttf of art in ivory in these periods is not of
** ••.srN.x. the subject Is not one entirely unworthy of attention
,h v«..>. *td tam art a certain number of remarkable and
««• % -o'M&c example*.
.. * s«.*v« J $p*i* t Pertutal, India, China and Japan.—
-*,+* ^v^ with regard to Spain and Portugal, there is
v •*«*** .v*r*Wtwi»* than confine our attention to a certain
^ % . 4 Ntvi*t Moorish or Hispano-Morcsque ivories of the
" k "k V*>*x**>at»on of the Peninsula, from the 8th to the
* V ,***>> $*»* *«* examples are in the Victoria and
' i *».* vX IVrtttgucse work there is little except the
•*" HA .MiMt G»i and the Portuguese settlements in the
" w ^ »**» »** be made also of the remarkable
, •♦*. lVetuguc«e and savage art from Benin, now
^'" > . vmitv 01 Indian i vorv carving the India
- ** ^^ ^ n^t* a very large and varied collection
v— *\ ^ ^m But there is little older than the
*- * \,^tWiiW that Indian art in ivory can
, - - -*\ w4 s^» in the hUtory of the art. What we
e m . • ~J?4#^ * ivvcy it confined to those examples
t>. -- B _ m m *» Kiropean market, and can hardly
tv ^ • , ur rN-e xtty •trongly to euluvated tastes.
tl -~*~* rTiW^wn ddightf ttl ntUukis and the
The " * sV -.walrt wflto ncre for *** lvorics o£
time _- ~\^ *.
pre*
consu
of pri
- 7 • .^.w.iwV- ruJp *
a certain amount is exhibited in the Royal Academy and in mott
foreign salons, but in England the works— necessarily not very
numerous — are soon absorbed in private collections. On the
European* continent, on the contrary, in such galleries as the
Belgian state collections or the Luxembourg, examples are
frequently acquired and exhibited. In Belgium the acquisition
of the Congo and the considerable import of ivory therefrom
gave encouragement to a definite revival of the art. Important
exhibitions have been held in Belgium, and a notable one in
Paris in 1004. Though ivory carving is as expensive as marble
sculpture, all sculptors delight in following it, and the material
entails no special knowledge or training. Of 19th-century artists
there were in France amongst the best known, besides numerous
minor workers of Dieppe and St Claude, August in Morean,
Vautier, Soitoux, Bclletcste, Meugniot, Pradier, Triqueti and
Gerome; and in the first decade of the 20th century, besides
such distinguished names in the first rank as Jean Dampt and
Theodore Riviere, there were Vever, Gardet, Caron. Barrias,
Allouard, Ferrary and many others. Nor must the decorative
work of Rene Lalique be omitted. No less than forty Belgian
sculptors exhibited work in ivory at the Brussels exhibition of
1887. The list included artists of such distinction as J. Dillens,
Constantin Meunier, van der Stappcn, Khnopff, P. Wolfcrs,
Samuel and Paul de Vigne, and amongst contemporary Belgian
sculptors are also van Beurden, G. Devrcese, Vincotte, de
Tombay and Lagae. In England the most notable work includes
the " Lamia " of George Frampton, the " St Elizabeth " of Alfred
Gilbert, the " Mors Janua Vitae " of Harry Bates, the " Lance-
lot " of W. Reynolds-Stephens and the use of ivory in the applied
arts by Lynn Jenkins, A. G. Walker, Alexander Fisher and
others.
Authorities.— See generally A. Maskell, torus (1906). and the
bibliography (here given.
On Early Christian and Early Byzantine ivories, the following
works may be mentioned : Abbe Cabrol, Dtclionnaire de Varchiolog*
chrttienne (in progress): O. M. Dalton, Catalogue of Early Christian
Antiquities in British Museum (1902); E. Dobbert, Zur GescktckU
der Elfenbeinsculplur (1885): H. Graeven, Antike Scknittereien
i«903); R. Kanzlcr, Gli avori . . . Vaticana (1903); Kondakov,
,'Arl byzantini A. Maskell, Cantor Lectures, Soc. of Arts (1906)
(lecture II., "Early Christian and Early Byzantine Ivories");
Strzygowskt, Bytantinische Denkmaler (1891): V. Schulze, Arekdo-
lotie der alUkrutlichen Kunst (1895). G. Siuhlfauth, Die alUkristL
Elfenbeinplaslik (1896).
On the consular diptychs, see H. F. Clinton, Fasti Romani (1845-
1850); A. Gori, Thesaurus veterum diptychorum (1759); C. Lenor-
mant, Trisorde numismalique el de ityptique (1834-1846) ; F. Pulszky,
Catalogue of the Fijhvdry Ivories (1856).
On the artistic interest generally, see also C. Alabaster. Caialogve
of Chinese Objects in the South Kensington Museum ; Sir R. Alcock.
Art and Art Industries in Japan (1878) ; Barraud et Martin, Le BHon
pastoral (1856): Bouchot, Us Relinres d'art d la Bibtiothique Nalio-
na " " " •--•■- Hturgiques; H. Cole, Indian Art
at Storia delT arte Christiana (1881);
A. tier (1876); J. Labarte, Htstoire des
ah Uber den Krummstab (1863); Sir F.
M [in Archaealogia, vol. xxiv. 1832);
VV 1 Medieval in the South Kensington
M toire de I' art; E. Molinier, Htstoire
get eld. Catalogue of Fictile Ivories stAA
by . H. Pitt Rivers, Antique Worhs of
At Juatrcm^re de Quincy, Le Jupiter
(H, ?r, Elfenbetnplastik sett der Renats-
sax Lex Arts an moyen Age ( 1 838-1 846) ;
G. >-l868) . A. Venturi, Storus delT arte
Itc Indian Art at Delhi (1904). J- O.
W South Kensington Museum (1876).
Sii ... . ureim Ivory (1856). (A. Ml.)
IVORY COAST (Cdte <T I voire), a French West African colony,
bounded S. by the Gulf of Guinea, W. by Liberia and French
Guinea, N. by the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger, E. by the
Gold Coast. Its area Is approximately 120,000 sq. m. t and its
population possibly 2,000,000, of whom some 600 are Europeans.
Official estimates (1008) placed the native population as low as
980,000.
Physical Features.— The coast -line extends from 7* 30' to *• 7* W
and has a length of 380 m. It forms an air of a circle of which the
convexity turns slightly to the north: neither bay nor promontory
breaks the regularity of its outline. The shore U low, bordered in its
IVORY COAST
99
eastern haK with lagoons, and difficult of access on account of the
submarine bar of sand which stretches along nearly the whole of the
coast, and also because of the heavy surf caused by the great Atlantic
billows. The principal lagoons, going W. to E. are those of Grand
Lahou, Grand Bassam or Ebri6 and Assini. The coast plains extend
inland about 40 m. Beyond the ground rises in steep slopes to a
general level of over 1000 ft., the plateau being traversed in several
directions by hills rising 2000 ft. and over, and cut by valleys with a
general south-eastern trend. In the north-east, in the district of
Komj (9.9.), the country becomes mountainous, Mt. Kommono
attaining a height of 4757 ft. In the north-west, by the Ltberian
frontier, the mountains in the Gon region rise over 6000 ft. Starting
from the Liberia n frontier, the chief rivers are the Cavalla (or
Kavalfi), the San Pedro, the Sassandra (240 m. long), the Bandama
(225 m.), formed by the White and the Red Bandama, the Komoe
(360 m.) and the But. All these streams are interrupted by rapids
as they descend from the highlands to the plain and are un navigable
by steamers save for a few miles from their mouths. The nvcrs
named all drain to the Gulf of Guinea , the rivers in the extreme
north of the colony belong to the Niger system, being affluents of
the Ban! or Mahel Balevel branch of that river. The watershed runs
roughly fromo,* N. in the west to io d N in the east, and is marked by
a line of bills rising about 650 ft. above the level of the plateau.
The climate is in general very hot and unhealthy, the rainfall being
very heavy. In some parts of the plateau healthier conditions
prevail. The fauna and flora are similar to those of the Gold Coast
and Liberia. Primeval forest extends from the coast plains to about
8° N., covering nearly 50,000 sq. ra.
Inhabitants.— The coast districts are inhabited by Negro
tribes allied on the one hand to the K rumen (q.v.) and on the
other to the people of Ashanti {q.v.). The Assinis are of Ashanli
origin, and chiefly of the Ochin and Agni tribes. Farther west
are found the "Jack- Jacks" and the "Kwa-Kwas," sobriquets
given respectively to the Aradian and Avikom by the early
European traders. The Kwa-Kwa are said to be so called
because their salutation " resembles the cry of a duck." In the
interior the Negro strain predominates but with an admixture
of Hamitic or Berber blood. The tribes represented include
Jamans, Wongaras and Mandingos (q.v ), some of whom are
Moslems. The Mandingos have intermarried largely with the
Bambara or Sienuf, an agricultural people of more than average
Intelligence widely spread over the country, of which they are
considered to be the indigenous race. The Bambara themselves
are perhaps only a distinct branch of the original Mandingo
stock. The Baule, who occupy the central part of the colony,
are of Agni-Ashanti origin. The bulk of the inhabitants are
fetish worshippers. On the northern confines of the great forest
belt live races of cannibals, whose existence was first made known
by Captain d '01 lone in 1809. In general the coast tribes arc
peaceful. They have the reputation of being neither industrious
nor intelligent. The traders are chiefly Fanti, Sierra Leonians,
Senegalese and Mandingos.
Teams.— The chief towns on the coast arc Grand and Little Bassam,
iaclcville and Assini in the east and Grand Lahou, Sassandra and
"abu in the west. Grand and Little Bassam are built on the strip
of sand which separates the Grand Bassam or Ebrie lagoon from the
sea. This lagoon forms a commodious harbour, once the bar has
been crossed. Grand Bassam is situated at the point where the
lagoon and the river Komoe enter the sea and there is a minimum
depth of 1* ft. of water over the bar. The town (pop. 9000, including
about 100 Europeans) is the seat of the customs administration and
of the judicial department, and is the largest centre for the trade of
the colony. A wharf equipped with cranes extends beyond the surf
fine and the town is served by a light railway. It ts notoriously
unhealthy; yellow fever is endemic. Little Bassam, renamed by
the French Port Bouet, possesses an advantage over the other ports
on the coast, as at this point there is no bar. The sea floor is here
rent by a chasm, known as the " Bottomless Pit," the waters having
a depth of 65 ft. Abijean (Abidjan), on the north sida of the lagoon
opposite Port Bouet is the starting-point of a railway to the oil and
rubber regions. The half-mile of foreshore separating the port from
the lagoon was in 1904- 1907 pierced by a canal, but the canal silted
up as soon as cut, and in 1908 the French decided to make Grand
Bassam the chief port of the .colony. Assini Is an important centre
for the rubber trade of Ashanti. On the northern shore of the
Bassam lagoon* asd 19 m. from Grand Bassam, is the capital of the
colony, the native name Adjame having been changed into Bloger-
vine, in honour of Captain L. G. Btnger (sec below). The town is
built on a hill and is fairly healthy.
In the interior are several towns, though none of any stse numeric-
ally. The best known are Koroko. Kong and Bona, entrepots for
the trade of the middle Niger, and Bontuku. on the caravan route
to Sokoto and the meeting-place of the merchants from Kong and
Timbuktu engaged In the kota-mrt trade with Ashanti and (he Gold
Coast. Bontuku is peopled largely by Wongara and Hansa, and
most of the inhabitants, who number some 3000, are Moslems.
The town, which was founded in the 15th century or earlier, is
walled, contains various mosques and generally presents the
appearance of an eastern city.
Agricultnrt end Trod*.— The natives cultivate maize, plantains,
bananas, pineapples, limes, pepper, cotton. &c, and live easily on
the products of their gardens, with occasional help from fishing and
hunting. They also weave cloth, make pottery and smelt iron.
Europeans introduced the cultivation of coffee, which gives good
results. The forests are rich in palm-tree products, rubber and
mahogany, which constitute the chief articles of export. The rubber
goes almost exclusively to England, as does also the mahogany.
The palm-oil and palm kernels are sent almost entirely to France.
The value of the external trade of the colony exceeded £1,000,000
for the first time » 1904. About 50% of the trade is with Great
Britain. The export of ivory, for which the country was formerly
famous, has almost ceased, the elephants being largely driven out of
the colony. Cotton goods, by far the most important of the imports,
come almost entirely from Great Britain. Gold exists and many
native villages have small "placer" mines. In 1901 the government
of .the colony began the granting of mining concessions^ in which
British capital was largely invested. There are many ancient mines
in the country, disused since the close of the 18th century, if not
earlier.
Covwtunkations.—Tht railway from Little Bassam serves the
east central part of the colony and runs to Katiola. in Kong, a total
distance of 250 m. The line is of metre gauge. The cutting of two
canals, whereby communication is effected by lagoon between
Assini and Grand Lahou via Bassam, followed the construction of the
railway. Grand and Little Bassam are in regular communication
by steamer with Bordeaux, Marseilles, Liverpool, Antwerp and
Hamburg. Grand Bassam is connected with Europe by submarine
cable via Dakar. Telegraph lines connect the coast with all the
principal stations in the interior, with the Gold Coast, and with the
other French colonies in West Africa.
Administration, &c— The colony is under the general superintend-
ence of the government general of French West Africa. At the head
of the local administration b a lieutenant-governor, who is assisted
by a council on which nominated unofficial members have seats.
To a large extent the native forms of government are maintained
under European administrators responsible for the preservation of
order, the colony for this purpose being divided into a number of
" circles " each with its local government. The colony has a separate
budget and is self-supporting. Revenue is derived chiefly from
customs receipts and a capitation tax of frs. 2.50 (2$.), instituted in
1901 and levied on all persons over ten years old. The budget for
1906 balanced at £120400.
History.— The Ivory Coast fs stated to have been visited by
Dieppe' merchants in the 14th century, and was made known
by the Portuguese discoveries towards the end of the 15th
century. It was thereafter frequented by traders for ivory,
slaves and other commodities. There was a French settlement
at Assini, 1700-1704, and a French factory was maintained at
Grand Bassam from 1700 to 1707. In the early part of the 19th
century several French traders had established themselves
along the coast. In 1830 Admiral (then Commandant) BouEt-
Willaumez (1808-1871) began a series of surveys and expedi-
tions which yielded valuable results. In 1842 he obtained from
the native chiefs cessions of territory at Assini and Grand Bassam
to France and the towns named were occupied in 1843. From
that time French influence gradually extended along the coast,
but no attempt was made to penetrate inland. As one result
of the Franco- Prussian War, France in 1872 withdrew her
garrisons, handing over the care of the establishments to a
merchant named Verdier, to whom an annual subsidy of £800
was paid. This merchant sent an agent into the interior who
made friendly treaties between France and some of the native
chiefs. In 1883, in view'of the claims of other European powers
to territory in Africa, France again took over the actual
administration of Assini and Bassam. Between 1887 and 1889
Captain Bingcr (an officer of marine infantry, and subsequently
director of the African department at the colonial ministry)
traversed the whole region between the coast and the Niger,
visited Bontuku and the Kong country, and signed protectorate
treaties with the chiefs. The kingdom of Jaman, it may be men-
tioned, was for a few months included in the Gold Coast hinter-
land. In January 1889 a British mission sent by the governor
of the Gold Coast concluded a treaty with the king of Jaman
at Bontuku, placing his dominions under British protec*'
IOO
IVREA— IVY
Itff.
be ■
Ab
char-
ftfc
Few(
turei*
The king had, however, previously concluded treaties of " com-
merce and friendship " with the French, and by the Anglo-French
agreement of August 1889 Jaman, with Bonluku, was recognized
as French territory. In 1892 Captain BInger made further ex-
plorations in the interior of the Ivory Coast, and in 1893 he was
appointed the first governor of the colony on its erection into
an administration distinct from that of Senegal Among other
famous explorers who helped to make known the hinterland
was Colonel (then Captain) Marchand. It was to the zone
between the Kong states and the hinterland of Liberia that
Samory (see Senegal) fled for refuge before he was taken
prisoner (1898), and for a short time he was master of Kong.
The boundary of the colony on the west was settled by Franco-
Liberian agreements of 1892 and subsequent dates; that on
the east by the Anglo- French agreements of 1893 and 1898.
The northern boundary was fixed in 1899 on the division of the
middle Niger territories (up to that date officially called the
French Sudan) among the other French West African colonies.
The systematic development of the colony, the opening up pf
the hinterland and the exploitation of its economic resources
date from the appointment of Captain Binger as governor, a
post he held for over three years. The work he began has been
carried on zealously and effectively by subsequent governors,
who have succeeded in winning the co-operation of the natives.
In the older books of travel are often found the alternative
names for this region, Tooth Coast (Cdie des Denis) or Kwa-Kwa
Coast, and, less frequently, the Coast of the Five and Six Stripes
(alluding to a kind of cotton fabric in favour with the natives).
The term Cote des Dents continued in general use in France
until the closing years of the 19th century.
Sec Dix ansa la Ctte d'lvoire (Paris. 1906) by F. J. Clbzel, governor
of the colony, and Notre colonic de la Cite d'lvoire (Paris, 1003) by
R. Villamur and Richaud. These two volumes deal with the history,
geography, zoology and economic condition of the Ivory Coast.
La Cite d'lvoire by Michcllet and Clement describes the administra-
tive and land systems, &c. Another volume also called La C6le
ilvoirt (Paris, 1908) is an official monograph on the colony. For
ethnology consult Covtumes indigenes de la Cote flvoire (Paris, 1902)
by F. J. Cloze! and R. Villamur, and Les Coutumes Agni, by R.
Yttlamur and Delafosse. Of books of travel see Du Niger au Cotfe de
Guin&e par Kong (Paris, 1892) by L. G. Binger, and Mission Hostains-
tOUoue 1898-1900 (Paris, 1901) by Captain d'OHone. A Carte
it U C$U dlvcire by A. Mcunier, on the scale of 1 : 500,000 (6 sheets),
was published in Paris, 1905. Annual reports on the colony are
pubhshed by the French colonial and the British foreign offices.
IVREA (anc. Eporedia), a town and episcopal see of Piedmont,
Italy, in the province of Turin, from which it is 38 m. N.N.E.
by tail and 27 ra. direct, situated 770 ft. above sea-level, on the
Dora Ballea at the point where it leaves the mountains. Pop.
UqoO 6047 (town), "^ (commune). The cathedral was
built between 973 and 1005; the gallery round the back of the
m* and the crypt have plain cubical capitals of this period.
tv tvo campanUi Banking the apse at each end of the side
t«k ire the oldest example of this architectural arrangement.
TV isolated tower, which is all that remains of the ancient abbey
l^SieUia *» slightly later. The hill above the town is crowned
w tie ifflP«»»8 Castello deuc Quatlro Torn, built in 1358,
Z/vr* a prison- One of the four towers was destroyed by
SLnttmi**. A tramway runs lo Santhii.
^Tsoailporedia, standing at the junction of the roads
^te^Taawwrum and Verccllae, at the point where
«ttVsr3SU rraetoria enters the narrow valley of the
^T^n^-V «* * military^ position of considerable
*SLi» *ra=* * tbt Salassi who inhabited the whole
*^!X, i ^c lir^ The importance of the gold-mines
^ ^r— &- ts seat by the Romans in 143 B.C. The
*JLT -* x3« r&sr* *«* to have been Victumulae
^^-JU, ^? - at Cr a cetoty of Roman citizens was
* - — V-JL~^ ^ <fc wsperity of this was only
-*" =aa - * " T ^jj fcfeated in 2$ B.C. and
tv*c se itnaains of a theatre
and later of a marquiaate; both Berengar II. (950) and Ardoin
(1002) became kings of Italy for a short period. Later it sub-
mitted" to the marquises of Monferrato, and in the middle of the
14th century passed to the house of Savoy. (T. As.)
IVRY-SUR-SEINB, a town of northern France, in the depart-
ment of Seine, near the left bank of the Seine, less than 1 m.
S.S.E. of the fortifications of Paris. Pop. (1006) 30,532. Ivry
has a large hospital for incurables. It manufactures organs,
earthenware, wall-paper and rubber, and has engineering works,
breweries, and oil-works, its trade being facilitated by a port
on the Seine. The town is dominated by a fort of the older line
of defence of Paris.
IVY (A.S. ifig, Cer. Epkeu, perhaps connected with apiawi,
Amor), the collective designation of certain species and
varieties of Hedera, a member of the natural order Araliaceae,
«*fel
t Vecchio rests on
iV
Fie. j. — Ivy (Hedera Helix) fruiting branch, x. Flower. 2. Fruit,
There are fifty species of ivy recorded in modem books, but they
may be reduced to two, or at the most, three. The European ivy,
Hedera Helix (fig. r), is a plant subject to infinite variety in the
forms and colours of its leaves, but the tendency of which is
always to a three- to five-lobed form when climbing and a regular
ovate form of leaf when producing flower and fruit. The African
ivy, H. can arte nsis, often regarded as a variety of H, Helix and
known as the Irish ivy, is a
native of North Africa and the
adjacent islands. It is the com-
mon large-leaved climbing ivy,
and also varies, but in a less
degree than H. Helix, from
which its leaves differ in their,
larger size, rich deep green colour,
and a prevailing tendency to a
five-lobed outline. When in fruit
the leaves are usually three-
lobcd, but they are sometimes
entire and broadly ovate. The
Asiatic ivy, H. cole h tea (fig. 2),
now considered to be a form of
H. Helix* has ovate, obscurely
three-lobed leaves of a coriaceous texture and a deep greea
colour; in the tree or fruiting form the leaves are narrower
than in the climbing form, and without any trace of lobes.
Distinctive characters are also to be found in the appendages of
the pedicels and calyx, H. Helix having six-rayed stellate
hairs, H. canariensis fifteen-rayed hairs and H. cokkica yellowish
two-lobed scales.
The Australian Ivy, H. australiana, is a small glabrous shrub
Fig. 2.— Hedera coUkie*.
IWAKURA
ioi
Fig. 3. — Climbing Shoot of Ivy.
with pinnate leaves. It is a native of Queensland* and is
practically unknown in cultivation.
It is of the utmost importance to note the difference of char-
acters of the same species of ivy in its two conditions of climbing
and fruiting. The first stage of growth, whkh we will suppose
to be from the seed, is essentially scandent, and the leaves are
lobed more or less. This stage is accompanied with a plentiful
production of the daspers or modified roots by means of which
the plant becomes at-
tached and obtains sup-
port. When it has
reached the summit of
the tree or tower, the
stems, being no longer
able to maintain a per-
pendicular attitude,
fall over and become
horizontal or pendent.
Coincidcntly with this
change they cease to
k produce daspers, and
the leaves are strik-
ingly modified in form,
being now narrower
and less lobed than
on the ascending
stems. In due time this tree-like growth produces terminal
umbels of greenish flowers, which have the parts in fives,
with the styles united into a very short one. These flowers
are succeeded by smooth black or yellow berries, containing two
to five seeds. The yellow-berried ivy is met with in northern
India and in Italy, but in northern Europe it is known only as
a curiosity of the garden, where, if sufficiently sheltered and
nourished, it becomes an exceedingly beautiful and fruitful tree.
It is stated in books that some forms of sylvestral ivy never
flower, but a negative declaration of this kind is valueless.
Sylvestral ivies of great age may be found in woods on the
western coasts of Britain that have apparently never flowered,
but this is probably to be explained by their inability to surmount
the trees supporting them, for until the plant can spread its
branches horizontally in full daylight, the flowering or tree-like
growth is never formed.
A question of great practical importance arises out of the
relation of the plant to its means of support. A moderate growth
of ivy is not injurious to trees; still the tendency is from the first
inimical to the prosperity of the tree, and at a certain stage it
becomes deadly. Therefore the growth of ivy on trees should be
kept within reasonable bounds, more especially in the case of
trees that are of special value for their beauty, history, or the
quality of their timber. In regard to buildings clothed with
ivy, there is nothing to be feared so long as the plant does not
penetrate the substance of the wall by means of any fissure.
Should it thrust its way in, the natural and continuous expansion
of its several parts will necessarily hasten the decay of the
edifice. But a fair growth of ivy on sound walls that afford no
entrance beyond the superficial attachment of the daspers is,
without any exception whatever, beneficial It promotes dryness
and warmth, reduces to a minimum the corrosive action of the
atmosphere, and is altogether as conservative as it is beautiful.
The economical uses of the ivy are not of great importance.
The leaves are eaten greedily by horses, deer, cattle and sheep,
and in times of scarcity have proved useful The flowers afford a
good supply of honey to bees; and. as they appear in autumn,
tbey occasionally make amends for the shortcomings of the
season. The berries are eaten by wood pigeons, blackbirds and
thrushes. From all parts of the plant a balsamic bitter may
be obtained, and this in the form of kederie acid is the only
preparation of ivy known to chemists.
In the garden the uses of the ivy are innumerable, and the
least known though not the least valuable of them is the cultiva-
tion of the plant as a bush or tree, the fruiting growth being
selected for this purpose. The variegated tree forms of H. Helix,
with leaves of creamy white, golden green or rich deep orange
yellow, soon Drove handsome miniature trees, that thrive
almost as well in smoky town gardens as in the pure air of the
country, and that no ordinary winter will injure in the kast.
The tree-form of the Asiatic ivy (H. colckica) is scarcely to be
equalled in beauty of leafage by any evergreen shrub known to
English gardens, and, although in the course of a few years it will
attain to a stature of 5 or 6 ft., it is but rardy we meet with it,
or Indeed with tree ivies of any kind, but little attention having
been given to this subject until recent years. The scandent forms
are more generally appreciated, and are now much employed in
the formation of marginal lines, screens and trained pyramids,
as well as for clothing walls. A very striking example of the
capabilities of the commonest ivies, when treated artistically
as garden plants, may be seen in the Zoological Gardens of
Amsterdam, where several paddocks are endosed with wreaths,
garlands and bands of ivy in a most picturesque manner.
About sixty varieties known in gardens are figured and
described in The Ivy, a Monograph, by Shirley Hibberd (1873).
To cultivate these is an extremdy simple matter, as tbey will
thrive in a poor soil and endure a considerable depth of shade,
so that they may with advantage be planted under trees. The
common Irish ivy is often to be seen clothing the ground beneath
large yew trees where grass would not live, and it is occasionally
planted in graveyards in London to form an imitation of grass
turf, for which purpose it is admirably suited.
The ivy, like the holly, is a scarce plant on the American
continent. In the northern United States and British America
the winters are not more severe than the ivy can endure, but
the summers are too hot and dry, and the requirements of the
plant have not often obtained attention. In districts where
native ferns abound the ivy will be found to thrive, and the
varieties of Hedero Heiix should have the preference. But in
the drier districts hies might often be planted on the north side
of buildings, and, if encouraged with water and careful training
for three or four years, would then grow rapidly and train them-
selves. A strong light is detrimental to the growth of ivy, but
this enhances its value, for we have no hardy plants that may
be compared with it for variety and beauty that will endure
shade with equal patience.
The North American poison ivy (poison oak), Rhus Toxico-
dendron (nat. order Anacardiaceae), is a dimber with pinnately
compound leaves, which arc very attractive in their autumn
colour but poisonous to the touch to some persons, while others
can handle the plant without injury. The effects are redness
and violent itching followed by fever and a vesicular eruption.
The ground ivy, Neptta Ctechoma (nat. order Labiatae), is a
small creeping plant with rounded crenate leaves and small
blue-purple flowers, occurring in hedges and thickets.
IWAKURA, TOHOMI, Pkince (183 5-1 883), Japanese states-
man, was born in Kioto. He was one of the court nobles {kuge)
of Japan, and he traced his descent to the emperor Murakami
(a.d. 047-067). A man of profound ability and singular force of
character, he acted a leading part in the complications preceding
the fall of the Tokugawa shdgunate, and was obliged to fly from
Kioto accompanied by his coadjutor, Prince SanjO. They took
refuge with the DaimyO of Choshu, and, while there, established
relations which contributed greatly to the ultimate union of the
two great fiefs, Satsuma and Choshu, for the work of the Restora-
tion. From 1867 until the day of his death Iwakura was one
of the most prominent figures on the political stage. In 1871
he proceeded to America and Europe at the head of an imposing
embassy of some fifty persons, the object being to explain to
foreign governments the actual conditions existing in Japan,
and to pave the way for negotiating new treaties consistent
with her sovereign rights. Little success attended the mission.
Returning to Japan in 1873, Iwakura found the cabinet divided
as to the manner of dealing with Korea's insulting attitude.
He advocated peace, and his influence carried the day, thus
removing a difficulty which, though apparently of minor dimen-
sions, might have changed the whole course of Japan's modern
history.
102
IXION— l^ULNOiSHICHI-TO
IZION, In Greek legend, son of Phlegyas, king of the Lapithae
in Thessaly {or of Ares), and husband of Dia. According to
custom he promised his father-in-law, Defoneus, a handsome
bridal present, but treacherously murdered him when he claimed
the fulfilment of the promise. As a punishment, Ixion was
seised with madness, until Zeus purified him of his crime and
admitted him as a guest to Olympus. Ixion abused his pardon
by trying to seduce Hera} but the goddess substituted for herself
a cloud, by which he became the father of the Centaurs. Zeus
bound him on a fiery wheel, which rolls unceasingly through the
air or (according to the later version) in the underworld (Pindar,
Pylkia, ix. n; Ovid, Metam. iv. 461; Virgil, Aeneid, vi. 601).
Ixion is generally taken to represent the eternally moving sun.
Another explanation connects the story with the practice
(among certain peoples of central Europe) of carrying a blazing,
revolving wheel through fields which needed the heat of the sun,
the legend being invented to explain the custom and subsequently
Adopted by the Greeks (see Mannhardt, Wold- und FddkulU,
U. 1005, p. 83). In view of the fact that the oak was the sun-god's
tree and that the mistletoe grew upon it, it is suggested by A. B.
Cook (Class, Rev. xvii. 420) that 1#o»» is derived from l&t
(mistletoe), the sun's fire being regarded as an emanation from
the mistletoe. Ixion himself is probably a by-form of Zeus
(Uscner In Rkein. Mus. liii. 345).
' The Myth of Ixion " (by C. Smith, in Classical Renew, June
1895) deals with the subject of a red-figure cantharus in the British
Museum.
IXTaCClHUATU or Ictacohuatl ("white woman"), a
lofty mountain of volcanic origin, xo m. N. of Popocatepetl and
about 40 m. S.S.E of the city of Mexico, forming part of the short
spur called the Sierra Nevada. According to Angelo Heilprin
(1853-1007) Us elevation is j6,o6ofL; other authorities make it
much less. Its apparent height is dwarfed somewhat by its
elongated summit and the large area covered. It has three
summits of different heights standing on a north and south line,
the central one being the largest and highest and all three rising
above the permanent snow-line. As seen from the city of Mexico
the three summits have the appearance of a shrouded human
figure, hence the poetic Axtcc appellation of " white woman "
and the unsentimental Spanish designation " La ptMJer gorda."
The awent is difficult and perilous, and is rarely accomplished.
Ilritiuin t*y« thAt the mountain is largely composed of trachytic
*» k« und thnt (t U older than Popocatepetl. It has no crater and no
in** of Unerring volcanic heat. It fa surmised that its crater, if it
•wi h*d one, hi* been filled in and its cone worn away by erosion
through long periods of time.
IYRCAS, an ancient nation on the north-east trade route
dwulbed by Herodotus (iv. aa) beyond the Thyssagetae.some-
«hw about the upper basins of the Tobol and the Irtysh.
Thf v were distinguished by their mode of hunting, climbing a
lie* to survey their game, and then pursuing it with trained
M*« and Oof*. They were almost certainly the ancestors
* it Z !»4\ "TO ^cfflm J . U £3- when Pliny (N.H. vi.
******* , t ,. , ^ H -M>
tmftU* or $MTA fane. Boris], the chief town of the
tl*una«t*d sards* of the Konia vilayet, in Asia Minor, well
Kl « iffi Ue of a fertile plain at the foot of Aghlasun
iv^h U was once the capital of the Emirate of Hamid. It
suffered severely from the earthquake of the i6th-i7th of
January 1889 It is a prosperous place with an enlightened Cfreek
element in its population (hence the numerous families called
"Spartali " in Levantine towns); and it is, in fact, the chief
inland colony of Hellenism in Anatolia. Pop. 30,000 (Moslems
13,000, Christians 7000). The new Aidin railway extends from
Dineir to Izbarta via Buldur.
IZHEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Vyatka,
140 m. S.W. of Perm and 22 m. W. from the Kama, on the Ixh
river. Pop. (1897) 2 1 ,500. It has one of the principal steel and
rifle works of the Russian crown, started in 1807. The making
of sporting guns is an active industry.
IZMAIL, or Ismail, a town of Russia, in the government
of Bessarabia, on the left bank of the Kilia branch of the Danube,
35 m. below Reni railway station. Pop. (1866) 31,779, (1900)
33,607, comprising Great and Little Russians, Bulgarians,
Jews and Gipsies. There are flour-mills and a trade in cereals,
wool, tallow and hides. Originally a Turkish fortified post,
Izmail had by the end of the 18th century grown into a place
of 30,000 inhabitants. It was occupied by the Russians in
1770, and twenty years later its capture was one of the brilliant
achievements of the Russian general, Count A. V. Suvarov.
On that occasion the garrison was 40,000 strong, and the assault
cost the assailants 10,000 and the defenders 30,000 men. The
victory was the theme of one of the Russian poet G. R. Der-
zhavin's odes. In 1809 the town was again captured by the
Russians; and, when in 1812 it was assigned to them by the
Bucharest peace, they chose it as the central station for their
Danube fleet. It was about this time that the town of Tuchkov,
with which it was later (1830) incorporated, grew up outside of
the fortifications. These were dismantled in accordance with
the treaty of Paris (1856), by which Izmail was made over to
Rumania. The town was again transferred to Russia by the
peace of Berlin (1878).
IZU-NO-SHICHI-T0, the seven (skickt) islands (to) of Ian,
included in the empire of Japan. They stretch in a southerly
direction from a point near the mouth of Tokyo Bay, and lie
between 33 and 34° 48' N. and between 139° and ' 140° E.
Their names, beginning from the north, are Izu-no-Oshima,
To-shima, Nii-shima, Kozu-shima, Miyake-shima and Hachijo-
shima. There are some islets in their immediate vicinity.
Izu-no-Oshima, an island 10 m. long and 5! m. wide, is 15 m.
from the nearest point of the Izu promontory. It is known to
western cartographers as Vrics Island, a name derived from that
of Captain Martin Gerritsz de Vrics, a Dutch navigator, who is
supposed to have discovered the island in 1643. But the group
was known to the Japanese from a remote period, and used as
convict settlements certainly from the 12th century and probably
from a still earlier era. Hachijo, the most southerly, is often
erroneously written Tatsisio" on English charts. Izu-no-
Oshima is remarkable for its smoking volcano, Mihara-yama
(2461 ft.), a conspicuous object to all ships bound for Yokohama.
Three others of the islands — Nii-shima, Kozu-shima and
Miyake-shima — have active volcanoes. Those on Nii-shima and
Kozu-shima are of inconsiderable size, but that on Miyake-
shima, namely, Oyama, rises to a height of 2707 ft. The most
southerly island, Hachijo-shima, has a still higher peak, Dsubo-
take (2838 ft.), but it does not emit any smoke.
; j~JABIiOGHKOV^
*°3
J A letter of the alphabet which, as fat as form is concerned,
is only a modification of the Latin I and dates back
with a separate value only to the 15th century. It
was first used as a special form of initial I, the ordinary
form being kept for use in other positions. As, however, in
many cases initial * had the consonantal value of the English y
in ingum (yoke), Ac, the symbol came to be used for the value of
y, a value which it still retains in German: Jot jung, &c.
Initially it is pronounced in English as an affricate dak. The
great majority of English words beginning with j are (1) of
foreign (mostly French) origin, as "jaundice," "judge"; (2)
imitative of sound, like " jar " (the verb), or (3) influenced by
analogy, like " jaw " (influenced by chow, according to Skeat) . In
early French g when palatalized by * or 4 sounds became con-
fused with consonantal * (y), and both passed into the sound of
/ which is still preserved in English. A similar sound-change
takes place in other languages, eg Lithuanian, where the
resulting sound is spelt dl. Modern French and also Provencal
and Portuguese have changed j»dak into I (zh). The sound
initially is sometimes represented in English by f gum, gaol as
well as jail. At the end of modern English words the same
sound is represented by -dge as in judge, French jug*. In this
position, however, the sound occurs also in genuine English
words like bridge, sedge, singe, but this is true only for the
southern dialects on -which the literary, language is founded. In
the northern dialects the pronunciation as brig, seg, sing still
survives. (P Gi.)
JA'ALIN (from Mat, to settle, i.e "the squatters"), an
African tribe of Semitic stock. They formerly occupied the
country on both banks of the Nile from Khartum to Abu
Hamed. They claim to be of the Koreish tribe and even trace
descent from Abbas, uncle of the prophet. They are of Arab
origin, but now of very mixed blood. According to their own
tradition they emigrated to Nubia in the 12th century. They
were at one time subject to the Funj kings, but their position
was in a measure independent. At the Egyptian, invasion in
1820 they were the most powerful of Arab tribes in the Nile
valley. They submitted at first, but in 1822 rebelled and
massacred the Egyptian garrison at Shendi. The revolt was
mercilessly suppressed, and the Ja'alin were thenceforward
looked on with suspicion. They were almost the first of the
northern tribes to join the mahdi in 1884, and it was their position
to the north of Khartum which made communication with
General Gordon so difficult. The Ja'alin are now a semi-nomad
agricultural people. Many are employed in Khartum as ser-
vants, scribes and watchmen. They are a proud religious
people, formerly notorious as cruel slave dealers. J. L. Burck-
hardt says the true Ja'alin from the eastern desert is exactly
like the Bedouin of eastern Arabia.
See The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Glekhen
(London, 1905).
JABIRT7. according to Marcgrave, the Brazilian name of a bird,
subsequently called by Linnaeus hiycteria americano, one of the
largest of the storks, Ciconiidae, which occurs from Mexico
southwards to the territory of the Argentine Republic. It
stands between 4 and 5 ft. in height, and is conspicuous for its
massive bill, slightly upturned, and its entirely white plumage;
but the head and neck are bare and black, except for about the
lower third part of the latter, which is bright red in the living
bird. Very nearly allied to Mytteria, and also commonly called
jabirus, are the birds of the genera Xenorhynchus and Epkippio-
rhynchus — the former containing one or (in the opinion of
some) two species, X. australis and X> indkus, and the latter
one only, B. senegaUnsis. These belong to the countries
indicated by their names, and differ chiefly by their feathered
head and neck, while the last is sometimes termed the saddle-
billed stork from the very singular shape of its beak. Somewhat
more distantly related are the gigantic birds known to Europeans
in India and elsewhere as adjutant birds, belonging to the genus
Lept&ptilus, distinguished by their sad-coloured plumage, their
black scabrous head, and their enormous tawny pouch, which
depends occasionally some 16 in. or more in length from the lower
part of the neck, and seems to be connected with the respiratory
and not, as commonly believed, with the digestive system.
In many parts of India L. dubius, the largest of these birds, the
hcrgtla as Hindus call it, is a most efficient scavenger, sailing
aloft at a vast height and descending on the discovery of offal,
though frogs and fishes also form part of its diet. It familiarly
enters the large towns, in many of which an account of its services
it is strictly protected from injury, and, having satisfied its
appetite, seeks the repose it has earned, sitting with its fee*
Jabiru.
extended in front in a most grotesque attitude. A second and
smaller species, L.javankus, has a more southern and eastern
range; while a third, L. crumtnifcr, oi African origin, and often
known as the marabou-stork, gives its name to the beautifully
soft feathers so called, which are the under-taii-coverls; the
" marabout " feathers of the plume-trade are mostly supplied
by other birds, the term being apparently applied to any downy
feathers. (A. N.)
JABLOCHKOV, PAUL (1847-1804), Russian electrical engi-
neer and inventor, was born at Serdobsk, in the government of
Saratov, on the 14th of September 1847, and educated at St
Petersburg. In 187 1 he was appointed director of the telegraph
lines between Moscow and Kursk, but in 1875 he resigned his
position in order to devote himself to his researches on electric
lighting by arc lamps, which be had already taken up. In 1876
he settled in Paris, and towards the end of the year brought out
his famous " candles," known by his name, which consisted of
two carbon parallel rods, separated by a non-conducting par-
tition; alternating currents were employed, and the candle was
operated by a high-resistance carbon match connecting the tips
of the rods, a true arc forming between the parallel carbons
when this burnt off, and the separators volatilizing as the
carbons burnt away. For a few years his system of electric
lighting was widely adopted, but it was gradually superseded
JABLONSKI-- JABORANDI
104
(set Liotjtino: Blutric) and if no longer in use. Jablochkov
made various other electrical inventions, but he died in poverty,
having returned to Russia on the 19th of March 1804.
JABLONSKI, DANIEL ERNST (1660-1741), German theo-
logian, was born at Nassenhuben, .near Danzig, on the soth of
November 1660. His father was a minister of the Moravian
Church, who had taken the name of Peter Figulus on his bap-
tism; the son, however, preferred the Bohemian family name of
Jablonski. His maternal grandfather, Johann Amos Comenius
(<L 1670) , was a bishop of the Moravian Church. Having studied
at Frankfort-on-the-Odcr and at Oxford, Jablonski entered upon
his career as a preacher at Magdeburg in 1683, and then from
x686 to 1691 he was the head of the Moravian college at Lissa,
a position which had been filled by his grandfather. Still retain-
ing his connexion with the Moravians, he was appointed court
preacher st Konigsberg in 1691 by the elector of Brandenburg,
Frederick HI., and here, entering upon a career of great activity,
he soon became a person of influence in court circles. In 1693
he was transferred to Berlin as court preacher, and in 1699 he
was consecrated a bishop of the Moravian Church. At Berlin
Jablonski worked hard to bring about a union between the
followers of Luther and those of Calvin; the courts of Berlin,
Hanover, Brunswick and Gotha were interested in his scheme,
and his principal helper was the philosopher Leibnitz. His idea
appears to have been to form a general union between the
German, the English and the Swiss Protestants, and thus to
establish una eademque soncto cathciica et aftostolica eademque
tvonttlica el reformat* ecdesia. For some years negotiations
were carried on with a view to attaining this end, but eventually
It wss found impossible to surmount the many difficulties in the
way; Jablonski and Leibnitz, however, did not cease to believe
In the possibility of accomplishing their purpose. Jablonski's
next plan was to reform the Church of Prussia by introducing
Into it the episcopate, and also the liturgy of the English
Church, but here again he was unsuccessful. As a scholar
Jablonski brought out a Hebrew edition of the Old Testament,
and translated Bcntley's A Confutation of Atheism into Latin
(1606). He had some share in founding the Berlin Academy of
Sciences, of which he was president in 1733, and he received
a degree from the university of Oxford. He died on the 25th
of May 1741.
Jablonski's son, Paul Ernst Jablonski (1693-1757)1 was pro-
fessor of theology and philosophy at the university of Frankfort-
on the- Oder.
Kit it ion* of the letters which passed between Tablonsld and
Lrihnita, relative to the ptoposed union, were published at Leipzig
In 1747 and at Dorpat in 1899.
JABORANDI, a name given in a generic manner in Brazil and
South America generally to a number of different plants, all
of which possess more or less marked siaJogogue and sudorihe
propertica. In the year 1875 a drug was introduced under the
above namo to the notice of medical men in France by Dr
Couttnho of Ptrnambuco, its botanical source being then un-
known. Afrror*** ptnnatifotims. a member of the natural
otder Rutaceao, the plant from which it is obtained, is a slightly
branched shrub about 10 ft. high, growing in Paraguay and the
eastern provinces of Brazil. The leaves, which are placed
alternately on the stem, are often i| ft long, and consist of from
two to nv* pairs of opposite leaflets, the terminal one having a
Wag** pedicel than the others. The leaflets art oval, lanceolate,
satire and obtuse, with the apex often slightly indented, from
% t* a ta» tag and 1 to ifcin. broad in the oaddk. When held
*;* to the light they may be observed to have scattered a! over
i.Yc«i wauhwus pellucid dots or receptacles of secretion imamesaed
a toe suJbaUnco of the leal. The leaves in size and texture
K«c«*U*nc« to those of the cberty-lanrel (JVsami
_ A hot are Was polished on the upper surface. The
wfcvfc are ntoduced in spring tani early sawner, are
at * nvemev * or * in. bag. and the font consists of nv©
a «aWt %* asore than two or three usually arrive at
r r^«a«T«ar«tWpartoitWr4aMuamlryiatxKtoil,
:V sue* and roots are attached to the**.
. ««avJalz»l
t atssfor^*
Holmes, was ultimately adopted, was discovered almost siinutta*
neously by Hardy in France and Gerrard in England, but wss first
obtained in a pure state by Petit of Paris. It is a liquid alkaloid,
slightly soluble in water, and very soluble in alcohol, ether and
chloroform. It strongly rotates the plane of polarization to the
right, and forms crystalline salts of which the nitrate is that
chiefly used in medicine. The nitrate and phosphate are
insoluble in ether, chloroform and benzol, while the hydro*
chlorate and hydrobromate dissolve both in these menstrua and
in water and alcohol; the sulphate and acetate being deliques-
cent are not employed medkinalry. The formula of the alkaloid
is CuH M N,0»
Certain other alkaloids are present in the leaves. They have
been named jaborine, jaboridine and pQocatpidint. The first
of these is the most important and constant. It is possibly
derived from pilocarpine, and has the formula CaHaNiQ*
Jaborine resembles atropine pharmacologically, and i$ there-
fore antagonistic to pilocarpine. The various preparations of
Jaborand: — j, leif (reluceJ); b, leiM; r. Power; d, fruit.
jaborandi leaves are therefore undesirable for therapeutic p*
poses, and only the nitrate of pilocarpine itself should be used.
This is a white crystalline powder, soluble in the ratio of about
one part in ten of cold water. The dose is iV-$ sprain by tie
mouth, and up to one-third of a grain hypodermicaily, in wkid>
fashion it is usually given.
greatest power 00 the stcretioos. It has no external actio*. Wac*
taken by the mouth the drug b rapidly absorbed and stimubtcsUK
secretions of the entire alimentary tract, though not of the v*#-
The action on the salivary ftands is the most m a r ked and the bes
und e muml TWgffCMaVswofsaaWabdWtoanactioBiof taedrag,
alter ab sorp tio n, on the temuantioos of the cnorda tympani fT*/
pathetic and other nerves of salivary secretion. The gland crfj
themselves are anarlected. The nerves are so violently ctr'™
that direct stmrabrioo of them by electricity adds noebrcf tn»»
rate of safivary tow. The action as a n tago nis ed bv atropine. «**»
About it»ta of a gnata of atroja"
JACA— JAQANA
anUronUes half a pain of pilocarpine. The circulation is ,
by the drag, the pulse being slowed and the blood pressure falling.
The cardiac action is due to stimulation of the vagus, but the dilata-
tion of the blood-vessels docs not appear to be due to a specific
action upon them. The drug does not kill by its action on the heart.
Its dangerous action is upon the bronchial secretion, which is greatly
increased. Pilocarpine is not only the most powerful sialogogue
but also the most powerful diaphoretic known. One dose may cause
the flow of nearly a pint of sweat in an hour. The action is due, as
in the case of the salivation, to stimulation of the terminals of the
sudorific nerves- According to K. Bin/, there is also in both cases
an action on the medullary centres for these secretions. Just as the
saliva is a true secretion containing a high proportion of ptyalin and
salts, and is not a mere transudation of water, so the perspiration is
found to contain a high ratio of urea and chlorides. The great
diaphoresis and the depression of the circulation usually cause a fall
in temperature of about 2° F.^ The drug is excreted unchanged in
the urine. It is a mild diuretic. When given internally or applied
locally to the eye it powerfully stimulates the terminals of the
oculomotor nerves in the iris and ciliary muscle, causing ext erne
contraction ol the pupil and spasm of accommodation. The tension
of the eyeball is at first raised but afterwards lowered.
The cnief therapeutic u«* of the drug is as a diaphoretic in chronic
Bright's disease. It is also used to aid the growth of the hair— in
which it is sometimes successful; in cases of inordinate thirst,
when one-tenth of a grain with a little bismuth held in the mouth
may be of much value; in cases of lead and mercury poisoning,
where it aids the elimination of the poison in the secretions; as a
gabctagogue; and in cases of atropine poisoning (though here it
is of doubtful value).
JACA, a city of northern Spain, in the province of Huesca,
114 m. by rail N. by W. of Saragossa, on the left bank of the
river Aragon, and among the southern slopes of the Pyrenees,
2380 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1900), 4934. Jaca is an episcopal
see, and was formerly the capital of the Aragonese county of
Sobrarbe. Its massive Gothic cathedral dates at least from the
nth century, and possibly from the 9th. The city derives some
importance from its position on the ancient frontier road from
Saragossa to Pau. In August 1004 the French and Spanish
governments agreed to supplement this trade-route by building
a railway from Oloron in the Basses Pyrenees to Jaca. Various
frontier defence works were constructed in the neighbourhood at
the close of the 19th century.
The origin of the city is unknown. The Jaccetani (Taxjmravot)
are mentioned as one of the most celebrated of the numerous
small tribes inhabiting the basin of the Ebro by Strabo, who adds
that their territory was the theatre of the wars which took place
in the 1st century B.C. between Scrtorius and Pompey. They
are probably identical with the Lacctani of Livy (xxi. 60, 61) and
Caesar {B.C. i. 60). Early in the 8th century Jaca fell into the
possession of the Moors, by whose writers it is referred to under
the name of Dyaka as one of the chief places in the province of
Sarkosta (Saragossa). The date of its reconqucst is uncertain,
but it must have been before the time of Ramiro 1, of Aragon
(1035-1063), who gave it the title of "city," and in 1063 held
within its walls a council, which, inasmuch as the people were
called In to sanction its decrees, is regarded as of great impor-
tance in the history of the parliamentary institutions of the
Peninsula. In 1705 Jaca supported King Philip V. from whom,
in consequence, it received the title of muy noble, muy leal y
vencedora, " most noble, most loyal and victorious/' During
the Peninsular War it surrendered to the French in 1809, and
was recaptured in 1814.
JACAMAR, a word formed by Brisson from Jacamcri, the
Brazilian name of a bird, as given by Marcgrave, and since
adopted in most European tongues for the species to which it
was first applied and others allied to it, forming the family
Galbulidae ' of ornithologists, the precise position of which is
uncertain, since the best authorities differ. All will agree that
the jacamars belong to the great heterogeneous group called by
Nitzsch Picariae, but further into detail it is hardly safe to go.
The Galbulidae have zygodactylous or pair-toed feet, like the
CuculidaCy Bucconidat and Picidae, they also resemble both the
latter in laying glossy white eggs, but in this respect they bear
the same resemblance to the Momotidae, Akedmidae, hicropidae
1 Galimla was first applied to Marcgravc's bird by Moehring. It
is another form of Galgums, and seems to have been one of the many
name* of the golden oriole. See Icterus.
IO5
and so** other group*, to wkkh affinity has been claimed for
them. la the opinion of Sdater (A Monograph of Ike Jacamars and
Pug-birds) the jacamars form two groups—one consisting of the
single genus and species J acumen pi aureus (/. grandis of most
authors), and the other including all the rest, vis. Urogalba with
two species, Galimla with nine, Braekygalba with five, and Jaca-
meralcyon and GalbaUyrkymkus with one each. They are all
rather small birds, the largest known being little over 10 in. in
length, with long and sharply pointed bills, and the plumage
more or less resplendent with golden or bronze reflections, but
at the same time comparatively toft. Jacammralcyan tridaeiyta
differs from all the rest in possessing but three toes (as its name
indicates), on each foot, the hallux being deficient. With the
exception of Galbula melanogenia, which is found also in Central
America and southern Mexico, all the jacamars inhabit the
tropical portions of South America eastward of the Andes,
Galbula rujkaudo, however, extending its range to the islands of
Trinidad and Tobago.* Very little is known of the habits of any
of the species. They are seen sitting motionless on trees, some-
times solitarily, at other times in companies, whence they suddenly
dart off at any passing insect, catch it on the wing, and return
to their perch. Of their nidification almost nothing has been
recorded, but the species occurring in Tobago is said by Kirk to
make its nest in marl-banks, digging a hole about an inch and a
half in diameter and some 18 in. deep. (A. N.)
JA$AMA, the Brazilian name, according to Marcgrave, of
certain birds, since found to have some allies in other parts of the
world, which are also very generally called by the same appella-
tion. They have been most frequently classed with the water-
hens or nils (Rallidae), but arc now recognized by many sy3tem-
atists as forming a separate family, Parridae* whose leaning
seems to be rather towards the Limkoiae, as apparently first
Pheasant-tailed Jacana.
suggested by Blyth, a view which is supported by the osteologies!
observations of Parker (Proc. Zoot. Society, 1863, p. 513), though
denied by A. Milne-Edwards {Ois. foss. de la France, ii. p. no).
The most obvious characteristic of this group of birds is the
extraordinary length of their toes and claws, whereby they are
enabled to walk with ease over water-lilies and other aquatic
plants growing in rivers and lakes. The family has been divided
into four genera — of which Parra, as now restricted, inhabits
South America; kfctopidius, hardly differing from it, has
representatives in Africa, Madagascar and the Indian region;
Hydralfctor, also very nearly allied to Parra t belongs to the
* The singular appearance, recorded by Canon Tristram (Zoologist,
p. 3906), of a bird of this species in Lincolnshire seems to require
notice. No instance seems to be known of any jacamar having been
kept in confinement or brought to this country alive; but expert
aviculturists are often not communicative, and many importations
of rare birds have doubtless parsed unrecorded.
1 The classic Parra is by some authors thought to have been the
golden oriole (sec Icterus), while others suppose it was a jay or
pie. The word seems to have been imported into ornithology by
Aldrovandus, but the reason which prompted Linnaeus to apply it,
as he seems first to have done, to a bird of this group, cannot be
satisfactorily stated.
Kj6
JACINI— JACK
northern portion of tbe Australian region; and Hydrophasianus,
the most extravagant form of the whole, is found in India, Ceylon
and China. In habits the jacsoas have much in comrrion with the
water-hens, but that fact is insufficient to warrant the affinity
asserted to exist between the two groups; for in their osteologies!
structure there is much difference, and the resemblance seems
to be only that of analogy. The Parridae lay very peculiar eggs
of a rich olive-brown colour, in most cases closely marked with
dark lines, thus presenting an appearance by which they may
be readily known from those of any other birds, though an
approach to it is occasionally to be noticed in those of certain
LimicMae, and especially of certain Charadriidae. (A. N.)
JAC1N1, STEFANO, Count (1827-1891), Italian statesman and
economist, was descended from an old and wealthy Lombard
family. He studied in Switzerland, at Milan, and in German
universities. During the period of the Austrian restoration in
Lombardy (1840-1850) he devoted himself to literary and
economic studies. For bis work on La Propriety jondiaria in
Lombardia (Milan, 1856) he received a prize from the Milanese
Societal d'incoraggiamento di scienu e lettere and was made a
member of the Istituto Lombardo. In another work, Suite
condition* eeonomicht delta Valldlina (Milan, 1858, translated
into English by W. E. Gladstone), he exposed the evils of
Austrian rule, and he drew up a report on the general conditions
of Lombardy and Venct ia for Cavour. He was minister of Public
Works under Cavour in 1860-1861, in 1864 under La Marmora,
and down to 1867 under Ricasoli. In 1866 he presented a bill
favouring Italy's participation in the construction of the St
Gotlhard tunnel. He was instrumental in bringing about the
alliance with Prussia for l he war of 1866 against Austria, and in
the organization of the Italian railways. From 1881 to 1886 be
was president of the commission to inquire into the agricultural
conditions of Italy, and edited the voluminous report on the
subject. He was created senator in 1870, and given the title
of count in 1880. He died in 1891.
L. Carpi's Risorgimento italiano, voL iv. (Milan, 1888), contains a
short sketch of Jacini's life.
JACK, a word with a great variety of meanings and appli-
cations, all traceable to the common use of the word as a
by-name of a man. The question has been much discussed
whether " Jack " as a name is an adaptation of Fr. Jacques,
i.e. James, from Lat. Jacobus, Gr. looo/fes, or whether it is a
direct pet formation from John, which is its earliest and universal
use in English. In the History of the Monastery of St A ugusiine
at Canterbury, 14 14, Jack is given as a form of John-^Mos est
Saxonum . . . verba et nomina transforuere ....«/... pro
Johatme Jankin site J ache (see E.W.B. Nicholson, The Pedigree
of Jock and other Allied Names, 1892). " Jack " was early used
as a general term for any man of tbe common people, especially
in combination with the woman's name Jill or Gill, as in the
nursery rhyme. The New English Dictionary quotes from the
Coventry Mysteries, 1450: " And I wolc kepe the feet this tydc
Thow ther come both Iakke and Gylle." Familiar examples of
this generic application of the name are Jack or Jack Tar for a
sailor, which seems to date from the 17th century, and such
compound uses as cheap-jack and steeplejack, or such expres-
sions as " jack in office," " jack of all trades," &c It is a further
extension of this that gives the name to the knave in a pack of
cards, and also to various animals, as jackdaw, jack-snipe, jack-
rabbit (a species of large prairie-hare); jt is, also used as a
general name for pike.
toe many applications of the word " jack " to mechanical
devices and other objects follow two lines of reference, one to
objects somewhat smaller than the ordinary, the other to appli-
ances which take the place of direct manual labour or assist or
save it. Of the first ckss may be noticed the use of the terra for
the small object bowl in tbe game of bowls or for jack rafters,
those rafters in a building shorter than the main rafters, espe-
cially the end rafters in a hipped roof. The use of jack as the name
for a particular form of ship's flag probably arose thus, for it is
always a smaller flag than the ensign. The jack is flown on a
staff on the bowsprit of a vessel In the British navy the jack
is a small Union flag. (The Union flag should not be styled a
Union Jack except when it is flown as a jack.) The jack of other
nations is usually the canton of the ensign, as in the German and
the United States navies, or else is a smaller form of the national
ensign, as in France. (See Flag.)
The more common use of " jack " is for various mechanical
and other devices originally used as substitutes for men or boys.
Thus the origin of the boot-jack and the meat-jack is explained
in Isaac Watts's Logic, 1724: "So foot boys, who had fre-
quently the common name of Jack given them, were kept to turn
the spit or pull off their masters' boots, but when instruments
were invented for both these services, they were both called
jacks." The New English Dictionary finds a transitional sense
in the use of the name " jack " for mechanical figures which
strike the hours on a bell of a clock. Such a figure in the clock
of St Lawrence Church at Reading is called a jack in the parish
accounts for 1498-1499. There are many different applications of
" jack," to certain levers and other parts of textile machinery,
to metal plugs used for connecting lines in a telephone exchange,
to wooden uprights connecting the levers of the keys with the
strings in the harpsichord and virginal, to a framework form-
ing a seat or staging which can be fixed outside a window
for cleaning or painting purposes, and to many devices contain-
ing a roller or winch, as in a jack towel a long towel hung on
a roller. The principal mechanical application of the word,
however, is to a machine for raising, weights from below. A
jack chain, so called from its use in meat-jacks, is one in which
the links, formed each in a figure of eight, are set in planes at
right angles to each other, so that they are seen alternately flat
or edgeways.
In most European languages the word " jack " In various
forms appears for a short upper outer garment, particularly ia
the shape of a sleeveless (quilled) leather jerkin, sometimes with
plates or rings of iron sewn to it. It was the common coat of
defence of the infantry of the middle ages. The word in this
case is of French origin and was an adaptation of the common
name Jacques, as being a garment worn by the common people.
In French the word isjaque, and it appears in Italian as giaco,
or giacco, in Dutch jab, Swedish jacka and German J ache, still
the ordinary name for a short coat, as is the English jacket, from
the diminutive French jaquette. It was probably from some
resemblance to the leather coat that the well-known leather
vessels for holding liquor or for drinking were known as jacks or
black jacks. These drinking vessels, which arc often of great
size, were not described as black jacks till the 16th century,
though known as jacks much earlier. Among the important
specimens that have survived to this day is one with the initials
and crown of Charles I. and the date, 1646, which came from
Kensington Palace and is now in the British Museum; one each
at Queen's College and New College, Oxford; two at Winchester
College; one at Eton College; and six at the Chelsea Hospital.
Many specimens arc painted with shields of arms, initials and
other devices; they are very seldom mounted in silver, though
spurious specimens with silver medallions of Cromwell and other
prominent personages exist. At the end of the 17th century a
smaller jack of a different form, like an ordinary drinking mug
with a tapering cylindrical body, often mounted in silver, came
into vogue in a limited degree. The black jack is a distinct type
of drinking vessel from the leather botel and the bombard. The
jack-boot, the heavy riding boot with long flap covering the knee
and part of the thigh, and worn by troopers first during the 17th
century, was so called probably from association with the leather
jack or jerkin. The jack-boot is still worn by the Household
Cavalry, and the name is applied to a high riding boot reaching
to the knee as distinguished from the riding boot with tops, used
in full hunting-kit or by grooms or coachmen.
Jack, sometimes spelled jak, is the common name for the fruit
of the tree Artiocarpus integrifolia, found in the East Indies.
The word is an adaptation of the Portuguese/aca from the Malay
name chakka. (See Bread Fruit.)
Tbe word " jackanapes, '* now used as an opprobrious term for
a swaggering person with impertinent ways and affected airs
JACKAL-rJACKSON, ANDREW
and graces, has a disputed and curious history. According to
the New English Dictionary it first appears in 1450 in reference
to William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk {Political Poems, " Rolls
Series," II. 224), " Jack Napys with his dogge hath tiede Talbot
oure gentille dogge." Suffolk's badge was a dog and chain, such
as was often used for an ape kept in captivity, and be is alluded
to (ibid. 222) as " Ape dogge." Jack Napes, Jack o' Napes,
Jackanapes, was a common namCfor a tame ape from the 16th
century, and it seems more likely that the word is a fanciful name
for a monkey than that it is due to the nickname of Suffolk.
JACKAL (Turk, ckakdl), a name properly restricted to Omit
aureus, a wolf-like wild member of the dog family inhabiting
eastern Europe and southern Asia, but extended to indude a
number of allied species. Jackals resemble wolves and dogs in
their dentition, the round eye-pupils, the period of gestation, and
to a large extent also in habits. The European species grows
to a height of 15 in. at the shoulders, and to a length of about
s ft., exclusive of its bushy tail. Typically the fur is greyish-
yellow, darker on the back and tighter beneath. The range of
the common jackal (C. aureus) extends from Dalmatia to India,
the species being represented by several local races. In Senegal
this species is replaced by C. animus, while in Egypt occurs the
much larger C. lufaster, commonly known ats the Egyptian wolf..
Nearly allied to the last is the so-called Indian wolf (C. pdlipes).
Other African species are the black-backed jackal (C. mesomtlas),
Egyptian Jackal (Canis lu paster).
the variegated jackal (C. variegatus), and the dusky jackal
(C adust us). Jackals are nocturnal animals, concealing them-
selves until dusk in woody jungles and other natural lurking
places, and then sallying forth in packs, which sometimes number
two hundred individuals, and visiting farmyards, villages and
towns in search of food. This consists for the most part of the
smaller mammals and poultry; although the association in packs
enables these marauders to hunt down antelopes and sheep.
When unable to obtain living prey, they feed on carrion and
refuse of all kinds, and aTc thus useful in removing putrescent
matter from the streets. They are also fond of grapes and other
fruits, and are thus the pests of the vineyard as well as the poultry-
yard. The cry of the jackal is even more appalling than that of
the hyena, a shriek from one member of a pack being the signal
for a general chorus of screams, which is kept up during the
greater part of the night. In India these animals are hunted
with foxhounds or greyhounds, and from their cunning and pluck
IO7
afford excellent sport. Jackals are readfiy tamed ; and domesti-
cated individuals are said, when called by their masters, to wag
their tans, crouch and throw themselves on the ground, and
otherwise behave in a dog-like fashion. The jackal, tike the
fox; has an offensive odour, due to the secretion of a gland at
the base of the tail.
JACKDAW, or simply Daw (Old Low German, Doha; Dutch,
Kaauw), one of the smallest species of the genus Corvus (see
Crow), and a very well known inhabitant of Europe, the
C. monedula of ornithologists. In some of its habits it much
resembles ks congener the rook, with which It constantly
associates during a great part of the year; but, wmle the rook
only exceptionally places its nest elsewhere than oh the boughs
of trees and open to the sky, the daw almost invariably chooses
holes, whether in rocks, hollow trees, rabbit-burrows or buildings.
Nearly every church-tower and castle, ruined or Lot, is more or
less numerously occupied by daws. Chimneys frequently give
them the accommodation they desire, much to the annoyance
of the householder, who finds the runnel choked by the quantity
of sticks brought together by the birds, since their industry ia
collecting materials for their nests is as marvellous as it often
is futile. In some cases the stack of loose sticks piled up by
daws in a belfry or tower has been known to form a structure
ro or 12 ft. in height, and hence this species may be accounted
one of the greatest nest-builders in the world. The style of
architecture practised by the daw thus brings it more than the
rook- into contact with man, and its familiarity is increased by
the boldness of its disposition which, though tempered by
discreet cunning, is hardly surpassed among birds. Its small
size, in comparison with most of its congeners, alone incapaci-
tates it from inflicting the serious injuries of which some of them
are often the authors, yet its pilfering* are not to be denied,
though on the whole its services to the agriculturist are great,
for in the destruction of injurious insects it is hardly inferior to
the rook, and it has the useful habit of ridding sheep, on whose
backs it may be frequently seen perched, of some of their
parasites.
The daw displays the glossy black plumage so characteristic
of the true crows, varied only by the hoary grey of the ear-
coverts, and of the nape and sides of the neck, which is the mark
of the adult; but examples from the east of Europe and western
Asia have these parts much lighter, passing into a silvery white,
and hence have been deemed by some authorities to constitute
a distinct species (C. cottaris, Drumm.). Further to the east-
ward occurs the C. dauuricus of Pallas, which has not only the
collar broader and of a pure white, but much of the lower parts
of the body white also. Japan and northern China are inhabited
also by a form resembling that of western Europe; but wanting
the grey nape of the latter. This is the C. neglectus of Professor
Schlegel, and is said by Dresser, on the authority of Swinhoe,
to interbreed frequently with C. dauuricus. These are all the
birds that seem entitled to be considered daws, though Dr
Bowdler Sharpe {Col. B. Bril. Museum, iii. 24) associates
with them (under the little-deserved separate generic distinction
Coloeus) the fish-crow of North America, which appears both in
structure and in habits to be a true crow. (A. N.)
JACKSON, ANDREW (1*67-1845), seventh president of the
United States, was born oh the 15th of March 1767, at the
Waxhaw or Warsaw settlement, in Union county, North
Carolina, or in Lancaster county, South Carolina, whither his
parents had immigrated from Carrkkfergus, Ireland, in 1765.
He played a slight part m the War of Independence, and was
taken prisoner m 1781, his treatment resulting in a lifelong
dislike of Great Britain. He studied law at Salisbury, North
Carolina, was admitted to the bar there in 1787, and began to
practise at McLeansville, Guilford county, North Carolina, where
for a time he was a constable and deputy-sheriff. In 1788, having
been appointed prosecuting attorney of the western district of
North Carolina (now the state of Tennessee), he removed toNash-*
ville, the seat of justice of the district. In 1791 he married Mrs
Rachel Robards (**> Donelson), having heard that her husband
bad obtained a divorce through the legislature of Virginia, The
lo8
legislative «ct, however, hid only authorised the courts to
determine whether or not there were sufficient grounds for a
divorce and to grant or withhold it accordingly. It was more
than two years before the divorce was actually granted, and only
on the basis of the fact that Jackson and Mrs Robards were then
living together. On receiving this information, Jackson had
the marriage ceremony performed a second time.
I In 1796 Jackson assisted in framing the constitution of
Tenoessee. From December 1 706 to March 1 797 he represented
that state in the Federal House of Representatives, where he
distinguished himself as an irreconcilable opponent of President
Washington, and was one of the twelve representatives who
voted against the address to him by the House. In 1797 he was
elected a United States senator; but he resigned in the following
year. He was judge of the supreme court of Tennessee from
1708 to 1804. In 1804-1805 he contracted a friendship with
Aaron Burr; and at the latter's trial in 1807 Jackson was one of
his conspicuous champions. Up to the time of his nomination for
the presidency, the biographer of Jackson finds nothing to record
but military exploit* in which he displayed perseverance, energy
and skill of a very high order, and a succession of personal acts
in which he showed himself ignorant, violent, perverse, quarrel-
some and astonishingly indiscreet. His combative disposition
led him Uilo numerous personal difficulties. In 1795 he fought
a duel with Colonel WailstiU Avery (1745-18*1). an opposing
counsel* over some angry words uttered in a court room; but
both, it appears, intentionally fired wild. In 1806 in another
duet* alter a long and bitter quarrel, he killed Charles Dickinson,
and J»ik»on himself received a wound from which he never
fully recovered. In 181 J he exchanged shots with Thomas Hart
peuttm and his brother Jesse In a Nashville tavern, and received
a t«wd wound. Jackson and Thomas Hart Benton were latex
lu 1 Hi t 1 8 1 4* *• major-general of militia, he commanded in
lk« tauutiiign a«*ln»t the Creek Indians in Georgia and Alabama,
*rJt«t<3 them tat liUadega, on the 9th of November 1813, and
at l\«h<u*U, on the 19th of March 1814), and thus first attracted
uuMu nutht by hli lalcnts. In May 1814 he was commissioned
iT W Ah« rnvtaUntherrgulararmyto serve against the British;
in N^ft"b*r he taptured Pcnsacola, Florida, then owned by
feat* but used by ihe Brituto as a base of operations; and on
tfc» ah ul January 181$ he inflicted a severe defeat on the
•Zmt Mm* New Orlesns, the contestants being unaware that
I\w*i> «l iwa* had already been signed. During his stay in
k%« UH*ft» h» IwHlalmed martial law, and earned out his
L*»*m *tth uiiielf Ming sternness, banishing from the town a
L*4 *h* attempt"! resistance. When civd law was restored,
IT 4L* »*» nntd liooo lor contempt of court; m 1844 Congress
Il^lW Sa/wtth Interest ($»?oo) to be repaid. In .8.8
C»^^ the command against the Seminoles. His
J^t. W totk'WMil them up into the Spanish territory of
*Vu a waul* IVnutola, and in arresting and executing
1 * **£ Sm*" * Alexander Arbulhnot and Robert Ambris-
1*1 it* t* muvh hostile comment in the cabinet and in
T II WH the nrgotistions for the purchase of Florida put
'^ ;^jZ»llc difficulty. In 1821 Jackson was
~ ^x^^»M territory of Florida, and there again
■UT^«i ***m*. J^ **** MAmBt lhen * ecreu,y *
H . v.x\, ^^{j* ! ttttm bly of Tennessee nominated
* ^^SVUU * was elected to the United
* >^TC! *hnh he resigned in »8>s- . The f rival
v~~ V**** ^ president in the campaign of 1824
■"■*•-***: ►SLClt-v ^ams» W ' H * Crtw(ord ^ Henry
^ ^K*Ued the largest number of votes (99) in
^^\4ams receiving 84, Crawford 41 and
JACKSON ANDREW
^ a*i a* absolute majority, and it thus became
*** ****' - matives to choose one of ihe
*.- - *
i M KUpwstntatlves 10 cnoose one 01 ine
> t Jackson and Crawford— who had
- — — ^-wTVwssirt of electoral votes. At * k -
~ ^ * jT*s*» v**** 1 * *
the
receiving the votes of 13 states, while Jackson received the
votes of 7 and Crawford the votes of 4. Jackson, however, was
recognized by the abler politicians as the coming man. Martin
Van Buren and others, going into opposition under his banner,
waged from the first a relentless and factious war on the admin-
istration. Van Buren was the most adroit politician of his time;
and Jackson was in the hands of very astute men, who advised
and controlled him. He was easy to lead when his mind was in
solution; and he gave his confidence freely where be bad once
placed it. He was not suspicious, but if be withdrew his con-
fidence he was implacable. When his mind crystallized on a
notion that had a personal significance to himself, that notion
became a hard fact that filled bis field of vision. When he was
told that he had been cheated in the matter of the presidency, 1 he
was sure of it, although those who told him were by no means so.
There was great significance in the election of Jackson in 1828.
A new generation was growing up under new economic and
social conditions. They felt great confidence in themselves and
great independence. They despised tradition and Old World
ways and notions; and they accepted the Jeffersonian dogmas,
not only as maxims, but as social forces—the causes of the
material prosperity of the country. By this generation, there-
fore, Jackson was recognized as a man after their own heart.
They liked him because he was vigorous, brusque, uncouth,
relentless, straightforward and open. They made him president
in 1828, and he fulfilled all their expectations. He had 17S
votes in the electoral college against 83 given for Adams. Though
the work of redistribution of offices began almost at his inaugu-
ration, it is yet an incorrect aecount of the matter to say that
Jackson corrupted the civil service. His administration b
rather the date at which a system of democracy, organized by
the use of patronage, was introduced into the federal arena by
Van Buren. It was at this time that the Democratic or Repub-
lican party divided, largely along personal lines, into Jacksonian
Democrats and National Republicans, the latter led by such men
as Henry Clay and J. Q. Adams, The administration itself had
two factions in it from the first, the faction of Van Buren, the
secretary of state in 1 820- 183 1 , and that of Calhoun, vice-president
in 1829-1832. The refusal of the wives of the cabinet and of Mrs
Calhoun to accord social recognition to Mrs J. H. Eaton brought
about a rupture, and in April 1831 the whole cabinet was re-
organized. Van Buren, a widower, sided with the president in
this affair and grew in his favour. Jackson in the meantime had
learned that Calhoun as secretary of war had wished to censure
him for his actions during the Seminole war in Florida in 1818,
and henceforth he regarded the South Carolina statesman as his
enemy. The result was that Jackson transferred to Van Buren
his support for succession in the presidency. The relations
between Jackson and his cabinet were unlike those existing
under his predecessors. Having a military point of view, he
was inclined to look upon the cabinet members as inferior officers,
and when in need of advice he usually consulted a group of
personal friends, who came to be called the " Kitchen Cabinet."
The principal members of this clique were William B. Lewis
(1784- 1866), Amos Kendall and Duff Green, the last named
being editor of the United Stales Telegraph, the organ of the
administration.
In 1832 Jackson was re-elected by a large majority (2x9
electoral votes to 49) over Henry Clay, his chief opponent. The
battle raged mainly around the re-charter of the Bank of the
United Stales. It is probable that Jackson's advisers in i8:S
had told him, though erroneously, that the bank had worked
against him, and then were not able to control him. The first
message of his first presidency had contained a severe reflection
on the bank; and in the very height of this second campaign
(July 1832) he vetoed the re-charter, which bad been passed in
1 The charge was freely made then and afterwards (though, it Is
now believed, without justification) that Clay had supported
Adams and by influencing his followers in the home had been
instrumental in securing his election, as the result of a bargain by
which Adams had agreed to pay him for hi* support by appoiatiom;
him secretary of state.
JACKSON, CYRIL
the session of 1831-183}. Jackson interpreted his re-election as
an approval by the people of his war on the bank, and he pushed
it with energy. In September 1833 he ordered the public
deposits in the bank to be transferred to selected local banks,
and entered upon the " experiment " whether these could not
act as fiscal agents for the government, and whether the desire
to get the deposits would not induce the local banks to adopt
sound rules of currency. During the next session the Senate
passed a resolution condemning his conduct. Jackson protested,
and after a hard struggle, in which Jackson's friends were led by
Senator Thomas Hart Benton, the resolution was ordered to be
expunged from the record, on the 16th of January 1837.
In 183a, when the state of South Carolina attempted to
" nullify M the tariff laws, Jackson at once took steps to enforce
the authority of the federal government, ordering two war vessels
to Charleston and placing troops within convenient distance.
Be also issued a proclamation warning the people of South
Carolina against the consequences of their conduct. In the
troubles between Georgia and the Cherokee Indians, however,
he took a different stand. Shortly after his first election Georgia
passed an act extending over the Cherokee country the civil
lawsof the state. This was contrary to the rights of the Cherokee*
under a federal treaty, and the Supreme Court consequently
declared the act void (1832). Jackson, however, having the
frontiersman's contempt for the Indian, refused to enforce the
decision of the court (see Nullification; Georgia: History).
Jackson was very successful in collecting old claims against
various European nations for spoliations inflicted under
Napoleon's continental system, especially the French spoliation
claims, with reference to which he acted with aggressiveness and
firmness. Aiming at a currency to consist largely of specie, he
caused the payment of these claims to be received and imported
in specie as far as possible; and in 183d he ordered land-agents
to receive for land nothing but specie. About the same time a
law passed Congress for distributing among the states some
$35,000,000 balance belonging to the United States, the public
debt having all been paid. The eighty banks of deposit in which
it was lying had regarded this sum almost as a permanent loan,
and had inflated credit en the basis of it. The necessary calling
in of their loans in order to meet the drafts in favour of the
states, combining with the breach of the overstrained credit
between America and Europe and the decline m the price of
cotton, brought about a crash which prostrated the whole
financial, industrial and commercial system of the country for
six or seven years. The crash came just as Jackson was leaving
office; the whole burden fell on his successor, Van Buren.
In the 1 8th century the influences at work in the American
colonies developed democratic notions. In fact, the circum-
stances were those which create equality of wealth and condition,
as far as civilized men ever can be equal The War of Indepen-
dence was attended by a grand outburst of political dogmatism
of the democratic type. A class of men were produced who
believed in very broad dogmas of popular power and rights.
There were a few rich men, but they were almost ashamed to
differ from their neighbours and, in some known cases, they
affected democracy in order to win popularity. After the 10th
century began the class of rich men rapidly increased. In the
first years of the century a little clique at Philadelphia became
alarmed at the increase of the " money power," and at the grow-
ing perils to democracy. They attacked with some violence,
but little skill, the first Bank of the United States, and they
prevented its re-charter. The most permanent interest of the
history of the United States is the picture it offers of a primitive
democratic society transformed by prosperity and the acquisi-
tion of capital into a great republican commonwealth. The
denunciations of the " money power " and the reiteration of
democratic dogmas deserve earnest attention. They show the
development of classes or parties in the old undifferentiated mass.
Jackson came upon the political stage just when a wealthy class
first existed. It was an industrial and commercial class greatly
Interested in the tariff, and deeply Interested also in the then
.currant forms of issue banking.' The southern planters also
IO9
were rich, but were agriculturists and remained philosophical
Democrats* Jackson was a man of low birth, uneducated,
prejudiced, and marked by strong personal feeling in all bis
beliefs and disbeliefs. He showed, in his military work and in
his early political doings, great lack of discipline. The proposal
to make him president won bis assent and awakened his ambi-
tion. In anything which he undertook he always wanted to
carry his point almost regardless of incidental effects on himself
or others. He soon became completely engaged in the effort to
be made president. The men nearest to him understood his
character and played on it. It was suggested to him that the
money power was against him. That meant that, to the
educated or cultivated class of that day, he did not seem to be
in the class from which a president should be chosen. He took
the idea that the Bank of the United States was leading the
money power against him, and that he was the champion of the
masses of democracy and of the common people. The opposite
party, led by Clay, Adams, Biddle, &c, had schemes for banks
and tariffs, enterprises which were open to severe criticism. The
political struggle was very intense and there were two good sides
to it. Men like Thomas H. Benton, Edward Livingston, Amos
Kendall, and the southern statesmen, found material for strong
attacks on the Whigs. The great mass of voters felt the issue
as Jackson's managers stated it. That meant that the masses
recognized Jackson as their champion. Therefore, Jackson's
personality and name became a power on the side opposed to
banks, corporations and other forms of the new growing power
of capital. That Jackson was a typical man of his generation
is certain. He represents the spirit and temper of the free
American of that day, and it was a part of his way of thinking
and acting that he put his whole life and interest into the con-
flict. He accomplished two things of great importance in the
history: he crushed excessive state-rights and established the
contrary doctrine in fact and in the political orthodoxy of the
democrats; he destroyed the great bank. The subsequent
history of the bank left it without an apologist, and prejudiced
the whole later judgment about it. The way in which Jackson
accomplished these things was such that it cost the country ten
years of the severest liquidation, and left conflicting traditions
of public policy in the Democratic party. After he left Washing-
ton, Jackson fell into discord with his most intimate old friends,
and turned his interest to the cause of slavery, which he thought
to be attacked and in danger.
Jackson b the only president of whom it may be said that he
went out of office far more popular than he was when he entered.
When he went into office he had no political opinions, only some
popular notions. He left his party strong, perfectly organized
and enthusiastic on a platform of low expenditure, payment of
the debt, no expenditure for public improvement or for glory
or display in any form and low taxes. His name still remained
a spell to conjure with, and the politicians sought to obtain the
assistance of his approval for their schemes; but in general his
last years were quiet and uneventful. He died at his residence,
"The Hermitage," near Nashville, Tennessee, on the 8th of
June 1845.
Bibliography.— Of the early biographies, that by J. H. Eaton
fm.M^.1-^.- .«-.*. .. '*' Vs early military exploits,
1 nd«H'» Lift (New York.
] 1814. James Partem'*
c 1) is still uaeful. Parton
( eat Commanders Series
( ickson's military career.
1 t " American Statesmen
5 bines the leading facts of
J W. G. Brown wrote an
i " Riverside Biographical
£ elaborate are the History
t York, 1904), marred by
1 t of Andrew Jackson, by
J i. Peck's The Jacksonion
J of national politics from
] of Jackson and Clay is
emphasized. (W. G. S.)
JACK80N, CYRIL (1746-1810), dean of Curat Church,
Oxford, was bom in Yorkshire, and educated at Westminster
JACKSON, F. G.— JACKSON, T. J.
no
and Oxford In 1771 lie was chosen to be sub-preceptor to the
two eldest sons of George ILL, but in 1776 he was dismissed ,
probably through some household intrigues. He then took
orders, and was appointed in 1779 to the preachership at
Lincoln's Inn and to a canonry at Christ Church, Oxford. In
1783 he was elected dean of Christ Church. His devotion to
the college led him to decline the bishopric of Oxford in 1709 and
the primacy of Ireland in 1800. He took a leading part in
framing the statute which, in 1802, launched the system of
public examinations at Oxford, but otherwise he Was not
prominent in university affairs. On his resignation in 1809 he
settled at Felpham, in Sussex, where he remained till his
JACKSOH, FREDERICK GEORGE (i860- ), British Arctic
explorer, was educated at Denstone College and Edinburgh
University. His first voyage in Arctic waters was on a whaling-
cruise in 1886-1887, and in 1893 he made a sledge-journey of
3000 miles across the frozen tundra of Siberia lying between the
Ob and the Pechora. His narrative of this journey was published
under the title of The Great Praam Land (1895). On his return,
he was given the command of the Jackson-Harmsworth Arctic
expediton (1894-1897), which had for its objective the general
exploration of Franz Josef Land. In recognition of his services
be received a knighthood of the first class of the Danish Royal
Order of St Olaf in 1898, and was awarded the gold medal of
the Paris Geographical Society in 1890. His account of the
expedition was published under the title of A Thousand Days in
the Arctic (1899). He served in South Africa during the Boer
War, and obtained the rank of captain. His travels also include
a journey across the Australian deserts.
JACKSON. HELEN MARIA (1831-1885), American poet and
novelist, who wrote under the intials of " H. H." (Helen Hunt),
was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 18th of October
1831, the daughter of Nathan Welby Fiske (1798-1847)} who
was a professor in Amherst College. In October 1852 she
married Lieutenant Edward Bissell Hunt (1822-1863), of the
U.S. corps of engineers. In 1870 she published a little volume
of meditative Verses, which was praised by Emerson in the
preface to bis Parnassus (1874). In 1875 she married William
S. Jackson, a banker, of Colorado Springs. She became a prolific
writer of prose and verse, including juvenile tales, books of
travel, household hints and novels, of which the best is Pomona
(1884), a defence of the Indian character. In 1883, as a special
commissioner with Abbot Kinney (b. 1850), she investigated the
condition and needs of the Mission Indians in California. A
Century of Dishonor (1881) was an arraignment of the treatment
of the Indians by the United States. She died on the 12th of
August 1885 in San Francisco.
In addition to her publications referred to above, Mercy Phil-
brick's Choice (1876), Hetty's Strange History (1877), Zeph (1886),
and Sonnets and Lyrics (1886) may be mentioned.
JACKSON, MASON (c. 1 820-1903), British engraver, was
born at Berwick-on-Tweed about 1820, and was trained as a
wood engraver by his brother, John Jackson, the author of a
history of this art. In the middle of the 19th century he made a
considerable reputation by his engravings for the Art Union
of London, and for Knight's Shakespeare and other standard
books; and in i860 he was appointed art editor of the Illustrated
London News, a post which he held for thirty years. He wrote
a history of the rise and progress of illustrated journalism. He
died io December 1003.
JACKSON, THOMAS (1570-1640), president of Corpus Chrisli
College, Oxford, and dean of Peterborough, was born at Witton-
It-Wear, Durham, and educated at Oxford; He became a
probationer fellow of Corpus in 1606, and was soon afterwards
tfccttd vice-president. In 1623 he was presented to the Irving
at St Nicholas, Newcastle, and about 1623 to the living of
Winston, Durham. Five years later he was appointed president
^ Cwpua* and in 1631 the king presented him to the living of
XVttMy> Oxfordshire. He was made a prebendary of Winchester
» 1*55. **A w d**" °* Peterborough in 1635-1639. Although
j^^mI* 4 Cahriaist, he becsr*- ^ Arminian.
His chief work was a 1
1 of commentaries eo the
Apostles'
if Thomas
Creed, the first complete edition being entitled The Works of Thomas
Jackson, DJ). (London, 1673). The commentaries were, however,
originally published in 1613-1657, as twelve books with different
titles, the first being The Eternal Truth of Scriptures Qjoi+m.
1613).
JACKSON, THOMAS JONATHAN (1824-1863), known as
" Stonewall Jackson," American general, was born at Clarks-
burg, Virginia (now West Viginia), on the 21st of January 1824,
and was descended from an Ulster family. At an early age he
was left a penniless orphan, and his education was acquired in a
small country school until he procured, mainly by his own
energy, a nomination to the Military Academy. Lack of social
graces and the deficiencies of his early education impeded him at
first, but "in the end 'Old Jack,' as he was always called, with
his desperate earnestness, his unflinching straightforwardness,
and his high sense of honour, came to be regarded with something
like affection." Such qualities he displayed not less •——igff
the light-hearted cadets than afterwards at the head of troops
in battle. After graduating he took part, as second K^tf^t
in the ist U.S. Artillery, in the Mexican War. At Vera Cnu he
won the rank of first lieutenant, and for gallant conduct at
Contreras and Chapultepec respectively he was brevetted captain
and major, a rank which he attained with less than one year's
service. During his stay in the city of Mexico bis thoughts were
seriously directed towards religion, and, eventually entering the
Presbyterian communion, he ruled every subsequent action of
his life by his faith. In 1851 be applied for and obtained a
professorship at the Virginia military institute, Lexington;
and here, except for a short visit to Europe, he remained for
ten years, teaching natural science, the theory of gunnery and
battalion drill. Though he was not a good teacher, his influence
both on his pupils and on those few intimate friends for whoa
alone he relaxed the gravity of his manner was profound, and,
little as he was known to the white inhabitants of Irrington, he
was revered by the slaves, to whom he showed uniform Viiwiti^
and for whose moral instruction be worked unceasingly. As to
the great question at issue in 1861, Major Jackson's ruling
motive was devotion to his state, and when Virginia seceded, on
the 17th of April, and the Lexington cadets were ordered to
Richmond, Jackson went thither in command of the corps.
His intimate friend, Governor Letcher, appreciating his gifts,
sent him as a colonel of infantry to Harper's Ferry, where the
first collision with the Union forces was hourly expected. In
June be received the command of a brigade, and in July promo-
tion to the rank of brigadier-generaL He had well employed
the short time at bis disposal for training his men, and on the
first field of Bull Run they won for themselves and their
brigadier, by their rigid steadiness at the critical moment of the
battle, the historic name of " Stonewall."
After the battle of Bull Run Jackson spent some time in
the further training of his brigade which, to bis infinite regret,
be was compelled to leave behind him when, in October, he was
assigned as a major-general to command in the Shenandoah
Valley. His army had to be formed out of local troops, and
few modern weapons were available, but the Valley regiments
retained the impress of Jackson's training till the days of Cedar
Creek. Discipline was not acquired at once, however, and the
first ventures of the force were not very successful. At Kens-
town, indeed, Jackson was tactically defeated by the Federals
under Shields (March 23, 1862). But the Stonewall brigade
had been sent to its old leader in November, and by the time
that the famous Valley Campaign (see Shxkandoah Valley
Campaigns) began, the forces under Jackson's command had
acquired cohesion and power of manoeuvre. On the 8tn of May
1862 was fought the combat of McDowell, won by Jackson
against the leading troops of Fremont's command from West
Virginia. Three weeks later the forces under Banks were being
driven over the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, and Jackson was
master of the Valley. Every other plan of campaign in Virginia
was at once subordinated to the scheme of " trapping Jackson."
But the Confederates, marching swiftly up the Valley, slipped
between the converging columns of Fremont from the west and
JACKSON, W.— JACKSON
McDowell from the cast, and concluded a most daring campaign
by the victorious actions of Cross Keys and Port Republic
(8th and oth of June). While the forces of the North were still
scattered, Jackson secretly left the Valley to take a decisive
part in Lee's campaign before Richmond. In the M Seven Days M
Jackson was frequently at fault, but his driving energy bore no
small part in securing the defeat of McClellan** advance on
Richmond. Here he passed for the first time Under the direct
orders of Robert Lee, and the rest of his career was spent in
command of the II. corps of the Army of Northern Virginia.
As Lee's chief and most trusted subordinate he was throughout
charged with the execution of the more delicate and difficult
operations of his commander's hazardous strategy. After his
victory over Banks at Cedar Mountain, near Culpeper, Virginia,
Jackson led the daring march round the flank of General Pope's
army, whkh against all theoretical rules ended in the great
victory of second Bull Run. In the Maryland campaign
Lieut. General Jackson was again detached from the main army.
Eleven thousand Federals, surrounded in Harper's Ferry, were
forced to surrender, and Jackson rejoined Lee just in time to
oppose McClellan's advance. At the Antietam his corps bore the
brunt of the battle, which was one of the most stubborn of
modern warfare. At Fredericksburg his wing of Lee's li ne of bat tie
was heavily engaged, and his last battle, before Chancellors villc,
in the thickets of the Wilderness, was his greatest triumph. By
one of his swift and secret flank marches he placed his corps on the
lank of the enemy, and on the 2nd of May flung them against
the Federal XI. corps, whkh was utterly routed. At the dose
of a day of victory he was reconnoitring the hostile positions
when suddenly the Confederate outposts opened fire upon his
staff, whom they mistook in the dark and tangled forest for
Federal cavalry. Jackson fell wounded, and on the toth of May
he died at Guinea's station. He was buried, according to his
own wish, at Lexington, where a statue and a memorial hall
commemorate his connexion with the place; and on the spot
where he was mortally wounded stands a plain granite pillar.
The first contribution towards the bronze statue at Richmond
was made by the negro Baptist congregation for which Jackson
had laboured so earnestly in his Lexington years. He was twice
married, first to Eleanor (d. 1854), daughter of George Junkin,
president of Washington College, Virginia, and secondly in 1857
to Mary Anna Morrison, daughter of a North Carolina clergyman.
That Jackson's death, at a critical moment of the fortunes
of the Confederacy, was an irreparable loss was disputed by no
one. Lee said that he had lost his right arm, and. good soldiers as
were the other generals, not one amongst them was comparable
to Jackson, whose name was dreaded in the North like that of
Lee himself. His military character was the enlargement of
his personal character — *' desperate earnestness, unflinching
straightforwardness," and absolute, almost fatalist, trust in
the guidance of providenrc. At the head of his troops, who
idolized him, he was a Cromwell, adding to the zeal of a fanatic
and the energy of the born leader the special military skill and
trained soldierly spirit which the English commander had to
gain by experience. His Christianity was conspicuous, even
amongst deeply religious men like .Lee and Stuart, and pene-
trated every part of his character and conduct.
See Hves by R. L. Dabney (New York. 1883). J. E. Cooke (New
York, 1866). M. A. Jackson (General Jackson s widow) (New York,
1892) ; and especially G. F. R. Henderson, Stonewall Jot kson (London,
1898), and H. A. White, Stonewall Jatkson (Philadelphia, 1909).
JACKSOH, WILLIAM (1 730-1 803), English musician, was
born at Exeter on the 29th of May 1730. His father, a grocer,
bestowed a liberal education upon him, but, on account of the
lad's strong predilection for music, was induced to place him
under the care of John Silvester, the organist of Exeter Cathedral,
with whom he remained about two years. In 1748 be went to
London, and studied under John Travers, organist of the king's
chapel. Returning to Exeter, he settled there as a teacher and
composer, and in 1777 was appointed subchanter, organist, lay-
vicar and master of the choristers of the cathedral In 1755
he published his first work, Twelve Sang*, which became at once
lit
highly popular. - His next publication, Six Sonatas for the Harp-
sichord, was a failure. His third work, Six Elegies Jor three voices,
preceded by an invocation, with an Accompaniment, placed him
among the first composers of his day. His fourth work was*
artother set of Twelve Songs, now very scarce; and his fifth work
was again a set of Twelve Songs, all of which are now forgotten.
He next published Twelve Hymns, with some good remarks upon
that style of composition, although his precepts were better
than his practice. A set of Twelve Songs followed, containing
some good compositions. Next came an Ode to Fancy, the words
by Dr Warton. Twelve Canzonets jor two voices formed his
ninth work; and one of them — "Time has not thinned my
Flowing Hair "— fcng held a place at public and private con*
certs. His tenth work was Eight Sonatas jor the Harpsichord,
some of which were novel and pleasing. He composed three
dramatk pieces,— Lycidas (1767). The Lord oj the Manor, to
General Burgoyne's words (1780), and The Metamorphoses, a
comic opera produced at Drury Lane in 1783, which did not
succeed. In the second of these dramatic works, two airs—
u Encompassed in an Angel's Form " and " When first this
Humble Roof I knew"— were great favourites. His church
music was published after his death by James Paddon (1820);
most of it is poor, but " Jackson in F " was for many years
popular. In 1782 he published Thirty Letters on Various Subjects ,
in which he severely attacked canons, and described William
Bird's Non nobis Domtnc as containing passages not to be
endured. But his anger and contempt were most strongly
expressed against catches of all kinds, which he denounced
as barbarous. In 1701 he put forth a pamphlet. Observations on
the Present Stale, oj Music in London, in which he found fault
with everything and everybody. He published in 17Q8 The
Four Ages, together with Essays on Various Subjects, — a work
which gives a favourable idea of his character and of his literary
acquirements. Jackson also cultivated a taste for landscape
painting, and imitated, not unsuccessfully, the style of his friend
Gainsborough. He died on the 5th of July 1803.
JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Jackson county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on both sides of the Grand River, 76 m. W.
of Detroit. Pop. (1800), 20,708; (1000), 25,180, of whom
3843 were foreign-born (1004 German, 041 English Canadian);
(roio census) 31433- It »s served by the Michigan Central,
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Trunk and
the Cincinnati Northern railways, and by inter-urban electric
lines. It is the scat of the state prison (established 1839).-
Coal is mined in the vicinity; the city has a large trade with
the surrounding agricultural district (whose distinctive product
is beans); the Michigan Central railway has car and machine
shops here; and the city has many manufacturing establish-
ments. The total factory product in 1004 was valued at
$8,348,125, an increase of 244 % over that of 1900. The muni-
cipality owns and operates its water-works. Hie place was
formerly a favourite camping ground of the Indians, and was
settled by whites in 1829. In 1830 it was laid out as a town,
selected for the county-seat, and named Jack son burg in honour
of Andrew Jackson; the present name was adopted in 1838.
Jackson was incorporated as a village in 1843, and in 1857 was
chartered as a city. It was at a convention held at Jackson
on the 6th of July 1854 that jhe Republican party was first
organized and so named by a representative state body.
JACKSON, a city and the county-seat of Hinds county,
Mississippi, U.S.A., and the capital of the state, on the W. bank
of the Pearl River, about 40 m. E. of Vicksburg and 185 m. N.
of New Orleans, Louisiana. Pop. (1890), 5920; (1900), 7816,
of whom 4447 were negroes. According to the Federal census
taken in 1910 the population had increased to 21,262. Jackson is
served by the Illinois Central, the Alabama & Vicksburg, the
Gulf & Ship Island, New Orleans Great Northern, and the Yazoo
& Mississippi Valley railways, and during the winter by small
freight and passenger steamboats on t he Pearl River. In Jackson
is the state, library, with more than 80,000 volumes. The new
state capitol was finished in 1903. The old state capitol, dating
from 1830. is of considerable interest; in it were held the secession
lit
tt****ik* <i*60, the " Black sad Tan Owvention " (r$68),
•ltd the cxMUhtutiooal convention of 180©, and in it Jef«w>«
Devia made hi* last speech (!«♦). Jackson is the seat of MiU-
aaps College* chartered in iSoo and opened m 1893 (under the
control o! the Methodist Episcopal Church. South), and having,
in 1007-1908, it instructor* and 297 stodenu; of Belhaven
College (non-aectarian, 1*94). ** girls; and of Jackson College
(founded in 1877 at Natchea hy the American Baptist Home
Misnaon Society; in iMj removed to Jackson), for negroes, which
had 356 students in 1007-100$. The city is a market for cotton
*ad turn products, and has a number of manufactories. In
sIji Uhe site was designated as the seat of the state government,
ami eacty in the following year the town, named in honour of
s-rfp-T Jackson, was laid out. The legislature first met here
jx December isA. It was not until 1840 that it was chartered
a* x. city. During the Civil War Jackson was in the theatre of
«uve aunpaigning. On the 14th of May 1863 Johnston who
-t>cn :«d the city, was attacked on both sides by Sherman and
^vi^bccitti with two corps of Grant's army, which, after a sharp
^V^uatnu drove the Confederates from the town. After
**. *-: a \ .ckabuxg Johnston concentrated his forces at Jackson,
xact ^ii oeeo evacuated by the Federal troops, and prepared
* >**jc ^ stand h^hinH the intrenchments. On the 9th of
«s* ^mvta began an investment of the place, and during
* ^vnv.^ *exfc a sharp bombardment was carried on.
1 k: -^-jv o* Lhe K6th Johnston, taking advantage of a lull
3 «x ^ withdrew suddenly from the city. Sherman's
.v>* oa the 17th and remained five days, burning a
-^ .. »>.»< ^^t «| the city and ravaging the surrounding
*>*>-***SJk % ocv and the county-seat of Madison county,
*** - ^>. v v v . situated on the Forked Deer river, about 8s
* N - * Vv tv&s. Pop. (1890), 10,039; (1900), i4,5«» of
*,o ,*„< acgroes; (1910 census), 15,779. It is served
•v 4,ws,c & Ohio, the Nashville, Chattanooga & St
<s.- l!*jakAL« Central railways. The state supreme
ire for the western district of Ten-
t of Union University (co-educational),
western Baptist University, and con-
Jackson until 1907, when the present
>7-i9o8 the university had 17 instruc-
fackson, also, are St Mary's Academy
emphis Conference Female Institute
nth, 1843), and Lane College (for
1 of the Colored Methodist Episcopal
mportant cotton market, and is a
1 products and fruits of the surround-
numcrous manufactures and railway
>f the factory product in 1905 was
ility owns and operates the elcctric-
itcr-works. There is in the city an
th therapeutic properties. Jackson
>rpo rated as a town in 1823, chartered
17 received a new charter by which the
is forever prohibited. After General
nessce in 1862 Jackson was fortified
ase of operations for the Federal army,
his headquarters here in October,
md the county-seat of Duval county,
1. part of the state, on the left bank of
from the Atlantic Ocean as the crow
water. Pop. (1890), 17,201; (1900),
vere negroes and 1x66 foreign-born;
city being the largest in the state,
rn, the Atlantic Coast Line, the Sea-
>rgia Southern & Florida and the
. . ys, and by several steamship lines. 1
* V;,V* * **• «* r^^T and Mn d rock at its mouth long pre v e nt e d the
' \ . I i V44 *»* 4 *«u * M *7 ulive water trade ' o" 1 ** 'fe 6 *>* U"*** 1
w««">wi Yv s * »-«r ..^de an appropriation (supplemented in 190a.
„>">4 10^ C4% ^ Opening, for a width of 300 ft., the channel
•00: the ocean to 24 ft., and on the bar 27 ft.
JACKSON— JACKSONVILLE
It is the largest railway centre in the state, and is popularly
known as the Gate City of Florida. In appearance Jacksonville
is very attractive. It has many handsome buildings, and its
residential streets are shaded with live-oaks, water oaks and
bitter-orange trees. Jacksonville is the seat of two schools for
negroes, the Florida Baptist Academy and f>4tman Institute
(187a; Methodist Episcopal). Many winter visitors are annually
attracted by the excellent climate, the mean temperature for the
winter months being about 55° F. Among the places of interest
in the vicinity is the large Florida ostrich farm. There are
numerous municipal and other parks. The city owns and
operates its electric-lighting plant and its water-works system.
The capital invested in manufacturing increased from $1,857,844
in 1900 to $4,837,281 in 1005, or 160*4%. and the value of the
factory product rose from $1,708,607 in 1000 to $5,340,264 in
1 005, or 106- 9 %. Jacksonville is the most important distributing
centre in Florida, and is a port of entry. In 1009 its foreign im-
ports were valued at $513-430; its foreign exports at $3,507,373.
The site of Jacksonville was called Cow Ford (a version of
the Indian name, Wacca Pilatka), from the excellent ford of the
St John's River, over which went the King's Road, a highway
built by the English from St Augustine to the Georgia line. The
first settlement was made in 1816. In 1822 a town was laid out
here and was named in honour of General Andrew Jackson; in
1833 Jacksonville was incorporated. During the Civil War the
city was thrice occupied by Federal troops. In 1888 there was an
epidemic of yellow fever. On the 3rd of May 1001 a fire destroyed
nearly 150 blocks of buildings, constituting nearly the whole of
the business part of the city, the total loss being more than
$15,000,000; but within two years new buildings greater in
number than those destroyed were constructed, and up to
December 1909 about 9000 building permits had been granted.
JACKSONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Morgan
county, Illinois, U.S. A., on Mauvaiseterre Creek, about 33 m.
W. of Springfield. Pop. (1890), 12,935; (1900), 15,078, of whom
1497 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 15,326. It is served
by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & Alton,
the Chicago, Peoria & St Louis and the Wabash railways. It
is the seat of several educational and philanthropic institutions.
Illinois College (Presbyterian), founded in 1829 through the
efforts of the Rev. John Millot Ellis (1 793-1855), a missionary of
the American Home Missionary Society and of the so-called
Yale Band (seven Yale graduates devoted to higher education
in the Middle West), is one of the oldest colleges in the Central
States of the United States. The Jacksonville Female Academy
(1830) and the Illinois Conservatory of Music (1871) were ab-
sorbed in 1903 by Illinois College, which then became co-educa-.
tionaL The college embraces, besides the collegiate department,'
Whipple Academy (a preparatory department), the Illinois
Conservatory of Music and a School of Art, and in 1 908-1 909 had
21 instructors and 173 students. The Rev. Edward Beecber
was the first president of the college (from 1830 to 1844), and
among its prominent graduates have been Richard Yates, jun.,
the Rev. Thomas K. Beecher, NewtQD Bateman (1822-1897),
superintendent of public instruction of Illinois from 1865 to 1875
and president of Knox College in 187 5- 1803, Bishop Theodore
N. Morrison (b. 1850), Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Iowa after
1898, and William J. Bryan. The Illinois Woman's College
(Methodist Episcopal; chartered in 1847 as the Illinois Confer-
ence Female Academy) received its present name in 1809. The
State Central Hospital for the Insane (opened in 1851), the State
School for the deaf (established in 1839, opened in 1845, and the
first charitable institution of the state) and the State School for
the Blind (1849) are also in Jacksonville. Morgan Lake and
Duncan Park are pleasure resorts. The total value of the
factory product in 1905 was $1,981,582, an increase of 17-7%
since 1900. Jacksonville was laid out in 1825 as the county-seat
of Morgan county, was named probably in honour of Andrew
Jackson, and was incorporated as a town in 1840, chartered as a
(mean low water), and by 1909 the work had been completed;
further dredging to a 24 ft. depth between the navigable channel and
pierhead lines was authorized in 1907 and completed by 191a
JACOB— JACOB OF EDESSA
rity «o 1867, and re-chartered in 1887. The majority of the.
early settlers came from the soot hern and border states, princi-
pally from Missouri and Kentucky; but subsequently there was
a large immigration of New England and Eastern people, and
these elements were stronger in the population of Jacksonville
than in any other city of southern Illinois. The city was a
station of the " Underground Railroad. 1 '
JACOB (Hebrew y&'&qdb, derived, according to Gen. xxv. 26,
xxvii. 36, from a root meaning " to seize the heel " or " sup-
plant "), son of Isaac and Rebekah in the Biblical narrative, and
the father of the twelve tribes of Israel. Jacob and his twin
brother Esau are the eponyms of the Israelites and Edomites.
It was said of them that they would be two nations, and that the
elder would serve the younger. Esau was born first, but lost
his superiority by relinquishing his birthright, and Jacob by an
act of deceit gained the paternal blessing intended for Esau
(Gen. xxvii., J and E). 1 The popular view regarding Israel and
Edom is expressed when the story makes Jacob a tent-dweller,
and Esau a hunter, a man of the field. But whilst Esau married
among the Canaanite " daughters of the land " (P in xxvi. 34;
xxviii.8 seq.), Jacob was sent, or (according to a variant tradition)
fled from Beer-sheba, to take a wife from among his Syrian
kinsfolk at Haran. On the way be received a revelation at
Bethel (" house of God ") promising to him and to his descen-
dants the whole extent of the land. The beautiful story of
Jacob's fortunes at Haran is among the best examples of Hebrew
narrative: how he served seven years for Rachel, "and they
seemed a few days for the love he had to her," and was tricked
by receiving the elder sister Leah, and how he served yet another
seven years, And at last-won his love. The patriarch's increasing
wealth caused him to incur the jealousy of his father-in-law,
Laban, and be was forced to flee in secret with his family. They
were overtaken at Gilead,* whose name (interpreted " heap of
witness ") is explained by the covenant into which Jacob and
Laban entered (xxxi. 47 sqq.). Passing Mahanaim (" camps "),
where he saw the camps of God, Jacob sent to Esau with friendly
overtures. At the Jabbok he wrestled with a divine being and
prevailed (cf. Hos. xii. 3 sqq.), hence he called the place Peniel
or Penuel (" the face of God "); and received the new name
Israel. He then effected an unexpected reconciliation with
Esau, passed to Suecoth, where he built " booths " for his cattle
(hence its name), and reached Shechem. Here he purchased
ground from the clan Haraor (cf. Judg. ix. 28), and erected an
altar to " God (El) the God of Israel." This was the scene of the
rape of Dinah and of the attack of Simeon and Levi which led
to their ruin (xxxiv.; see Dan, Levites, Simeon). Thence
Jacob went down south to Bethel, where he received a divine
revelation (P), similar to that recorded by the earlier narrator
(J), and was called Israel (xxxv. 0-13, 15). Here Deborah,
Rebekah *s nurse, died, on the way to Ephrath. Rachel died in
giving birth to Benjamin (qv.), and further south Reuben was
guilty of a grave offence (cf. xlix. 4). According to P, Jacob
came to Hebron, and it was at this juncture that Jacob and Esau
separated (a second time) and the latter removed to Mount Scir
(xxxvi. 6 sqq.; cf. the parallel in xiii, 5 sqq,). Compelled by
circumstances, described with much fullness and vividness,
Jacob ultimately migrated to Egypt, receiving on the way the
promise that God would make of him a great nation, which
should come again out of Egypt (sec Joseph). After an inter-
view with the Pharaoh (recorded only by P, xlvii. 5-11), he
dwelt with his sons in the land of Goshen, and as his death drew
near pronounced a formal benediction upon the two sons of
Joseph (Manasseh and Ephraim), intentionally exalting the
younger. Then he summoned all the " sons " to gather round
his bed, and told them "what shall befall in the latter days"
(xlix.). He died at the age of 147 (so P), and permission was
given to cany his body to Canaan to be buried.
» For the symbols J, E, P. as retards the sources of the book of
Genesis, see Genesis; Bible Old Test. Criticism.
* Since it is some 300 m from Haran to Gilead it is probable that
Laban 's home^ only seven days' journey distant, was nearer Gilead
than the current tradition allows (Gen. xxxi. 72 sqq.).
XV 3
«3
These narratives are full of much valuable evidence regarding
marriage customs, pastoral life and duties, popular beliefs and
traditions, and are evidently typical of what was currently re-
tailed. Their historical value has been variously estimated.
The name existed long before the traditional date of Jacob, and
the Egyptian phonetic equivalent of Jacob-el (cf .Isra-el, Ishroa-e))
appears to be the name of a district of central Palestine (or
possibly east of Jordon) about 1500 B.C. But the stories in
their present form are very much later. The dose relation
between Jacob and Aramaeans confirms the view that some
of the tribes of Israel were partly of Aramaean origin; bis
entrance into Palestine from beyond the Jordan is parallel to
Joshua's invasion at the head of the Israelites; and his previous
journey from the south finds independent support in traditions
of another distinct movement from this quarter. Consequently,
it would appear that these extremely elevated and richly deve-
loped narratives of Jacob-Israel embody, among a number of
other features, a recollection of two distinct traditions of migra-
tion which became fused among the Israelites. See further
Genesis; Jews. (S. A. C.)
JACOB, JOHN (1812-1858), Indian soldier and administrator,
was born on the nth of January 1812, educated at Addiscombe,
and entered the Bombay artillery in 1828. He served in the
first Afghan War under Sir John Keane, and afterwards led his
regiment with distinction at the battles of Mceanee, Shahdadpur,
and Umarkot; but it is as commandant of the Sind Horse and
political superintendent of Upper Sind that he was chiefly famous.
He was the pacificator of the Sind frontier, reducing the tribes
to quietude as much by his commanding personality as by his
ubiquitous military measures. In 1853 he foretold the Indian
Mutiny, saying: " There is more danger to our Indian empire from
the state of the Bengal army, from the feeling which there exists
between the native and the European, and thence spreads
throughout the length and breadth of the land, than from all
other causes combined. Let government look to this; it is a
serious and most important truth "; but he was only rebuked by
Lord Dalhousic for his pains. He was a friend of Sir Charles
Napier and Sir James Out ram, and resembled them in his out-
spoken criticisms and independence of authority. He died at
the ear^y age of 46 of brain fever, brought on by excessive heat
and overwork. The town of Jacobabad, which has the reputa-
tion of being the hottest place in India, is named after him.
See A. I. Shand, General John Jacob (1900).
JACOB BEN ASHER (1 280-1340), codifier of Jewish law, was
born in Germany and died in Toledo. A son of Asher ben
Yehiel (9.9.), Jacob helped to re-introduce the older elaborate
method of legal casuistry which had been overthrown by
Maimonides (q.v ). The Asheri family suffered great privations
but remained faithful in their devotion to the Talmud. Jacob
ben Asher is known as the Ba'al ha-turim (literally " Master of
the Rows ") from his chief work, the four Jvrim or Rows (the
title is derived from the four Jwrim or rows of jewels in the
High Priest's breastplate). In this work Jacob ben Asher
codified Rabbinic law on ethics and ritual, and it remained a
standard work of reference until it was edited with a commentary
by Joseph Qaro, who afterwards simplified the code into the
more popular Shulhan Aruch. Jacob also wrote two commen-
taries on the Pentateuch.
See Graett, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.),vol iv. ch. ail. : Weiss,
Dor dor we-4orashav, v. 118-123. (I. A.)
JACOB OF EDESSA, who ranks with Barhebraeus as the most
distinguished for scholarship among Syriac writers, 1 was born at
*£n-d£bha in the province of Antioch, probably about a.d 640.
From the trustworthy account of his life by Barhebraeus (Ckron.
Ecdes. i. 289) we learn that he studied first at the famous mon-
astery of Ken-neshre* (on the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite
Jerabis) and afterwards at Alexandria, which had of course been
1 " In the literature of his country Jacob holds much the same
place as Jerome among the Latin fathers " (Wright, Short Hist, of
Syr. Lit. p. 143)* '2a
ii 4 JACOB OF JUTERBOGK—JACOB OF SERUGH
for some time in the hands of the Moslems. 1 On his return he
was appointed bishop of Edessa by his friend Athanasius II. (of
Balad), probably in 684,' but held this office only for three or
four years, as the clergy withstood his strict enforcement of the
Church canons and be was not supported by Julian, the successor
of Athanasius in the patriarchate. Accordingly, having In
anger publicly burnt a copy of the canons in front of Julian's
residence, Jacob retired to the monastery of KaisQm near
Samoslta, and from there to the monastery of Eusebh6n&, s
where for eleven years he taught the Psalms and the reading of
the Scriptures in Greek. But towards the close of this period
he again encountered opposition, this time from monks " who
hated the Greeks," and so proceeded to the great convent of
TcQ 'Addl or Teleda (? modern Telladi, N. W. of Aleppo), where
he spent nine years in revising and emending the Peshitta version
of the Old Testament by the help of the various Greek versions.
He was finally recalled to the bishopric of Edessa in 708, but
died four months later, on the 5th of June.
In doctrine Jacob was undoubtedly M ry
large number of his works, which arc most vc
as yet been published, but much informal >rn
Assemani's Bibtiotheca Orienialis and Wi ac
MSS. in the British Museum. (1) Of t nt
Jacob produced what Wright calls " a cui >rk
text," of which five volumes survive in E \ue
38). It was " the last attempt at a revisii in
the M onophysite Church." Jacob was al he
Syriac Massorah among the Monophysi t; ch
MSS. as the one (Vat. chii.) described by Wiseman in Horae syriacae,
part Hi. (2) Jacob was the author both of commentaries and of
?c v . Mia on the sacred books ; of these specimens arc given by Asscmani
— - ■ .... ators. who
s." With
or treatise
len and at
iplctc was
,. Among
simus was
Catalogue
) Mention
rlcsiastical
Election of
Jai's qucs*
juris ecd.
Additional
rhole have
Jacobs von
>u tions to
Short Hist.
I comribu-
(Wrieht's
.hich nave
ight. Short
he treatise
of Edessa,
the whole
later date.
1 continua-
ccept a few
lotue 1062.
all on his
of SerQgh.
1869 and
m port a nee
ig. In his
expressing
o4l
tS
on
Vy
t<
a;
ir
t:
k
- . ,_, ^ Jacob's going to Alexandria as «.
^J^^nTthat the Arabs burm*i thegreat library
•3** xar r^ w p :ro IS). On this question cf. Krehl
" """* *^iS2-' de$ Orienlalisti (Florence, 1880),
-a M« hrf »*y* 677J ** ut A 1 * 4 * 11 * 4 * 11 * wa *
— w -t > 43) in * s "^y ** tnc cc i cDratc d
- "" ^ <%y *^"|j|n orthodox (BO. i. 470 sqq.)
— **"■ = " TIT^ at* biography by Barhcbraeus
— *" •* *^ l r^ i j4H.deSyrorutnfide,pD 206 sqq.
«. . - - . "*"i 2/rr Erkenntntts der Wahrhett oder
* * ^jc (posthumously) at Strassburg
-y -,bli»hcd by Wright (London,
— r.7j** o(syrUciext *
his sense of the disadvantage under which Syriac labours through
its alphabet containing only consonants, he declined to introduce
a general system of vowel-signs, lest the change should contribute
to the neglect and loss of the older books written without vowels.
At the same time he invented, by adaptation of the Greek vowels,
such a system of signs as might serve for purposes of grammatical
exposition, and elaborated the rules by which certain consonants
serve to indicate vowels. He also systematized and extended
the use of diacritical points. It is still a moot question how far
Jacob is to be regarded as the author of the five vowel-signs derived
from Greek which soon after came into use among the Jacobites.'
In any case he made the most important contribution to Syriac
grammar down to the time of Barhcbraeus. (8) As a translator
Jacob's greatest achievement was his Synac version of the Homtliae
cathedraTes of Scverus. the monophysite patriarch of Antioch
(512-518,535-536). This important collection is now in part knowa
to us by E. W. Brooks's edition and translation of the 6th book of
selected epistles of Sevcrus, according to another Syriac version made
by Athanasius of Nisibis in 669. (9). A large number of letters by
Jacob to various correspondents have been found in various MSS
Besides those on the canon law to Addai, and on grammar to George
of SerQgh referred to above, there are others dealing with doctrine.
liturgy, &c. A few are in verse.
Jacob impresses the modern reader mainly as an educator of his
countrymen, and particularly of the clergy. His writings lack the
fervid rhetoric and graceful style of such authors as Isaac of Antioch.
Jacob of Scrugh and Philoxenus of Mabbdg. But judged by- the
standard of his time he shows the qualities of a truly scientific
theologian and scholar. (N. M.)
JACOB OF JtiTERBOGK (c. 1381-1465), monk and theologian.
Benedict Stolzcnhagen, known in religion as Jacob, was born at
Jttterbogk in Brandenburg of poor peasant stock. He became
a Cistercian at the monastery of Paradiz in Poland, and was sent
by the abbot to the university of Cracow, where he became
master in philosophy and doctor of theology. He returned to
his monastery, of which he became abbot. In 144 1 , however, dis-
contented wrth the absence of strict discipline in his community,
he obtained the leave of the papal legate at the council of Basel
to transfer himself to the Carthusians, entering the monastery
of Salvatorberg near Erfurt, of which he became prior. He
lectured on theology at the university of Erfurt, of which he was
rector in 1455. He died on the 30th of April 1465.
Jacob's main preoccupation was the reform of monastic life, the
grave disorders of which he deplored, and to this end he wrote his
Petitiones religiosorum pro reformatione sui status. Another work,
De ncgligenlia praeiatorum, was directed against the neglect of their
duties by the higher clergy, and be addressed a petition for the re-
form of the church (Advisamcntum pro reformatione ecclesiae) to Pope
Nicholas V This having no effect, he issued the most outspoken of
his works, De sepiem ecclesiae statibus, in which he reviewed the work
of the reforming councils of his time, and, without touching the
question of doctrine, championed a drastic reform of life and practice
of the church on the lines laid down at Constance and Basel.
His principal works are collected in Walch, Mommenta med an.
I. and 11 (1757. 1771), and Engeibert Klupfel, Vetus bibtiotheca cedes.
(Freiburgim-Breisgau, 1780).
JACOB OF SfiROGH, one of the best Syriac authors, named by
one of his biographers " the flute of the Holy Spirit and the harp
of the believing church," was born in 451 at Kurtam, a village
on the Euphrates to the west of rjarran, and was probably edu-
cated at Edessa. At an early age he attracted the attention of
his countrymen by his piety and his literary gifts, and entered on
the composition of the long series of metrical homilies on religious
themes which formed the great work of his life. Having been
ordained to the priesthood, he became periodeutes or episcopal
visitor of tfaurl, in Sfcrugh, not far from his birthplace. His
tenure of this office extended over a time of great trouble to the
Christian population of Mesopotamia, due to the fierce war
carried on by Kavadh II. of Persia within the Roman borders.
When on the 10th of January 503 Amid was captured by the
Persians after a three months' siege and all its citizens put to the
sword or carried captive, a panic seized the whole district, and
the Christian inhabitants of many neighbouring cities planned
1 An affirmative answer is given by Wiseman (Horae syr. pp. 181-8)
and Wright (Catalogue 1 168; Fragm. of the Syriac Grammar of Jacob
of Edessa, preface , Short Hist. p. 151 seq.). But Martin (in Jour. As.
May-June 1869, pp. 456 sqq.), Duval (urammatre syriaque, p. 71) and
Merx (op. ett, p. 50) are of rhcoppositc opinion. The date of the intro-
duction of the seven Nestorian vowel-signs is also uncertain.
JACOBA— JACOB!, F. H.
to leave their homes and flee to the west of the Euphrates.
They were recalled to a more courageous frame of mind by the
letters of Jacob. 1 In 519, at the age of 68, Jacob was made
bishop of Batn&n, another town in the district oi Scrugh, but
only lived till November 521.
From the various extant accounts of Jacob's life and from the
number of his known works, we gather that his literary activity
was unceasing. According to Barhcbraeus (Ckron. Ecctes. i. 101) he
employed 70 amanuenses and wrote in all 760 metrical homilies,
besides expositions, letters and hymns of different sorts. Of his
merits as a writer and poet we are now well able to judge from
P. Bedian's excellent edition of selected metrical homilies, of which
four volumes ha vealready appeared (Paris 1905-1998), containing 146
pieces.* They are written throughout in dodecasyllabic metre, and
those published deal mainly with biblical themes, though there are
also poems on such subjects as the deaths of Christian martyrs, the
fall of the idols, the council of Nicaea, &c* Of Jacob's prose works,
which are not nearly so numerous, the most interesting are his letters,
which throw light upon some of the events of his time and reveal
his attachment to the Monophysite doctrine which was then strug-
gling for supremacy in the Syrian churches, and particularly at
, over the opposite teaching of Nestorius.* (N. M)
gling for
Edcssa, <
' JACOBA, or Jacqueline (1401-1436), countess of Holland,
was the only daughter and heiress of William, duke of Bavaria
and count of Holland, Zeeland and Hainaut. She was married
as a child to John, duke of Tourainc, second son of Charles VI.,
king of France, who on the death of his elder brother Louis
became dauphin. John of Touraine died in April 1417, and two
months afterwards Jacoba lost her father. Acknowledged as
sovereign in Holland and Zeeland, Jacoba was opposed by her
uncle John of Bavaria, bishop of Liege. She had the support of
the Hook faction in Holland. Meanwhile she had been married
in 1418 by her uncle, John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, to
her cousin John IV., duke. of Brabant. By the mediation of
John the Fearless, a treaty of partition was concluded in 1410
between Jacoba and John of Bavaria; but it was merely a truce,
and the contest between uncle and niece soon began again and
continued with varying success. In 14*0 Jacoba fledto England;
and there, declaring that her marriage with John of Brabant was
illegal, she contracted a marriage with Humphrey, duke of
Gloucester, in 1422. Two years later Jacoba, with Humphrey,
invaded Holland, where she was now opposed by her former
husband, John of Brabant, John of Bavaria having died of
poison. In 142s Humphrey deserted his wife, who found herself
obliged to seek refuge with her cousin, Philip V., duke of Bur-
gundy, to whom she bad to submit, and she was imprisoned in
the castle of Ghent. John of Brabant now mortgaged the two
counties of Holland and Zeeland to Philip, who assumed their
protectorate. Jacoba, however, escaped from prison in dis-
guise, and for three years struggled gallantly to maintain herself
in Holland against the united efforts of Philip of Burgundy and
John of Brabant, and met at first with success. The death of the
weak John of Brabant (April 1427) freed the countess from her
quondam husband; but nevertheless the pope pronounced
Jacoba's marriage with Humphrey illegal, and Philip, putting
out his full strength, broke down all opposition. By a treaty,
made in July 1428, Jacoba was left nominally countess, but Philip
was to administer the government of Holland, Zeeland and
Hainaul, and was declared heir in case Jacoba should die without
children. Two years later Philip mortgaged Holland and Zeeland
to the Borselen family, of which Francis, lord of Borselen, was the
head. Jacoba now made her last effort. In 1432 she secretly
married Frauds of Borselen, and endeavoured to foment a rising
in Holland against the BurgundiaQ rule. Philip invaded the coun-
try, however, and threw Borselen into prison. Only on condition
that Jacoba abdicated her three countships in his favour would
he allow her liberty and recognize her marriage with Borselen,
1 See the contemporary Chronicle called that of Joshua the Stylite,
chap. 54.
* Asiemani {Bibl. Orient. I 305-339) enumerates 231 uhich he had
seen in MSS.
• Some other historical poems M. Bcdjan has not seen fit to
publish, on account of their unreliable and legendary character
(vol. i p. ix. of preface).
4 A full list of the older editions of works by Jacob is given by
Wright in Short History of Syriac Literature, pp. 68-72.
115
She submitted in April 143*, retained her title of duchess in
Bavaria, and lived on her husband's estates in retirement. She
died on the oth of October 1436, leaving no children.
Bibliography.— F. von Loner. JakobSa ton Bayem und ikre Zeit
(a vols., Nordlingen. 1862-1869) . W. 1. F. Nuyens, Jacobawt Beteren
lem, 1873) ; A. vou Ovcrstratcn,
en de eerste hetft der X V. eeuw (Haarl
Jacoba van Beteren (Amsterdam, 1790).
<G. E.)
JACOBABAD, a town of British India, the administrative
1 headquarters of the Upper Sind frontier district in Bombay;
with a station on the Quetta branch of the North-Western rajh-
way, 37 m. from the junction at Rule, on the main line Pop.
(1901), 10,767. It is famous as having consistently the highest
temperature in India. During the month of June the therm©*
meter ranges between 120° and 127 F. The town was founded
on the site of the village of Kbangarb in 1847 by General
John Jacob, for many years commandant of the Sind Horse,
who died here in 1858. It has cantonments for a cavalry regi*
roent, with accommodation for caravans from Central Asia. It
is watered by two canals. An annual horse show is held in
January
JACOBEAN STYLE* the name given to the second phase of
the early Renaissance architecture in England, following the
Elizabethan style. Although the term is generally employed
of the style which prevailed in England during the first quarter
of the 17th century, its peculiar decadent detail will be found
nearly twenty years earlier at Wollaton Hall, Nottinghamshire,
and in Oxford and Cambridge examples exist up to 1660, not-
withstanding the introduction of the purer Italian style by
Inigo Jones in 1619 at Whitehall Already during Queen
Elizabeth's reign reproductions of the classic orders had found
their way mto English architecture, based frequently upon John
State's TJk First and Chief Grounds of Arxkitcciure, published in
1 563, with two other editions in 1 579 and 1 584. In 1577, three
years before the commencement of Wollaton Hall, a copybook
of the orders was brought out in Antwerp by Jan Vredeman de
Vries. Though nominally based on the description of the orders
by Vitruvius, the author indulged freely not only in his rendering
of them, but in suggestions of his own, showing how the orders
might be employed in various buildings. Those suggestions
were Ot a most decadent type, so that even the author deemed it
advisable to publish a letter from a canon of the Church, stating
that there was nothing in his architectural designs which was
contrary to religion. It is to publications of this kind that
Jacobean architecture owes the perversion of its forms and the
introduction of strap work and pierced cresting*, which appear
for the first time at Wollaton (1580), at firarashill, Hampshire
(1607-1619), and in Holland House, Kensington (1624), it
receives its fullest development. (R. P. S.)
JACOU, FB1BDRICH HEWRICH (1743-1819), German
philosopher, was born at Dusseldorf on the 25th of January 1743.
The second son of a wealthy sugar merchant near Dusseldorf,
he was educated for a commercial career. Of a retiring, medita-
tive disposition, Jacobi associated himself at Geneva mainly
with the literary and scientific circle of which the most prominent
member was Lesage. He studied closely the works of Charles
Bonnet, and the political ideas of Rousseau and Voltaire. In
1763 he was called back to Dusseldorf, and in the following year
be married and took over the management of his father's busi-
ness. After a short period he gave up his commercial career,
and in 1770 became a member of the council for the duchies of
Jiilich and Berg, in which capacity he distinguished himself
by his ability in financial affairs, and his seal in social reform.
Jacobi kept up his interest in literary and philosophic matters
by an extensive correspondence, and his mansion at Pempdfort,
near Dtisseldorf, was the centre of a distinguished literary circle
With C. M. Wieland he helped to found a new literary journal.
Dor Teuische Met cur, in which some of his earliest writings,
mainly on practical or economic subjects, were published
Here too appeared in part the first of his philosophic works,
Edward AUvutits Briefsammiung (1776), a combination of romance
and speculation. This was followed in 1779 by Woldemar, a
philosophic novel, of very imperfect structure, but full of genial
Ii6
JACOBI, J. G.
ideas, and giving the most complete picture of Jacobi's method
of philosophizing. In 1779 he visited Munich as member of the
privy council, but after a short stay there differences with his
colleagues and with the authorities of Bavaria drove him back
to Pempelfort. A few unimportant tracts on questions of theo-
retical politics were followed in 1785 by the work which first
brought Jacobi into prominence as a philosopher. A conversation
which he had held with Lessing in x 780, in which Lessing avowed
that he knew no philosophy, in the true sense of that word, save
Spinozism, led him to a protracted study of Spinoza's works.
The Brieje Uber die Lehre Spinozas (1785; *nd ed., much enlarged
and with important Appendices, 1789) expressed sharply and
clearly Jacobi's strenuous objection to a dogmatic system in
philosophy, and drew upon him the vigorous enmity of the
Berlin clique, led by Moses Mendelssohn. Jacobi was ridiculed
as endeavouring to reintroduce into philosophy the antiquated
notion of unreasoning belief, was denounced as an enemy of
reason, as a pietist, and as in all probability a Jesuit in disguise,
and was especially attacked for his use of the ambiguous term
" belief." Jacobi's next important work, David Hume Uber den
Clauben, oder Idealismus und Rcalismus (1787), was an attempt
to show not only that the term Claube had been used by the
most eminent writers to denote what he had employed it for in
the Letters on Spinoza, but that the nature of the cognition of
facts as opposed to the construction of inferences could not be
otherwise expressed. In this writing, and especially in the
Appendix, Jacobi came into contact with the critical philosophy,
and subjected the Kantian view of knowledge to searching
examination.
The outbreak of the war with the French republic induced
Jacobi in 1793 l0 leave his home near Diisseldorf, and for nearly
ten years he resided in Hobtein. While there he became
intimately acquainted with Reinhold (in whose Bettrage, pt iii.,
x8oi, his important work liber das Unternekmen des Kriticismus,
die Vemunjt su Verstande xu bringeu was first published), and
with Matthias Claudius, the editor of the Wandsbeckcr Bote.
During the same period the excitement caused by the accusation
of atheism brought against Fichte at Jena led to the publication
of Jacobi's Letter to Fichte (1799), in which he made more precise
the relation of his own philosophic principles to theology.
Soon after his return to Germany, Jacobi received a call to
Munich m connexion with the new academy of sciences just
founded there. The loss of a considerable portion of his fortune
induced him to accept this offer; he settled in Munich in 1804,
and in 1807 became president of the academy. In 181 1 appeared
his last philosophic work, directed against Schelling specially
( Von den gdttiicken Din gen und ikrer Ojfenbarung), the first part
of which, a review of the Wandsbeckcr Bote, had been written in
1708. A bitter reply from Schelling was left without answer by
Jacobi, but gave rise to an animated controversy in which Fries
and Baader took prominent part. In 181 2 Jacobi retired from
the office of president, and began to prepare a collected edition
of his works. He died before this was completed, on the xoth
of March 18x9. The edition of his writings was continued by
his friend F. Koppen, and was completed in 1825. The works
fill six volumes, of which the fourth is in three parts. To the
second is prefixed an introduction by Jacobi, which is at the same
time an introduction to his philosophy. The fourth volume has
also an important preface.
The philosophy of Jacobi is essentially unsystematic. A certain
fundamental view which underlies all his thinking is brought to bear
in succession upon those systematic doctrines which appear to stand
most sharply in contradiction to it, and any positive philosophic
results are given only occasionally. The leading idea of the whole is
that of the complete separation between understanding and appre-
hension of real fact. For Jacobi understanding, or the logical faculty,
is purely formal or elaborative, and its results never transcend the
given material supplied to it. From the basis of immediate experi-
ence or perception thought proceeds by comparison and abstraction,
establishing connexions among facts, but remaining in its nature
mediate and finite. The principle of reason and consequent, the
necessity of thinking each given fact of perception as conditioned,
impels understanding towards an endless series of identical proposi-
tions, the records of Mtccetstve comparisons and abstractions. The
st
ty
St
»c
su-
re
ed
is
of
id
"I
2
in Ed
Sp as
fai be
ve dt
in ts,
tn aU
pr d,
th a,
« ....... f
Lotze, to denote the peculiar character of an immediate, unproved
truth) i (6) the keystone (Efcmi*/) of aU human knowledge and activity
is belief {Claube). Of these propositions only the first and fouriL
require further notice. Jacobi. accepting tne law of reason and
consequent as the fundamental rule of demonstrative reasoning,
and as the rule explicitly followed by Spinoza, points out that, if
we proceed by applying this principle so as to recede from particular
and qualified facts to the more general and abstract conditions. »e
land ourselves, not in the notion of an active, intelligent creator
of the system of things, but in the notion of an all-comprchen-
sive, indeterminate Nature, devoid of will or intelligence Our
unconditioned is cither a pure abstraction, or else the impossible
notion of a completed system of conditions. In either case the result
is atheism, and this result is necessary if the demonstrative method,
the method of understanding, is regarded as the only possible means
of knowledge. Moreover, the same method inevitably lands is
fatalism. For, if the action of the human will is to be made intelli-
gible to understanding, it must be thought as a conditioned pheno-
menon, having us sufficient ground in preceding circumstance*, and.
in ultimate abstraction, as the outflow from nature which is the sura
of conditions. But this is the fatalist conception, and any philosophy
which accepts the law of reason and consequent as the essence of
understanding is fatalistic. Thus for the scientific understanding
there can be no Cod and no liberty. It is impossible that there should
be a God, for if so he would of necessity be finite. But a finite God,
a God that is known, is no God. It is impossible that there should be
liberty, for if so the mechanical order of phenomena, by means of
which they are comprehensible, would be disturbed, and we should
have an unintelligible world, coupled with the requirement that it
shall be understood. Cognition, then, in the strict sense, occupies
the middle place between sense perception, which is belief m matters
of sense, and reason, which is belief in supersensuous fact
The best introduction to Jacobi's philosophy is the preface to the
second volume of the Works, and Appendix 7 to the Letters on
Sptnoza's Theory. See also J Kuhn. Jacobi und die Pktloso'pkte
seiner ZeU (1834); F Deycks. F. H. Jacobi tm Verkaltnts em senun
ZeUgenossen (1848). H. Ountzer, Frcundesbilder ant Coetkes Lebem
(1853): £. Zirngicbl, F. H. Jacobts Lebtn, Dichten, und Denktn,
1867; F. Harms, Uber die Lehre von F*H. Jacobi .(1876) Jacobi's
A usertesener Brief wee hsel has been edited by F. Roth in 2 vols
(18*5-18*7).
JACOBI, JORANN OEORO (1740-1814), German poet, elder
brother of the philosopher, F H. Jacobi (1743-1819), was born at
Dusseldorf on the 2nd of September 1 740. He studied theology
at Gottingen and jurisprudence at Helmstcdt, and was appointed,
in 1766, professor of philosophy in Halle. In this year he made
the acquaintance of J. W. L. (" Vater ") Gleim, who, attracted
by the young poet's Poetische Vcrsuche (1764), became his
warm friend, and a lively literary correspondence ensued
between Gleim in Halberstadt and Jacobi in Halle. In order
to have Jacobi near him, Gleim succeeded in procuring for him a
prebendal stall at the cathedral of Halberstadt in 1769, and here
Jacobi issued a number of anacreontic lyrics and sonnets. He
JACOBI, K, G; J.^JACOBINS
itj
tired, however, of the lighter muse, ana* in 1774, to Gleim'f
grief, left Halberstadt, and for two years (1 774-1 776) edited at
Diisscldorf the his, a quarterly for women readers. Meanwhile,
he wrote many charming lyrics, distinguished by exquisite taste
and true poetical feeling. In 1784 he became professor of
literature at the university Of Freiburg im Breisgau, a pott
which he held Until his death there on the 4th of January 1814.
In addition to the earlier Iris, to which Goethe, his brother
F. H. Jacobi, Gteim and other poets contributed, he published,
from 1803-1813, another periodical, also called Iris, in which
Klopstock, Herder, Jean Paul, Voss and the brothers Stollberg
also collaborated.
Jacobi's Sdmmtliche Werke were published in 1774 (Halberstadt,
t vols.). Other editions appeared at Zurich in 1807-1813 and 1825.
See Uuge&tuckt* Briejt ton und an Jchann Ceorg Jacob* (btrassburg*
t874): biographical notice by Daniel Jacoby in AUg. Deutsche
Btograpkiei Longo, Laurent* Sterne und Johann Ccorg Jacobi
(Vienna, 1 898);. and Leben J C. Jacobis, von einent seiner Preunde
(1B22).
JACOBI. KARL GUSTAV JACOB (1804-1851), German
mathematician, was born at Potsdam, of Jewish parentage, on
the 10th of December 1804. He studied at Berlin University,
where he obtained the degree of doctor of philosophy in 1825,
his thesis being an analytical discussion of (he theory of fractions.
In 1827 he became extraordinary and in 1829 ordinary professor
of mathematics at Konigsberg, and this chair he fiUed till 1842,
when he visited Italy for a few months to recruit his health.
On his return he removed to Berlin, where he lived as a royal
pensioner till his death, which occurred on the 18th of February
1851.
His Investigations in elliptic functions, the theory of which he
established upon quite a new basis, and more particularly his
development of the theta-function, as given in his great treatise
Fundamenta nova theoriae funclionum cilipticarum (Kdrtrgsbcrg,
1820). and in later papers in Crelle's Journal, constitute his grandest
analytical discoveries. Second in importance only to these arc
his researches in differential equations, notably the theory of the last
multiplier, which is fully treated in his Vorlesungen uber Dynamik.
edited by R. F. A. Clebsch (Berlin. 1866). It was in analytical
development that Jacobi's peculiar power mainly lay, and he made
many important contributions of this kind to other departments
of mathematics, as a glance at the long list of papers that were
published by him in Crellc's Journal and elsewhere from 1826
onwards will sufficiently indicate. He was one of the early founders
of the theory of determinants: in particular, he invented the func-
tional determinant formed of the «* differential coefficients of n given
functions of • independent variables, which now bears his same
(Jacobian), and which has played an important part in many
analytical investigations (see Algebraic Forms). Valuable also
are nis papers on Abelian transcendents, and his investigations in
the theory of numbers, in which latter department he mainly supple*
ments the labours of K. F. Gauss. The planetary theory and other
particular dynamical problems likewise occupied nis attention from
time to time. He left a vast store of manuscript, portions of which
have been published at intervals in CreUe's Journal. His other
works include Commentalio de transformatione iniegralis dupiicis
indefin&i informant fimpticforem (1832), Canon arithmeticus (1439),
and OpMculo mathenalica (1846-1857). His CcsammelU Wcrke
(1881-1891) were published by the Berlin Academy.
See Lejeune-Dirichlet, " Gedfichtnisredc auf Jacobs ** in the
Abhcndlungen der Berliner Akademie (1852).
JACOBINS, THE, the most famous of the political clubs of
the French Revolution. It had its origin in the Club Breton,
which was established at Versailles shortly after the opening
of the States General in 1789. It was at first composed exclu-
sively of deputies from Brittany, but was soon joined by others
from various parts of France, and counted among its early
members Mirabeau, Sicy£s, Barnave, P6tion, the Abbe Gregoire,
Charles and Alexandre Lameth, Robespierre, the due d'Aiguillon,
and La Revellicre-Lepeaux. At this time its meetings Were
secret and little is known of what took place at them. After
the emcute of the 5th and 6th of October the club, still entirely
composed of deputies, followed the National Assembly to Paris,
where it rented the refectory of the monastery of the- Jacobins
in the Rue St Honore, near the seat of the Assembly. The name
" Jacobins," given in France (o the Dorafnlcans, because their
first house in Paris was in the Rue St Jacques, was first applied
to the club in ridicule by its enemies. The title assumed by
the dub itself, after the promulgation of the constitution of
1 791 , was SoeHti des amis de la constitution siants aux Jacobins d
Paris, which was changed on the tist of September 1702, after
the fall of the monarchy, to Soc^Udes Jacobins, tmisdela libera
# de Vtgcliti. It occupied successively the refectory, the tfbrary,
and the chapel of the monastery.
Once transferred to Paris, the dub underwent rapid modmca*
tkms. The first step was its expansion by the admission as
members or associates of othecs besides deputies; Arthur Young
was so admitted on the 18th of January 1700. On the 8th of
February the society war formally constituted on this broader
basis by the adoption of toe rules drawn up by Barnave, which
were issued with the signature of the due d'Aiguillon, the presi-
dent. The objects of the dub were denned as (1) to djscuss«in
advance questions to be dectded by the National Assembly; (2) to
work for the establishment and strengthening of the constitution
in accordance with the Bpirit of the preamble (i.«. of respect for
legally constituted authority and the rights of man); (3) to
correspond with other societies of the same kind which should be
formed in the realm. At the same time the rules of order and
forms of election were settled, and the constitution of the club
determined. There were to be a president, elected every month,
four secretaries, a treasurer, and committees dected to super-
intend elections and presentations, the correspondence, and the
administration of the dub. Any member who by word or action
showed that his principles were contrary to the constitution and
the rights of man was to be expelled, a rule which later on
facilitated the " purification " of the society by the expulsion
of its more moderate dements. By the 7th article the dub
decided to admit as associates similar societies in other parts of
France and to maintain with them a regular correspondence.
This last provision was of far-reaching importance. By the
10th of August 1700 there were already one hundred and fifty*
two affiliated clubs; the attempts at counter-revolution led to a
great increase of their number in the spring of 1701, and by the
close of the year the Jacobins had a network of branches all over
France. It was this widespread yet highly centralized organiza-
tion that gave to the Jacobin Club its formidable power.
At the outset the Jacobin Club was not distinguished by
extreme political views. The somewhat high subscription
confined its membership to men of substance, and to the last it
was— so far as the central society in Paris was concerned-
composed almost entirely of professional men, such as Robes-
pierre, or wdl-to-do bourgeois, like Santerre. From the firsts
however, other dements were present. Besides Low's Philippe,
due de Chart res (afterwards king of the French), liberal aristo-
crats of the type of the due d'Aiguillon, the prince de Brogue,
or the vicomtc de NoatUes, and the bourgeois who formed the
mass of the members, the club contained such figures as " Pere "
Michel Gerard, a peasant proprietor from Tuel-en-Montgerroont,
in Brittany, whose rough common sense was admired as the
oracle of popular wisdom, and whose countryman's waistcoat
and plaited hair were later on to become the model for the
Jacobin fashion. 1 The provincial branches were from the first far
more democratic, though in these too the leadership was Usually
in the hands of members of the educated or propertied classes.
Up to the very eve of the republic, the club ostensibly supported
the monarchy; it took no part in the petition of the 17th of July
1790 for the king's dethronement; nor had it any official share
even in the insurrections of the 20th of June and the 10th of
August 1792; it onty formally recognized the republic on the
21st of September. But the character and extent of the club's
influence cannot be gauged by its official acts alone, and long
before it emerged as the principal focus of the Terror, its charac-
ter had been profoundly changed by the secession of its more
moderate elements, some to found the Club of 1789, some in
r 79 1— among thern Barnave, the Lameths, Duport and BaJUy—
1 ** When I first sat among you I heard so many beautiful speeches
that 1 might have believed myself in heaven, had there not been so
many lawyers present." Instead of practical questions " we have
become involved in a galimatias of Rights of Man of which 1 under-
stand mighty little but that it is worth nothing." Motion du Pin
Gerard in the Jacobins of the 27th of April 1790 (A u lard i. 63).
ti8
JACOBINS
to found the <*ub of the EeullUnU *cofted at by their former
i JctrU as the dub numarcktque. The mam cause of this
/£«« was the admission of the public to the sittings of the
rSJh^Wch beiaD on the 14th of October 1701. The result is
nWibedin Vfeport of the Department of Paris on " the state
otthe empire," presented on the 12th of June 1792, at the request
af Roland the mini**** © f the Ulterior, and signed by the due
dt La Rochefoucauld, which ascribes to the Jacobin* all the
woes of the *Ute. " There exists," it runs, " in the midst of the
cardial committed to our care a public pulpit of defamation,
where citizens of every age and both sexes are admitted day by
day to listen to a criminal propaganda. . . . This establishment,
situated in the former house of the Jacobins, calls itself a society;
but it has less the aspect of a private society than that of a public
spectacle: vast tribunes are thrown open for the audience;
all the sittings are advertised to the public for fixed days and
hours, and the speeches made are printed in a special journal and
lavishly distributed." l In this society— the report continues—
murder is counselled or applauded, all authorities are calumniated
and all the organs of the law bespattered with abuse; as to its
power, it exercises " by its influence," its affiliations and its
correspondence a veritable ministerial authority, without title
and without responsibility, while leaving to the legal and
responsible authorities only the shadow of power " (Schmidt,
Tableaux i. 78. &<=•>• ....... . , L
The constituency to which the club was henceforth responsible,
and from which it derived its power, was in fact the pcuple
bUe of Paris; the sons-culottes— decayed lackeys, cosmopolitan
ne'er-do-weels, and starving workpeople— who crowded ks
tribunes- To this audience, and not primarily to the members
of the club, the speeches of the orators were addressed and by
Us verdict they were judged. In the earlier stages of the
Revolution the mob had been satisfied with the fine platitudes
of the phiUsapkes and the vague promise of a political millen-
nium; but as the chaos in the body politic grew, and with it
the appalling material misery, it began to clamour for the
blood of the *' traitors " in office by whose corrupt machinations
the millennium was delayed, and only those orators were listened
to who pandered to its suspicions. Hence the elimination of
the moderate elements from the club; hence the ascendancy of
Marat, sad finally of Robespierre, the secret of whose power was
that they reaUy shared the suspicions of the populace, to which
they gave a voice and which they did not shrink from translating
into action. After the fall of the monarchy Robespierre was in
effect the Jacobin Club; for to the tribunes he was the oracle
of political wisdom, and by his standard all others were judged.*
With his fall the Jacobins too came to an end.
Not the least singular thing about the Jacobins is the very
slender material basis on which their overwhelming power rested.
France groaned under their tyranny, which was compared to that
of the Inquisition, with its system of espionage and denuncia-
tions which no one was too illustrious or too humble to escape.
Vet it was reckoned by competent observers that, at the height of
the Terror, the Jacobins could not command a force of more than
jooo men in Paris. But the secret of their strength was that,
in the midst of the general disorganization, they alone were
organised. The police agent Dutard, in a report to the minister
Carat (April 3°» l ? 9i ) t ' describing an episode in the Palais
ftgaliie (Royal), adds: " Why did a dozen Jacobins strike terror
into two or three hundred aristocrats? It is that the former
have a rallylng-noint and that the latter have none." When
\hcj4»*4is< dorU did at last organize themselves, they had little
i^ihcully to flo<f n * tnc J ac °b ,n s out of the cafes into compara-
tive silence, U)«f before this the Girondin government had
rat «cge4 to meet organization by organization, force by force;
ml it a clear from the daily rcportsof the police agents that even
♦a Ammai ** <W*^* ** * ** corrtspond&nce de la Sociitt, Ac.
~-w x ^gvm newspapers publuhed under the autpices of the
_«»«• Utoid i p. «•• &c.
- * w -Mouth*! wportt only the tpeeches of members are given,
• - namw**'! 01 " 1 *** tnbuno. Butsce the report (May 18,
_^ vt .» Usat on a meeting of the Jacobins (Schmidt,
a moderate display of energy would have saved the National
Convention from the humiliation of being dominated by a dub,
and the French Revolution from the blot of the Terror. But
though the Girondins were fully conscious of the evil, they were
too timid, or too convinced of the ultimate triumph of their own
persuasive eloquence, to act. In the session of the joth of
April .1793 a proposal was made to move the Convention to
Versailles out of reach of the Jacobins, and Buzot declared that
it was " impossible to remain in Paris " so long as " this abomin-
able haunt " should exist; but the motion was not carried, and
the Girondins remained to become the victims of the Jacobins.
Meanwhile other political clubs could only survive so long as
they were content to be the shadows of the.powcrful organization
of the Rue St Honored The Feuillants had been suppressed
on the 18th of August 1792. The turn of the Cordeliers came so
soon as its leaders showed signs of revolting against Jacobin
supremacy, and no more startling proof of this ascendancy
could be found than the ease with which Hebcrt and his fellows
were condemned and the readiness with which the Cordeliers,
after a feeble attempt at protest, acquiesced in the verdict.
It is idle to speculate on what might have happened had this
ascendancy been overthrown by the action of a strong govern-
ment. No strong government existed, nor, in the actual condi-
tions of the country, could exist on the lines laid down by the
constitution. France was menaced by civil war within, and by
a coalition of hostile powers without; the discipline of the Terror
was perhaps necessary if she was to be welded into a united force
capable of resisting this double peril; and the revolutionary
leaders saw in the Jacobin organization the only instrument
by which this discipline could be made effective. This is the
apology usually put forward for the Jacobins by republican
writers of later times; they were, it is said (and of some of them
it is certainly true), no mere doctrinaires and visionary sectaries,
but practical and far-seeing politicians, who realized that
" desperate ills need desperate remedies," and, by having the
courage of their convictions, saved the gains of the Revolution
for France.
The Jacobin Club was closed after the fall of Robespierre on
the oth of Thermidor of the year III., and some of its members
were executed. An attempt was made to re-open the club,
which was joined by many of the enemies of the Therm tdorians,
but on the 21st of Brumaire, year III. (Nov. xi, 1794), it was
definitively closed. Its members and their sympathizers were
scattered among the cafes, where a ruthless war of sticks and
chairs was waged against them by the young "aristocrats"
known as the jeunesse dorle. Nevertheless the " Jacobins "
survived, in a somewhat subterranean fashion, emerging again
in the club of the Pantheon, founded on the 25th of November
1795, and suppressed in the following February (see Badeuf;
Francois Noel). The last attempt to reorganize them was the
foundation of the Reunion d'amis de VtgaliU el de la liberty is
July 1709, which had its headquarters in the Salic du Manege
of the Tuileries, and was thus known as the Club du Manege.
It was patronized by Barras, and some two hundred and fifty
members of the two councils of the legislature were enrolled as
members, including many notable ex-Jacobins. It published a
newspaper called the Journal des Libres, proclaimed the apothe-
osis of Robespierre and Babcuf , and attacked the Directory as a
royauti pcnlarchique* But public opinion was now preponder-
ating^ moderate or royalist, and the club was violently attacked
in the press and in the streets, the suspicions of the government
were aroused; it had to change its meeting-place from the
Tuileries to the church of the Jacobins (Temple of Peace) in the
Rue du Bac, and in August it was suppressed, after barely a
month's existence. Its members revenged themselves on the
Directory by supporting Napoleon Bonaparte.
Long before the suppression of the Jacobin Club the name of
"Jacobins" had been popularly applied to all promulgators
of extreme revolutionary opinions. In this sense the word
passed beyond the borders of France and long survived the
Revolution. Canning's paper, The A tili- Jacobin, directed against
the English Radicals, consecrated its use in England; and in the
JACOBITE CHURCH— JACOBITES
correspondence of Metternich and other leaders of the repressive
policy which followed the second fall of Napoleon, M Jacobin "
is the term commonly applied to anyone with Liberal tendencies,
even to so august a personage as the emperor Alexander I. of
Russia.
The mott important source of information for the history of the
Jacobins is F. A. Aulard's La socUti des Jacobins, Recueii de docu-
ments (6 vols., Paris, 1889, &c), where a critical bibliography will be
found. This collection does not contain all the printed sources—*
notably the official Journal of the Club is omitted — but these
sources, when not included, are indicated. The documents pub-
lished are furnished with valuable explanatory notes. See also
W. A. Schmidt, Tableaux it la revolution francaise (3 vols., Leipzig,
1867-1670), notably for the reports of the secret police, which throw
much light on the actual working of the Jacobin propaganda.
JACOBITE CHURCH. The name of "Jacobites" is first
found in a synodal decree of Nicaea a.d. 787, and was invented
by hostile Greeks for the Syrian Monophysite Church as founded,
or rather restored, by Jacob or James Baradaeus, who was
ordained its bishop a.d. 541 or 543. The Monophysites, who like
the Greeks knew themselves simply as the Orthodox, were
grievously persecuted by the emperor Justinian and the graeciz-
ing patriarchs of Antioch, because they rejected the decrees of
the council of Chalcedon, in which they— not without good reason
— saw nothing but a thinly veiled relapse into those opinions of
Nestorius which the previous council of Ephcsus had condemned.
James was born a little before a.d. 500 at Telia or Tela, 55 m.
east of Edessa, of a priestly family, and entered the convent of
Phesilta on Mount Isla. About 528 he went with a fellow-monk
Sergius to Constantinople to plead the cause of his co-rcligionists
with the empress Theodora, and livid there fifteen years.
Justinian during those years imprisoned, deprived or exiled
most of the recalcitrant clergy of Syria, Mesopotamia, Cilicia,
Cappadocia, and the adjacent regions. Once ordained bishop of
Edessa, with the connivance of Theodora, James, disguised as a
ragged beggar (whence his name Baradaeus, Syriac Burdttind,
Arabic al-Barddid), traversed these regions preaching, teaching
and ordaining new clergy to the number, it is said, of 80,000.
His later years were embittered by squabbles with his own clergy,
and he died in 578. His work, however, endured, and in the
middle ages the Jacobite hierarchy numbered 1 50 archbishops
and bishops under a patriarch and his maphrian. About the
year 728 six Jacobite bishops present at the council of Mana2gert
established communion with the Armenians, who equally rejected
Chalcedon; they were sent by the patriarch of Antioch, and
among them were the metropolitan of Urha (Edessa) and the
bishops of Qarhan, Gardman, Nfcrkert and Amasia. How long
this union lasted is not known. In 1842, when the Rev. G. P.
Badger visited the chief Jacobite centres, their numbers in all
Turkey had dwindled to about 100,000 souls, owing to vast
secessions to Rome. At Aleppo at that date only ten families
out of several hundred remained true to their old faith, and
something like the same proportion at Damascus and Bagdad.
Badger testifies that the Syrian proselytes to Rome were superior
to their Jacobite brethren, having established schools, rebuilt
their churches, increased their clergy, and, above all, having
learned to live with each other on terms of peace and charity.
As late as 1850 there were rso villages of them in the Jebel Toor
to the north-east of Mardin, 50 in the district of Urfah and
Gawar, and a few in the neighbourhoods of Diarbekr, Mosul and
Damascus. From about i860, the seceders to Rome were able,
thanks to French consular protection, to seize the majority of
the Jacobite churches in Turkey; and this injustice has contri-
buted much to the present degradation and impoverishment
of the Jacobites.
They used leavened bread in the Eucharist mixed with salt
and oil, and like other Monophysites add to the Trisaghn the
words "Who wast crucified for our sake." They venerate
pictures or images, and make the sign of the cross with one
finger to show that Christ had but one nature. Deacons, as in
Armenia, marry before taking priests' orders. Their patriarch
b styled of Antioch, but seldom comes west of Mardin. His
119
mapkrian (fertilizer) since 10S9 has lived at Mosul and ordains
the bishops. Monkery is common among them, but there are no
nuns. Next to the Roman Unials (whom they term Rassen or
Venal) they most hate the Nestorian Syrians of Persia. In 1882,
at the instance of the British government, the Turks began lo
recognize them as a separate organization.
See M. Klein, Jacobus Baradaeus (Leiden, 1882); Assemani,
(London, 1852); Rubens Duval/Xa litiratmre syriaque (Paris, 1899);
G. Krugcr, Monopkysitische Streitigkeiten (Jena, 1884) ; Silbernagcl,
Verfassung der Ktrchen des Orients (Land shut, 1865) ; and G.Wright,
History of Syriac Literature (London, 1894). (F. C. C.)
JACOBITES (from Lat. Jacobus, James), the name given after
the revolution of 1688 to the adherents, first of the exiled English
king James II., then of his descendants, and after the extinction
of the latter in 1807, of the descendants of Charles I., i.e. of the
exiled house of Stuart.
The history of the Jacobites, culminating in the risings of 1 7 1 5
and 1745, is part of the general history of England (?.».), and
especially of Scotland (q.v.), in which country they were com-
paratively more numerous and more active, while there was also
a large number of Jacobites in Ireland. They were recruited
largely, but not solely, from among the Roman Catholics, and
the Protestants among them were often identical with the Non-
Jurors. Owing to a variety of causes Jacobitism began to lose
ground after the accession of George I. and the suppression of
the revolt of 171 5; and the total failure of the rising of 1745 may
be said to mark its end as a serious political force. In 1765
Horace Walpole said that" Jacobitism, the concealed mother
of the latter (i.e. Toryism), was extinct," but as a sentiment it
remained for some lime longer, and may even be said to exist
to-day. In 1750, during a 6trike of coal workers at Elswick,
James III. was proclaimed king; in 1780 certain persons walked
out of the Roman Catholic Church at Hexham when George III.
was prayed for; and as late as 1784 a Jacobite rising was talked
about. Northumberland was thus a Jacobite stronghold; and
in Manchester, where in 1 777 according to an. American observer
Jacobitism "is openly professed," a Jacobite rendezvous knowa
as " John Shaw's Club " lasted from 1 73 5 to 1 89a. North Wales
was another Jacobite centre. The " Cycle of the While Rose "
— the white rose being the badge of the Stuarts— composed of
members of the principal Welsh families around Wrexham,
including the Williams- Wynns of Wynnstay, lasted from 17 10
until some time between 1850 and i860. Jacobite traditions
also lingered among the great families of the Scottish Highlands;
the last person to suffer death as a Jacobite was Archibald
Cameron, a son of Cameron of Lochiel, who was executed in
1753. Dr Johnson's Jacobite sympathies arc well known, and
on the death of Victor Emmanuel I., the ex-king of Sardinia, in
1824, Lord Liverpool wrote to Canning saying " there are those
who think that the ex-king was ihe lawful king of Great Britain."
Until the accession of King Edward VII. finger-bowls were
not placed upon the royal dinner-table, because in former times
those who secretly sympathized with the Jacobites were is
the habit of drinking to the king over the water. The romantic
side of Jacobitism was stimulated by Sir Walter Scott's Waver ley,
and many Jacobite poems were written during the iota
century.
The chief collections of Jacobite poems are: Charles Mackay's
Jacobite Songs and Ballads of Scotland. 1688-1746, with Appendix of
Modern Jacobite Songs (1861); G. S. Macquoid's Jacobite Songs and
Ballads (1 888); and English Jacobite Ballads, edited by A. B. Grosart
from the Towneley manuscripts (1877).
Upon the death of Henry Stuart, Cardinal York, the last of
James II. 's descendants, in 1807, the rightful occupant of the
British throne according to legitimist principles was to be found
among the descendants of Henrietta, daughter of Charles I., who
married Philip I., duke of Orleans. Henrietta's daughter, Anne
Marie (1669-1728), became the wife of Victor Amadeus II., duke
of Savoy, afterwards king of Sardinia, her son was King Charles
Emmanuel III., and her grandson Victor Amadeus III. The
Iatter's son, King Victor Emmanuel I., left no sons, and his eldest
daughter, Marie Beatrice, married Francis IV., duke of Modena,
w^ae 9on Ferdinand (d. 1849) left an only daughter, Marie
7fe£r£9C (b. 1 840)* This lady, the wife of Prince Louis of Bavaria,
*^T i^ 1910 the senior member of the Stuart family, and accord-
?*_ lo tbc legitimists the rightful sovereign of Great Britain and
z£*~ljli£*wi*t (kt succession to the crown of Great Britain and Ireland
3tfW according to Jacobite principles,
Charles I. (1600-1649)
Henrietta (1644-1670) -
Philip I., duke of Orleans (1640-1701)
Anne Marie (1669-1728) -
Victor Amadeus II., king of Sardinia (1666-173*)
Charles Emmanuel III.
king of Sardinia (1701-1773)
Victor Amadeus III.
king of Sardinia (1726-1796)
Victor Emmanuel I.
king of Sardinia (1 759-1 824)
Marie Beatrice \c. 1780-1840)-
Francis IV., duke of Modena (1779-1846)
Ferdinand (182 1-1849)
Marie Therese (b. 1849) -
Louis, prince of Bavaria (b. 1845)
JACOBS, C. F. W.—JACOBSEN
r
Rupert, prince
*t Bavaria (b. 1869)
n ...1
Charles
(b. 1874)
Francis
(b. 1875)
LultpoM ^ Albcrt v Rudolph
(b. i*o0 <°- 1Q °5) (b. 1909)
Among the modern Jacobite, or legitimist, societies perhaps the
most important is the " Order of the White Rose," which has a branch
in Canada and the United States. The order holds that sovereign
authority is of divine sanction, and that the execution of Charles I.
and the revolution of 1688 were national crimes; it exists to study
the history of the Stuarts, to oppose all democratic tendencies, and
in general to maintain the theory that kingship is independent of all
parliamentary authority and popular approval. The order, which
Was instituted in 1886, was responsible for the Stuart exhibition of
1889, and has a newspaper, the Royalist. Among other societies
with' similar objects in view are the " Thames Valley Legitimist
Club " and the " Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and
Ireland."
See Historical Papers relating to the Jacobite Period, edited by J.
Alia rdyce (Aberdeen, 1 895-1896) ; James Hogg, The Jacobite Relics of
Scotland (Edinburgh, i8i9-i82t);andF.W.Head, The Fallen Stuarts
i Cambridge, 1901J. . The marquis de Ruvigny has compiled The
Jacobite Peerage (Edinburgh, 1904), a work which purports to give
a list of all the titles ana honours conferred by the kings of the
exiled House of Stuart. (A. W. H.»)
JACOBS, CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1 764-1847),
German classical scholar, was born at Gotha on the 6th of Octo-
ber 1764. After studying philology and theology at Jena and
Gdtlingcn, in 1785 he became teacher in the gymnasium of his
native town, and in 1802 was appointed to an office in the
public library. In 1807 he became classical tutof in the lyceum
of Munich, but, disgusted at the attacks made upon him by
the old Bavarian Catholic party, who resented the introduc-
tion of " north German " teachers, he returned to Gotha in
1810 to take charge of the library and the numismatic cabinet.
He remained in Gotha till his death on the 30th of March 1847.
Jacobs was an extremely successful teacher; he took great
interest in the affairs of his country, and waa a publicist of
no mean order. But his great work was an edition of the
Greek Anthology, with copious notes, in 13 volumes (1798-
1814), supplemented by a revised text from the Codex Palatums
(1814-1817). He published also notes on Horace, Stobacus,
Euripides, Athcnacus and the lliata of Tzctzcs; translations
of Aclian {History of Animals); many of the Greek romances,
Philostratus; poetical versions of much of the Greek Anthology;
miscellaneous essays on classical subjects; and some very sue
crssful school books. His translation of the political speeches
of Demosthenes was undertaken with the express purpose of
rousing his country against Napoleon, whom he regarded at a
second Philip of Macedon.
See E. F. Wustemann, Friderici Jacobsii landatio (Gotha, 1848):
C. Bursian, Ceschkhte der classischen Philologie in Deutschland; and
the appreciative article by C Regel in Allgemetne deutsche Biographic,
JACOBS CAVERN, a cavern in latitude 36° 35' N., 2 m. E.
of Pincville, McDonald county, Missouri, named after its dis-
coverer, E. H. Jacobs, of Bcntonvillc, Arkansas. It was
scientifically explored by him, in company with Professors
Charles Peabody and Warren K. Moorchead, in 1003. The
results were published in that year by Jacobs in the Benton
County Sun; by C. N. Gould in Science, July 31, 1003; by
Peabody in the Am. Anthropologist, Sept. 1003; and in the Am.
Journ. Archaeology, 1904; and by Peabody and Moorehead, 1904,
as Bulletin J. of the Dept. of Archaeology in Phillips Academy,
Andover, Mass., in the museum of which are exhibits, maps and
photographs.
Jacobs Cavern is one of the smaller caves, hardly more than
a rock-shelter, and is entirely in the " St Joe Limestone " of the
sub-carboniferous age. Its roof is a single flat stratum of lime-
stone; its walls are well marked by lines of stratification; drip-
stone also partly covers the walls, fills a deep fissure at the end
of the cave, and spreads over the floor, where it mingles with an
ancient bed of ashes, forming an ash-breccia (mostly firm and
solid) that encloses fragments of sandstone, flint spalls, flint im-
plements, charcoal and bones. Underneath is the true floor of
the cave, a mass of homogeneous yellow clay, one metre in thick-
ness. It holds scattered fragments of limestone, and is itself the
result of limestone degeneration. The length of the opening is
over a 1 metres; Us depth 14 metres, and the height of roof above
the undisturbed ash deposit varied from 1 m. 20 cm. lo 2 m.
60 cm. The bone recess at the end was from 5° cm- to 80 cm. in
height. The stratum of ashes was from 50 cm. to 1 m. 50 cm-
thick.
The ash surface was staked off into square metres, and the
substance carefully removed in order. Each stalactite, stalag-
mite and pilaster was measured, numbered, and removed in
sections. Six human skeletons were found buried in the ashes.
Seven-tenths of a cubic metre of animal bones were found: deer,
bear, wolf, raccoon, opossum, beaver, buffalo, elk, turkey, wood-
chuck, tortoise and hog; all contemporary with man's occupancy.
Three stone metalcs, one stone axe, one celt and fifteen hammer-
stones were found. Jacobs Cavern was peculiarly rich in flint
knives and projectile points. The sum total amounts to 419
objects, besides hundreds of fragments, cores, spalls and rejects,
retained for study and comparison. Considerable numbers of
bone or horn awls were found in the ashes, as well as fragments
of pottery, but no " ceremonial " objects.
The rude type of the implements, the absence of fine pottery,
and the peculiarities of the human remains, indicate a race of
occupants more ancient than the " mound-builders," The
deepest implement observed was buried 50 cm. under the stalag-
mitic surface. Dr. Hovey has proved that the rate of stalagmilic
growth in Wyandotte Cave, Indiana, is .0254 cm. annually; and
if that was the rate in Jacobs Cavern, 1968 years would have
been needed for the embedding of that implement. Polished
rocks outside the cavern and pictographs in the vicinity indicate
the work of a prehistoric race earlier than the Osage Indians,
who were the historic owners previous to the advent of the white
man. (H. C. H.)
JACOBSEN, JENS PETER (1847-1885), Danish imaginative
writer, was born at Thisted in Jutland, on the 7th of April 2847;
he was the eldest of the five children of a prosperous merchant.
He became a student at the university of Copenhagen in 1868.
As a boy he showed a remarkable turn for science, particularly
for botany. In 1870, although he was secretly writing verges
already, Jacobsen definitely adopted botany as a profession.
He was sent by a scientific body in Copenhagen to report on the
flora of the islands of Anholt and Lasd. Apout this time the
discoveries of Darwin began to exercise a fascination over him,
and finding them little understood in Denmark, he translated
into Danish The Origin of Species and Tlte Descent of Mass. la
JACdB'S 'WELL- JACOTOT
121
the autumn of 187s, while collecting plants in a morass near
Ordrup, he contracted pulmonary disease. His illness, which
cut him off from scientific investigation, drove him to literature.
He met the famous critic, Dr Georg Brandes, who was struck by
his powers of expression, and under his influence, in the spring
<* 1S73, Jacobsen began his great historical romance of Marie
Grubbe. His method of composition was painful and elaborate,
and his work was not ready for publication until the close of
1876. In 1879 he was too 01 to write at all; but in 1880 an im-
provement came, and he finished his second novel, Niels Lyknt.
In 1883 he published a volume of six short stories, most of them
written a few years earlier, called, from the first of them, Mogens.
After this he wrote no more, but lingered on in his mother's house
at Thisted until the 30th of April 1885. In 1886 his posthumous
fragments were collected. It was early recognized that Jacobsen
was the greatest artist in prose that Denmark has produced.
He has been compared with Flaubert, with De Quincey, with
Pater; but these parallelisms merely express a sense of the intense
individuality of his style, and of his untiring pursuit of beauty in
colour, form and melody. Although he wrote so little, and
crossed the Kving stage so hurriedly, his influence in the North
has been far- reaching. It may be said that no one in Denmark
or Norway has tried to write prose carefully since x88o whose
efforts have not been m some degree modified by the example of
Jacobscn's laborious art.
Hit Samlede SkrifUr appeared in two volumes in 1888; in 1899
hit letters (Breve) were edited by Edvard Brandes. In 1896 an
English translation of part of the former was published under the
title of Sire* Yokes: Niels Lybne, by MiseE. F. L. Robertson.
(E.G.)
JACOB'S WELL, the scene of the conversation between
Jesus and the " woman of Samaria " narrated in the Fourth
Gospel, is described as being in the neighbourhood of an other-
wise unmentioacd "city called Sychar." From the time of
Busebius this dty has been identified with Sychem or Shechem
(modern Nabhts), and the well is still in existence i§ m. E. of
the town, at the foot of Mt Geruim. It is beneath one of the
ruined arches of a church mentioned by Jerome, and is reached
by a few rough steps. When Robinson visited it in 1838 it
was 205 ft. deep, but it is now much shallower' and often dry.
For a discussion of Sychar as distinct from Shechem see T. K.
Cheyne, art. " Sychar, in Ency. Bibl., col. 4830. It is possible
that Sychar should be placed at Tulal BalAti, a mound about im.W.
of the well (Palestine Exploration Fund Statement, 1907, p. 9a see..);
when that village fell into ruin the name may have migrated to
'Askar, a village on the lower slopes of Mt Ebal about if m. E.N.E.
from Nablus and k m. N. from Jacob's Well. It may be noted
that the difficulty » not with the location of the well, but with the
identification of Sychar.
JACOBUS IB VORA0IKB (c.H$o-t. 1208), Italian chronicler,
archbishop of Genoa, was born at the little village of Varazze,
near Genoa, about the year 1230. He entered the order of the
friars preachers' of St Dominic in 1244, and besides preaching
with success in many parts of Italy, taught in the schools of his
own fraternity. He was provincial ef Lombard y from 2267 till
2286, when he was removed at the meeting of the order in Paris.
He also represented his own province at the councils of Lucca
(rs88) and Feftara (1200). On the last occasion he was one of
the four delegates charged with signifying Nicholas IV. 's desire
for the deposition of Munio de Zamora, who had been master
of the order from 2285, and was deprived of his office by a papal
bull dated the 12th of April ngt. In 2288 Nicholas empowered
Mm to absolve the people of Genoa for their offence in aiding
the Sicilians against Charles II. Early in 2292 the same pope,
himself a Franciscan, summoned Jacobus to Rome, intending
to consecrate him archbishop of Genoa with his own hands.
He reached Rome on Palm Sunday (March 30), only to find
his patron ill of a deadly sickness, from which he died on Good
Friday (April 4). The cardinals, however, M propter honorem
Communis Januae," determined to carry out this consecration
on the Sunday after Easter. He was a good bishop, and espe-
cially distinguished himself by his efforts to appease the civil
discords of Genoa. He died in 1298 or 2299, and was buried
in the Dominican church at Genoa. A story, mentioned by the
chronicler Echard as unworthy of credit, makes Boniface VIII.,
on the first day of Lent, cast the ashes in the archbishop's eyes
instead of on his head, with the words, " Remember that thou
art a Ghibelline, and with thy fellow Ghibellines wilt return to
naught."
Jacobus de Voragiae left a list of his own works. Speaking of
himself in his Chronicon januense, he says, " While he was in his
order, and after he had been made archbishop, he wrote many works.
For he compiled the legends of the saints sjbeeendao sanctorum) ia
one volume, adding many things from the Historia tripartita e4
scholastico, and from the chronicles of many writers." The other
writings he claims are two anonymous volumes of " Sermons con*
cerning all the Saints " whose yearly feasts the church celebrates.
Of these volumes, he adds, one is very diffuse* but the other short and
concise. Then follow Sermones de omnibus evongcliis dominicalibus
for every Sunday in the year; Sermones de omnibus evaneeltis, i*.
a book of discourses on all the Gospels, from Ash Wednesday to the
Tuesday after Easter; and a treatise called " Marialis* qui totusest
de B. Maria compositus." consisting of about too discourses on the
attributes, titles, &c, of the Virgin Mary. In the same work the
archbishop claims to have written his Chronicon januense in the
second year of his pontificate (1291), but it extends to 1296 or 1297.
To this list Echard adds several other works, such as a defence of the
Dominicans, printed at Venice in 1304, and a Summa virhttum et
vitiorum Guiuelmi Peraldi, a Dominican who died about 2250.
iacobus is also said by Sixtus of Siena (Biblioth. Sacra, lib. ix.) to
ave translated the Old and New Testaments into his own tongue.
" But," adds Echard, M if he did so, the version lies so closely hid
that there is no recollection of it," and it may be added that it is
highly improbable that the man who compiled the Golden Legend
ever conceived the necessity of having the Scriptures in the
vernacular.
His two chief works are the Chronicon januense and the Golden
Ltfend or Lombardica hysteria, The former b partly printed in
M uratori iScripteres R§r. Ital. be 6). It is divided into twelve parts.
The first four deal with the mythical history of Genoa from the time
of its founder, Janus, the first king of Italy, and its enlarger, a second
Janus "citizen of Troy", till Its conversion to Christianity "about
twenty-five years after the passion of Christ." Part v. pro f esses
to treat of the beginning, the growth and the perfection of the city;
but of the first period the writer candidly confesses he knows nothing
except by hearsay. The second period inchidesthe Genoese crusading
exploits in the East, and extends to their victory over the Plsans
(c. 1130), while the third reaches down to the days of the author's
archbishopric. The sixth part deals with the constitution of the
city, the seventh and eighth with the duties of rulers and citizens, the
ninth with those of domestic life. The tenth gives the ecclesiastical
history of Genoa from the time of its first known bishop, St Valentine,
" whom we believe to have lived about 53° *•*>•• " till 1 133. *hen the
city was raised to archiepiscopal rank. The eleventh contains the
lives of all the bishops in order, and includes the chief events during
their pontificates; the twelfth deals in the same way with the
archbishops, not forgetting the writer himself.
The Golden Lefend, one of the mast popular religious works of the
middle ages, is a collection of the legendary Uvea of the greater
saints of the medieval church. The preface divides the ecclesias-
tical year into four periods corresponding to the various epochs of the
world's history, a time of deviation, of renovation t of recon ci liation
and of pilgrimage. The book itself, however, falls into five sectsoasc
—(a) from Advent to Christmas (a. 1-3); (b) from Christmas to
(77-180).
puerile legend, and in not a few cases contain accounts of tjth~
centuryroiracles wrought at special places, particularly with reference
to the Dominicans. The last chapter but one (181), " De Sancto
Peberio Papa," contains a kind of history of the world from the
middle of the 6th century; while the last (182) Is a somewhat
allegorical disquisition, " De Dedicatioae EcclesUe*"
The Golden Leeend was translated into French by Jean Belet de
Vigny in the 14th century. It was also one of the earliest books
to issue from the press. A Latin edition is assigned to about 1469;
and a dated one was published at Lyons in 2173. Many other Latin
editions were printed before the end of the century. A French
translation by Master John Bataillier is dated 2476; Jean de Vigny 's
appeared at Paris, 1488; an Italian one by Nic, Manerbl (? Venice,
2475); a Bohemian one at Pilsen, 1475-1479. and at Prague, 2493:
Caxton's English versions, 2483, 2487 and 1493; and a German one
in 2489. Several tsth-century editions of the Sermons are also
known, and the Mortal* was printed at Venice in 2497 and at Paris
For bibliography see Potthast. BiUiotheca hist. mod. aew. (Berlin,
2896), p. 634: U. Chevalier. RSpertoire dee sources hisk Bio.-bM.
(Paris, 2903), s*. " Jacques de Voragine,"
JACOTOT, J08BPH (1770-2840), French educationist, author
of the method of "emancipation inteUectuelle," was born
124
at Dijon on the 4th of March 1770. He was educated at the
university of Dijon, where in his nineteenth year he was chosen
professor of Latin, after which he studied law, became advocate,
and at the same time devoted a large amount of his attention
to mathematics. In 1 788 he organized a federation of the youth
of Dijon for the defence of the principles of the Revolution;
and in 179a, with the rank of captain, be set out to take part in
the campaign of Belgium, where he conducted himself with
bravery and distinction. After for some time filling the office of
secretary of the "commission d'organisation du mouvement
des armees," he in 1794 became deputy of the director of the
Polytechnic school, and on the institution of the central schools
at Dijon he was appointed to the chair of the "method of
sciences," where he made his first experiments in that mode of
tuition which he afterwards developed more fully. On the
central schools being replaced by other educational institutions,
Jacotot occupied successively the chairs of mathematics and of
Roman law ontU the overthrow of the empire. In 181 5 be was
elected a representative to the chamber of deputies; but after
the second restoration he found it necessary to quit his native
land, and, having taken up his residence at Brussels, he was in
18 18 nominated by the Government teacher of the French
language at the university of Louvain, where he perfected into a
system the educational principles which he had already practised
with success in France. His method was not only adopted in
several institutions m Belgium, but also met with some approval
in France, England, Germany and Russia. It was based on
three principles: (1) all men have equal intelligence; (2) every
man has received from God the faculty of being able to instruct
himself; (3) everything is in everything. As regards (1) he
maintained that it is only in the will to use their intelligence that
men differ; and his own process, depending on (3), was to give
any one learning a language for the first time a snort passage of
a few lines, and to encourage the pupil to study, first the
words, then the letters, then the grammar, then the meaning,
until a single paragraph became the occasion for learning
an entire literature. After the revolution of 1830 Jacotot
returned to France, and he died at Paris on the 30th of
July 1840,
His system was described by him in Enseignemenl universd,
league malemeUe, Louvain and Dijon, 1823 — which passed through
several editions — and in various other works; snd he also advocated
his views in the Journal de l'tmantit>alion intelUctueUs. For a com*-
Slete list of his works and fuller details regarding his career, see
liotrapki* de J. Jacotot, by Achille Guillard (Paris, i860).
JACQUARD, JOSEPH MARIE (i75*-iS34>> French inventor,
was born at Lyons on the 7th of July 175 a. On the death of
his father, who was a working weaver, he inherited two looms,
with which he started business .on his own account. He did
not, however, prosper, and was at last forced to become a lime-
burner at Brcsse, while his wife supported herself at Lyons by
plaiting straw. In 1793 he took part in the unsuccessful defence
of Lyons against the troops of the Convention; but afterwards
served in their ranks on the Rh6ne and Loire. After seeing
some active service, in which his young son was shot down at
his side, he again returned to Lyons. There he obtained a
situation in a factory, and employed his spare time in construct-
ing his improved loom, of which he had conceived the idea
several years previously. In 1801 he exhibited his invention at
the industrial exhibition at Paris; and in 1803 he was summoned
to Paris and attached to the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers.
A loom by Jacques de Vaucanson (1700-1782), deposited there,
suggested various improvements in his own, which he gradually
perfected to its final state. Although his invention was fiercely
opposed by the silk-weavers, who feared that its introduction,
owing to the saving of labour, would deprive them of their liveli-
hood, its advantages secured its general adoption, and by 181 2
there were 1 1,000 Jacquard looms in use in France. The loom
was declared public property in 1806, and Jacquard was rewarded
with a pension and a royalty on each machine. He died at
OuUins (Rhone) on the 7th of August 1834, and six years later
a statue was erected to him at Lyons (see Weaving).
JACQUARD— JADE
JACQUERIE, THE, an insurrection of the French peasantry
which broke out in the He de France and about Beauvais at the
end of May 1338* The hardships endured by the peasants in
the Hundred Years' War and their hatred for the nobles who
oppressed them were the principal causes which led to the rising,
though the immediate occasion was an affray which took place
on the 28th of May at the village of Saint-Leu between " bri-
gands " (militia infantry armoured in brigandines) and country-
folk. The latter having got the upper hand united with the
inhabitants of the neighbouring villages and placed Guillaume
Karle at their head. They destroyed numerous f hit^»rK in the
valleys of the Oise, the Breche and the Therain, where they
subjected the whole countryside to fire and sword, committing
the most terrible atrocities. Charles the Bad, king of Navarre,
crushed the rebellion at the battle of Mello on the xoth of June,
and the nobles then took violent reprisals upon the peasants,
massacring them in great numbers.
See Simeon Luce, Histaire de la Jacquerie (Paris, 1859 and 1895).
(J. v.o
JACTITATION (from LaL jacliiarc, to throw out publicly), in
English law, the maliciously boasting or giving out by one party
that he or she is married to the other. In such a case, in order
to prevent the common reputation of their marriage that might
ensue, the procedure is by suit of jactitation of marriage, in which
the petitioner alleges that the respondent boasts that he or she
is married- to the petitioner, and prays a declaration of nullity
and a decree putting the respondent to perpetual silence there-
after. Previously to 1857 such a proceeding took place only m
the ecclesiastical courts, but by express terms of the Matrimonial
Causes Act of that year it can now be brought in the probate,
divorce and admiralty division of the High Court. To the suit
there are three defences: (x) denial of the boasting; (a) the
truth of the representations; (3) allegation (by way of estoppel)
that the petitioner acquiesced in the boasting of the respondent.
In Thompson v. Rourkc, 1893, Prob. 70, the court of appeal laid
down that the court will not make a decree in a jactitation soil
in favour of a petitioner who has at any time acquiesced in the
assertion of the respondent that they were actually married.
Jactitation of marriage is a suit that is very rare,
JADE, or Jahde, a deep bay and estuary of the North Sea,
belonging to the grand-duchy of Oldenburg, Germany. The bay,
which was for the most part made by storm-floods in the 13th
and 16th centuries, measures 70 sq. m., and has communication
with the open sea by a fairway, a mile and a half wide, whkh
never freezes, and with the tide gives access to the largest vessels.
On the west side of the entrance to the bay is the Prussian naval
port of Wilheimshaven. A tiny stream, about 14 m. long,
also known as the Jade, enters the head of the bay.
JADE, a name commonly applied to certain ornamental stones,
mostly of a green colour, belonging to at least two distinct
species, one termed nephrite and the other jadeite. Whilst the
term jade is popularly used in this sense, it is now usually
restricted by mineralogists to nephrite. The word jade 1 is
derived (through Fr. Ujade for Vejade) from Span, ijada (lit. Hie),
the loins, this mineral having been known to the Spanish con-
querors of Mexico and Peru under the name of fiedra de ijada or
yjada (colic stone). The reputed value of the stone in renal
diseases is also suggested by the term nephrite (so named by
A. G. Werner from Gr. *t<t>pfa, kidney), and by its old name
lapis nephriticus.
Jade, in its wide and popular sense, has always been highly
prized by the Chinese, who not only believe in its medicinal
value but regard it as the symbol of virtue. It is known, with
other ornamental stones, under the name of yu or yu-cki (yu-
stone). According to Professor H. A. Giles, it occupies in China
the highest place as a jewel, and is revered as " the quintessence
of heaven and earth." Notwithstanding its toughness or tenacity,
due to a dense fibrous structure, it is wrought into complicated
1 The English use of the word for a worthless, Ill-tempered horse*
a " screw," also applied as a term of reproach to a woman, has been
referred doubtfully to the same Spanish source as the O. Sp. ijadear,
meaning to pant, o( a broken-winded horse.
JADE
forms and elaborately carved. On many prehistoric sites in
Europe, as in the Swiss lake-dwellings, celts and other carved
objects both in nephrite and in jadeite have not infrequently
been found; and a* no kind of jade had until recent years been
discovered in situ in any European locality it was held, especially
by Processor L. H. Fischer, of Freiburg izn Breisgau, Baden, that
either the raw material or the worked objects must have been
brought by some of the early inhabitants from a jade locality
probably in the East, or were obtained by barter, thus suggesting
a very early trade-route to the Orient. Exceptional interest,
therefore, attached to the discovery of jade in Europe, nephrite
having been found in Silesia, and jadeite or a similar rock in
the Alps, whilst pebbles of jade have been obtained from many
localities in Austria and north Germany, in the latter case
probably derived from Sweden. It is, therefore, no longer
necessary to assign the old jade implements to an exotic origin.
Dr A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, always maintained that the Euro-
pean jade objects were indigenous, and his views have become
generally accepted. Now that the mineral characters of jade
are better understood, and its identification less uncertain, it
may possibly be found with altered peridotites, or with amphibo-
Ktes, among the old crystalline schists of many localities.
Nephrite, or true Jade, may be regarded as a finely fibrous or com-
pact variety of amphibole. referred either to actinolite or to tremolite,
according as Us colour inclines to green or white. Chemically it is a
calcium-magnesium silicate, CaMg«(SiOi)«. The fibres are either
more or less parallel or irregularly felted together, rendering the stone
excessively tough ; yet Us hardness is not great, being only about 6 or
6*5. The mineral sometimes tends to become schistose, breaking
with a splintery fracture, or itsstructure may be horny. The specific
gravity varies from a*9 t03*i8. and is of determinative value, since
jadeite is much denser. The colour of jade presents various shades
of green, yellow and grey, and the mineral when polished has a rather
greasy lustre. Professor F. W. Clarke found the colours due to com-
pounds of iron, manganese and chromium. One of the most famous
localities for nephrite is on the west side of the South Island of New
Zealand, where it occurs as nodules and veins in serpentine and
talcoae rocks, but is generally found as boulders. It was known to the
Maoris as pounamu, or " green stone," and was highly prized, being
worked with great labour into various objects, especially the club-
Eke implement known as the mere, or paUoo-baUoo, and the breast
ornament called keitiki. The New Zealand iade, called by old
writers " green talc of the Maoris," is now worked in Europe as an
ornamental stone. The green jade-like stone known in New Zealand
as tamgkeai b bowenite, a translucent serpentine with enclosures of
magnesite. The mode of occurrence of the nephrite and bowenite of
New Zealand has been described by A. M. Finlayson {Quart. Jour.
Ceoi. Soc., 1909, p. 351). It appears that the Maoris distinguished
six varieties of jade. Difference of colour seems due to varia tions in
the proportion of ferrous silicate in the mineral. According to
Finlayson, the New Zealand nephrite results from the chemical
alteration of serpentine, olivine or pyroxene, whereby a fibrous
amphibole is formed, which becomes converted by intense pressure
and movement into the dense nephrite.
Nephrite occurs abo in New Caledonia, and perhaps in some of the
other Pacific islands, but many of the New Caledonian implements
reputed to be of jade are really made of serpentine. From its use
as a material for axe-heads, jade is often known in Germany as
Betlstein (" axe-stone "). A fibrous variety, of specific gravity 3*18,
found in New Caledonia, and perhaps in the Marquesas, was dis-
tinguished by A. Damour under the name of " oceanic jade."
Much of the nephrite used by the Chinese has been obtained from
quarries in the Kuen-lun mountains, on the sides of the Kara-kash
valley, in Turkestan. The mineral, generally of pic colour, occurs
m nests and veins running through hombiende-schists and gneissose
rocks, and it is notable that when first quarried it is comparatively
soft. It appears to have a wide distribution in the mountains, and
has been worked from very ancient times in Khotan. Nephrite is
said to occur also in the Pamir region, and pebbles are found in the
beds of many streams. In Turkestan, jade is known as yaskm or
ytshm. a word which appears in Arabic as yeshb, perhaps cognate
with !«*r<i or jasper. The " jasper " of the ancients may nave
included jade. Nephrite is said to have been discovered in 189! in
the Nan-shan mountains in the Chinese province of Kan-suh, where
k is worked. The great centre of Chinese jade-working is at Peking,
and formerly the industry was active at Su-chow Fu. Siberia
has yielded very fine specimens of dark green nephrite, notably from
the neighbourhood of the Alibert graphite mine, near Batugol, Lake
Baikal. The jade seems to occur as a rock in part of tne Sajan
mountain system. New deposits in Siberia were opened up to supply
material for the tomb of the tsar Alexander III. A gigantic mono-
lith exists at the tomb of Tamerlane at Samarkand. The occurrence
of the Siberian jad« has been described by Professor L. von Jacaewsld.
123
lade rmnksneata are wHdy distributed In Alaska and British
Columbm. berag found in Indian gsaves, in old skeuHheaps and on
the sites of deserted villages. DrG.M.Oawaon, arguing from the dis-
covery of some boulders of jade in the Fraser nver valley, held that
they were not obtained by barter from Siberia, but were of native
origin; and the locality was afterwards disc overed by Lieet. G. M.
Stoney. It is known as the Jade Mountains, and is situated north
of Kowak river, about 150 miles from its mouth. The study of a
large collection of jade implements by Professor F. W. Clarke and
Dr G. P. Merrill proved that the Alaskan jade hi true nephrite, not so
be distinguished from that of New Zealand.
Jadeite is a mineral species established by A. Damour in 1863,
differing markedly from nephrite in that its relation lies with the
pyroxenes rather than with the amphibole*. It is an elqraiarum
sodium silicate, NaAl(SiO«)t, related to spodumene. S. L. Pen-
field showed, by measurement, that jadeite is monoclinic Its
colour is commonly very pale, and white jadeite, which is the purest
variety, is known as " camphor jade." In many cases the mineral
shows bright patches of apple-green or emerald-green, due to the
presence o? chromium. Jadeite is much more fusible than nephrite,
and is rather harder (6*5 to 7), but its most readily determined
character is found in its higher specific gravity, which ranges from
3 jo to 3*41. Some jadeite seems to be a metamorphosed igneous
the 13th
o F. Noct-
u Hogaung,
« slbyfire-
* ben these
o mparts to
tl 10 visited
tl occurs at
tl I Mamon.
T lina or to
N roneously
t< isociatioa
w er Asiatic
la ration of
ja t f tils' vi,
sc ne, which
se s cases it
m in colour
to x of jade
hi
of South
A :ive adze
fr f Natural
H if Mexico
ar cved that
Uuciw w«a wire ui iik otuim |nmcu uuuci ujc iumuc w i.ntllchihuiu.
Probably turquoise was another stone included under this name, and
indeed any green stone capable of being polished, such as the Amazon
Stone, now recognized as a green feldspar, may have been numbered
among the Aztec amulets. Dr Kuns suggests that the chalchihuitl
was jadeite in southern Mexico and Central America, and turquoise
in northern Mexico and New Mexico. He thinks that Mexican
jadeite may vet be discovered in places {Gems and Precious Stones 0/
Mexico, by C. F. Kuns: Mexico, 1907). -
ChloromelanUeis Damour** name for a dense, dark mineral which
has been regarded as a kind of jade, and was used for the manufac-
ture of celts found in the dolmens of France and in certain Swiss
lake-dwellings. It is a mineral of spinach-green or dark-green
colour, having a specific gravity of 3*4, or even as high as 3 65. and
may be regarded as a variety of jadeite rich in iron. Chlord-
rneJanUeoccuraia the Cyclops Mountains in New Guinea, and is used
for hatchets or agricultural implements, whilst the sago-clubs of the
island are usually of serpentine. Silliraanite, or fibrolite, is a mineral
which, like chloromelanite, was used by the Neolithic occupants of
western Europe, and is sometimes mistaken for a pale kind of iade.
It is an aluminium silicate, of specific gravity about 3*a, distinguished
by its infusibility. The jade testate of J. R. Hauy, discovered by
H. B. de Saussure in the Swiss Alps, is now known as saussurite.
Among other substances sometimes taken for jade may be mentioned
prehnite, a hydrous calcium-aluminium silicate, which when polished
much resembles certain kinds of jade. Pectolite has been used, like
jade, in Alaska. A variety of vesuvianite (idocrase) from California,
described by Dr. G. F. Kunz as californite, was at first mistaken for
jade. The name jadeolite has been given by Kunz to a jrreen
chromiferous syenite from the jadeite mines of Burma. The mineral
called bowenite at one time supposed to be jade, is a hard and tough
variety of serpentine. Some of the common Chinese ornaments
imitating jade arc carved in steatite or serpentine, while others are
merely glass. The tdte de ris is a fine white glass. The so-called
" pink jade "is mostly quartz, artificially coloured, and" black jade,"
though sometimes mentioned, has no existence.
An exhaustive description of jade will be found in a sumptuous
work, entitled Investigations and Studies in Jade (New York, 1906).
This work, edited by Dr G. F. Kunz, was prepared in illustration
of the famous jade collection made by Heber Reginald Bis h op, and
124
Smtei by Ida to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York,
work, which is in two folio volumes, superbly illustrated, was
ed privately, and after too copies had been struck off oa Ameri-
can band-saade paper, the type was distributed and the material
wsed for the flmstratkms was destroyed. The second volume is a
catalogue of the colle cti on, which comprises 900 specimens arranged
in three classes: mineralogical/ archaeological and artistic The
JAEN— JAGERNDORF
important section on Chinese Jade was contributed by DrS. W.
"" * " * ' *-'"\ for " • ••
BusheH, who also translated
J*s? sens by T'ang Jung-tso, of Peldng. Reference should also be
made to Heinrich Fischer's Nephrit nnd JadtU (and ed., Stuttgart,
jWo), a work which at the date of its publication was almost
exhaustive. (F.W.R.*)
JASI, an inland province of southern Spain, formed in 1833 of
districts belonging to Andalusia; bounded on the N. by Ciudad
Real and Albacete, £. by AJbacete and Granada, S. by Granada,
and W. by Cordova. Pop. (1000), 474,490; area, 5848 aq. m.
Jaen comprises the upper basin of the river Guadalquivir, which
traverses the central districts from east to west, and is enclosed
on the north, south and east by mountain ranges, while on the
west it is entered by the great Andalusian plain. The Sierra
Morena, which divides Andalusia from New Castile, extends
along the northern half of the province, its most prominent
ridges being the Loma de Chidana and the Loma de Ubeda;
the Sierras de Segura,. in the east, derive their name from the
river Segura, which rises just within the border; and between
(he last-named watershed, its continuation the«Sierra del Pozo,
and the parallel Sierra de Cazorla, is the source of the Guadal-
quivir. The loftiest summits in the province are those of the
Sierra Magina (7103 ft) farther west and south. Apart from
the Guadalquivir the only large rivers are its right-hand tribu-
taries the Jindula and Guadalimar, its left-hand tributary the
Guadiana Menor, and the Segura, which flows east and south
so the Mediterranean.
' In a region which varies so markedly in the altitude of its surface,
the climate b naturally unequal; and, while the bleak, wind-swept
highlands are only available as sheep-walks, the wdl -watered and
fertile valleys favour the cultivation of the vine, the olive and all
kinds of cereals. The mineral weakh of Jaen has been known since
Roman times, and mining b an important industry, with its centre
at Linares. Over 400 lead mines were worked in 1003 ; small quanti-
ties of iron, copper and salt are also obtained. There is some trade
In sawn timber and cloth; esparto fabrics, alcohol and oil are manu-
factured. The roads, partly owing to the development of mining, are
more numerous and better kept than in most Spanish provinces.
Railway communication b also very complete in the western dis-
tricts, as the main line Madrid-Cordova-Seville passes through them
and b joined south of Linares by two important railways — from
Algeciras and Malaga on the south-west, and from Almeria on the
soath-east. The eastern half of Jaen b inaccessible by rail In the
western half are Jaen, the capital (pop. (1000), 26434), with Andujai
(16.302), Baeza (U.379), Bailen (7420), Linares (38,245), Mart a
(17,078) and Ubeda 9.913)- Other towns of more than 70a
i Mart OS
.-,-.. -jan 7000
mnaoitants are Alcala la Real, Akaudete, Arjona, La Carolina and
Porcuna, in the west: and Cazorla, Quesada, Torredonjimeno,
VihacariUo and ViHanueva del Arzobbpo, in the east.
JAEN, the capital of the Spanish province of Jaen, on the
Linares- Poente Genii railway, 1500 ft. above the sea. Pop.
(1000), 26,434. Jaen is finery situated on the well-wooded
northern slopes of the Jabalcuz Mountains, overlooking the
picturesque valleys of the Jaen and Guadalbullon rivers, which
flow north into the Guadalquivir. The hillside upon which the
narrow and irregular city streets rise in terraces b fortified with
Moorish walls and a Moorish citadel. Jaen is an episcopal see.
lis cathedral was founded in 1532; and, although it remained
unfinished until late in the 18th century, its main characteristics
are those of the Renaissance period. The city contains many
churches and convents, a library, art galleries, theatres, barracks
and hospitals. Its manufactures include leather, soap, alcohol
and linen; and it was formerly celebrated for its silk. There are
hot mineral springs in the mountains, 2 m. south.
, The identification of. Jaen with the Roman Aurinx, which has
sometimes been suggested, b extremely questionable. After the
Moorish conmiest Jaen was an important commercial centre, under
the name of Jayyan: and ultimately became capital of a petty king-
dom, which was brought to an end only in 1246 by Ferdinand in.
of Castille, who transferred hither the bishopric of Bacza in 1248.
F-r»inoad IV. dird at Jaen in ijtt. In 1712 the city •uflered
wbWiUj (rosa an earthquake.
JAFARABAD, a state of India, in the xlethiewer agency of
Bombay, forming part of the territory of the nawab of Janjira;
area, 42 *q, nM pop. (1901), 1**097; estimated revenue, fapoa
The town of Jafarabad (pop. 6038), situated on the estuary oi a
river, carries on a large coasting trade.
JAFFNA, a town of Ceylon, at the northern extremity of the
island. The fort was described by Sir J, Emerson Tennent a*
" the most perfect little military work in Ceylon— a pentagon
built of blocks of white coral." The European part of the town
bears the Dutch stamp more distinctly than any other town in
the island; and there still exists a Dutch Presbyterian church.
.Several of the church buildings date from the time of the Portu-
guese. In 1901 Jaffna had a population of 33.879, while in the
dbtrict or peninsula of the same name there were 300,851 persons,
nearly all TamUs, the only Europeans being the civil servants and
a few planters. Coco-nut planting has not been successful of
recent years. The natives grow palmyras freely, and have a
trade in the fibre of this palm. They also grow and export
tobacco, but not enough rice for their own requirements. A
steamer calls weekly, and then b considerable trade. The
railway extension from Kurunegala due north to Jaffna and the
coast was commenced in 1900. Jaffna b the seat of a govern-
ment agent and dbtrict judge, and criminal sessions of the
supreme court are regularly held. Jaffna, or, as the natives call
it, Yalpannan, was occupied by the Tamife about 904 B.C., and
there continued to be Tamil rajahs of Jaffna till 16x7, when the
Portuguese took possession of the place. As early as 1544 the
missionaries under Frauds Xavier had made converts in thb
part of Ceylon, and after the conquest the Portuguese main-
tained their proselytizing real. They had a Jesuit college, a
Franciscan and a Dominican monastery. The Dutch drove out
the Portuguese in 1658. The Church of England Missionary
Society began its work in Jaffna in x8x8, and the American
Missionary Society in 1822.
JAOER. GUSTAV (1832- ** ), German naturalist and
hygienbt, was born at Burg in WUrttemberg on the 23rd of June
183s. After studying medicine at Tubingen be became a teacher
of zoology at Vienna. In 1868 he was appointed professor of
zoology at the academy of Hohcnheim, and subsequently be
became teacher of zoology and anthropology at Stuttgart poly-
technic and professor of physiology at the veterinary school. In
1884 he abandoned teaching and started practice as a physician
in Stuttgart. He wrote various works on biological subjects,
including Die Darurinschc Thcorie und ihr$ SUllungtu Moral uwi
Religion (1869), Lekrkuck dor allgemcinen Zoologie (1871-1878),
and Die Entdeckung der Suit (1878). In 1876 he suggested aa
hypothesis in explanation of heredity, resembling the germ-
plasm theory subsequently elaborated by August Weismann, to
the effect that the germinal protoplasm retains its specific
properties from generation to generation, dividing in each re-
production into an ontogenetic portion, out of which the
individual b built up, and a phylogenetic portion, which fe
reserved to form the reproductive material of the mature off-
spring. In Die NomolkUidmng als GtsundheUsstkut* (1880) he
advocated the system of dothing associated with his name,
objecting especially to the use of any kind of vegetable fibre
for clothes.
JAQBRNDORP {Czech, Krim), a town of Austria, an Silesia,
18 m. N.W.'of Troppau by nil. Pop. (xooo), 14,675, mostly
German. It is situated on the Oppa and possesses a chateau
belonging to Prince Liechtenstein, who holds extensive estates
in the district. Jagerndorf has large manufactories of doth,
woollens, linen and machines, and carries on an active trade.
On the neighbouring hill of Burgberg (1490 ft.) are a church,
much visited as a place of pilgrimage, and the ruins of the seat
of the former princes of Jagerndorf. The daim of Prussia la-
the principality of Jagerndorf was t"he occasion of the firm
Silcsian war (1740-1742), but in the partition, which followed,
Austria retained the larger portion of it, Jagerndorf suffered
severely during the Thirty Years' War, and was the scene of
engagements between the Prussians and Austrian in May 174$
and in January 1779.
JAGERSFONTHK— JAHANGIR
JAGERSFOVTEUf, a town in the Orange Free State, so m.
N.W. by rail of Springfontein oa the trunk line from Cape Town
to Pretoria. Pop. (1904), 5657—1*95 whites and 4304 coloured
persons. Jagersfontein, which occupies a pleasant situation on
the open veld about 4500 It. above the sea, owes its existence to
the valuable diamond mine discovered here in 187a The first
diamond, a stone of 50 carats, was found in August of that year,
and digging- immediately began. The discovery a few weeks
later of the much richer mines' at Bultfontetn and Du Toits
Pan, followed by the great finds at De Beers and Colesberg
Kop (Kimberley) caused Jagersfontein to be neglected for several
years.- Up to 1887 the claims in the mine were held by a large
number of individuals, but coincident with the efforts to amalga-
mate the interest in the Kimberley mines a similar movement
took place at Jagersfontein, and by 1893 all the claims became
the property of one company, which has a working arrangement
with the De Beers corporation. The mine, which is worked on
the open system and has a depth of 450 ft, yields stones of very
fine quality, but the annual output does not exceed in value
£500,000. In 1909 a shaft 950 ft. deep was sunk with a view to
working the mine on the underground system. Among the
famous stones found in the mine are the " Excelsior " (weighing
97 1 carats, and larger than any previously discovered) and the
" Jubilee " (see Diamond)'. The town was created a munici-
pality in 1004.
Fourteen miles east of Jagersfontein is Boomplaats, the site
of the battle fought in 1848 between the Boers under A. W.
Pretorius and the British under Sir Harry Smith (see Obamob
Free State: History).
JAGO, RICHARD (1715-1781), English poet, third son of
Richard Jtgo, rector of Beaudesert, Warwickshire, was born in
171 5. He went up to University College, Oxford, in 173 s, and
took his degree in 1736. He was ordained to the curacy of
Snitterfield, Warwickshire, in 1737, and became rector in 1754;
and, although he subsequently received other preferments,
Snitterfield remained his favourite residence. He died there on
the 8th of May 1781. He was twice married. Jagos best-
known poem, The Blackbirds, was first printed in Ha wkes worth's
Adventurer (No. 37, March 13, 1753)* and was generally attri-
buted to Gilbert West, but Jago published it in his own name,
with other poems, in R. Dodsley's Collection of Poems (vol iv.,
1755). In 1767 appeared a topographical poem, Edge Hill, or
Ike Rural Pros pea delineated and moralized; two separate sermons
were published in 1755; and in 1768 Labour and Genius, a Fable.
Shortly before his death Jago revised his poems, and they were
published in 1784 by his friend, John Scott Hylton, as Poems
Moral and Descriptive.
See a notice prefixed to the edition of 1784; A. Chalmers, English
Poets (vol. xvm., 1810) ; F. L. Colvtle, Warwickshire Worthies (1870);
■ome biographical aotcs are to be found in the letters of Shenston e
to Jago printed in vol. iiL of Shenatone's Works (1769).
JAGUAR (Fells onca), the largest species of the PeUdae found
on the American continent, where it ranges from Texas through
Central and South America to Patagonia. In the countries
which bound its northern limit it is not frequently met with, but
in South America it is quite common, and Don Felix de Axara
states that when the Spaniards first settled in the district between
Montevideo and Santa ft, as many as two thousand were killed
yearly. The jaguar is usually found singly (sometimes in pairs),
and preys upon such quadrupeds as the horse, tapir, capybara.
dogs or cattle. It often feeds on fresh-water turtles; sometimes
following the reptiles into the water to effect a capture, it inserts
a paw between the shells and drags out the body of the turtle by
means of its sharp claws. Occasionally after having tasted
human flesh, the jaguar becomes a confirmed man-eater. The
cry of this great cat, which is beard at night, and most frequently
during the pairing season, is de^p and hoarse in tone, and consists
of the sound pu, pu, often repeated. The female brings forth
from two to four cubs towards the close of the year, which are
able to follow their mother in about fifteen days after birth. The
ground colour of the jaguar varies greatly, ranging from white
to black, the rosette markings in the extremes being but faintly
«*5
visible. The general or typical coloration is, however, a rich tan
upon the head, neck, body, outside of legs, and tail near the root.
The upper part of the head and sides of the face are thickly
marked with small black spots, and the rest of body is covered
with rosettes, formed of rings of black spots, with a black spot in
the centre, and ranged lengthwise along the body in five to seven
rows 00 each side. These black rings are heaviest along the back.
The lips, throat, breast and belly, the inside of the legs and the
lower sides of tail are pure white, marked with irregular spots of
black, those on the breast being long bars end on the belly and
inside of legs large blotches. The tail has large black spots near
the root, some with light centres, and from about midway of its
length to the tip it is ringed with black. The ears are black
The Jaguar (Fells onca).
behind, with a large buff spot near the tip. The nose and upper
lip are light rufous brown. The size varies, the total length of a
very large specimen measuring 6 ft. 9 in.; the average length,
however, is about 4 ft. from the nose to root of tail. In form
the jaguar is thick-set; it does not stand high upon its legs; and
in comparison with the leopard is heavily built; but its move-
ments are very rapid, and it is fully as agile as its more graceful
relative. The skull resembles that of the Hon and tiger, but is
much broader in proportion to its length, and may be identified
by the presence of a tubercle on the inner edge of the orbit.
The species has been divided into a number of local forms,
regarded by some American naturalists as distinct species, but
preferably ranked as sub-species or races.
JAOUAROHDI, or Yaguarondi (FeHs jaguar onit), a South
American wild cat, found in Brazil, Paraguay and Guiana, rang-
ing to north-eastern Mexico. This relatively small cat, uniformly
coloured, is generally of some shade of brownish-grey, but in some
individuals the fur has a rufous coat, while in others grey pre-
dominates. These cats are said by Don Felix de Axara to keep
to cover, without venturing into open places. They attack tame
poultry and also young fawns. The names jaguarondi and eyra
are applied indifferently to this species and Felts eyra.
JAHANABAD, a town of British India in Gaya district, Bengal,
situated on a branch of the East Indian railway. Pop. (ioox),
7018. It was once a flourishing tracing town, and in 1760 it
formed one of the eight branches of the East India Company's
central factory at Patna. Since the introduction of Manchester
goods, the trade of the town in cotton cloth has almost entirely
ceased; but large numbers of the Jolaha or Mahommedan weaver
caste live in the neighbourhood.
JAHANGIR, or Jehamoir (1560-1627), Mogul emperor of
Delhi, succeeded his father Akbar the Great in T605. His name
was Salina, but he assumed the title of Jahangir, " Conqueror of
the World," on his accession.' It was in his reign that Sir
Thomas Roe came as ambassador of James 1., on behalf of the
126
English company. He was a dissolute ruler, much addicted to
drunkenness, and his reign is chiefly notable for the influence
enjoyed by his wife Nur Jahan, " the Light of the World." At
first she influenced Jahangir for good, but surrounding herself
with her relatives she aroused the jealousy of the imperial
princes; and Jahangir died in 1627 in the midst of a rebellion
headed by his son, Khurram or Shah Jahan, and his greatest
general, Mahabat Khan. The tomb of Jahangir is situated in
the gardens of Sbahdcra on the outskirts of Lahore.
MHIZ (AbO 'UthmAn *Aint ibn Bahr ul-JAhij; i.e. "the
man the pupils of whose eyes are prominent ") (d. 860),
Arabian writer. He spent his life and devoted himself in Basra
chiefly to the study of polite literature. A Mu'tazilrte in his
religious beliefs, he developed a system of his own and founded
a sect named after him. He was favoured by Ibn uz-Zaiyfit, the
vizier of the caliph Wathiq
HU work, the Kit&b ul-BaySn wai-Tabyfn, a discursive treatise
on rhetoric, has been published in two volumes at Cairo (1895). The
Kildb td-Mak&sin wal-Adddd was edited by G. van Vlotcn as Le
Litre des beautis et des antitheses (Leiden, 1898) ; the Kit&b ul-Bu-hald.
Le Lvore its averts, ed. by the same (Leiden, 1 900) ; two other smaller
works, the Excellences of the Turks and the Superiority in Glory of
the Blacks over the Whiles, also prepared by the same. The Kit&b
ul-tfayaw&n, or " Book of Animals," a philological and literary,
not a scientific, work, was published at Cairo (1906).
(G.W.T.)
JAHh, FRIEORICH LUDWIG (1778-1852), German peda-
gogue and patriot, commonly called Turnvaler (" Father of
Gymnastics "), was born in Lanz on the nth of August 1778.
He studied theology and philology from 1796 to 1802 at Halle,
Gottingen and Greifswald. After Jena he joined the Prussian
army. In 1809 he went to Berlin, where he became a teacher at
the Gymnasium zum Graucn as well as at the Plamann School
Brooding upon the humiliation of his native land by Napoleon,
he conceived the idea of restoring the spirits of his countrymen
by the development of their physical and moral powers through
the practice of gymnastics. The first Turnplalz, or open-air
gymnasium, was opened by him at Berlin in 181 1, and the
movement spread rapidly, the young gymnasts being taught
to regard themselves as members of a kind of gild for the
emancipation of their fatherland. This patriotic spirit was
nourished in no small degree by the writings of Jahn. Early in
18 13 he took an active part at Breslau in the formation of the
famous corps of Ltttzow, a battalion of which he commanded,
though during the same period he was often employed in secret
service. After the war he returned to Berlin, where he was
appointed state teacher of gymnastics. As such he was a leader
a the formation of the student Burschenschajtcn (patriotic
ia^raiiies) in Jena,
V -«n of democratic nature, rugged, honest, eccentric and
mc*7Ci£rn,Jahn often came into collision with the reactionary
1 ;:t :i the time, and this conflict resulted in 1819 in the closing
t uu Zarnplatz and the arrest of Jahn himself. Kept in semi-
;o-n?nnJt at the fortress of Kolbcrg until 1824, he was then
-*:t:ta.*ja *«o imprisonment for two years; but this sentence was
%• -.<l a 1825, though he was forbidden to live within ten
uu> v c Iei3«a. He therefore took up his residence at Freyburg
• 1 : ' uantt* where he remained until his death, with the
r .a 4 x short period in 1828, when he was exiled to
uav0(l dxiuge of sedition. In 1840 he was decorated by
<\ua T>vurnmcnt with the Iron Cross for bravery in the
■ * _ . a* . totMteoo. In the spring of 1848 he was elected by
* • t • Naumburg to the German National Parliament.
m ic t jth of October 1852 in Freyburg, where a
.. .1 nu erected in bis honour in 1859.
« .... .. „..»*» yve the following: Bereicherung des hochdeutschen
. ..tic, 1 **>>. Deutsche! Volksihum (Lbbeck, 1 8 10),
— — ... .-•* f tiu».Afci»/liustwMdllrr<Naumbum,i8a8).
.!. •...••" \* Ostium (Hildburghauscn, 1833), and
** rf.^e • nduAtioa) .(Le»P«»g. 1863). A complete
, , , *»•« •* in-osml at Hof In 1884-1887. Sec the biography
„ _»•*••• ;k«u«. i*MJ* *°d John als Ersuher, by Friedrich
JAHIZ— JAHN, OTTO
JAHN, JOHAMN (1750-18160, German Orientalist, was born
at Tasswitz, Moravia, on the 18th of June x 7 50. He st udied philo-
sophy at Olmtttz, and in 1772 began his theological studies at
the Premonstratenstan convent of Brack, near Znaim. Having
been ordained in 1775, he for a short time held a cure at Mislitz,
but. was soon recalled to Brack as professor of Oriental languages
and Biblical hermencutics. On the suppression of the convent
by Joseph II. in 1784, Jahn took up similar work at OtraOtz, and
in 1789 he was transferred to Vienna as professor of Oriental
languages, biblical archaeology and dogmatics. In 1792 be
published his Einleitung ins AlU Testament (a vols.), which soon.
brought him into trouble; the cardinal-archbishop of Vienna laid
a complaint against him for having departed from the traditional
teaching of the Church, e.g. by asserting Job, Jonah, Tobit and
Judith to be didactic poems, and the cases of demoniacal pos-
session in the New Testament to be cases of dangerous disease.
An ecclesiastical commission reported that the views themselves
were not necessarily heretical, but that Jahn had erred in showing
too little consideration for the views of German Catholic theo-
logians in coming into conflict with his bishop, and in raising
difficult problems by which the unlearned might be led astray.
He was accordingly advised to modify his expressions in future.
Although he appears honestly to have accepted this judgment,
the hostility of his opponents did not cease until at last (1806) he
was compelled to accept a canonry at St Stephen's, Vienna,
which involved the resignation of his chair. This step had been
preceded by the condemnation of his Introductio in libra sacros
veleris foederis in compendium redact a, published in 1804, and
also of his Archacologia bibiica in compendium redatXa (1805).
The only work Of importance, outside the region of mere philo-
logy, afterwards published by him, was the Enchiridion Hermm-
euHcae (1812). He died on the J 6th of August 1816.
Besides the works already mentioned, he published Hebraiseke
Sprachlchre fiir Anf&n^er (1792); Aramdische od. Chalddische n.
Syrische Sprochlehrefiir A nf anger ( 1 793) ; A rabischeSprachlehrei 1 796) ;
Ekmentarbuch der hebr. Sprache (1799); Chaldaiscke Chrestomatkm
(1800); Arabische Chrestomathie (18027; Lexicon arabico-latinum
chreslomathiae accommodatum (1802); an edition of the Hebrew
Bible (1806); Grammatica linguae hebraicae (1809); a critical com-
mentary on the Messianic passages of the Ola Testament {Vaticinia
prophctarum de Jesu Messta, 1815). In 1 821 a collection of Nach-
trage appeared, containing six dissertations on Biblical subjects.
The English translation of the Archacologia by T. C. Upham (1840)
has passed through several editions.
JAHN, OTTO (1813-1869), German archaeologist, philologist,
and writer on art and music, was born at Kiel on the 16th of
June 1813. After the completion of his university studies at
Kiel, Leipzig and Berlin, he travelled for three years in France
and Italy; in 1839 he became privatdocent at Kiel, and in 1842
professor-extraordinary of archaeology and philology at Greifs-
wald (ordinary professor 1845). In 1847 he accepted the chair
of archaeology at Leipzig, of which he was deprived in 1851 for
having taken part in the political movements of 1848- 1849. In
185s he was appointed professor of the science of antiquity, and
director of the academical art museum at Bonn, and in 1867 he
was called to succeed E. Gerhard at Berlin. He died at.
Gottingen, on the olh of September 1869.
t important of his works: 1. Archaeo-
lephos u. Troths (1841); Die Grmildx
is «. die Manaden (1841); Paris m.
t Kunst (1846); Pextho, die Gdttin der
wige Darstellungen des Paris- Urietls
ta (1852); Pausaniae dtscriftio arcit
Darstellungen griechischer Dickter a*f
lological: Critical editions of Juvenal,
' *V F. Bucheler. 1893); Ceasorinas
Brutus (4th ed.. 1877): and Orator
; the Aji ' " "*"
I. by F. Bucheler. 1893); Ceasorinas
>'s Brutus (4th ed.. 1877): and Orator
i of Livy (1853): the Psyche el Cu*id*
th ed., 1905); Longinus (1867; 3rd«L
raphical and aesthetic : Other htewdds-
pkie Matarts, a work of extraordinary
ice for the history of music (3rd ed. by
rans.by P. D.Townsend,t89i);£«tfVi|
\ufsatzc liber Musik (1866); BiagrePk-
iechische Bilderchroniken was published
icw A. MichaeUs, who has written an
JAHRUM— JAINS
exhaustive biography in AUtenuine Deutsche Biograpkis. xai.f see
Pkdahtie in DeutscUand.
fahn (1870) ; C. Bursian, Cesckichtederclassischen
JAHRUM, a town and district of Persia in the province of
Fars, S.E. of Shiraz and S.W. of Darah. The district has
thirty-three villages and is famous lor iu celebrated Sndhdn
dates, which are exported in great quantities; it also produces
much tobacco and fruit. The water supply is scanty, and most
of the irrigation is by water drawn from wells. The tagn of
Jahrum, situated about 00 m. S.E. of Shiras, is surrounded by
a mud-wall 3 m. in circuit which was constructed in 1834. It
has a population of about 15,000, one half living inside and the
other half outside the walls. It is the market for the produce of
the surrounding districts, has sue caravanserais and a post office.
JAINS, the most numerous and influential sect of heretics, or
nonconformists to the Brahmanical system of Hinduism, in
India. They are found in every province of upper Hindustan,
in the cities along the Ganges and in Calcutta. But they are
more numerous to the west — in Mewar, Gujarat, and in the upper
part of the Malabar coast— and arc also scattered throughout the
whole of the southern peninsula. They are mostly traders, and
live in the towns; and the wealth of many of their community
gives them a social importance greater than would result from
their mere numbers. In the Indian census of xoox they are
returned as being 1,334, 140 in number. Their magnificent
series of temples and shrines on Mount Abu, one of the seven
wonders of India, is perhaps the most striking outward sign of
their wealth and importance.
The Jains are the last direct representatives on the continent
of India of those schools of thought which grew out of the active
philosophical speculation and earnest spirit of religious inquiry
that prevailed in the valley of the Ganges during the 5th and
6th centuries before the Christian era. For many centuries.
Jainism was so overshadowed by that stupendous movement,
born at the same time and in the same place, which we call
Buddhism, that it remained almost unnoticed by the side of its
powerful rival. But when Buddhism, whose widely open doors
bad absorbed the mass of the community, became thereby
corrupted from its pristine purity and gradually died away, the
smaller school of the Jains, less diametrically opposed to the
victorious orthodox creed of the JJrahmans, survived, and in
some degree took its place.
Jainism purports to be the system of belief promulgated by
Vaddhamfina, better known by his epithet of Maha-vlra (the
great hero), who was a contemporary of Got&ma, the Buddha.
But the Jains, like the Buddhists, believe that the same system
had previously been proclaimed through countless ages by each
one of a succession of earlier teachers. The Jains count twenty*
four such prophets, whom they call Jinas, or Tlrthankaras, that
is, conquerors or leaders of schools Of thought. It is from this
word Jina that the modern name Jainas, meaning followers of
the Jina, or of the Jinas, is derived. This legend of the twenty-
four Jinas contains a germ of truth. . Maha-vlra was not an
originator; he merely carried on, with but slight changes, a
system which existed before Us time, and which probably owes
its most distinguishing features to a teacher named Parswa, who
ranks in the succession of Jinas as the predecessor of Maha-vlra,
Parswa is said, in the Jain chronology, to have been born two
hundred years before Maha-vlra (that is, about 760 B.C.); but
the only conclusion that it is safe to draw from this statement is
that Parswa was considerably earlier in point of time than Mahi-
vira. Very little reliance can be placed upon the details reported
in the Jain books concerning the previous Jinas in the list of the
twenty-four Tlrthankaras; The curious will find in them many
reminiscences of Hindu and Buddhist legend; and the anti-
quary must notice the distinctive symbols assigned to each, in
order to recognize the statues of the different Jinas, otherwise
identical, in the different Jain temples.
The Jains are divided into two great parties— the Digambcras,
or Sky-clad Ones, and the Svdtmbaras, or the White-robed
Ones. The latter have only as yet been traced, and that doubt-
folly, as far back as the 5th century after Christ; the former are
127
almost certainly the same as the Nigantfias, who are referred to
in numerous passages of the Buddhist Pali Pitakas, and must
therefore be at least as old as the 6th century B.C. In many of
these passages the Niganthas are mentioned as contemporaneous
with the Buddha; and details enough are given concerning their
leader Nigantha Nata-putta (that is, the Nigantha of the
Jnltrika dan) to enable us to identify him, without any doubt;
as the same person as the Vaddhamftna Maha-vlra of the Jain
books. This r em a r kable confirmation, from the scriptures of a
rival religion, of the Jain tradition is conclusive as to the date
of Maha-vlra. The Niganthas are referred to in one of Asoka's
edicts (Carpus Inscripiionum, Plate xx.). Unfortunately the
account of the teachings of Nigantha Nata-putta given in the
Buddhist scriptures are, like those of the Buddha's teachings
given in the Brahmanical literature, very meagre.
Jain Literature.— -The Jain scriptures themselves, though based
on earlier traditions, are not older in their present form than the
5th century of our era. The most distinctively sacred books are
called the forty-five Agamas, consisting of eleven Angas, twelve
Upangas, ten Palrinnakas, six Chedas, tour Mula-sQtras and two
other Dooks. Devaddhi Gaoin, who occupies among the Tains a
position very similar tp that occupied among the Buddhists by
Buddhaghosa, collected the then existing traditions and teachings
of the sect into these forty-five Agamas. Like the Buddhist
scriptures, the earlier Jain books are written in a dialect of their
own, the so-called Taina Prakrit; and it was not till between
a.d. 1000 and 1 100 that the Jains adopted Sanskrit as their literary
language. Considerable progress has been made in the publication
and elucidation of these original authorities. But a great deal
remains yet to be done. The oldest books now in the possession of
the modern Jains purport to go back, not to the foundation of the
existing order in the 6th century B.C., but only to the time of Bhad-
rabahu, three centuries later. The whole of the still older literature,
on which the revision then made was based, the so-called Punas,
have been lost. *—•*«--—*-* . .. . ... _._^
a great deal tha
later material,
later, to distingi
subsequent deve
general, social, i
Professor Weber
the whole of the
volume of his Ct
18S8, and in voli
translation of th
and then separai
an account of th
Search for Sansk
has been made
pricis of a long 1
tant features in
the prtcis-vmter
gator may most
tore to be edited
Jains themsely©
of their sacred b
other editions o
much to be desii
Kalpa Sutra, col — . — ._ — ,, , —
this can scarcely be older than the 5th century of our era. He has
also edited and translated the Ayaranya Sutta of the Svetambara
Jains. The text, published by the Pali Text Society, is of 140 pages
octavo. The first part of it, about 50 pages, is a very old document
on the Jain views as to conduct, and the remainder consists of
appendices, added at different times, oa the same subject. The
olaer part may go back as early as the 3rd century B.C., and it sets
out more especially the Jain doctrine of tapes or self- mortification, in
contradistinction to the Buddhist view, which condemned asceticism.
The rules of conduct in this book are for members of the order. ' Dr
Rudolf Hoernle edited and translated an ancient work on the
rules of conduct for laymen, the Uodsega Dasao. 1 Professor Leumann
edited another of the older works, the Aupapalika S&lra, and a
fourth, entitled the Dasa-vaikOlika Sdlra, both of them published by
the German Oriental Society. Professor Jacobi translated two more,
the Utiarddhy&yana and the StUra Kritanga. 1 Finally Dr Barnett
has translated two others in vol. xvii. of the Oriental Translation
Fund (new series, London, 1907}. Thus about one-fiftieth part of
these interesting and valuable old records is now accessible to the
European scholar. The sect of the Svctarabaras has preserved the
oldest literatures. Dr Hoernle has treated of the early history of
1 Published in the Bibliotheca Indica, Calcutta, 1888.
1 These two, and the other two mentioned above, form vols. i. and
iL of bis Jaina Sutras, published in the Sacred Books of the East
(1884. «895).
128
tbe sect in the Proceedings if Ik* Asiatic Society of Bengal I or 1898.
Several scholar*— notably Bhagvantal Indraji, Mr Lewis Rice and
Ho/rath Buhler *-— have treated of the remarkable archaeological
discoveries lately made. These confirm the older records in many
details, and show that tbe Jains, in the centuries before tbe Christian
era. were a wealthy and important body in widely s ep a r a te d part*
of India.
Jainism.— The most distinguishing outward peculiarity of
.Mahi-vlra and of his earliest followers was their practice of
going quite naked, whence the term Digamban. Against this
custom, Gotama, the Buddha, especially warned his followers;
and it is referred to in the well-known Greek phrase, Gymnoso-
fkist, used already by Megasthenes, which applies very aptly to
the Niganthas. Even the earliest name Nigantha, which means
" free from bonds," may not be without allusions to. this curious
belief in the sanctity of nakedness, though it also alluded to
freedom from the bonds of sin and of transmigration. The statues
of the Jinas in the Jain temples, some of which are of enormous
size, are still always quite naked; but the Jains themselves
have abandoned the practice, the Digambaras being sky-clad at
meal-time only, and the Svetambaras being always completely
clothed. And even among the Digambaras it is only the re-
cluses or Yalis, men devoted to a religious life, who carry out
this practice. The Jain laity— the Sr&vokas, or disciples— do
not adopt it.
The Jain views of life were, In the most important and essen-
tial respects, the exact reverse of the Buddhist views. The
two orders, Buddhist and Jain, were not only, and from the first,
independent, but directly opposed the one to the other. In
philosophy the Jains are the most thorough-going supporters
of the old animistic position. . Nearly everything, according to
them, has a soul within its outward visible shape — not only men
and animals, but also all plants, and even particles of earth, and
of water (when it is cold), and fire and wind. The Buddhist
theory, as is well known, is put together without the hypothesis
of " soul " at all. The word the Jains use for soul is /too, which
means life; and there is much analogy between many of the
expressions they use and the view that the ultimate cells and
atoms are all, in a more or less modified sense, alive. They
regard good and evil and space as ultimate substances which
come into direct contact with the minute souls in everything.
And their best-known position in regard to the points most
discussed in philosophy is Syid-v&da, the doctrine that you may
say " Yes " and at the same time " No " to everything. You
can affirm the eternity of the world, for instance, from one point
of view, and at the same time deny it from another; or, at
different times and in different connexions, you may One day
affirm it and another day deny it. This position both leads to
vagueness of thought and explains why Jainism has had so little
influence over other schools of philosophy in India. On the
other hand, the Jains are as determined in their views of asceti-
cism (tcpas) as they were compromising in their views of philo-
sophy. Any injury done to the " souls n being one of the worst
of iniquities, the good monk should not wash his clothes (indeed,
the most austere will reject clothes altogether), nor even wash
his teeth, for fear of injuring living things. " Subdue the body,
chastise thyself, weaken thyself, just as fire consumes dry wood."
It was by suppressing, through such self-torture, the influence
on bis soul of all sensations that the Jain could . obtain
salvation. It is related of the founder himself, the Mahi-vlra,
that after twelve years' penance he thus obtained Nirvina
(Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, I. 301) before he entered upon his career
as a teacher. And through the rest of his life, till he died at
Pivi, shortly before the Buddha, he followed the same habit
of continual self-mortification. The Buddha, on the other
hand, obtained Nirvina in his 35th year, under the Bo tree,
after he had abandoned penance; and through tbe rest
of his life he spoke of penance as quite useless from his
point of view.
There is no manual of Jainism as yet published, but there is a
»The Hatthi Gunphi and three other inscriptions at Cuttack
(Leyden, 188$); Sramna Beigola intcrtptions (Bangalore, 1889);
Vienna Oriental Journal, vols, ii.-v.; Lpigraphia Jndua, vols, i-vii.
JAIPUR
great deal of information on various points in the introductions
to the works referred to above. Professor Jacobi, who is the best
authority on the history of this sect, thus sums up the distinction
between the Mahi-vlra and the Buddha: M Maha-vlra was rather
of the ordinary class of religious men in India. He may be
allowed a talent for religious matters, but he possessed not the
genius which Buddha undoubtedly had. . . . The Buddha's
philosophy forms a system based on a. few fundamental ideas,
whilst that of Mahi-vlra scarcely forms a system, but is merely a
sum of opinions (pannaUis) on various subjects, no fundamental
ideas being there to uphold the mass of metaphysical matter.
Besides this, .it is the ethical element that gives to the Buddhist
writings their superiority over those of the Jains. Mahi-vlra
treated ethics as corollary and subordinate to his metaphysics,
with which be was chiefly concerned."
Additional Authorities.— Bhadrabihu's Kalpa Sitrn, the re-
cognized and popular manual of the Svetimbara Jaina, edited with
English introduction by Professor Jacobi (Leipzig, 1879); Htma-
candra's " Yoga S'istram," edited by Windisch, in the Zetlsckrift dee
deutschen more,. Ges. for 1874; M Zwei Jaina Stotra," edited in the
Indiscke Studien, vol. xv. ; Etn Fragment der BhagavaO, by Professor
Weber; Memoires do VAcoMmie de Berlin (1866); Niroytomlijo
Sulta, edited by Dr Warren, with Dutch introduction (Amsterdam.
1879) ; Over de godsdienstige en vnjsgeerige Begripten der Jainas, by
Dr Warren (his doctor-dissertation, Zwolle, 1875): Beitrdge tor
Grammatik des Joino-pr&krit, by Dr Edward Mullcr (Berlin, 1876);
Colebrooke's Essays, vol. ii.
„ . r J. Burgess hasan exhaustive accouat
of the Jain Cave Temples (none older than the 7th century) in
Fergusson and Burgess's Cave Temples in India (London, 1880).
See also Hopkins Religions of India (London, 1896), pp. 380-96,
and J. G. Buhler On the Indian Sect of the Jainas, edited by J.
Burgess (London, 1904). (T. W. R. D.)
JAIPUR, or Jeypore, a city and native state of India in the
Rajputana agency. The city is a prosperous place of com-
paratively recent date. It derives its name from the famous
Maharaja Jai Singh IL, who founded it in 1728. It is built of
pink stucco in imitation of sandstone, and is remarkable for the
width and regularity of its streets. It is the only city in India
that is laid out in rectangular blocks, and ft is divided by cross
streets into six equal portions. The main streets are izr ft
wide and are paved, while the city is lighted by gas. The
regularity of plan, and the straight streets with the houses all
built after the same pattern, deprive Jaipur of the charm of the
East, while the- painted mud walls of the houses give it the
meretricious air of stage scenery. The huge palace of the
maharaja stands in the centre of the city. Another noteworthy
building is Jai Singh's observatory. The chief industries are ia
metals and marble, which are fostered by a school of art, founded
in 1868. There is also a wealthy and enterprising community
of native bankers. The dty has three colleges and several
hospitals. Pop. (xooi), 160,167. The ancient capital of Jaipur
was Amber.
The State of Jaipur, which takes its name from the dry,
has a total area of 15,579 sq. m. Pop. (1001), 2,658, 666, showing
a decrease of 6 % in the decade. The estimated revenue is
£430,000, and the tribute £27,000. The centre of the state is a
sandy and barren plain 1,600 ft. above sea-level, bounded on the
E. by ranges of hills running north and south. On the N. and
W. it is bounded by a broken chain of hills, an offshoot of the
Aravalli mountains, beyond which lies the sandy desert of
Rajputana. The soil is generally sandy. The hills are more
or less covered with jungle trees, of no value except for fad.
Towards tbe S. and E. the soil becomes more fertile. Salt is
largely manufactured and exported from the Sambhar lake,
which is worked by the government of India under an arrange-
ment with the states of Jaipur and Jodhpur. It yields salt of a
very high quality. The state is traversed by the Rajputana
railway, with branches to Agra and Delhi.
The maharaja of Jaipur bdongs to the Kachwaha dan of
Rajputs, claiming descent from Rama, king of A jodhya. The state
is said to have been founded about 1128 by Dhula Rai, from
Owalior, who with ms Kachwahas is said to have absorbed or
driven out the petty chiefs. The Jaipur house furnished to the
Moguls some of their most distinguished generals. Among
them were Man Singh, who fought In Orlssa and Assam; Jai
JAISALMERi-JAKOB
Singh, commonly known by his Imperial title of Mirza Raja,
whose name appears in all the wars of Aurangzeb in the Deccan;
and Jai Singh II., or Sawai Jai Singh, the famous mathema-
tician and astronomer, and the. founder of Jaipur city. Towards
the end of the .18th century the Jats of Bharatpur and the chief
of Alwar each annexed a portion of the territory of Jaipur.
By the end of the century the state was in great confusion,
distracted by internal broils and impoverished by the exactions
of the Mahrattas. The disputes between the chiefs of Jaipur
and Jodhpur had brought both states to the verge of rum, and
Amir Khan with the Pindaris was exhausting the country. By
a treaty in 1818 the protection of the British was extended to
Jaipur and an annual tribute fixed. In 183s there was a serious
disturbance in the city, after which the British government took
measures to insist upon order and to reform the administration
as well as to support its effective action; and the state has
gradually become well-governed and prosperous. During the
Mutiny of 1857 the maharaja assisted the British in every way
that lay in his power. Maharaja Madho Singh, G.C.S.I., G.C. V.O.,
was born in 1861, and succeeded in 1882. He is distinguished
for his enlightened administration and his patronage of art.
He was one of the princes who visited England at the time of
King Edward's coronation in 1902. It was he who started and
endowed with a donation of 15 lakhs, afterwards increased to
20 lakhs, of rupees (£133,000) the " Indian People 1 * Famine
Fund." The Jaipur imperial service transport corps saw service
in the Chitral and Tirah campaigns.
JAISALMER, or Jeysulmerb, a town and native state of
India in the Rajputana agency. The town stands on a ridge
of yellowish sandstone, crowned by a fort, which contains the
palace and several ornate Jain temples. Many of the houses
and temples are. finely sculptured. Pop. (1001), 7137. The
area of the state is 16,062 sq. m. In xoox the population was
73.370. showing a decrease of 37% in ten years, as a con-
sequence of famine. The estimated revenue is about £6000;
there is no tribute. Ja is aimer is almost entirely a sandy waste,
forming a part of the great Indian desert. The general aspect
of the country is that of an interminable sea of sandhills, of all
shapes and sizes, some rising to a height of 150 ft. Those in the
west are covered with phog bushes, those in the east with tufts
of long grass. Water is scarce, and generally brackish; the
average depth of the wells is said to be about 250 ft. There are
no perennial streams, and only one small river, the Kakni, which,
after flowing a distance of 28 m., spreads over a large surface of
flat ground, and forms a lake ox jhil called the Bhuj-Jhil. The
climate is dry and healthy. Throughout Jaisalmer only rain"
crops, such as bajra,joar, moth, til, &c, are grown; spring crops
of wheat, barley, &c, are very rare. Owing to the scant
rainfall, irrigation U_almost unknown.
The main part of the population lead a wandering life, grazing
their flocks and herds. Large herds of camels, horned cattle, sheep
and goats are kept. The principal trade is in wool, ghi, camels,
cattle and sheep. The chief imports are grain, sugar, foreign cloth,
piece-goods, &e. Education is at a low ebb. Jain priests are the
chief schoolmasters, and their teaching is elementary. The ruler of
Jaisalmer is styled maharawal. The state suffered from famine in
1897, 1900 and other years, to eruch an extent that it has had to
incur a heavy debt for extraordinary expenditure. There are no
railways.
The majority of the in! »ir
name from an ancestor : en
the tribe were located i an
was driven southwards, rt.
which was thenceforth of
the Bhattt family, is < nt
Jaisalmer dynasty, and id.
In 1 156 Jfiisal, the sixth >rt
and city of Jaisalmer, a Lis
so enraged the emperor A ed
the fort and city of Jai ite
deserted. • After this the ral
Sabal Singh, whose reign he
acknowledged the suprtM.^vj «. ...~ ... v «~. — . v ~.~. ^..-.. j„..»n.
The Jaisalmer princes had now arrived at the height of their power",
but front this time till the accession of R&wal Mulrlj in 1762 the
fortunes of the state rapidly dediaed. and most of its outlying
provinces were lost. In 1818 Mulrftj entered into political relations
129
with the- British. Maharawal Salivahan, bora in 1887, succeeded
to the chief ship in 1 891.
JAJCE (pronounced Ydtse), a town of Bosnia, situated on the
Pliva and Vrbas rivers, and at the terminus of a branch railway
from Serajevo, 6? m. S.E. Pop. (1895), about 4000. Jajce
occupies a conical hill, overlooking one of the finest waterfalls
in Europe, where the Pliva rushes down into .the Vrbas, too ft.
below. The. 14th century citadel which crowns this hill is said
to have been built for Hrvoje, duke of Spalato, on the model of
the Castel del' Uovo at Naples; but the resemblance is very
slight, and although both jajce and novo signify " an egg," the
town probably derives its name from the shape of the hill
The ruined church of St Luke, said by legend to be the Evan-
gelist's burial place, has a fine Italian belfry, and dates from the
15th century. Jezero, 5 m. W. of Jajce, contains the Turkish
fort of Djdl-Hissar, or " the Lake-Fort." In the neighbourhood
a line of waterfalls and meres, formed by the Pliva, stretches
for several miles, enclosed by steep rocks and forest-dad moun-
tains. The power supplied by the main fall, at Jajce, is used
for industrial purposes, but the beauty of the town remains
unimpaired.
From 1463 to X52S Jajce was the principal outwork of eastern
Christendom against the Turks. Venice contributed money for
its defence, and Hungary provided armies; while the pope
entreated all Christian monarchs to avert its fall. In 1463
Mahomet II. had seized more than 75 Bosnian fortresses, includ-
ing Jajce itself; and the last independent king of Bosnia, Stephen
Tomasevjl, had been beheaded, or, according to one tradition,
flayed alive, before the walls of Jajce, on a spot still called
Kraljeva Ptfje, the " King's Field." His coffin and skeleton
are still displayed in St Luke's Church. The Hungarians, under
King Matthias I., came to the rescue, and reconquered the greater
port of Bosnia during the same year; and, although Mahomet
returned in 1464, he waa again defeated at Jajce, and compelled
to flee before another Hungarian advance. In 1467 Hungarian
bans, or military governors, were appointed to rule in north-
west Bosnia, and in 1472 Matthias appointed Nicolaus Ujlaki
king of the country, with Jajce for his capital. This kingdom
lasted, in fact, for 59 years; but, after the death of Ujlaki, in
1492, its rulers only bore the title of ban, and of vojvod. In
1500 the Turks, under Bajazet II., were crushed at Jajce by the
Hungarians under John Corvinus; and several other attacks were
repelled between 1520 and 1526. But in 1526 the Hungarian
power was destroyed at Monies; and in 1528 Jajce was forced
to surrender.
See Brass, " Jajce, die alte Kdnigstadt Bosniens," in Deutsche
geog. Blatter, pp. 71-85 (Bremen, 1899).
JAJPUR, or Jajpctre, a town of British India, in Cuttack dis-
trict, Bengal, situated on the right bank of the Baitarani river.
Pop. (1001), 1 2,1 1 x. It was the capital of Orissa under the Kesari
dynasty until the nth century, when it was superseded by
Cuttack. In Jajpur are numerous ruins of temples, sculptures,
&c, and a large and beautiful sun pillar.
JAKOB, LUDWIO HBINHICH VON (1750-1827), German
economist, was born at Wettin on the 26th of February 1759.
In 1777 he entered the university of Halle. In 1780 he was
appointed teacher at the gymnasium, and in 1791 professor of
philosophy at the university. The suppression of the university
of Halle having been decreed by Napoleon, Jakob betook himself
to Russia, where in 1807 he was appointed professor of political
economy at Kharkoff, and in 1809 a member of the government
commission to inquire into the finances of the empire. In the
following year he became president of the commission for the
revision of criminal law, and he at the same time obtained an
important office In the finance department, with the rank of
counsellor of state; but in 1816 he returned to Halle to occupy
the chair of political economy. He died at LauchsULdt on the
aand of July 1827.
Shortly after his first appointment to a professorship in Halle
Jakob had begun to turn his attention rather to the practical thaji
the speculative side of philosophy, and in 1805 he published at
Halle Ltkrbuck det HgMomlUkimomit, in which 'he was the first to
13°
advocate in Germany the necessity of a distinct science dealing;
specially with the subject of national wealth. His principal other
works are Gmndriss der aUgemeinen Logik (Halle, 1 788) ; GruwUdtu der
Potheigcsettgebung und FoliseianskUten (Leipzig, 1809); EinUitung
in das Studtum der Staalswissensckaften (Hatie, 1819) ; Entwnrf eines
CHminalguettbuths fir dot rusasche Reich (Halle, 1818) and
Slaaisjina*tmssauckaft (2 vols., Halle, 1 821).
JAKOVA (also written Diakova, Gyazovo and Gjako-
vtca), a town of Albania, European Turkey, in the vilayet
of Kossovo; on the river Erenik, a right-hand tributary of the
White Drin. Pop. (1005) about 12,000. Jakova is the chief
town of the Alpine region which extends from the Montenegrin
frontier to the Drin and White Drin. This region has never
been thoroughly explored, or brought under effective Turkish
rule, on account of the inaccessible character of its mountains
and forests, and the lawlessness of its inhabitants— a group of
two Roman Catholic and three Moslem tribes, known collectively
as the Malsia Jakovs, whose official representative resides in
Jakova.
JAKUNS, an aboriginal race of the Malay Peninsula. They
have become much mixed with other tribes, and are found
throughout the south of the peninsula and along the coasts.
The purest types are straight-haired, exhibit marked Mongolian
characteristics and are closely related to the Malays. They are
probably a branch of the Pre-Malays, the " savage Malays " of
A. R. Wallace. They are divided into two groups t (1) Jakuns
of the jungle, (2) Jakuns of the sea or Orang Laut. The latter
set of tribes now comprise the remnants of the pirates or " sea-
gipsies " of the Malaccan straits. The Jakuns, who must be
studied in conjunction with the other aboriginal peoples of the
Malay Peninsula, the SemangsandtheSakais,arenot so dwarfish
as those. The head is round; the skin varies from olive-brown
to dark copper; the face is flat and the lower jaw square. The
nose is thick and short, with wide, open nostrils. The cheek-
bones are high and well marked. The hair has a blue-black tint,
eyes are black and the beard is scanty. The Jakuns live a wild
forest life, and in general habits much resemble the Sakal, being
but little in advance of the latter in social conditions except
where they come into close contact with the Malay peoples.
JALALABAD, or Jellalabad, a town and province of
Afghanistan. The town lies at a height of 1950 ft. in a plain
on the south side of the Kabul river, 96 m. from Kabul and
76 from Peshawar. Estimated pop., 4000. Between it and
Peshawar intervenes the Khyber Pass, and between it and Kabul
the passes of Jagdalak, Khurd Kabul, &c. The site was chosen
by the emperor Babcr, and he laid out some gardens here; but
the town itself was built by his grandson Akbar in a.o. 1560.
It resembles the city of Kabul on a smaller scale, and has one
central bazaar, the streets generally being very narrow. The
most notable episode in the history of the place is the famous
defence by Sir Robert Sale during the first Afghan war, when he
held the town from November 1841 to. April 1842. On its
evacuation in 1843 General Pollock destroyed the defences, but
t hey were rebuilt in x 878. The town is now fortified, surrounded
by a high wall with bastions and loopholes. The province of
Jalalabad is about 80 m. in length by 35 in width, and includes
the large district of Laghman north of the Kabul river, as well
s* t hat on the south called Ningrahar. The climate of Jalalabad
f« »imilar to that of Peshawar. As a strategical centre Jalalabad
)• one of the most important positions in Afghanistan, for it
d'/'nlnatts the entrances to the Laghman and theKunar valleys;
c/mmsnding routes to Chitral or India north of the Khyber, as
well «» the Kabul-Peshawar road.
JALAP, a cathartic drug consisting of the tuberous roots of
Ipnmnto Purga, a convolvulaceous plant growing on the eastern
<|/<livlt!*» of the Mexican Andes at an elevation of 5000 to
t~*, \\, shove the level of the sea, more especially about the
ttt JtfM"fijrJi<Jod of Chiconquiaco, and near San Salvador on the
f •Mt»rii »l«pe <t1 I he ^oirc de Perote. Jalap has been known in
f,.,M'ff» slfiin Ihff beginning of the 17th century, and derives its
fnm* f»»rn l'" 1 illy °1 Jalap* in Mexico, near which it grows,
|,.<f IU ImlNiilfNl source was not accurately determined until
in :j, when \)f, J. K. I'osopf Philadelphia published a description
JAKOVA— JALAP
and coloured figure taken from living plants sent him two yeais
previously from Mexico. The jalap plant has slender herbaceous
twining stems, with alternately placed heart-shaped pointed
leaves and salver-shaped deep purplish-pink flowers. The
underground stems are slender and creeping; their vertical roots
enlarge and form turnip-shaped tubers. The roots are dug up
in Mexico throughout the year, and are suspended to dry .in a
net over the hearth of the Indians 1 huts, and hence acquire a
smoky odour. The large tubers are often gashed to cause them
to dry more quickly. In their form they vary from spindle-
shaped to ovoid or globular, and in size from a pigeon's egg to a
man's fist. Externally they are brown and marked with small
transverse paler scars, and internally they present a dirty white
Jalap {Ipomata Purga); about half natural size.
resinous or starchy fracture. The ordinary drug is distinguished
in commerce as Vera Cruz jalap, from the name of the port
whence it is shipped.
Jalap has been cultivated for many years in India, chiefly at
Ootacamund, and grows there as easily as a yam, often producing
clusters of tubers weighing over 9 lb; but these, as they differ in
appearance from the commercial article, have not as yet obtained
a place in the English market. They are found, however, to be
rich in resin, containing 18%. In Jamaica also the plant has
been grown, at first amongst the cinchona trees, but more recently
in new ground, as it was found to exhaust the soiL
Besides Mexican or Vera Cruz jalap, a drug called Tampico
jalap has been imported for some years in considerable quantity.
It has a much more shrivelled appearance and paler colour than
ordinary jalap, and lacks the small transverse scars present in
the true drug. This kind of jalap, the Purga de Sierra Gorda
of the Mexicans, was traced by Hanbury to Ipcmaec simulant.
JALAPA— JALISCO
it grows in Mexico along the mountain range of the Sierra Gorda
in the neighbourhood of San Luis de la Pas, from which district
it is carried down to Tampico, whence it is exported. A third
variety of jalap known as woody jalap, male jalap, or Orizaba
toot, or by the Mexicans as Purgo macho, is derived from
Ipwmaea orizabaisis, a plant of Orizaba. The toot occurs in
fibrous pieces, which are usually rectangular blocks of irregular
shape, a in. or more in diameter, and are evidently portions of a
large root. It is only occasionally met with in commerce.
The dose of jalap is from five to twenty grains, the British Phar-
macopeia directing that it must contain From 9 to n % of the
resin, which is given in doses of two to five grains. One preparation
of this drug is m common use, the Pubis Jalapas Composilus, which
consists of 5 parts of jalap, 9 of cream of tartar, and 1 of ginger.
The dose is from 20 grains to a drachm. It is best given in the
maximum dose which causes the minimum of irritation.
The chief constituents of jalap resin are two glucosides — comot-
ndin and jalapin — sugar, starch and gum. Convolvulia constitutes
nearly 20 % ol the resin. It is insoluble in ether, and is more active
than jalapin. It is not used separately in medicine. Jalapin is
present in about the same proportions. It dissolves readily in ether,
and has a soft resinous consistence. It may be given in half-grain
doses. It is the active principle of the allied drug scammony.
According to Mayer, the formula of convolvulin is C44H JL)«, and that
of jalapin CuHmOm.
jalap is a typical hydragogue purgative, causing the excretion of
more Quid than scammony, but producing less stimulation of the
muscular wall of the bowel. For both reasons it is preferable to
scammony. It was shown by Professor Rutherford at Edinburgh
to be a powerful secretory cholagogue, an action possessed by few
hydragogue purgatives. The stimulation of the liver is said to
depend upon the solution of the resin by the intestinal secretion.
The drug is largely employed in cases of Bright's disease and dropsy
from any cause, being especially useful when the liver shares in the
general venous congestion. It is not much used in ordinary constipa-
tion.
JALAPA, Xalapa, or Halapa, a city of the state of Vera Cruz,
Mexico, 70 m. by rail N.W. of the port of Vera Cruz. Pop.
(1900), 20,388. It is picturesquely situated on the slopes of the
sierra which separates the central plateau from the tierra calunle
of the Gulf Coast, at an elevation of 4300 ft., and with the Cofre
de Perote behind it rising to a height of 13,419 ft. Its climate
is cool and healthy and the town is frequented in the hot season
by the wealthier residents of Vera Cruz. The city is well built,
in the old Spanish style. Among its public buildings are a fine
old church, a Franciscan convent founded by Cortez in 1556, and
three hospitals, one of which, that of San Juan dc Dios, dates
from colonial times. The neighbouring valleys and slopes are
fertile, and in the forests of this region is found the plant (jalap),
which takes its name from the place. Jalapa was for a time the
capital of the state, but its political and commercial importance
has declined since the opening of the railway between Vera
Cruz and the dty of Mexico. It manufactures pottery and
leather.
JALAUN, a town and district of British India, In the Allahabad
division of the United Provinces. Pop. of town (1901), 8573.
Formerly it was the residence of a Mahratta governor, but never
the headquarters of the district, which are at Orai.
The District or Jalaun has an area of 1477 sq. m. It lies
entirely within the level plain of Bundelkhand, north of the hill
country, and is almost surrounded by the Jumna and its tribu-
taries the Betwa and Pahuj. The central region thus enclosed
is a dead level of cultivated land, almost destitute of trees, and
sparsely dotted with villages. The southern portion presents
almost one unbroken sheet of cultivation. The boundary rivers
form the only interesting feature in Jalaun. The river Non
flows through the centre of the district, which it drains by
innumerable small ravines instead- of watering. Jafaun has
suffered much from the noxious kans grass, owing to the spread
qf which many villages have been abandoned and their lands
thrown out of cultivation. Pop. (1001), 399,726, showing aa
increase of 1%. The two largest towns are Kunch (15,888),
and Karpi (10,139). The district is traversed by the line of the
Indian Midland railway from Jhansi to Cawnpore. A small part
of it is watered by the Betwa canaL Grain, oil-seeds, cotton
and g*# are exported.
' In early times Jalaun seems to have been the home of two
Rajput dans, the Chandel* in the east and the Kachwahas in
the west. The town of Kalpi on the Jumna was conquered for the
princes of Ghor as early as 1196. Early in the 14th century the
Bnndelas occupied the greater part of Jalaun, and even succeeded
in holding the fortified post of Kalpi. That important possession
was soon recovered by the Mussulmans, and passed under the
sway of the Mogul emperors. Akbar's governors at Kalpi
maintained a nominal authority over the surrounding district;
and the Bundda chiefs were in a state of chronic revolt, which
culminated in the war of independence under Chhatar Sal. On
the outbreak of his rebellion in 1671 he occupied a large province
to the south of the Jumna, Setting out from this basis, and
assisted by the Mahrattas, he reduced the whole of Bundelkhand.
On his death he bequeathed one-third of his dominions to his
Mahratta allies, who before long succeeded in annexing the whole
of Bundelkhand. Under Mahratta rule the country was a prey
to constant anarchy and intestine strife. To this period must
be traced the origin of the poverty and desolation which are still
conspicuous throughout the district. In 1806 Kalpi was made
over to the British, and in 1840, on the death of Nana Gobind
Ras, ms possession* lapsed to them also. Various Interchanges
of territory took place, and in 1856 the present boundaries were
substantially settled. Jalaun had a bad reputation during the
Mutiny. When the news of the rising at Cawnpore reached
Kalpi, the men of the 53rd native infantry deserted their officers,
and in June the Jhansi mutineers Teached the district, and began
their murder of Europeans. The inhabitants everywhere
revelled in the licence of plunder and murder which the Mutiny
had spread through all Bundelkhand, and it was not till Septem-
ber 1858 that the rebels were finally defeated.
JALISCO, Xaxjbco, or Guadalajara, a Pacific coast state
of Mexico, of very irregular shape, bounded, beginning on the
N., by the territory of Tepic and the states of Durango, Zacatecas,
Aguas Calientes, Guanajuato, Michoacan, and Colima. Pop.
(1900), 1,153391* Area, 31,846 sq.m. Jalisco is traversed from
N.N.W. to S.S.E. by the Sierra Madre, locally known as the
Sierra de Nayarit and Sierra de Jalisco, which divides the state
into a low heavily forested coastal plain and a. high plateau
region, part of the great Anahuac table-land, with an average
elevation of about 5000 ft., broken by spurs and flanking ranges
of moderate height* The sierra region is largdy volcanic and
earthquakes are frequent; in the S. are the active volcanoes of
Colima (3 2,750 ft.) and the Nevadode Colima (14,563) ft). The
tierra calUntc cone of the coast is tropical, humid, and unfavour-
able to Europeans, while the inland plateaus vary from sub-
tropical to temperate and are generally drier and healthful.'
The greater part of the state is drained by the Rio Grande de
Lerma (called the Santiago on its lower course) and its tribu-
taries, chief of which is the Rio Verde. Lakes are numerous;
the largest are the Chapala, about 80 m. long by 10 to 35 m. wide,
which is considered one of the most beautiful inland sheets of
water in Mexico, the Sayula and the Magdalena, noted for their
abundance of fish. The agricultural products of Jalisco include
Indian corn, wheat and beans on the uplands, and sugar-cane,
cotton, rice, indigo and tobacco in the warmer districts. Rubber
and palm oil arc natural forest products of the coastal zone.
Stock-raising is an important .occupation in some of the more
elevated districts. The mineral resources indude silver, gold,
dnnabar, copper, bismuth, and various precious stones. There
arc reduction works of the old-fashioned type and some manu-
factures, including cotton and woollen goods, pottery, refined
sugar and leather. The commercial activities of the state
contribute much to its prosperity. There is a large percentage
of Indians and mestizos *in the population. The capital is
Guadalajara, and other important towns with their populations
in 1000 (unless otherwise stated) are: Zapotlancjo (20,275), 21 m.
E. by N. of Guadalajara; Ciudad Guzman (17,374 in 1895),
60 m. N.E. of Colima; Lagos (14,716 in 1895), a mining town
100 m. E.N.E. of Guadalajara on the Mexican Central railway;
Tamazula (8.783 in 1895); Sayula (7883); Autlan (7715);
Teocaltiche (8881); Ameca (7212 in 1895), in a fertile agricultural
*3*
uaiuii on the western alopes of tbc sierxas? Cocuja (7090 in
uw>>. aod Zacoalco (651O). Jalisco was first invaded by the
vmiuahU about i$a6 and was soon afterwards conquered by
N u ,v de Cuamatn. It once formed part of the reyno of Nuey*
^lui*. %hwb afco included Aguas Cahentes and ZaaUecas. In
7^ g a% *tv* w*» much reduced by a subdivision of its coastal
^ik *^h *** act apart as the territory of Tepic.
JAUUL v* Uvlna, a town in Hyderabad state, India, on the
.. t^au Uw^vb of tUo Nizam's railway, and aio m. N.E. of
Z M v*. kViv U^pi). »o.a 7 o. Until 1003 it was a cantonment
,h -k ls>^*U4 vuntingoiU, originally established in 18*7. Its
. -J\w*.* ttuit, which is largely exported. On the
£,£.w Li* v4 tbc river Kundlika is the trading town of
l kM , u W. iHH v V*SK»)t »M59- . # „ . . .
4 AJl**W0KU in Juumoosee, a town and distnet of British
>, "^TiW KAi»h*hi division of Eastern Bengal and Assam.
iT*\ ♦ * ^ tfc* light bank of the river Tista, with a station
w V a ..«.><«» ttvuaal railway about 500 m. due N. of Calcutta,
^* ^ \ v 'v** It l* the headquartera of the commissioner
" H ^ V^Ik < vv# Jmj'AIQUM (organized in 1869) occupies an
<." V *X*s*>a tract south of Darjeeling and Bhutan and
i%v, T ' vT^w of Kuch Bebar. It includes the Western
" * ' v^i Hv»u Uhuian after thewarof 1864-1865. Area,
' " "* " ^wv UooOi 7 8 7*3*°» an increase of 16% in the
^ ** ^ ^ ^ *u*st 1* divided into a M regulation " tract, lying
»* - ** wfcl u * v »», * n d a strip of country, about 2* m. in
* *" <% ***»* tho foot of the Himalayas, and known as
, . v » "^ S ^ %AI<4 The former is a continuous expanse of
K " * v " ^ ^ vnUy broken by groves of bamboos, palms,
v * v N * ^ hv (wilier towards Bhutan is formed by the
^ , * * »•«*«% aumo peaks of whichattain an elevation
x . v h *•*** ^" ^ iKiUly wooded from base to summit. The
» VnV ** N ^ ^vsv^liug from west to cast, are the Mahan-
: **^ " *\„ fc twu* Jaldhaka, Duduya, Mujnai, Tursa,
1 v *~ * % ^ j^ S^nkos. The most important is the
*> • V * *, .„» * valuable means of water communication.
* v * :. .Vk^erHhutan bills. The Western Dwars
* K <* ^ *>-.■. w vi lea cultivation in Eastern Bengal.
" '* ", * -• v- ^ district produces jute. Jalpaiguri is
1 *» '" K * ** \ K «*. * Uu* of the Eastern Bengal railway to
• ->' ** * x / K .)^*uvd by the Bengal Dwars railway.
JALMA^-JAMAICA
.V *-*v>^
*Und In the British West Indies. It
«^»*W% " v ^ ^ eastern extremity of Cuba, between
* -. »** • * H w . \ » si »9* io* and 78 ao' W., is 144 m. long,
n •* * v ^ >, s «^t V *ml has an area of 4207 sq. m. The
. * ,rt *^ ""^ t» •* ^ * lurtlt, the mountain ridges repre-
- ■ *•* fc ** \ \ *^"»t*l»ous backbone runs through the
**" ^ % vowing off a number of subsidiary
* \ v -k •-* > **»lwy or soutn-eastcrly direction.
" ' " ^ .**■ * *^^ distinctly marked, forming the
* ' V4( > -,'V^l tapped peaks and numerous
* ' , \- '*%> iwnd W. by N., and are crossed
* m ,t^ v x«ng from 3000 to 4000 ft. They
* ^. " v «i* Vvak (7360 ft.), after which the
i.« .* «M4 ttuurangc is merged into the
' v »u-., Two-thirds of the island are
^ . fc *.tsU,\u, a region of great beauty
t v ts • v \ • and sink-holes, and covered
•V wplnnds usually terminate in
♦,w is»«> the sea, in most cases, by a
t v u. \ wmit, especially, the plains
. nik on which Kingston stands,
/ . w.vr.vhU of a hundred rivers and
1. x .^m V*ldcs the numerous tribu-
£ .«* k *n the mountains. These
nt . ♦. tablr, and in times of flood
c. 11 the parish of Portland,
E" « < "butanes from the west.
na « i.tgc is drained by the
hul . . of which form deep
18*, . v 4 [Up IM.nt.in Garden
expands into a picturesque and fertile plain. The Black river
flows through a level country, and is navigable by small era It
for about 30 m. The Salt river and the Cabaritta, also in the
south, are navigable by barges. Other rivers of the south ace
the Rio Cobre (on which are irrigation works for the sugar and
fruit plantations), the Yallahs and the Rio Minho; in the north
are the Martha Brae, the White river, the Great Spanish river,
and the Rio Grande. Vestiges of intermittent volcanic action
occur, and. there are several medicinal springs. Jamaica has
x6 harbours, the chief of which are Port Morant. Kingston, Old
Harbour, Montego Bay, Falmouth, St Ann's Bay, Port Maria
and Port Antonio.
Geology. — The greater part of Jamaica is covered by Tertiary
deposits, but in the Bhie Mountain and some of the other ranges tbe
older rocks rise to the surface. The foundation of the island x%
formed by a series of stratified shales and conglomerates, with tuffs
and other volcanic rocks and occasional bands of marine limestone.
The limestones contain Upper Cretaceous fossils, and the whole
series has been strongly folded. Upon this foundation rests un-
conformably a series of marls and limestones of Eocene and early
Oligocene age. Some of the limestones are made of Foraminifera,
together Witn Radiolaria, and indicate a subsidence to abyssal depths.
Nevertheless, the higher peaks of the island still remained above the
sea. Towards the middle of the Oligocene period, mountain folding
took place on an extensive scale, and the island was raised far above
its present level and was probably connectetl with the rest of the
Greater Antilles and perhaps with the mainland also. At the same
time pi u tonic rocks ot various kinds were intruded into the deposits
already formed, and in some cases produced considerable meta-
morphrsm. During the Miocene and Pliocene periods the island again
sank, but never to the depths which it reached in the Eocene period.
The deposits formed were shallow-water conglomerates, marls and
limestones, with tnollusca, brachiopoda, corals, &c Finally, a
series of successive elevations of small amount, less than 500 ft.
in the aggregate, raised the island to its present level. The terraces
which mark the successive stages in this elevation are well shown in
Montego Bay and elsewhere. The remarkable depressions of the
Cockpit country and the closed basin of the Hector river are similar
in origin to swallow-holes, and were formed bv the solution of a
limestone layer resting upon insoluble rocks. The island produces a
great variety of marbles, porphyrites, granite and ochres. Traces of
gold have been found associated with some of the oxidized copper
ores (blue and green carbonates) in the Clarendon mines. Copper
ores arc widclv diffused but are very expensive to work; as are the
lead and cobalt which are also found. Manganese iron ores and a
form of arsenic occur.
Climate. — The climate is one of the island's chief attractions.
Near the coast it is warm and humid, but that pf the uplands is
delightfully mild and equable. At Kingston the temperature
ranges from 70*7° to 87*8° F., and this is generally the average
of all the low-lying coast land. At Cinchona, 4007 ft. above
the sea, it varies from 57-5° to 685°. The vapours from the
rivers and the ocean produce in the upper regions clouds saturated
with moisture which induce vegetation belonging to a colder
climate. During the rainy seasons there is such an accumulauoa
of these vapours as to cause a general coolness and occasion
sudden heavy showers, and sometimes destructive floods. The
rainy seasons, in May and October, last for about three weeks,
although, as a rule no month is quite without rain. Tbe fall
varies greatly; while the annual average for the island is 663 in.,
at Kingston it is 326 in., at Cinchona 105- 5 in., and at some
places in the north-east it exceeds 200 in. The climate of the
Santa Cruz Mountains is extremely favourable to sufferers fron
tubercular and rheumatic diseases. Excepting near morasses
and lagoons, the island is very healthy, and yellow fever, once
prevalent, now rarely occurs. In the early part of the 19th
century, hurricanes often devastated Jamaica, but now, though
they pass to the N.E. and S.W. with comparative frequency,
they rarely strike the island itself.
FTera. — The flora is remarkable, showing types from North,
Central, and South America, with a few European forms, besides
the common plants found everywhere in the tropics. Of flowering
plants there arc 21-80 distinct species, and of ferns 450 specks,
several of both being indigenous. The largeness of these numbers
may be to some extent accounted for by differences of altitude,
temperature and humidity. There are many beautiful Howcr*.
such as the aloe, the yucca, the datura the mountain pride and the
Victoria rtgia ; and the cactus tribe is well represented. The Smwtive
Plant grows in pastures, and orchids in the woods. There are forest
trees fit for every purpose; including the tatttta, rosewood, tatfe*
wood, mahogany, lignum vitae, lancewood and ebony. T 1 — ' od
and fustic are exported for dyeing. There are also t ica
cedar, and the silk cotton tree (Ceiba Bombax). Pimento to
Jamaica) is indigenous, and furnishes the allspice. Tl »,
cofft>c and cocoa are well known. Several species of pa >d,
— the macaw, the Ian palm, screw palm, and palmetto re sre
are plantations of coco-nut palm. The other noticeabl nd
plants are the mango, the breadfruit tree, the papaw, t irk
tree, and the guava. The Patma Ckristi, from which < is
made, is a very abundant annual. English vegetables i he
hills, and the plains produce plantains, cocoa, yams, cast , ra,
beans, pease, ginger and arrowroot. # Maize and guinea-corn are
cultivated, and the guinea-grass, accidentally introduced in 1750,
is very valuable for horses and cattle,— 40 much so that pen-keeping
or cattle farming is a highly profitable occupation. Among the
principal fruits are the orange, shaddock, lime, grape or cluster
fruit, pine-apple, mango, banana, grapes, melons, avocado pear,
breadfruit, ana tamarind.
Fauna. — There are fourteen torts of Umpyridae or fireflies,
besides the etateridae or lantern beetles. There are no venomous
serpents, but numerous harmless snakes and lizards exist. The land-
crab is considered a table delicacy, and the land-turtle also is eaten.
The scorpion and centipede, though poisonous, arc not very danger-
ous. Ants, sandflies and mosquitoes swarm in the lowlands. There
are twenty different song-birds, and forty-three varieties of birds
are presumed to be peculiar to the island. The sea and the rivers
swarm with fish. Turtles abound, and the sea), the manatee and
the crocodile are sometimes found. The coral reefs, with their
varied polyps and anemones, the numerous atcyonafians and diverse
coraUdweUing animals are readily accessible to the student, and the
island is also celebrated for the number of species of its land-shells.
People. — The population of the island was estimated in 1905
at 806,690. Jamaica is rich in traces of its former Arawak
inhabitants. Aboriginal pctaloid celts and other implements,
flattened skulls and vessels are common, and images are some-
times found in the large limestone caverns of the island. The
present inhabitants, of whom only 2% are white, include
Maroons, the descendants of the slaves of the Spaniards who fled
into the interior when the island was captured by the British;
descendants of imported African slaves; mixed race of British
and African blood; coolies from India; a few Chinese, and the
British officials and white settlers. The Maroons live by them-
selves and are few in number, while the half-castes enter into
trade and sometimes into the professions. The number of white
inhabitants other than British is very small. A negro peasant
population is encouraged, with a view to its being a support
to the industries of the island; but, in many cases a field negro
will not work for his employer more than four days a week. He
may till his own plot of ground on one of the other days or not,
as the spirit moves him, but four days' work a week will keep
him easily. He has little or no care for the future. He has
probably squatted on someone's land, and has no rent to pay.
Clothes he need hardly buy, fuel he needs only for cooking, and
food is ready to his hand for the picking. Unfortunately a
widespread indulgence in predial larceny is a great hindrance
to agriculture as well as to moral progress. But that habits of
thrift axe being inculcated is shown by the steady increase in
the accounts in the government savings banks. That gross
superstition is still prevalent is shown by the cases of obeah or
witchcraft that come before the courts from time to time.
Another indication of the status of the negro may be found in
the fact that more than 60% of the births are illegitimate, a
percentage that shows an unfortunate tendency to increase
rather than diminish.
The capital, Kingston, stands on the south-east coast, and near
it is the town of Port Royal. Spanish Town (pop. 5010), the former
capital, is in the parish of St Catherine, Middlesex, 1 1 f m. by rail
west of Kingston. Since the removal of the seat of government to
Kingston, the town has gradually sunk m importance. In the
cathedral many of the governors of the island are buried. A marble
statue of Rodney commemorates his victory over the count de
Crasse off Dominica in 1782. Montego Bay (pop. 4801), on the
north-west coast, is the second town on the island, ana is. also a
favourite bathing resort. Port Antonio (1784) lies between two
secure harbours on the north-east, and owes its prosperity mainly
to the development of the trade in fruit, for which it is the chief
place of shipment.
Industries. — Agricultural enterprise falls Into two classes— plant-
ing and pen-keeping, i.e. the breeding of horses, mules, cattle and
sheep. The chief products are bananas, oranges, coffee, sugar.
JAMAICA 133
rum, logwood, cocoa, pimento, ginger, coco-nuts, limes, nutmegs,
pineapples, tobacco, grape-fruit and mangoes. There is a board of
agriculture, with an experimental station at Hope ; there is also an
agricultural society with 26 branches throughout the colony. Bee-
keeping is a growing industry, especially among the peasants. The
land as a rule is divided into small holdings, the vast majority
consisting of five acres and less. The manufactures are few. In
addition to the sugar and coffee estates and cigar factories, there
are tanneries, distilleries, breweries, electric light and gas works,
konfoundries, potteries and factories for the production of coco*
nut oil, essential oils, ice, matches and mineral waters. There is
an important establishment at Spanish Town for the production of
logwood extract. The exports, more than half of which go to the
United States, mostly comprise fruit, sugar and rum. The United
States also contributes the majority of the imports. More than half
the revenue of the colony is derived f romimport duties, the remainder
is furnished by excise, stamps and licences. With the exception of
that of the parish boards, there is no direct taxation.
Communications.— In iooo an Imperial Direct West India Line
of steamers was started by Elder, Dempster & Co., to encourage
the fruit trade with England; it had a subsidy of £40,000, contri-
buted jointly by the Imperial and Jamaican governments. Twe
steamers go round the island once a week, calling at the principal
ports, the circuit occupying about 120 hours. A number of sailing
' droghers " also ply from port to port. Jamaica has a number
of good roads and bridle paths; the main roads, controlled by the
public works department, encircle the island, with several branches
from north to south. The parochial roads are maintained by the
parish boards. A railway traverses the island from Kingston in the
south-east to Montego Bay in the north-west, and also branches to
Port Antonio and to Ewarton. Jamaica is included in the Postal
Union and in the Imperial penny post, and there is a weekly mail
service to and from England by the Royal Mail Line, but mails are
also carried by other companies. The island is connected by cable
with the United States via Cuba, and with Halifax, Nova Scotia
via Bermuda.
There is a government savings bank at Kingston with branches
throughout the island, and there arc also branches of the Colonial
Bank of London and the Bank of Nova Scotia. The coins in cir-
culation are British gold and silver, but not bronze, instead of which
local nickel is used. United States gold passes as currency. English
weights and measures are used.
Administration, be. — The island is divided into three counties,
Surrey in the east, Middlesex in the centre, 'and Cornwall
in the west, and each of these is subdivided into five parishes.
The parish is the unit of local government, and has jurisdic-
tion over toads, markets, sanitation, poor relief and water-
works. The management is vested in a parish board, the
member* of which are elected. The chairman or custos is
appointed by the governor. The island is administered by
a governor, who bears the old Spanish title of captain-general,
assisted by a legislative council of five ex officio members,
not more than ten nominated members, and fourteen members
elected on a limited, suffrage. There is also a privy council
Of three ex officio and not more than eight nominated members.
There is an Imperial garrison of about 2000 officers and men*
with headquarters at Newcastle, consisting x>f Royal Engineers,
Royal Artillery, infantry and four companies of the West India
Regiment. There is a naval station at Port Royal, and the
entrance to Us harbour is strongly fortified In addition there
is a militia of infantry and artillery, about 800 strong.
Previous to 1870 the Church of England was established, in
Jamaica, but in that year a disestablishment act was passed
which provided for gradual disendowment. It is still the most
numerous body, and is presided over by the bishop of Jamaica,
who is also archbishop of the West Indies. The Baptists,
1 3+ JAMAICA
Wealeyans, Presbyterians, Moravians and Roman Catholics are
all represented; there is a Jewish synagogue at Kingston, and
the Salvation Army has a branch on the island. The Church of
England maintains many schools, a theological college, a deacon-
esses' home and an orphanage. The Baptists have a theological
college; and the Roman Catholics support a training college for
teachers, two industrial schools and two orphanages. Elemen-
tary education is in private hands, but fostered, since 1867, by
government grants; it is free but not compulsory, although the
governor has the right to compel the attendance of all children
from 6 to 14 years of age in such towns and districts as he may
designate. The teachers in these schools are for the most part
trained in the government-aided training colleges of the various
denominations. For higher education there are the University
College and high school at Hope near Kingston, Potsdam School
in St Elizabeth, the Mico School and Wolmer's Free School in
Kingston, founded (for boys and girls) in 1729, the Mont ego
Bay secondary school, and numerous other endowed and self-
supporting establishments. The Cambridge Local Examinations
have been held regularly since 1882.
Hii/ory.— Jamaica was discovered by Columbus on the 3rd
of May 1404. Though he called it Santiago, it has always been
known by its Indian name Jaymaca, " the island of springs,"
modernized in form and pronunciation into Jamaica. Except-
ing that in 1505 Columbus once put in for shelter, the island
remained unvisited until 1509, when Diego, the discoverer's
son, sent Don Juan d'Esquivel to take possession, and thence-
forward it passed under Spanish rule. Sant' Iago de la Vega, or
Spanish Town, which remained the capital of the island until
1872, was founded in 1523. Sir Anthony Shirley, a British
admiral, attacked the island in 1596, and plundered and burned
the capital, but did not follow up his victory. Upon his retire-
ment the Spaniards restored their capital and were unmolested
until 1635, when the island was again raided by the British under
Colonel Jackson. The period of the Spanish occupation is
mainly memorable for the annihilation of the gentle and peaceful
Arawak Indian inhabitants; Don Pedro d'Esquivel was one of
their cruellest oppressors. The whole island was divided among
eight noble Spanish families, who discouraged immigration to
such an extent that when Jamaica was taken by the British the
white and slave population together did not exceed 3000. Under
the vigorous foreign policy of Cromwell an attempt was made to
crush the Spanish power in the West Indies, and an expedition
under Admirals Perm and Venablcs succeeded in capturing and
holding Jamaica in 1655. The Spanish were entirely expelled
in 165S. Their slaves then took to the mountains, and down to
the end of the 18th century the disaffection of these Maroons,
as they were called, caused constant trouble. Jamaica con-
tinued to be governed by military authority until 1661, when
Colonel D'Oyley was appointed captain-general and governor-
in-chief with an executive council, and a constitution was
introduced resembling that of England. He was succeeded in
the next year by Lord Windsor, under whom a legislative
council was established. Jamaica soon became the chief resort
of the buccaneers, who not infrequently united the characters
of merchant or planter with that of pirate or privateer. By
the Treaty of Madrid, 1670, the British title to the island was
recognized, and the buccaneers were suppressed. The Royal
African Company was formed in 167 s with a monopoly of the
slave trade, and from this time Jamaica was one of the greatest
slave marts in the world. The sugar-industry was introduced
about this period, the first pot of sugar being sent to London in
1673. An attempt was made in 1678 to saddle the island with
a yearly tribute to the Crown and to restrict the free legisla-
ture. The privileges of the legislative assembly, however, were
restored in 1682; but not till 46 years later was the question of
revenue settled by a compromise by which Jamaica undertook
to settle £8000 (an amount afterwards commuted to £6000) per
annum on the Crown, provided that English statute laws were
made binding in Jamaica.
During these years of political struggle the colony was thrice
afflicted by nature. A great earthquake occurred in 1692, when
the chief part of the town of Port Royal, buUt oh a shelving
bank of sand, slipped into the sea. Two dreadful hurricanes
devastated the island in 1712 and 1722, the second of which did
so much damage that the seat of commerce had to be transferred
from Port Royal to Kingston.
The only prominent event in the history of the island during
the later years of the 18th century, was the threatened invasion
by the French and Spanish in 1782, but Jamaica was saved by
the victory of Rodney and Hood off Dominica. The last attempt
at invasion was made in 1806, when the French were defeated
by Admiral Duckworth. When the slave trade was abolished
the island was at the zenith of its prosperity; sugar, coffee,
cocoa, pimento, ginger and indigo were being produced in large
quantities, and it was the depot of a very lucrative trade with the
Spanish main. The anti-slavery agitation in Great Britain
found its echo in the island, and in 1832 the negroes revolted,
believing that emancipation had been granted. They killed a
number of whites and destroyed a large amount of valuable
property. Two years later the Emancipation Act was passed,
and, subject to a short term of apprenticeship, the slaves were
free. Emancipation left the planters in a pitiable condition
financially. The British government awarded them conpensa-
tion at the rate of £19 per slave, the market value of slaves at
the time being £35, but most of this compensation went into the
hands of the planters' creditors. They were left with over-
worked estates, a poor market and a scarcity of labour. Nor
was this the end of their misfortunes. During the slavery times
the British government had protected the planter by imposing
a heavy differential duty on foreign sugar; but on the introduc-
tion of free trade the price of sugar fell by one-half and reduced
the profits of the already impoverished planter. Many estates,
already heavily mortgaged, were abandoned, and the trade of
the bland was at a standstill. Differences between the executive,
the legislature, and the home government, as to the means of
retrenching the public expenditure, created much bitterness.
Although some slight improvement marked the administration
of Sir Charles Metcalfe and the earl of Elgin, when coolie immi-
gration was introduced to supply the scarcity and irregularity
of labour and the railway was opened, the improvement was not
permanent. In 1865 Edward John Eyre became governor.
Financial affairs were at their lowest ebb and the colonial
treasury showed a deficit of £80,000. To meet this difficulty
new taxes were imposed and discontent was rife among the
negroes. Dr Underbill, the secretary of a Baptist organization
known as the British Union, wrote to the colonial secretary in
London, pointing out the state of affairs. This letter became
public in Jamaica, and in the opinion of the governor added m
no small measure to the popular excitement. On the nth of
October 1865 the negroes rose at Morant Bay and murdered the
custos and most of the white inhabitants. The slight encounter
which followed filled the island with terror, and there is no doubt
that many excesses were committed on both sides. The assembly
passed an act by whkh martial law *was proclaimed, and the
legislature passed an act abrogating the constitution.
The action of Governor Eyre, though generally approved
throughout the West Indies, caused much controversy in Eng-
land, and he was recalled. A prosecution was instituted against
him, resulting in an elaborate exposition of martial law by
Chief Justice Cockburn, but the jury threw out the bill and Eyre
was discharged. He was succeeded in the government of
Jamaica by Sir Henry Storks, and under the crown colony
system of government the state of the island made slow but
steady progress. In 1868 the first fruit shipment took place
from Port Antonio, the immigration of coolies was revived, and
cinchona planting was introduced. The method of government
was changed in 1884, when a new constitution, slightly modinVd
in 1895, was granted to the island.
In the afternoon of the 14th of January 1907 a terrible earth-
quake visited Kingston. Almost every building in the capital
and in Port Royal, and many in St Andrews, were destroyed or
seriously injured. The loss of life was variously estimated, but
probably exceeded one thousand. Among those killed was
JAMAICA—JAMES
Sir James Ferguson, 6th baronet (b. 183a). The principal shock
was followed by many more of slighter intensity during the
ensuing fortnight and later. On the 17 th of January assistance
was brought by three American warships under Rear-Admiral
Davis, who however withdrew them on the 19th, owing to a
misunderstanding with the governor -of the island, Sir Alexander
Swettenham, on the subject of the landing of marines from the
vessels with a view to preserving order. The incident caused
considerable sensation, and led to Sir A. Swettenham's resigna-
tion in the following March, Sir Sydney Olivier, K.C.M.G., being
appointed governor. Order was speedily restored; but the
destructive effect of the earthquake was a severe check to the
prosperity of the island.
Sec Bryai 30,
and appendi ica
(London, It tok
(London, an P.
Livingstone, tea
Jamaicmsis try
(1900); W.J *or
JAMAICA* formerly a village of Queens county, Long
Island, New York, U.S.A., but after the 1st of January 1898 a
part of the borough of Queens, New York City. Pop. (1800)
5361. It is served by the Long Island railroad, the lines of
which from Brooklyn and Manhattan meet 'here and then
separate to serve the different regions of the island. 1 King's
Park (about 10 acres) comprises the estate of John Alsop King
(1788-1867), governor of New York in 1857-1859, from whose
heirs in 1897 the land was purchased by the village trustees. In
South Jamaica there is a race track, at which meetings are held
in the spring and autumn. The headquarters of the Queens
Borough Department of Public Works and Police are in the
Jamaica town-hall, and Jamaica is the seat of a city training
school for teachers (until 1905 one of the New York State normal
schools). For two guns, a coat, and a quantity of powder and
lead, several New Englanders obtained from the Indians a deed
for a tract of land here in September 1655. In March 1657 they
received permission from Governor Stuyvesant to found a town,
which was chartered in 1660 and was named Rustdorp by
Stuyvesant, but the English called it Jamaica; it was rechar-
tered in 1666, 1686 and 1788. The village was incorporated in
1814 and reincorporated in 1855. In 1665 it was made the seat
of justice of the north riding; in 1 683-1 788 it was the shire town
of Queens county. With Hempstead, Gravesend, Newtown
and Flushing, also towns of New England origin and type,
Jamaica was early disaffected towards the provincial government
of New York. In 1669 these towns complained that they had
no representation in a popular assembly, and in 1670 they pro-
tested against taxation without representation. The founders
of Jamaica were mostly Presbyterians, and they organized one
of the first Presbyterian churches in America. At the begin-
ning of the War of Independence Jamaica was under the control
of Loyalists; after the defeat of the Americans in the battle
of Long Island (27th August 1776) it was occupied by the
British; and until the end of the war it was the headquarters
of General Oliver Delancey, who had command of all Long
Island.
JAMB (from Fr. jambc. leg), in architecture, the side-post or
fining of a doorway or other aperture. The jambs of a window
outside the frame are called " reveals." Small shafts to doors
and windows with caps and bases are known as " jamb-shafts ";
when in the inside arris of the jamb of a window they are some-
times called "scoinsons."
JAMES (a variant of the name Jacob, Heb. 3fg, one who
holds by the heel, outwitter, through O. Fr. James, another
form of Jacques, Joques, from Low Lat. Jacobus; cf . Ital. Jacopo
9 In June 1908 the subway lines of the interborough system of
New York City were extended to the Flatbush (Brooklyn) nation
of the Long Island railroad, thus bringing Jamaica into direct
connexion with Manhattan borough by way of the East river
tunnel, completed in the same year.
i35
{Jacob], Giacona [James], Prov. Jacme, Cat. Joume, Cast.
Jaime), a masculine proper name popular in Christian countries
as having been that of two of Christ 's apostles. It has been borne
by many sovereigns and other princes, the most important of
whom are noticed below, after the heading devoted to the
characters in the New Testament, in the following order:
(1) kings of England and Scotland, (2) other kings in the alpha-
betical order of their countries, (3) the "Old Pretender."
The article on the Epistle of James in the New Testament
follows after the remaining biographical articles in which James
is a surname.
JAMES (Gr. 'lanugos, the Heb. Yaakob or Jacob), the name of
several persons mentioned in the New Testament.
x, James, the son of Zebedee. He was among the first who
were called to be Christ's immediate followers (Mark i. 19 seq.;
Matt, iv. ax seq. , and perhaps Luke v. xo) , and afterwards obtained
an honoured place in the apostolic band, his name twice occupy-
ing the second place after Peter's in the lists (Mark iii. 17; Acts
i. 13), wmle on at least three notable occasions be was, along with
Peter and his brother John, specially chosen by Jesus to be with
him (Mark v. 37 ; Matt. xviL i, xzvi. 37). This same prominence
may have contributed partly to the title " Boanerges " or
"sons of thunder" which, according to Mark hi. 17, Jesus
himself gave to the two brothers. But its most natural inter-
pretation is to be found in the impetuous disposition which would
have called down fire from heaven on the offending Samaritan
villagers (Luke ix. 54), and afterwards found expression, though
in a different way, in the ambitious request to occupy the places
of honour m Christ 'skingdom (Mark x. 3 5 seq.)- James is included
among those who after the ascension waited at Jerusalem
(Acts i. 13) for the descent of the Holy Ghost on the day of
Pentecost. And though on this occasion only his name is
mentioned, he must have been a zealous and prominent member
of the Christian community, to judge from the fact that when a
victim had to be chosen from among the apostles, who should be
sacrificed to the animosity of the Jews, it was on James that
the blow fell first. The brief notice is given in Acts xii. 1, 2.
Eusebius {Hist. Ecd. ii. 9) has preserved for us from Clement
of Alexandria the additional information that the accuser of
the apostle "beholding bis confession and moved thereby,
confessed that he too was a Christian. So they were both led
away to execution together; and on the road the accuser asked
James for forgiveness. Gazing on him for a little while, he said,
1 Peace be with thee,' and kissed him. And then both were
beheaded together."
The later, and wholly untrustworthy, legends which tell of the
apostle's preaching in Spain, and of the translation of his body to
Santiago de Compostcla, are to be found in the Ada Sanctorum
(July 25), vi. 1-124; see also Mrs Jameson's Sacred and Legendary
Art, u 230-241.
2. James, the son of Alphaeus. He also was one of the
apostles, and is mentioned in all the four lists (Matt. x. 3; Mark
iii. 18; Luke vi. 15; Acts i. 13) by this name. We know nothing
further regarding him, unless we believe him to be the same as
James " the little."
3. Jame9, the little. He is described as the son of a Mary
(Matt, xxvii. 50; Mark xv. 40), who was in all probability the
wife of Clopas (John xix. 25). And on the ground that Clopas
is another form of the name Alphaeus, this James has been
thought by some to be the same as 2. But the evidence of the
Syriac versions, which render Alphaeus by Chalphai, while
Clopas is simply transliterated KUopha, makes it extremely
improbable that the two names are to be identified. And as
we have no better ground for finding in Clopas the Cleopas of
Luke xxiv. 18, we must be content to admit that James the little
is again an almost wholly unknown personality, and has no
connexion with any of the other Jameses mentioned in the New
Testament.
4. James, the father of Judas. There can be no doubt that
in the mention of " Judas of James " in Luke vi. 16 the ellipsis
should be supplied by " the son " and not as in the A. V. by " the
brother " (cf. Luke iii. 1, vi. 14; Acts xii. 2, where the word
136
JAMES I.
UtK^as is inserted). This Judas, known as Thaddaeus by
Matthew and Mark, afterwards became one of the apostles, and
is expressly distinguished by St John from the traitor as " not
Iscariot " (John riv. 22).
5. James, the Lord's brother. In Matt ziiL 55 and Mark
vi. 3 we read of a certain James as, along with Joses and Judas
and Simon, a " brother " of the Lord. The exact nature of the
relationship there implied has been the subject of much discussion.
Jerome's view (de vir. ill. 2), that the " brothers " were in reality
cousins, " sons of Mary the sister of the Lord's mother," rests
on too many unproved assumptions to be entitled to much weight,
and may be said to have been finally disposed of by Bishop
Lightfoot in his essay on " The Brothers of the Lord " (GalaUans,
pp. 252 sqq., Dissertations on the Apostolic Age, pp. 1 sqq.). Even
however if we understand the word " brethren " in its natural
sense, it may be applied either to the sons of Joseph by a former
wife, in which case they would be the step-brothers of Jesus,
or to sons born to Joseph and Mary after the birth of Jesus.
The former of these views, generally known as the Epiphonian
view from its most zealous advocate in the 4th century, can
claim for its support the preponderating voice of tradition (see
the catena of references given by Lightfoot, he. cit., who himself
inclines to this view). On the other hand the Helviduin theory
as propounded by Helvidius, and apparently accepted by Ter-
tullian (cf. ado. Marc. iv. 20), which makes James a brother of
the Lord, as truly as Mary was his mother, undoubtedly seems
more in keeping with the direct statements of the Gospels, and
also with the after history of the brothers in the Church
(see W. Patrick, James the Brother of the Lord, 1006, p. 5).
In any case, whatever the exact nature of James's antecedents,
there can be no question as to the important place which he
occupied in the early Church. Converted to a full belief in the
living Lord, perhaps through the special revelation that was
granted to him (1 Cor. xv. 7), he became the recognized head of
the Church at Jerusalem (Acts xii. 17, xv. 13, xxi. 18), and is
called by St Paul (GaL ii. 9), along with Peter and John, a "pillar"
of the Christian community. He was traditionally the author
of the epistle in the New Testament which bears his name
(see James, Epistle of). From the New Testament we learn
no more of the history of James the Lord's brother, but Eusebius
(Hist. Eccl. ii. 23) has preserved for us from Hegesippus the
earliest ecclesiastical traditions concerning him. By that authority
he is described as having been a Nazaritc, and on account of his
eminent righteousness. called " Just " and " Oblias.'* So great
was his influence with the people that he was appealed to by the
scribes and Pharisees for a true and (as they hoped) unfavourable
judgment about the Messiahship of Christ. Placed, to give the
greater publicity to his words, on a pinnacle of the temple, he,
when solemnly appealed to, made confession of his faith, and was
at once thrown down and murdered. This happened immedi-
ately before the siege. Josephus (Antiq. xx. 9, 1) tells that it
was by order of Ananus the high priest, in the interval between
the death of Festus and the arrival of his successor Albinus,
that James was put to death; and his narrative gives the idea
of some sort of judicial examination, for be says that along with
some others James was brought before an assembly of judges,
by whom they were condemned and delivered to be stoned.
Josephus is also cited by Eusebius {Hist. Eccl. ii. 23) to the effect
that the miseries of the siege were due to divine vengeance for
the murder of James. Later writers describe James as an
trloKovot (Clem. Al. apud Eus. Hist. Ecc. ii. x) and even as an
ivloKovos bnoKomw (Clem. Horn., ad inil.). According to
Eusebius (Hiit. Eccl. vii. 19) his episcopal chair was still shown
at Jerusalem at the time when Eusebius wrote.
Btbliookaphy. — In addition to the relevant literature cited above,
•ee the articles under the heading " lames " m Hastings'* Dictionary
9/ the Bible (Mayor) and Dutumojryof Christ and the Gospels (Fulford),
and in the Encycl. Biblica (O. Cone); also the introductions to the
Commentaries on the Epistle of James by Mayor and Knowling.
Zahn has an elaborate essay on BrUder und Vettern Jesu (" The
Brothers and Cousins of Jesus ") in the Forichunten tur CeschkkU
de$ nenUstamenUkhen Kanons, vi. » (Leipzig, 1900).
(G.Mi.) •
JAMES I. (1566-1625), king of Great Britain and Ireland,
formerly king of Scotland as James VI.,. was the only child of
Mary Queen of Scots, and her second husband, Henry Stewart
Lord Darnley. He was born in the castle of Edinburgh on the
19th of June 1566, and was proclaimed king of Scotland on the
24th of July 1567, upon the forced abdication of his mother.
Until 1578 he was treated as being incapable of taking any real
part in public affairs, and was kept in the castle of Stirling for
safety's sake amid the confused fighting of the early years of ha
minority.
The young king was a very weakly boy. It is said that he
could not stand without support until he was seven, and although
he lived until, he was nearly sixty, he was never a strong man.
In after life he was a constant and even a reckless rider, but the
weakness in his legs was never quite cured. During a great part
of his life he found it necessary to be tied to the saddle. When
on one occasion in 162 1 his horse threw him into the New River
near his palace of Theobalds in the neighbourhood of London,
he had a very narrow escape of being drowned; yet he continued
to ride as before. At all times he preferred to lean on the
shoulder of an attendant when walking. This feebleness of
body, which had no doubt a large share in causing certain
corresponding deficiencies of character, was attributed to the
agitations and the violent efforts forced on his mother by the
murder of her secretary Rizzio when she was in the sixth month
of her pregnancy. The fact that James was a bold rider, in
spite of this serious disqualification for athletic exercise, should
be borne in mind when he is accused of having been a coward.
The circumstances surrounding him in boyhood were not
favourable to the development of his character. His immediate
guardian or foster-father, the earl of Mar, was indeed an honour'
able man, and the countess, who had charge of the nursing of
the king, discharged her duty so as to win his lasting confidence.
James afterwards entrusted her with the care of his eldest son,
Henry. When the earl died in 1572 his place was well filled by
his brother, Sir Alexander Erskine. The king's education was
placed under the care of George Buchanan, assisted by Peter
Young, and two other tutors. Buchanan, who did not spare the
rod, and the other teachers, who had more reverence for the
royal person, gave the boy a sound training in languages. The
English envoy, Sir Henry Killigrew, who saw him in 1574,
testified to his proficiency in translating from and into Latin and
French. As it was very desirable that he should be trained a
Protestant king, he was well instructed in theology. The
exceptionally scholastic quality of his education helped to give
him a taste for learning, but also tended to make him a pedant-
James was only twelve when the earl of Morton was driven
from the regency, and for some time after he can have been no
more than a puppet in the hands of intriguers and parly leaders.
When, for instance, in 1582 he was seized by the faction of
nobles who carried out the so-called raid of Ruthven, which was
in fact a kidnapping enterprise carried out in the interest of the
Protestant party, he cried like a child. One of the conspirators,
the roaster of Glamis, Sir Thomas Lyon, told him that it was
better " bairns should greet [children should cry] than bearded
men." It was not indeed till 1583, when he broke away from
his captors, that James began to govern in reality.
For the history of his reign reference may be made to the
articles on the histories of England and Scotland. James's
work as a ruler can be divided, without violating any sound
rule of criticism, into black and white — into the part which was
a failure and a preparation for future disaster, and the part
which was solid achievement, honourable to himself and profit-
able to his people. His native kingdom of Scotland had the
benefit of the second. ^Between 1583 and 1603 he reduced the
anarchical baronage of Scotland to obedience, and replaced the
subdivision of sovereignty and consequent confusion, which hajfl
been the very essence of feudalism, by a strong centralized
royal authority. In fact he did in Scotland the work which
had been done by the Tudors in England, by Louis XI. in France,
and by Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain. It was the work of all
the strong rulers of the Renaissance. But James not only
brought his disobedient and intriguing barons to order— that
was- a comparatively easy achievement and might well have been
performed by more than one of his predecessors, had their lives
been prolonged— he also quelled the attempts of the Protestants
to found what Hallam has well defined *s a "Presbyterian
Hndebrandism." He enforced the superiority of the state over
the church. Both before his accession to the throne of England
(xooj) and afterwards he took an intelligent interest in the
prosperity of his Scottish kingdom, and did much for the pacifica-
tion of the Hebrides, for the enforcement of order on the Borders,
and for the development of industry. That he did so much al-
though the crown was poor (largely it must be confessed because
he made profuse gifts of the secularized church lands), and
although the armed force at his disposal was so small that to the
very end he was exposed to the attacks of would-be kidnappers
(as in the case of the Gowrie conspiracy of tooo), is proof positive
that he was neither the mere poltroon nor the mere learned fool
he has often been called.
James's methods of achieving ends in themselves honourable
and profitable were indeed of a kind which has made posterity
unjust to his real merits. The circumstances in which he
passed his youth developed in him a natural tendency to craft.
He boasted indeed of his " king-craft " and probably believed
thai he owed it to his studies. But it was in reality the resource
of the weak, the art of playing off one possible enemy against
another by trickery, and so deceiving alL The marquis de
Fontenay, the French ambrssador, who saw him in the early part
of his reign, speaks of him as cowed by the violence about him.
It is certain that James was most unscrupulous in making promises
which he never meant to keep, and the terror in which he passed
his youth sufficient ly explains his preference for guile. He would
make promises to everybody, as when he wrote to the pope in
1584 more than hinting that he would be a good Roman Catholic
if helped in his need. His very natural desire to escape from the
poverty and insecurity of Scotland to the opulent English throne
not only kept him busy in intrigues to placate the Roman
Catholics or anybody else who could help or hinder him, but led
him to behave basely in regard to the execution of his mother
in x 587. He blustered to give himself an air of courage, but took
good care to do nothing to offend Elizabeth. When the time
came for fulfilling his promises and half-promises, he was not
able, even if he had been willing, to keep his word to everybody.
The methods which had helped him to success in Scotland did
him harm in England, where his reign prepared the way for the
gseat civil war. In his southern kingdom his failure was in fact
complete. Ah hough England accepted him as the alternative
to civil war, and although he was received and surrounded with
fulsome flattery, he did not win the respect of his English sub-
jects. His undignified personal appearance was against him, and
so were his garrulity, his Scottish accent, his slovenliness and
his toleration of disorders in his court, but, above all, his favour
for handsome male favourites, whom he loaded with gifts and
caressed with demonstrations of affection which laid htm open
to vile suspicions. In ecclesiastical matters he offended many,
who contrasted his severity and rudeness to the Puritan divines
at the Hampton Court conference (1604) with his politeness to
the Roman Catholics, whom he, however, worried by fits and
starts. In a country where the authority of the state had been
firstly established and the problem was how to keep it from
degenerating into the mere instrument of a king's passions, bis
insistence on the doctrine of divine right aroused distrust and
hostility. In itself, and in its origin, the doctrine was nothing
more than a necessary assertion of the Independence of the state
in face of the <* Hildebrandlsm " of Rome and Geneva alike.
But when Englishmen were told that the king alone had inde-
feasible rights, and that all the privileges of subjects were re-
vocable gifts, they were roused to hostility. His weaknesses cast
suspicion on his best-meant schemes. His favour for his
countrymen helped to defeat his wise wish to bring about a full
union between England and Scotland. His profusion, which had
been bad in the poverty of Scotland and was boundless amid the
wealth of England, kept him necessitous, and drove him to
JAMES I. 137
shifts. Posterity can give him credit for his desire to forward
religious peace in Europe, but his Protestant subjects were
simply frightened when he sought a matrimonial alliance with
Spain. Sagacious men among his contemporaries could not
see the consistency of a king who married his daughter Elizabeth
to the elector palatine, a leader of the German Protestants, and
also sought to marry his son to an infanta of Spain. The
king's subservience to Spain was indeed almost besotted. He
could not see her real weakness, and he allowed himself to be
befooled by the ministers of Philip III. and Philip IV. The end
of bis scheming was that he was dragged into a needless war with
Spain by his son Charles and his favourite George VilHers, duke
of Buckingham, just before his death on the 5th of March 1625
at his favourite residence, Theobalds.
James married in 1580 Anne, second daughter of Frederick II.,
king of Denmark. His voyage to meet his bride, whose ship
had been driven into a Norwegian port by bad weather, is the
only episode of a romantic character in the life of this very
prosaic member of a poetic family. By this wife James had three
children who survived infancy: Henry Frederick, prince of
Wales, who died in 1612; Charles, the future king; and Elizabeth,
wife of the elector palatine, Frederick V.
Not the least of James's many ambitions was the desire to
excel as an author. He left a body of writings which, though of
mediocre quality as literature, entitle him to a unique place
among English kings since Alfred for width of intellectual
interest and literary faculty. His efforts were inspired by his
preceptor George Buchanan, whose memory he cherished in
later years. His first work was in verse, Essayts of a Prentise in
the Divine Art of Poesie (Edin. Vautrollier, 1584), containing
fifteen sonnets, " Ane Metaphorical! invention of a tragedie called
Phoenix," a short poem "Of Time," translations from Du
Bartas, Lucan and the Book of Psalms (" out of Tremellius '*),
and a prose tract entitled " Ane short treatise, containing some
Reulis and Cautelis to be observit and eschewit in Scott is Poesie."
The volume is introduced by commendatory sonnets, including
one by Alexander Montgomerie. The chief interest of the book
lies in the " Treatise " and the prefatory sonnets " To the
Reader M and " Sonnet decifring the perfyte poete." There is
little originality in this youthful production. It has been sur-
mised that it was compiled from the exercises written when the
author was Buchanan's pupil at Stirling, and that it was directly
suggested by his preceptor's De Prosodia and his annotations on
Vives. On the other hand, it shows intimate acquaintance with
the critical reflections of Ronsard and Du Bellay, and of Gas-
coigne in Ms Notes of Instruction (157s). In 1501 James pub-
lished Poeticatl Exercises at Vacant Houres, including a transla-
tion of the Furies of Du Bartas, his own Le panto, and Du Bartas's
version of it, La Lcpanthe. His Daemonotogie, a prose treatise
denouncing witchcraft and exhorting the civil power to the
strongest measures of suppression, appeared in 1590. In the
same year he printed the first edition (seven copies) of his
Basilikon Dor on, strongly Protestant in tone. A French edition,
specially translated for presentation to the pope, has a disin-
genuous preface explaining that certain phrases (e.g. " papistical
doctrine ") are omitted, because of the difficulty of rendering
them in a foreign tongue. The original edition was, however,
translated by order of the suspicious pope, and was immediately
placed on the Index. Shortly after going to England James
produced his famous Counterblast* to Tobacco (London, 1604),
in which he forsakes his Scots tongue for Southern English.
The volume was published anonymously. James's prose works
(Including his speeches) were collected and edited (folio, 1616)
by James Montagu, bishop of Winchester, and were translated
into Latin by the same hand in a companion folio, in 1619 (also
Frankfort, 1680). A tract, entitled " The True Law of Free
Monarchies." appeared in 1603; " An Apology for the Oaih of
Allegiance " in 1607; and a " Declaration du Roy Jacques I. . . .
pour le droit des Rois " in 1615. In 1588 and 1589 James issued
two small volumes of Meditations on some verses of (a) Revela-
tions and (ft) 1 Chronicles. Other two " meditations " were
printed posthumously.
'3*
JAMES II.
See T- F. Henderson, James /. and VI. (London. 1904); P. Hume
Brown, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh and Cambridge, 1902) ;
*nd Andrew Lang. History of Scotland, vol 11. (Edinburgh, 1902) and
Jama VI. and the Cowrie Mystery (London, 1002); The Register of
tke Privy Council of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1877, &c), vols. ii. to xiii.;
S. R. Gardiner, History of England 1603-1642 (London, 1883-1884).
A comprehensive bibliography will be found in the Cambridge Modern
Hist. iii. 847 (Cambridge, 1904).
For James s literary work, see Edward Arber's reprint ol the
Essayes and Counterblast* (" English Reprints," 1869, Ac): R« S.
Rait s Lusus Regius (1900) ; G. Gregory Smith's Elizabethan Critical
Essays (1901), vol. i., where the Treatise is edited for the first time;
A.O. Meyer s" Clemens VIII. und Jacob I. von England *' in Quellen
mmd Foruhungru (Prcuss. Hist. Inst.). VII. ii.. for an account of the
issues of the BasUikon Dor on; P. Hume Brown's George Buchanan
( 1 890) , pp. 250-26 1 , for a sketch of James'sassociation with Buchanan.
. JAMES II. (1633-1701), Jung of Great Britain and Ireland,
second surviving son of Charles I. and Henrietta Maria, was born
at St James's on the 15th of October 1633, and created duke of
York in January 1643. During the Civil War James was taken
prisoner by Fairfax (1646), but contrived to escape to Holland
in 1648. Subsequently he served in the French army under
Tucenne, and in the Spanish under Cond6, and was applauded
by both commanders for his brilliant personal courage. Re-
turning to England with Charles II. in 1660 he was appointed
lord high admiral and warden of the Cinque Ports. Pepys, who
was secretary to the navy, has recorded the patient industry and
unflinching probity of his naval administration. His victory
over the Dutch in 1665, and his drawn battle with De Ruyter
in 1672, show that he was a good naval commander as well as an
excellent administrator. These achievements won him a repu-
tation for high courage, which, until the dose of 1688, was amply
deserved. His private record was not as good as his public. In
December 1660 he admitted to having contracted, under dis-
creditable circumstances, a secret marriage with Anne Hyde
(1637-1671), daughter of Lord Clarendon, in the previous Sep-
tember. Both before and after the marriage he seems to have
been a libertine as unblushing though not so fastidious as Charles
himself. In 1672 be made a public avowal of his conversion to
Roman Catholicism. Charles II. bad opposed this project, but
in 1673 allowed him to marry the Catholic Mary of Modena as
his second wife. Both houses of parliament, who viewed this
union with abhorrence, now passed the Test Act, forbidding
Catholics to hold office. In consequence of this James was
forced to resign his posts. It was in vain that he married his
daughter Mary to the Protestant prince of Orange in 1677.
Anti-Catholic feeling ran so high that, after the discovery of the
Popish Plot, he found it wiser to retire to Brussels (1679), while
Shaftesbury and the Whigs planned to exclude him from the
succession. He was lord high commissioner of Scotland (1680-
1682), where he occupied himself in a severe persecution of
the Covenanters. In 1684 Charles, having triumphed over the
Exclusionists, restored James to the office of high admiral by use
of his dispensing power.
James ascended the throne on the 16th of February 1685.
The nation showed its loyalty by its firm adherence to him during
the rebellions of Argyll in Scotland and Monmouth in England
(168$). The savage reprisals on their suppression, in especial
the " Bloody Assizes " of Jeffreys, produced a revulsion of public
feeling. James had promised to defend the existing Church and
government, but the people now became suspicious. James was
not a mere tyrant and bigot, as the popular imagination speedily
assumed him to be. He was rather a mediocre but not alto-
gether obtuse man, who mistook tributary streams for the main
currents of national thought. Thus he greatly underrated the
strength of the Establishment, and preposterously exaggerated
that of Dissent and Catholicism. He perceived that opinion
was seriously divided in the Established Church, and thought
that a vigorous policy would soon prove effective. Hence he
publicly celebrated Mass, prohibited preaching against Catholi-
cism, and showed exceptional favour to renegades from the
Establishment. By undue pressure he secured -a decision of
the judges, in the test case of Codden v. Hale (1687), by which be
was allowed to dispense Catholics from the Test Act. Catholics
were now admitted to the chief offices in the army, and to some
important posts in the state, fn virtue of the dispensing power of
James. The judges had been intimidated or corrupted, and the
royal promise to protect the Establishment violated. The army
had been increased to 20,000 men and encamped at Hounslow
Heath to overawe the capital. Public alarm was speedily mani-
fested and suspicion to a high degree awakened. In 1687 James
made a bid for the support of the Dissenters by advocating a
system of joint toleration for Catholics and Dissenters. In
April 1687 he published a Declaration of Indulgence— exempting
Catholics and Dissenters from penal statutes. He followed up
this measure by dissolving parliament and attacking the univer-
sities. By an unscrupulous use of the dispensing power he
introduced Dissenters and Catholics into all departments of
state and into the municipal corporations, which were remodelled
in their interests. Then in April 1688 he took the suicidal step
of issuing a proclamation to force the clergy and bishops to read
the Declaration in their pulpits, and thus personally advocate a
measure they detested. Seven bishops refused, were indicted
by James for libel, but acquitted amid the indescribable enthu-
siasm of the populace. Protestant nobles of England, enraged
at the tolerant policy of James, had been in negotiation with
William of Orange since 1687. The trial of the seven bishops,
and the birth of a son to James, now induced them to send
William a definite invitation (June 30, 1688). James remained
in a fool's paradise till the last, and only awakened to his danger
when William landed at Torbay (November 5, 1688) and swept
all before him. James pretended to treat, and in the midst of the
negotiations fled to France. He was intercepted at Favcrsham
and brought back, but the politic prince of Orange allowed him
to escape a second time (December 23, 1688).
At the end of 1688 James seemed to have lost his old courage.
After his defeat at the Boyne (July 1, 1600) he speedily departed
from Ireland, where he had so conducted himself that his English
followers had been ashamed of his incapacity, while French
officers had derided him. His proclamarions and policy towards
England during these years show unmistakable traces of the
same incompetence. On the 1 7th of May 1692 he saw the French
fleet destroyed before his very eyes off Cape La Hogue. He was
aware of, though not an open advocate of the " Assassination
Plot/' which was directed against William. By its revelation
and failure (February 10, 1696) the third and last serious
attempt of James for his restoration failed. He refused in the
same year to accept the French influence in favour of his candida-
ture to the Polish throne, on the ground that it would exclude him
from the English. Henceforward he neglected politics, and Louis
of France ceased to consider him as a political factor. A mysteri-
ous conversion had been effected in him by an austere Cistercian
abbot. The world saw with astonishment this vicious, rough,
coarse-fibred man of the world transformed into an austere
penitent, who worked miracles of healing. Surrounded by this
odour of sanctity, which greatly edified the faithful, James lived
at St Germain until his death on the 17th of September 1701.
The political ineptitude of James is clear; he often showed
firmness when conciliation was needful, and weakness when
resolution alone could have saved the day. Moreover, though
he mismanaged almost every political problem with which be
personally dealt, he was singularly tactless and impatient of
advice. But in general political morality he was not below his
age, and in his advocacy of toleration decidedly above it. He
was more honest and sincere than Charles II., more genuinely
patriotic in his foreign policy, and more consistent in his religious
attitude. That his brother retained the throne while James
lost it is an ironical demonstration that a more pitiless fate
awaits the ruler whose faults are of the intellect, than one whose
faults arc of the heart.
By Anne Hyde James had eight children, of whom two only,
Mary and Anne, both queens of England, survived their father.
By Mary of Modena he had seven children, among them being
James Francis Edward (the Old Pretender) and Louisa Maria
Theresa, who died at St Germain in 1712. By one mist rest,
Arabella Churchill ( 1648-1730), he had two sons, James, duke of
Berwick, and Henry (1673-1702), titular duke of Albemarle and
JAMES I.— II. OF SCOTLAND
grand prior of France, and a daughter, Henrietta (1667-1730),
who married Sir Henry Waldegrave, afterwards Baron Walde-
grave; and by another, Catherine Sedley, countess of Dorchester
(1657-17 1 7), a daughter, Catherine (d. 1743), who married James
Annesley, 5th earl of Anglesey, and afterwards John Sheffield,
duke of Buckingham and Normanby.
James 17.
s (2 vols.,
«d. H. C.
Rochester,
y and Cor-
on, 1906);
rrs Tracts,
1, Lectures
tx Broach.
p,DerpaU
on Ranke,
Ulan Fea,
•JAMES I. (1394-1437), king of Scotland and poet, the son of
King Robert III., was born at Dunfermline in Jury 1304.
After the death of his mother, Annabella Drummond of Stobhall,
in 1402, he was placed under the care of Henry Wardlaw (d. 1440),
who became bishop of St Andrews in 1403, but soon his father
resolved to send him to France. Robert doubtless decided upon
this course owing to the fact that in 1402 his elder son, David,
duke of Rothesay, had met his death in a mysterious fashion,
being probably murdered by his uncle, Robert, duke of Albany,
who, as the king was an invalid, was virtually the ruler of Scot-
land. On the way to France, however, James fell into the hands
of some English sailors and was sent to Henry IV., who refused
to admit him to ransom. The chronicler Thomas Walsingham,
says that James's imprisonment began in 1406, while the future
king himself places it in 1404; February 1406 is probably the
correct date. On the death of Robert III. in April 1406 James
became nominally king of Scotland, but he remained a captive
in England, the government being conducted by his uncle,
Robert of Albany, who showed no anxiety to procure bis
nephew's release. Dying in 1420, Albany was succeeded as
regent by his son, l^urdoch. At first James was confined in the
Tower of London, but in June 1407 he was removed to the castle
at Nottingham, whence about a month later he was taken to
Evesham. His education was continued by capable tutors, and
he not only attained excellence in all manly sports, but became
perhaps more cultured than any other prince of his age. Ih
person he was short and stout, but well-proportioned and very
strong. His agility was not less remarkable than his strength;
he excelled in all athletic feats which demanded suppleness of
limb and quickness of eye. As regards his intellectual attain-
ments he is reported to have been acquainted with philosophy,
and it is evident from his subsequent career that he had studied
jurisprudence; moreover, besides being proficient in vocal and
instrumental music, he cultivated the art of poetry with much
success. When Henry V. became king in March 1413, James
was again imprisoned in the Tower of London, but soon after-
wards he was taken to Windsor and was treated with great con-
sideration by the English king. In 1470, with the intention of
detaching the Scottish auxiliaries from the French standard, he
was sent to take part in Henry's campaign in France; this move
failed in its immediate object and he returned to England after
Henry's death in 1422. About this time negotiations for the
release of James were begun in earnest, and In September 14 13
a treaty was signed at York, the Scottish nation undertaking to
pay a ransom of 60,000 marks '* for his maintenance in England."
By the terms of the treaty James was to wed a noble English
lady, and on the 12th of February 1424 he was married at
South wark to Jane, daughter of John Beaufort, earl of Somerset,
a lady to whom he was faithful through life. Ten thousand
marks of his ransom were remitted as Jane's dowry, and in
April 1424 James and his bride entered Scotland.
With the reign of James I., whose coronation took place at
Scone on the 21st of May 1424, constitutional sovereignty may
be said to begin in Scotland. By the introduction of a system of
statute law, modelled to some extent on that of England, and
*39
by the additional importance assigned to parliament, the leaven
was prepared which was to work towards the destruction of the
indefinite authority of the king and of the unbridled licence of the
nobles. During the parliament held at Perth in March 1423
James arrested Murdoch, duke of Albany, and his son, Alexander;
together with Albany's eldest son, Walter, and Duncan, earl of
Lennox, who had been seized previously; they were sentenced to
death, and the four were executed at Stirling. In a parliament
held at Inverness in 1427 the king arrested many turbulent
northern chiefs, and his whole policy was directed towards
crushing the power of the nobles. In this he was very successful.
Expeditions reduced the Highlands to order; earldom after
earldom was forfeited; but this vigour aroused the desire for
revenge, and at length cost James his life. Having been warned
that he would never again cross the Forth, the king went to
reside in Perth just before Christmas 1436. Among those whom
he had angered was Sir Robert Graham (d. 1437), who had been
banished by his orders. Instigated by the king's uncle, Walter
Stewart, earl of Atholl (d. 1437), and aided by the royal chamber-
lain, Sir Robert Stewart, and by a band of Highlanders, Graham
burst into the presence of James on the night of the aoth of
February 1437 and stabbed the king to death. Graham and
Atholl were afterwards tortured and executed. James had
two sons: Alexander, who died young, and James II., who suc-
ceeded to the throne; and six daughters, among them being
Margaret, the queen of Louis XI. of France. His widow, Jane,
married Sir James Stewart, the " black knight of Lome." and
died on the 15th of July 144s.
During the latter part of James's reign difficulties arose be-
tween Scotland and England and also between Scotland and the
papacy. Part of the king's ransom was still owing to England;
other causes of discord between the two nations existed, and in
1436 these culminated in a short war. In ecclesiastical matters
James showed himself merciless towards heretics, but his desire
to reform the Scottish Church and to make it less dependent on
Rome brought him into collision with Popes Martin V. and
Eugenius IV.
James was the author of two poems, the Kingis Quair and
Good Counsel (a short piece of three stanzas). The Song of
A bscnee, Peblis to the Play and Christis Kirk on the Greene have
been ascribed to him without evidence. The Kingis Quair
(preserved in the Selden MS. B. 24 in the Bodleian) is an allego-
rical poem of the cottrs d'antour type, written in seven-lined
Chaucerian stanzas and extending to 1379 lines. It was com-
posed during James's captivity in England and celebrates his
courtship of Lady Jane Beaufort. Though in many respects a
Chaucerian pastiche, it not rarely equals its model in verbal and
metrical felicity. Its language is an artificial blend of northern
and southern (Chaucerian) forms, of the type shown in Lancelot
of the Laik and the Quair of Jdusy.
~ phy. — The contemporary authorities for the refen of
Jai ndrew of Wyntoun , The Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland,
ed Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879); and Walter Bower's
coi 4 John of Fordun's Scotithronicon, edited by T. Hcarnc
(O ). See also I. Pinkerton, History of Scotland (1797);
A. >ry of Scotland, vol. i. (1900) ; and G. Burnett, Introduc-
tio heguer Rolls of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1878-1001). The
Ki was first printed in the Poetical Remains of James Ike
pi, y William Tytlcr ( 1783). Later editionsare Morisons
rcj 1, 1786) ; J. Sibbald's, in his Chronicle of Scottish Poetry
(it ; Thomson's in 1815 and 1824; G. Chalmers's, in his
Po s of some of the Scottish Kings ( 1 824) ; Rogers's Poehcat
Re ini James the First (1873): Skeacs edition published
by h Text Society (1884). An attempt has been made to
dia .'s authorship of the poem, but the arguments elabor-
ate P. Brown ( The A uthorship of the Kingis Quair, Glasgow,
i8< tn convincingly answered by J usserand in his Jacques
1" -ilpoeu 1 Etude surVautheniicUiducakierdu rot (Paris.
I8< 1 from the Revue kistorique, vol. Ixiv.). See also the full
coi e in the Athenaeum (July-Aug. 1896 and Dec. 1809);
W . — , Ontins and Sources of the Court of Love (Boston, 1899)
pp. 152 &c, 235 &c; and Gregory Smith, Transttton Period (1900)1
pp. 40. 41.
JAMBS H. (1430-1460), king of Scotland, the only surviving
son of James I. and his wife, Jane, daughter of John Beaufort,
earl of Somerset, was born on the i6tb of October 1430. Crowned
1 4-0
king at Holyrood in March 1437, shortly after the murder of hi$
father, he was at first under the guardianship of his mother,
while Archibald, 5th earl of Douglas, was regent of the kingdom,
and considerable power was possessed by Sir Alexander Living-
stone and Sir William Crichton (d. 1454)* When about 1439
Queen Jane was married to Sir James Stewart, the knight of
Lome, Livingstone obtained the custody of the young king,
whose minority was marked by fierce hostility between the
Douglases and the Crichtons, with Livingstone first on one side
and then on the other. About 1443 the royal cause was espoused
by William, 8th earl of Douglas, who attacked Crichton in the
king's same, and civil war lasted until about 1446. In July
1449 James was married to Mary (d. 1463), daughter of Arnold,
duke of Geldcrland, and undertook the government himself; and
almost immediately Livingstone was arrested, but Douglas
retained the royal favour for a few months more. In 1452, how-
ever, this powerful earl was invited to Stirling by the king, and,
charged with treachery, was stabbed by James and then killed
by the attendants. Civil war broke out at once between James
and the Douglases, whose lands were ravaged; but after the
Scots parliament had exonerated the king, James, the new earl
of Douglas, made his submission. Early in 1455 this struggle
was renewed. Marching against the rebels James gained several
victories, after which Douglas was attainted and his lands for-
feited. Fortified by this success and assured of the support of
the parliament and of the great nobles, James, acting as an
absolute king, could view without alarm the war which had
broken out with England. After two expeditions across the
borders, a truce was made in July 1457, and the king employed
the period of peace in strengthening his authority in the High-
lands. During the Wars of the Roses he showed his sympathy
with the Lancastrian party after the defeat of Henry VI. at
Northampton by attacking the English possessions to the south
of Scotland. It was while conducting the siege of Roxburgh
Castle that James was killed, through the bursting of a cannon,
on the 3rd of August 1460. He left three sons, his successor,
James III., Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany, and John
Stewart, earl of Mar (d. 1479); and two daughters. James, who
is sometimes called " Fiery Face," was a vigorous and popular
prince, and, although not a scholar like his father, showed
interest in education. His reign is a period of some importance
in the legislative history of Scotland, as measures were passed
with regard to the tenure of land, the reformation of the
coinage, and the protection of the poor, while the organization
for the administration of justice was greatly improved.
JAMES HI. (1451-1488), king of Scotland, eldest son of James
II., was born on the 10th of July 1451. Becoming king in 1460
he was crowned at Kelso. After the death of his mother in
1463, and of her principal supporter, James Kennedy, bishop of
St Andrews, two years later, the person of the young king, and
with it the chief authority in the kingdom, were seized by Sir
Alexander Boyd and his brother Lord Boyd, while the tatter's
son, Thomas, was created earl of Arran and married to the king's
sister, Mary. In July 1469 James himself was married to
Margaret (d. i486), daughter of Christian I., king of Denmark and
Norway, but before the wedding the Boyds had lost their power.
Having undertaken the government in person, the king received
the submission of the powerful earl of Ross, and strengthened
his authority in other ways. But his preference for a sedentary
and not for an active life and his increasing attachment to
favourites of humble birth diminished his popularity, and he had
some differences with his parliament. About 1470, probably
with reason both suspicious and jealous, James arrested his
brothers, Alexander, duke of Albany, and John, earl of Mar;
Mar met his death in a mysterious fashion at Craigmillar, but
Albany escaped to France and then visited England, where in
1482 Edward IV. recognized him as king of Scotland by the gift
of the king of England. War broke out with England, but James,
made a prisoner by his nobles, was unable to prevent Albany and
his ally, Richard, duke of Gloucester (afterwards Richard III),
from taking Berwick and marching to Edinburgh. Peace with
Albany followed, but soon afterwards the duke was again in
JAMES III.-+IV. OF SCOTLAND
communication with Edward, and was condemned by the parlia-
ment after the death of the English king in April 1483. Albany's
death in France in 1485 did not end the king's troubles.
His policy of living at peace with England and of arranging
marriages between the members of the royal families of the two
countries did not commend itself to the turbulent section of his
nobles; (lis artistic tastes and lavish expenditure added to the
discontent, and a rebellion broke out. Fleeing into the north
of his kingdom James collected an army and came to terms with
his foes; but the rebels, having seized the person of the lung's
eldest son, afterwards James IV., renewed the struggle, Tlie
rival armies met at the Sauchiebura near Bannockburn, and
James soon fled. Reaching Beaton's Mill he revealed his iden-
tity, and, according to the popular story, was killed on the nth
of June 1488 by a soldier in the guise of a priest who had been
called in to shrive htm. He left three sons— his successor, James
IV.; James Stewart, duke of Ross, afterwards archbishop of Si
Andrews; and John Stewart, earl of Mar. James was a cultured
prince with a taste for music and architecture, but was a weak
and incapable king. His character is thus described by a chroni-
cler: " He was ane man that loved solitude, and desired nevir to
hear of warre, bot delighted more m musick and policie and
building nor Jie did in the government of the real me."
JAMES IV. (1473-1513), king of Scotland, eldest son of
James 111., was born on the 1 7U1 of March 1473. He was nomi-
nally the leader of the rebels who defeated the troops of James
III. at the Sauchieburn in June 1488, and became king when his
father was killed. As he adopted an entirely different policy
with the nobles from that of his father, and, moreover, snowed
great affability towards the lower class of his subjects, among
whom he delighted to wander incognito, few if any of the kings
of Scotland have won such general popularity, or passed a reign
so untroubled by intestine strife. Crowned at Scone a few days
after his accession, James began at once to take an active part
in the business of government. A slight insurrection was easily
suppressed, and a plot formed by some nobles to hand him over
to the English king, Henry VII., came to nothing. In spile of
this proceeding Henry wfched to live at peace with his northern
neighbour, and soon contemplated marrying his daughter to
James, but the Scottish king was not equally pacific When, in
J 495, Perkin Warbeck, pretending to be the duke of York,
Edward IV. 's younger son, came to Scotland, James bestowed
upon him both an income and a bride, and prepared to invade
England in his interests. For various reasons the war was
confined to a few border forays. After Warbeck left Scotland
in 1497, the Spanish ambassador negotiated a peace, and in
1502 a marriage was definitely arranged between James and
Henry's daughter Margaret (1480-1541). The wedding took
place at Holyrood in August 1 503, and it was this union which
led to the accession of the Stewart dynasty to the English
throne.
About the same lime James crushed a rebellion in the western
isles, into which he had previously led expeditions, and parlia-
ment took measures to strengthen the royal authority therein.
At this date too, or a little earlier, the king of Scotland began. to
treat as an equal with the powerful princes of Europe, Maximilian
I., Louis XII. and others; sending assistance to his uncle Hans,
king of Denmark, and receiving special marks of favour from
Pope Julius II., anxious to obtain his support. But his position
was weakened when Henry Vlfl. followed Henry VIL on the
English throne in 1509. Causes of quarrel already existed, and
other causes, both public and private, soon arose between the
two kings; sea-fights look place between their ships, whik war
was brought nearer by the treaty of alliance which James con-
cluded with Louis XII. in 1512. Henry made a vain effort to
prevent, or to postpone, the outbreak of hostilities; but urged
on by his French ally and his queen, James declared for war, to
spite of the counsels of some of his advisers, and (it is said) of the
warning of an apparition. Gathering a large and well-armed
force, he took Norbam and other castles in August 15 13, spending
some time at Ford Castle, where, according to report, be was en-
gaged in an amorous intrigue with the wife of its owner. Then
JAMES' V, OF SGOTLAND— JAMES -L OP ARAGON 14*
he moved oiit to fi^ht the advancing English army under
Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey, The battle, which took place
at Hodden, or more correctly, at the .foot of Braakston Hill, on
Friday the gtb of September 15x3, it among the most famous and
disastrous, if not among the most momentous, in the history of
Scotland. Having led bis troops from their position of vantage,
the king himself was killed while fighting on foot, together with
nearly all his nobles; there was no foundation for the rumour
that he had escaped from the carnage. He left one legitimate
child, his successor James V., but as his gallantries were numer-
ous he had many illegitimate children, among them (by Marion
Boyd) Alexander Stewart, archbishop of St Andrews and chan-
cellor of Scotland, who was killed at Flodden, and (by Janet
Kennedy) James Stewart, earl of Moray (d. 1544). One of hit
other mistresses was Margaret Drumtnond (d. 1501).
<• James appears to have been a brave and generous man, and
a wise and energetic king. According to one account, he was
possessed of considerable learning t during his reign Uie Scottish
court attained some degree of refinement, and Scotland counted
in European politics as she had never done before. Literature
nourished under the royal patronage, education was encouraged,
and the material condition of the country improved enormously.
Prominent both as an administrator and as a lawgiver, the king
by bis vigorous rule did much to destroy the tendencies to inde-
pendence which existed in the Highlands and Islands; but, on
the other hand, his rash conduct at Flodden brought much
misery upon Ms kingdom. He was specially interested in his
navy. The tournaments which took place under his auspices
were worthy of the best days of chivalry in France and England.
James shared to the full in the superstitions of the age which was
quickly passing away. He is said to have worn an iron belt as
penance for his share in his father's death; and by his frequent
visit* to shrines, and his benefactions to religious foundations,
he won a reputation for piety.
JAMB V. (1512*1542), king of Scotland, son of James IV.,
was born at Linlithgow on the 10th of April 151 3, and became
king when his father was killed at Flodden in 1 513. The regency
was at first vested in his mother, but after Queen Margaret's
second marriage, with Archibald Douglas, 6th earl of 'Angus, in
August 1514, it was transferred by the estates to John Stewart,
duke of Albany. Henceforward the minority of James was dis-
turbed by constant quarrels between a faction, generally favour-
able to England, under Angus, and the partisans of France
under Albany; while the queen-mother and the nobles struggled
to gain and to regain possession of the king's person. The
English had not followed up their 1 victory at Flodden, although
there were as usual forays on the borders, but Henry VIII. was
watching affairs in Scotland with an observant eye, and other
European sovereigns were not indifferent to the possibility of
a Scotch alliance. In 1524, when Albany had retired to France,
the parliament declared that James was fit to govern, but that
he must be advised by his mother and a council. Tins " erec-
tion " of James -as king was mainly due to the efforts df Henry
VIII. In 1 526 Angus obtained control of the king, and kept trim
in close confinement until 1528, when James, escaping from
Edinburgh to Stirling, put vigorous measures in execution
against the earl, and compelled hkn to flee to England. In 1529
and 1 530 the king made a strong effort to suppress his turbulent
vassals in the south of Scotland; and after several raids and
counter-raids negotiations for peace with England were begun,
and in May 1534 a treaty was signed. At tins time, as on pre-
vious occasions, Henry VIII. wished James to marry his daughter
Mary, while other ladies had been suggested by the emperor
Charles V.; but the Scottish king, preferring a French bride,
visited France, and in January 1537 was married at Paris to
Madeleine; daughter of King Francis I. Madeleine died soon after
her arrival in Scotland, and in 1538 James made a much more
important marriage, being united to Mary (1315-1560), daughter
of Claude, duke of Guise, and widow of Louis of Orleans, duke of
Longucvitie. It was thi9 connexion, probably, which finally
induced James to forsake his vacillating foreign policy, and to*
tango himself definitely among the enemies of England* In
1536 he had refused to meet 'Henry VIII. at York, and in the
following year had received the gift of • cap and sword from
Pope Paul IH., thus renouncing the friendship of bis- uncle.
Two plots to murder the king were«now discovered, and James
also foiled the attempts of Henry VHi. to kidnap him. Although
in 1540 the English king made another attempt to win the sup-
port, or at least the neutrality, of James for his religious policy;
the relations between the two countries became very unfriendly,
and in 154a Henry sent an army to invade Scotland. James
was not slow to make reprisals, but his nobles were aagry or
indifferent, and on the 25th of November 154s his forces were
easily scattered at the rout of Sol way Moss. This blow preyed
upon the king's mind, and on the 14th Of December he died
at Falkland, having just heard of the birth of his daughter. His
two sons had died in infancy, and his successor was his only
legitimate child, Mary* He left several bastards, among them
James Stewart, earl of Murray- (the regent Murray), Lord John
Stewart (1 531-1563) prior of Coldingbam, and Lord Robert
Stewart, earl of Orkney (d. 1502).
Although possessing a weak constitution, which was further
impaired by his irregular manner of life, James showed great
vigour and independence as a sovereign, both in withstanding
the machinations of his uncle, Henry MIL, and in opposing the
Influence of the nobles. The persecutions to which heretics
were exposed during this reign were due mainly to the excessive
influence exercised by the ecclesiastics, especially by David
Beaton, archbishop of St Andrews. The king's habit of
mingling with the peasantry secured for him a large amount
Of popularity, and probably led many to ascribe to him the
authorship of poems describing scenes in peasant life, ChristU
Kirk on the Gttne, Th$ Gabertmnsic Man and The J oily Beggar.
There is no proof that he was the author of any of these poems,
but from expressions in the poems of Sir David Lindsay, who was
on terms of intimacy with him, it appears that occasiona l ly
he wrote verses.
JAMES L, the Conqueror (120&-1276), king of Aragon, son
of Peter II., king of Aragon, and of Mary of Montpellien whose
mother was Eudoxia Comnena, daughter of the emperor Manuel,
was born at Montpellier on the 2nd of February 1208. His
father, a man of immoral life, was with difficulty persuaded to
cohabit with his wife. He endeavoured to repudiate her, and
she fled to Rome, where she died in April 1213. Peter, whose
possessions in Provence entangled him in the wars between the
Albigenses and Simon of Montfort, endeavoured to placate the
northern crusaders by arranging a marriage between 'his son
James and Simon V daughter: ' In 1211 the boy was entrusted
to Montfort's care to be educated, but the aggressions of the
crusaders on the princes of the south forced Peter to take up
arms against them, and he was slain at Muret on the z 2th of Sep-
tember 1BT3. Montfort would willingly have used James as a
means of extending his own power. The Aragonese and Cata-
lans, however, appealed to the pope, who forced Montfort to
surrender him in May or June 1 214. James was now entrusted
to the care of Guillen de Mdnredon, the head of the Templars in
Spain and Provence. The kingdom was given over to confusion
till in 1 21 6 the Templars and some of the more loyal nobles
brought the young king to Saragassa. At the age of thirteen he
was married to Leonora, daughter of Alphonso Vm. of Castile,
whom he divorced later on the ground of consanguinity. A son
born of the marriage, Alphonso, was-recognked as legUftnate,
but died before his father, childless. It was only by slow steps
that the royal authority was asserted, but the young king, who
was of gigantic stature and immense strength, was also astute
and patient. By x 2*8 he had so far brought bis vassals to
obedience, that he was able to undertake the conquest of the
Balearic Islands, which he achieved within four years. At the
tame time he endeavouredto bring about a union of Aragon with
Navarre, by a contract of mutual adoption between himself and
the rtavarrese king, Sanebo, who was oW enough to be his grand-
father. The scheme broke down, and James abstained from a
policy of conquest. He wisely turned to the more feasible
course of extending his dominions at the expense Of the decadent
i4« JAMBS II. OP ARAGON— JAMES (OLD PRETENDER)
Maaoosmedam princes of Valencia. On the 28th of September
S4£& the town of Valencia surrendered, and the whole territory
was conquered in the ensuing years. Like all the princes of hi
kotat, James took part in the politics of southern France. He
endeavoured to form a southern state on both sides of the Pyre-
Bees, which should counterbalance the power of France north of
the Loire. Here also his policy failed against physical, social
and political obstacles. As in the case of Navarre, he was too
wise to launch into perilous adventures. By the Treaty of
Corbet with Louis IX., signed the nth of May 1253, he frankly
withdrew from conflict with the French king, and contented
himself with the recognition of his position, and the surrender
of imtkptttH French claims to the overtordship of Catalonia.
During the remaining twenty years of his life, James was much
concerned in warring with the Moors in Murcia, not on his own
account, but on behalf of his son-in-law Alphonso the Wise of
Castile. As a legislator and organiser he occupies a high place
among the Spanish kings. He would probably have been more
successful but for the confusion caused by the disputes in his own
household. James, though orthodox and pious, had an ample
share of moral laxity. After repudiating' Leonora of Castile he
married YoUnde (in Spanish Violante) daughter of Andrew II.
of Hungary, who had a considerable influence over him. But
she could not prevent him from continuing a long series of
intrigues. The favour he showed his bastards led to protest
from the nobles, and to conflicts between his sons legitimate and
illegitimate. When one of the latter, Fenian Sanchez, who had
behaved with gross ingratitude and treason to his father, was
slain by the legitimate son Pedro, the old king recorded his grim
satisfaction. At the dose of his life King James divided his
states between his sons by Yolande of Hungary, Fedro and
James, leaving the Spanish possessions on the mainland to the
6m, the Balearic Islands and the lordship of Montpellier to the
te c on d -a division which inevitably produced fratricidal con-
flicts. The king fell very ill at Aldra, and resigned his crown,
intending to retire to the monastery of Poblet, but died at
Valencia on the 17th of July 1276.
King James waa the author of a chronicle of his own life, written
or dkUUd apparently at different times, which is a very fine
caawiAc of autobiographical literature. A translation into English
by J YmMtr, with note* by Don Pascual de Gayangos, was published
In \ArtM\tm in IS* J. See also James I. of Aragon, by F. Darwin
Swift {( Urendoo Press, 1894), in which are many references to
•uthoftiJm.
J AMI IL (c 1360-1327). king of Aragon, grandson of
James I., snd son of Peter III. by his marriage with Constance,
daughter of Manfred of Beneventum, was left in 1*85 as king of
fculy by his father. In 1291, on the death of his elder brother,
AJpaoAfto, to whom Aragon had fallen, be resigned Sicily and
yttUtavourtd to arrange the quarrel between his own family and
the AaffvlM ffouse, by marriage with Blanca, daughter of
CHatka of AnJou,kmg of Naples.- ....... .
iAJUt II. (iM.l 1 J n), king of Majorca, inherited the Balearic
UUftds Uwm his father James L of Aragon. He was engaged in
.vattaui conflict wlih bis brother Pedro III. of Aragon, and in
\m** with th« Wench king against his own kin.
.UsUftUi it J 1 i ' » J49)» kijl * of Ma i° rc *' grandson of James II.,
*•* unv*a out oi his little state and finally murdered by his
ma *>j w |V. of Aragon, who definitely reannexed the
MUt*. Islands to the crown.
^ms» J\*a* I'ftANCM Eowaid Stuabt) (1688-1766),
***** \t4i<* known to the Jacobites as James HI. and to
- ,im***M*tt »Mity as the Old Pretender, the son and heir
l m m ^, ^ »>*Uud, was born In St James's Palace, London,
_*..«*:« ! «ttttit4W. The scandalous story that he was a
-svM«m> - *& *t«rttd snd spread abroad by interested
_ _ „ f M ttMt gj his birth, has been completely dis*
- m ._» riMjL gtmNSAporsry writers allude to his striking
— J^ ^*> ** lUyal Stuarts. Shortly before the flight
-mas. - sama imi the Infant prince together with his
— ^ no • ,J raa<x sod afterwards he continued to
-*-a- ^1 umi * ths court of St Germain. On the
j. _ | M _ fc ;*» v«ik of September 1701, he was
immediately proclaimed king by Louis XIV. of France, but a
fantastic attempt to perform a similar ceremony in London so
roused the anger of the populace that the mock pursuivants
barely escaped with their lives. A bill- of attainder against
him received the royal assent a few days before the death of
William IIL in 1702, and the Princess Anne, half-sister of the
Pretender, succeeded William on the throne. An influential
party still, however, continued to adhere to the Jacobite cause;
but an expedition from Dunkirk planned in favour of James in
the spring of 1708 failed of success, although the French ships
under the comte de Fourbin, with James himself on board,
reached the Firth of Forth in safety. At the Peace oi Utrecht
James withdrew from French territory to Bar-le-Duc in Lor-
raine. A rebellion in the Highlands of Scotland was inaugurated
in September 17 15 by the raising of the standard on the braes
Of Mar, and by the solemn proclamation of James Stuart, " the
chevalier of St George," in the midst of the assembled dans,
but its progress was arrested in November by the indecisive
battle of Sheriffmuir and by the surrender at Preston. Un-
aware of the gloomy nature of his prospects, the chevalier
landed in December 1715 at Peterhead, and advanced as far
south as Scone, accompanied by a small force under the eari of
Mar; but on learning of the approach of the duke of Argyll, be
retreated to Montrose, where the Highlanders dispersed to the
mountains, and he embarked again for France. A Spanish
expedition sent out in his behalf in 17 10, under the direction of
Alberoni, was scattered by a tempest, only two frigates reaching
the appointed rendezvous in the island of Lewis.
In 17 18 James had become affianced to the young princess
Maria Clementina Sobieski, grand-daughter of the warrior king
of Poland, John Sobieski. The intended marriage was forbidden
by the emperor, who in consequence kept the princess and her
mother in honourable confinement at Innsbruck in TiroL As
attempt to abduct the princess by means of a ruse contrived by
a zealous Jacobite gentleman, Charles Wogan, proved successful;
Clementina reached Italy in safety, and she and James were
ultimately married at Montefiascone on the 1st of September
1719. . James and Clementina were now invited to reside in
Rome at the special request of Pope Clement XL, who openly
acknowledged their titles of British King and Queen, gave them
a papal guard of troops, presented them with a villa at Albano
and a palace (the Palazzo Muti in the Piazza dei Santi Apostoti)
in the city, and also made them an annual allowance of 12/300
crowns out of the papal, treasury. At the Palazzo Muti, which
remained the chief centre of Jacobite intriguing, were born
James's two sons, Charles Edward (the Young Pretender) and
Henry Benedict Stuart. James's married life proved turbulent
and unhappy, a circumstance that was principally due to the hot
temper and jealous nature of Clementina, who soon after Henry's
birth in 1725 left her husband and spent over two years in a
Roman convent. At length a reconciliation was effected, which
Clementina did not long survive, for she cued at the early age of
32 in February 1735. Full regal honours were paid to the Stuart
queen at her funeral, and the splendid but tasteless monument
by Pietro Bracchi (1700-1773) in St Peter's was erected to her
memory by order of Pope Benedict XIV.
His wife's death seems to have affected James's health and
spirits greatly, and be now began to grow feeble and indifferent,
so that the political adherents of the Stuarts were gradually led
to fix their hopes upon the two young princes rather than upon
their father. Travellers to Rome at this period note that James
appeared seldom in public, and that much of his time was given
up to religious exercises; be was dhoi d farcer, so Charles de
Brasses, an unprejudiced Frenchman, informs us. It was with
great reluctance that James*allowed his elder son to leave Italy
for France in 1744; nevertheless in the following year, he per*
mitted Henry to follow his brother's example, but with the news
of Culloden he evidently came to regard bis cause as definitely
lost. The estrangement from his elder and favourite son* which
arose over Henry's adoption of an ecclesiastical career, so
embittered his last years that he sank into a moping invalid and
rarely left his chamber. With the crushing failure of the
JAMES, D.— JAMES,, H.
"Forty-five" and hit quartet with his heir, the ©nce^oWded
James soon became a mere cipher in British politics, and his
death at Rome on the and of January 1766 passed almost
unnoticed in London. He was buried with regal pomp in St
Peter's, where Canova's famous monument, erected by Pius VII.
in 1S19, commemorates him and his two sons. As to James's
personal character, there is abundant evidence to show that he
was grave, high-principled, industrious, abstemious and ajqwiIA+a
and that the unflattering portrait drawn of him by Thackeray
in Esmond is utterly at variance with historical facts. Although
a fervent Roman Catholic, he was far more reasonable and liberal
in Iris religious views than his father, as many ettant letters
testify.
See Earl Stanhope, History of England and Decline of (he Last
Stuarts (1853); Calendar of the Stuart Papers at Windsor Castle;
' " "Me, Memories of the Pretenders and their Adherents (1845);
Doraa, " Maun " and Manners at the Court of Florence
~~ - "" ~ d'lugkii
liUerra;
(H.T4.V.)
J. H. lease, Memories of the Pretenders t
Dr John Doran, " Mann " and Maunm
(1876k Relatione delta morte di Ciaoomo III., Re
and Charles de Brasses, LeUressur V Italic (1885).
JAMBS,. DAVID (1830-1803), English actor, was born in
London, his real name being Belasco. He began his stage
career at an early age, and after 1863 gradually made his way in
humorous parts. His creation, in 1875, of the part of Perkyn
Middlewick in Our Boys made him famous as a comedian, the
performance obtaining for the piece a then unprecedented run
from the 16th of January 1875 till the 18th of April 1879. In
1885 he had another notable success as Blueskin in Little Jack
Sheppard at the Gaiety Theatre, bis principal associates being
Fred Leslie and Nellie Fan-en. His song in this burlesque,
"Botany Bay," became widely popular. In the part of John
Dory in Wild Oats be again made a great hit at the Criterion
Theatre in 1886; and among his other most successful imper-
sonations were Simon Ingot in David Garrich, Tweedie In
Tweed ic's Rights, Macclesfield in The Guvnor, and Ecdes in
Caste. His unctuous humour and unfailing spirits made him a
great favourite with the pubuc. He died on the 2nd of October
JAMBS, GEORGE PAYEE RAM8F0RD (1700-1860), English
novelist, son of Pinkstan James, physician, was born in George
Street, Hanover Square, London, on the 9th of August 1709.
He was' educated at a private school at Putney, and afterwards
ia France. He began to write early, and had, according to his
own account, composed the stories afterwards published as
A String, of Pearls before he was seventeen. As a contributor
to newspapers and magazines, he came under the notice of
Washington Irving, who encouraged him to produce his Life of
Edward the Black Prince (1822). Richelieu was finished in 1825,
and was well thought of by Sir Walter Scott (who apparently
saw it in manuscript), but was not brought out till 1829. Per-
haps Irving and Scott, from their natural amiability, were
rather dangerous advisers for a writer so inclined by nature to
abundant production as James. But he took up historical
romance writing at a lucky moment. Scott had firmly estab-
lished the popularity of the style, and James in England, like
Dumas in France, reaped the reward of their master's labours as
well as of their own. For thirty years the author of Richelieu
continued to pour out novels of the same kind though of varying
merit. His works in prose fiction, verse narrative, and history
of an easy kind are said to number over a hundred, most of them
being three-volume novels of the usual length. Sixty-seven are
catalogued in the British Museum. The best examples of his
style are perhaps Richelieu (1829); Philip Augustus (1831);
Henry Master ton, probably the best of all (1832); Mary of
Burgundy (1833); Darnley (1830); Corse de Uon (1841); The
Smuggler (1845). His poetry does not require special mention,
nor docs his history, though for a short time during the reign of
William IV. he held the office of historiographer royal. After
writing copiously for about twenty years, James in 1850 went
to America as British Consul for Massachusetts. He was
consul at Richmond, Virginia, from 1852 to 1856, when he was
appointed to a similar post at Venice, where he died on the 9th
of June i860.
»43
4
James has been compared to Dumas, and the comparison
holds good in respect of kind, though by no means in respect
of merit. Both had a certain gift of separating from the
picturesque parts of history what could without much difficulty
be worked up into picturesque fiction, and both were possessed
of a ready pen. Here, however, the likeness ends. Of purely
literary talent James had little. His plots are poor, his descrip-
tions weak,- his dialogue often below even a fair average, and he
was deplorably prone to repeat himself. The " two cavaliers "
who in one farm or another open most of his books have passed
into a proverb, and Thackeray's good-natured but fatal parody
of Barbatmre is likely to outlast Richelieu and Darnley by many
a year. Nevertheless, though James cannot be allowed any very
high rank among novelists, he had a genuine narrative gift, and,
though his very best books fall far below Let trois mousquetaires
and La rein* Margot, there is a certain even level of interest to
be found in all of them. James never resorted to illegitimate
methods to attract readers, and deserves such credit as may be
due to a purveyor of amusement who never caters for the lest
creditable taitesof his guests.
Has best novels were pubSshed m a revised form in si volumes
(1844-1*49).
JAMES, HEH&Y (1843- ), American author, was born in
New York on the 1 5th of April 1843. His father was Henry James
(181 1-1882), a theological writer of great originality, from whom
both be and his brother Professor William James derived their
psychological subtlety and their idiomatic, picturesque English.
Most of Henry's boyhood was spent in Europe, where he studied
under tutors in England, France and Switzerland. In i860 he
returned to America, and began reading law at Harvard, only
to find speedily that literature, not law, was what he most cared
for. His earliest short tale, " The Story of a Year," appeared
in 1865, in the Atlantic Monthly, and frequent stories and
sketches followed. In 1869 he again went to Europe, where he
subsequently made his home, for the most part living in London,
or at Rye in Sussex. Among his specially noteworthy works
are the following: Watch and Ward (1871); Roderick Hudson
(1875); The American (1877); Daisy Miller (1878); French Poets
and Novelists (1878); A Life of Hawthorne (1879); The Portrait
of a Lady (r88i); Portraits of Places (1884); The Bostonians
(1886); Partial Portraits (1888); The Tragic Muse (1890);
Essays in London (1893); The Two Magics (189$)', The Awkward
Age (1898); The Wings of the Dove (1902); The Ambassadors
(1003); The Golden Bowl (1904); English Hours (1905); Tha
American Scene (1907); The High Bid (1909); Italian Hours
(1009).
As a novelist, Henry James is a modern of the moderns both in
subject matter and in method. He is entirely loyal to contem-
porary life and reverentially exact in his transcription of the
phase. His characters are for the most part people of the world
who conceive of life as a fine art and have the leisure to carry out
their theories. Rarely are they at dose quarters with any ugly
practical task. They are subtle and complex with the subtlety
and the complexity that come from conscious preoccupation with
themselves. They are specialists in conduct and past masters
in casuistry, and are full of variations and shadows of turning.
Moreover, they are finely expressive of milieu; each belongs
unmistakably to his class and his race; each is true to inherited
moral traditions and delicately illustrative of some social code.
To Teveal the power and the tragedy of life through so many
minutely limiting and apparently artificial conditions, and by
means of characters Who are somewhat self-consdous and are
apt to make of life only a pleasant pastime, might well seem an
impossible task. Yet it is precisely In tins that Henry James
is pre-eminently successful. The essentially human is what he
really cares for, however much he may at times seem preoccupied
with the technique of his art or with the mask of conventions
through which he makes the essentially human reveal itself.
Nor has " the vista of the spiritual been denied him." No more
poignant spiritual tragedy has been recounted in recent fiction
than the story of Isabel Archer in The Portrait of a Lady,
His method, too, is as modern as his subject matter. He early
144 JAMES, J. A.— JAMES OF HEREFORD, BARON
fell in love with the " point of view," and the good and the bad
qualities of his work all follow from this literary passion. He is
• very sensitive impressionist, with a technique that can fix the
most elusive phase of character and render the most baffling
surface. The skill is unending with which he places his char-
acters in such relations and under such lights that they flash out
in due succession their continuously varying facets. At times he
may seem to forget that a character is something incalculably
more than the sum of all its phases; and then .his characters
tend to have their existence, as Positivists expect to have their
immortality, simply and solely in the minds of other people.
But when his method is at its best, the delicate phases of char-
acter that he transcribes coalesce perfectly into clearly defined
and suggestive images of living, acting men and women. Doubt-
less, there is a certain initiation necessary for, the enjoyment of
Mr James. He presupposes a cosmopolitan outlook, a certain
interest in art and in social artifice, and no little abstract
curiosity about the workings of the human mechanism. But for
speculative readers, for readers who care for art in life as well
as for life in art, and for readers above all who want to encounter
and comprehend a great variety of very jnodern and finely
modulated characters, Mr James holds a place of his own,
unrivalled as an interpreter of the world of tp^day.
For a list of the short stories of Mr Henry James, collection* of
them in volume form, and other works, see bibliographies by F. A.
King, in The Novel* of Henry James, by Elisabeth L. Cary (New York
and London, 1905), and by Le Roy Phillips, A Bibliography of the
Writings of Henry Jahtes (Boston, Mass., 1906). In 1009 an Edition
de luxe of Henry James's novels was published in 34 volumes.
JAMBS, JOHN ANGELL (1785-1859), English Nonconformist
divine, was born at Blandford, Dorsetshire, on the 6th of June
1 785. At the dose of his seven years' apprenticeship to a linen-
draper at Poole he decided to become a preacher, and in 1802
he went to David Bogue's training institution at GosporL
A year and a half later, on a visit to Birmingham, his preaching
was so highly esteemed by the congregation of Carr's Line
Independent chapel that they invited him to exercise his
ministry amongst them; he settled there in 1805, and was or-
dained in May 1806. For several years his success as a preacher
was comparatively small; but he jumped into popularity about
1814, and began to attract large crowds wherever he officiated.
At the same time his religious writings, the best known of which
are The Anxious Inquirer and An Earnest Ministry, acquired
a wide circulation. James was a typical Congregational preacher
of the early 19th century, massive and elaborate rather than
original. His preaching displayed little or nothing of Calvinism,
the earlier severity of which bad been modified in Birmingham
by Edward Williams, one of his predecessors. He was one
of the founders of the Evangelical Alliance and of the Congrega-
tion J Union of England and Wales. Municipal interests appealed
strongly to him, and he was also for many years chairman of
Spring Hill (afterwards Mansfield) College. He died at Birming-
ham on the xst of October 1859.
A collected edition of James's works appeared ia 1860-1864. See
A Review of the Life and Character of J. Angell James (i860), by I.
Campbell, and Life and Letters of J. A. James (1861), edited by his
successor, R . W. Dale, who also contributed a sketch of his predecessor
to Pulpit Memorials (1878).
JAMBS, THOMAS (c. 1 573-1629), English librarian, was bora
at Newport, Isle of Wight. He was educated at Winchester and
New College, Oxford, and became a fellow of New College in
1593. His wide knowledge of books, together with his skill in
deciphering manuscripts and detecting literary forgeries, secured
him in 160; the post of librarian to the library founded in that
year by Sir Thomas Bodley at Oxford. At the same time he
was made rector of St Aldate's, Oxford. In 1605 he compiled a
classified catalogue of the books in the Bodleian Library, but in
1620 substituted for it an alphabetical catalogue. The arrange-
ment in 1610, whereby the Stationers' Company undertook to
supply the Bodleian Library with every book published, was
James's suggestion. Ill health compelled him to resign his post
in ibiOf am 1 h* died at Oxford in August 1629.
JAMBS, WILLIAM (d. 1827), English naval historian, author
of the Naval History of Great Britain from the Declaration of War
by France in 1793 to the Accession of George IV., practised at
a proctor in the admiralty court of Jamaica between 1S01 and
18x3. He was in the United States when the war of 181 2 broke
out, and was detained as a prisoner, but escaped to Halifax.
His literary career began by letters to the Natal Chronicle over
the signature of " Boxer." In 1 816 he published A n Inquiry into
the Merits of the Principal Natal Actions between Great BriUin
and the United States. In this pamphlet, which James reprinted
in 1817, enlarged and with a new title, his object was to prove
that the American frigates were stronger than their British
opponents nominally of the same class. In 1819 he began his
Naval History, which appeared in five volumes (182 2-1824), and
was reprinted in six volumes (1826). It is a monument of pains-
taking accuracy in all such matters as dates, names, tonnage,
armament and movements of ships, though no attempt is ever
made to show the connexion between the various movements.
James died on the 28th of May 1827 in London, leaving a widow
Who received a civil list pension of £100.
An edition of the Naval History in spc volumes, with additions and
notes by Capt. F. Chamier, was published in t837, and a further one
in 1880. An edition epitomised by R. O'Byrne appeared in 1888,
and an Index by C G. Toogood was issued by the Naw Records
Society in 1895.
JAMES, WILLIAM (1842-19x0), American philosopher, son
of the Swedenborgian theologian Henry James, and brother of
the novelist Henry James, was born on the 11th of January 184a
at New York City. He graduated M.D. at Harvard in 187a. Two
years after he was appointed a lecturer at Harvard in anatomy
and physiology, and later in psychology and philosophy. Subse-
quently he became assistant professor of philosophy (1880-1885),
professor (1885-1889), professor of psychology (1884-1897) and
professor of philosophy (1897-1907). In 1899-1901 he delivered
the Gifford lectures on natural religion at the university of
Edinburgh, and in 1908 the Hibbert lectures at Manchester
College, Oxford. With the appearance of his Principles of
Psycltology (2 vols., 1800), James at once stepped into the front
rank of psychologists as a leader of the physical school* a position
which he m a in ta ine d not only by the brilliance of his analo-
gies but also by the freshness and unconventional] ly of his
style. In metaphysics he upheld the idealist position from the
empirical standpoint. Beside the Principles of Psychology,
which appeared in a shorter form in 1S92 {Psychology), his chief
works are: The Will to Believe (1897); Human Immortality
(Boston, 1898); Talks to Teachers (1899); The Varieties of
Religious Experience (New York, 1902); Pragmatism— a New
Name for some Old Ways of Thinking (1907); A Pluralistic
Universe (1909; Hibbert lectures), ir* which, though he still
attacked the hypothesis of absolutism, he admitted it as a
legitimate alternative. He received honorary degrees from
Padua (1893)^ Princeton (1896), Edinburgh (1902), Harvard
(1905). He died on the 27th of August 191a
JAMES OF HEREFORD, HENRY JAMES, ist Baron
(1828- ), English lawyer and statesman, son of P. T. James,
surgeon, was born at Hereford on the 30th of October 1828, and
educated at Cheltenham College. A prizeman of the Inner
Temple, be was called to the bar in 1852 and joined the Oxford
circuit, where he soon came into prominence. In 1867 he was
made " postman " of the court of exchequer, and in 1869 became
a Q.C. At the general election of 1868 he obtained a scat in
parliament for Taunton as a Liberal, by the unseating of Mr
Serjeant Cox on a scrutiny in March 1869, and he kept the scat
till 1885, when he was returned for Bury. He attracted atten-
tion in parliament by his speeches in 1872 in the debates on the
Judicature Act. In 1873 (September) he was made solicitor-
general,, and in November attorney-general, and knighted,
and when .Gladstone returned to power ia 18S0 he resumed his
office. He was responsible for carrying the Corrupt Practices
Act of 1&&3. On Gladstone's conversion to Home Rule, Sir Henry
James parted from him and became one of the most influential
of the Liberal Unionists: Gladstone had offered him the lord
chancellorship \n \886. but he declined h; and the knowledge
JAMES, EPISTLE OF
*+5
of the sacrifice lie had made in refusing to follow his old duel
in his new departure lent great weight to his advocacy of the
Unionist cause in the couatry. lie was one of the leading
counsel for The Times before the Parnell Commission, and
from 189a to 1805 was attorney-general to the prince of Wales.
From 1895 to xooa he was a member of the Unionist ministry
as chancellor for the duchy of Lancaster, And in 1895 he was made
a peer as Baron James of Hereford. In later years he was a
prominent opponent of the Tariff Reform movement, adhering
to the section of Free Trade Unionists.
JAMBS, EPISTLE OF, a book of the New Testament. The
superscription (Jas, i. 1) ascribes it to that pre-eminent " pillar "
(GaL ti. 9) of the original mother church who later came to be
regarded in certain quarters as the " bishop of bishops " (Epist.
of James to Clement, ap. Clem. Horn. Superscription). As such
he appears in a position to address an encyclical to " the twelve
tribes of the dispersion "; for the context (L 18, v. 7 seq ) and
literary relation (cf. x Pet. i. 1, 3, 23- 25) prove this to be a figure
for the entire new people of God, without the distinction of carnal
birth, as Paul had described u the Israel of God " (GaL vi. 16),
spiritually begotten, like Isaac, by the word received in faith
(GaL iii. 28 seq., iv. 28; Rom. ix. 6-9, iv. 16-18). This idea of the
spiritually begotten Israel becomes current after x Pet, as
appears in John i. 11-13, ia - 3~8; Barn. iv. 6, xiii. 13; 2 Clem,
ii. 2, ftc
The interpretation which takes the expression " the twelve
tribes " literally, and conceives the brother of the Lord as sending
an epistle written in the Greek language throughout the Christian
world, but as addressing Jewish Christians only (so e.g. Sieffert,
*.*. " Jacobus im N.T." in Hauck, Realetuykl. cd. 1000, vol. viii.),
assumes not only such divisive interference as Paul might justly
resent (cf. GaL ii. 1-10), but involves a strange idea of conditions.
Were worldliness, tongue religion, moral indifference, the
distinctive marks of the Jewish element? Surely the rebukes
of James apply to conditions of the whole Church and not
sporadic Jewish-Christian conventicles in the Greek-speaking
world, if any such existed.
It is at least an open question whether the superscription
(connected with that of Jude) be not a later conjecture prefixed
by some compiler of the catholic epistles, but of the late date
implied in our interpretation of ver. x there should be small
dispute. Whatever the currency in classical circles of the epistle
as a literary form, it is irrational to put first in the development
of Christian literature a general epistle, couched in fluent, even
rhetorical, Greek, and afterwards the Pauline letters, which both
as to origin and subsequent circulation were a product of urgent
conditions; The order consonant with history is (1) Paul's
"tetters" to "the churches of "a province (Gal. i. *; 2 Cor. !. 1);
(2) the address to " the elect of the dispersion " in a group of the
Pauline provinces (1 Pet. i. x); (3) the address to " the twelve
tribes of the dispersion " everywhere (Jas. i. 1 ; cf. Rev. vii. 2-4).
James, like x John, is a homfty, even more lacking than x John
in every epistolary feature, not even supplied with the customary
epistolary farewell. . The superscription, if original, compels us
to treat the whole writing as not only late but pseudonymous.
If prefixed by conjecture, to secure recognition and authority
for the book, even this was at first a failure. The earliest trace
of any recognition of it is in Origen (a.d. 230) who refers to it
as " said to be from James " (^epopkyn ^ 'laKufiov 'EroroXifr),
seeming thus to regard ver. x as superscription rather than part
of the text. Eusebius (a.d. 325) classifies it among the disputed
books, declaring that it is regarded as spurious, and that not
many of the ancients have mentioned it. Even Jerome
(a.d. 390), though personally he accepted it, admits that it was
M said to have been published by another in the name of James."
The Syrian canon of the Peshitta was. the first to admit it.
Modern criticism naturally made the superscription its starring'
point, endeavouring first to explain the contents of the writing on
this theory of authorship, but generally reaching the conclusion that
the two do not agree. Conservatives as a rule avoid the implication
of a direct polemic against Paul in ii. 14-96, which would lay open the
author to the bitter accusations launched against the interlopers of
t Cor. x.-xin\, by dating before the Judaistic controversy. Other
xv 3*
th
(H-26). . ...
4. The true spirit of wisdom appears not in aspiring to tench, but
in goodness ana meekness of life (ch. iii.). Strife and self -exaltation
are fruits of a different spirit, to be resisted and overcome by humble
prayer for more grace (iv. 1-10).
5. God's judgment is at hand. The thought condemns censori-
oasness (iv. 11 et seq.), presumptuous treatment of life (13-17), and
the tyranny of the rich (v. 1-6). It encourages the believer to
patient endurance to the end without murmuring or imprecations
(7-12). It impels the church to diligence in its work of worship,
care and prayer (13-18), and in the reclamation of the erring (19-20).
The use made by James of earlier material is as important for
determining the terminus a quo of its own date as the use of it by
later writers for the terminus ad quern . Acquaintance with the
evangelic tradition is apparent. It is conceived, however, more in
the Matthaean sense of " commandments to be observed " (Matt,
xxviii. 20) than the Pauline, Markan and Johannine of the drama of
the incarnation and redemption. There is no traceable literary
contact with the synoptic gospels. Acquaintance, however, with
some of the Pauline epistles must be regarded as incontestably
established" (O. Cone, Encj. Bibl. ii. 2323). Besides scattered
» Nothing adduced by Lightfoot (Com*, en Col. Exc. ** The faith
of Abraham ") justifies the unsupported and improbable assertion
that the quotation James ii. 21 seq. " was probably in common use
among the Jews to prove that orthodoxy of doctrine sufficed for
salvation " (Mayor, s.v. " James, Epistle of " in Hasting's Did.
Bible, p. 546).
1+6
JAMES, EPISTLE OF
Dependence on Revelation
with Rev. ii. 9, to and v. 9
the relation has been defined above.
(a.d. 95) is probable (cf. i. 12 and u. 5
with Rev. hi. ao). but the contacts with Clement of Rome (a.d.
95-120) indicate the reverse relation. James iv. 6 and v. 20 -
1 Clem. xlix. 5 and m 2; but as both passages are also found in
I Peter (iv. 8, v. 5), the latter may be the common source. Clement's
further development of the cases of Abraham and Rahab, however,
adding as it does to the demonstration of James from Scripture of
their justification " by works and not by faith only," that the
particular good work which " wrought with the faith of Abraham
and Rahab to their justification was " hospitality " (1 Clem. x.-»i.)
seems plainly to presuppose James. Priority is more difficult to
establish in the case of Hennas (a.d. 120-110), where the contacts
are undisputed (cf. James iv. 7, 12 with Maud. xii. 5, 6 ; Sim. ix. 23). 1
The date (aj>. 95-120) implied by the literary contacts of
James of course precludes authorship by the Lord's brother,
though this does not necessarily prove the superscription later
stilL The question whether the writing as a whole is pseudony-
mous, or only the superscription a mistaken conjecture by the
scribe of Jade x is of secondary importance. A date about
100-120 for the substance of the writing is accepted by the
majority of modern scholars and throws real light upon the
author's endeavour. Pfleiderer in pointing out the- similarities
of James and the Shepherd of Hennas declares it to be " certain
that both writings presuppose like historical circumstances, and,
from a similar point of view, direct their admonitions to their
contemporaries, among whom a lax worldly-mindedness and
unfruitful theological wrangling threatened to destroy the
religious life." s Holtxmann has characterized this as " the
right visual angle " for the judgment of the book. Questions as
to the obligation of Mosaism and the relations of Jew and Gentile
have utterly disappeared below the horizon. Neither the
attachment to the religious forms of Judaism, which we are
informed was characteristic of James, nor that personal relation
to the Lord which gave him his supreme distinction are indicated
by so much as a single word. Instead of being written in
Aramaic, as it would almost necessarily be if antecedent to the
Pauline epistles, or even in the Semitic style characteristic of
the older and more Palestinian elements of the New Testament
we have a Greek even more fluent than Paul's and metaphors
and allusions (i. 17, iii. 1-12) of a type more like Greek rhetoric
than anything else in the New Testament. Were we to judge
by the contacts with Hebrews, Clement of Rome and Hennas
and the similarity of situation evidenced in the last-named,
Rome would seem the most natural place of origin. The history
of the epistle's reception into the canon is not opposed to this;
for, once it was attributed to James, Syria would be more likely
to take it up, while the West, more sceptical, if not better
informed as to its origin, held back; just as happened in the
case of Hebrews.
It is the author's conception of the nature of the gospel which
mainly gives us pause in following this pretty general disposition
of modern scholarship. With all the phenomena of vocabulary
and style which seem to justify such conceptions as von Soden's
that c iii. and iv. 11-v. 6 represent excerpts respectively from
the essay of an Alexandrian scribe, and a triple fragment of
Jewish apocalypse, the analysis above given will be found the
exponent of a real logical sequence. We might almost admit a
resemblance in form to the general literary type which Spitta
adduces. The term " wisdom " in particular is used in the special
and technical sense of the " wise men " of Hebrew literature
(Matt, xxiii. 34), the sense of " the wisdom of the just " of Luke
i. 17. True, the mystical sense given to the term in one of the
sources of Luke, by Paul and some of the Church fathers, is not
present. While the gospel is pre-eminently the divine gift of
II wisdom," " wisdom " is not personified, but conceived pri-
marily as a system of humanitarian ethics, i. 21-25, and only
secondarily as a spiritual effluence, imparting the regenerate
disposition, the u mind that was in Christ Jesus," iii. 13-18.
And yet for James as well as for Paul Christ is " the wisdom of
1 On the contacts in general see Moffat, Hist. N 7*. f p. 578, on
relation to Clem. R. see Bacon. " Doctrine of Faith in Hebrews,
lames and Clement of Rome." in Jour, of Bib. Lit., 1900 pp. 12-21.
t Das Tlr'kristtnthum, 868. quoted by Cone. loc. cit.
God." The dm^reiic* iii conception^ the terin fa simaar to that
between Ecclesiasticus and the Wisdom of Solomon. Our
author, like Paul* expects the hearers of the word to be " a kind
of first-fruits to God of his creation." (i. 18 cf. x Pet. I 23), and
bids them depend upon the gift of grace (i.5, iv. 5 seq.), but for
the evils of the world he has no remedy but the patient endurance
of the Christian philosopher (L 2-18). For the faithlessness
(fiiifwxLa i. 6-8; cf. Didochc and Hennas), worldHncss (H. 1-13)
and hollow profession (iL 14.-26) of the church life of his time,
with its " theological wrangling " (iii. 1-12)* his remedy is again
the God-given, peaceable spirit of the Christian philosopher
(iii. 13-18), which is the antithesis of the spirit of self-seeking
and censoriousness (iv. 1-12), and which appreciates the pettiness
of earthly life with its sordid gains and its unjust distribution of
wealth (iv. 13-v. 6). This attitude of the Christian stoic will
maintain the individual in his patient waiting for the expected
" coming of the Lord " (v. 7-11); while the church sustains its
official functions of healing and prayer, and reclamation of the
erring (v. 13-20).' For this conception of the gospel and of the
officially organized church, our nearest analogy is in Matthew,
or rather in the blocks of precepts of the Lord which after
subtraction of the Markan narrative framework are found to
underlie our first gospel. It may be mere coincidence that the
material in Matthew as well as in the Didochc seems to be
arranged in five divisions, beginning' with a commendation of
the right way, and ending with warnings of the judgment, while
the logical analysis of James yields something similar; but of
the affinity of spirit there can be no doubt
The type of ethical thought exemplified in James has been
called Ebionite (Hilgenfeld). It is dearly manifest in the
humanitarianism of Luke also. But with the possible exception
of the prohibition of oaths there is nothing which ought to suggest
the epithet. The strong sense of social wrongs, the impa t i enc e
with tongue-religion, the utter ignoring of (rremoniatisro, the
reflection on the value and significance of *' life," are distinctive
simply of the " wisdom " writers. Like these our author holds
himself so far aloof from current debate of ceremonial or doctrine
as to escape our principal standards of measurement regarding
place and time. Certain general considerations, however, are
fairly decisive. The prolonged effort, mainly of English scholar-
ship, to vindicate the superscription, even on the condition of
assuming priority to the Pauline epistles, grows only increasingly
hopeless with increasing knowledge of conditions, linguistic and
other, in that early period. The moralistic conception of the
gospel as a "law of liberty," the very phrase recalling the
expression of Barn, ii., " the new law of Christ, which is without
the yoke of constraint," the conception of the church as
primarily an ethical society, its functions already officially dis-
tributed, suggest the period of the Didochc, Barnabas and
Clement of Rome. Independently of the literary contacts we
should judge the period to be about a.d. 100-120. The con-
nexions with the Pauline epistles are conclusive for tL date later
than the death of James; those with Clement and He
perhaps sufficient to date it as prior to the former, and 1
Rome as the place of origin. The connexions with wisdom-
literature favour somewhat the Hellenistic culture of Syria,
as represented for example at Antioch,
~ ' ' t epistle are those of
beilt (1833). J. Kern
in (iBSi)rti. v. Sodcn
MS). The pre-Pauline
L Beyschlag (Meyer's
mdW. Patrick. J.V.
, and the view is still
immer (Z. w. 7a.. 1893)
A. Hilgenfeld (EM.)
• The logical relation of v. 12 to the context is prob l e ma tical
Perhaps it may be accounted for by. the order of the cosnpend of
Christian ethics the writer was following. Cf. Matt. v. 34-37 »
relation to Matt. v. 12 (cf. ver. 10) and vi. 19 sqo. (cf. ver. 2, and
iv. 13 seq.). The non-charismatic conception of healing, no longer the
" gift " of some layman in the community (1 Cor. xii. 9 seq.) bat a
function of " the elders " (1 Tim. iv. 14), u another mdicatioa of
comparatively late date.
JAMESON, A. R— JAMESON, L. S.
TO. History^ SchwctKr Qiochap, Z*tKtiiJ,ld\tt, Voikmar (Z. *.
7*.), Hausrath (***. d*«X H.J. Holtwnann (EtWA Julicber (Etnl.l
Ustcri (51. a. #r„ 1889). W. Bruckner (Cfcmn.), H. v. Soden(tfawf-
«#ffi*sv) and A, Harnack (Cfcro*.) under Hadrian. A convenient
synopsis of results will be found in J. Moffat. Historical Nm Tort*
(pp. j>7f-5{jl )..and in the articles s.v, " Jamejs " in $*&£ Bibl. and
JAMESOH, ANNA BROWNBU (1794-1860), British writer,
was born in Dublin on the 1 7th of May x 704. Her father, Denis
Brownell Murphy (d. 1842), a miniature and enamel painter,
removed to England in 1798 with hit family, and eventually
settled at Hanwell, near London. At sixteen years of age Anna
became governess in the family of the marquis of Winchester.
In 1 8a 1 she was engaged to Robert Jameson. The engagement
was broken off, and Anna Murphy accompanied a young pupil
to Italy, writing in a fictitious character a narrative of what she
saw and did. This diary she gave to a bookseller on condition
of receiving a guitar if he secured any profits. Colburn ulti-
mately published it as The Diary of an Rnnuyev (18*6), which
attracted much attention. The author was governess to the
children of Mr Littleton, afterwards Lord Hatherton, from 182 1
to i£j5, when she married Robert Jameson. The marriage
proved unhappy; when, in 1820, Jameson was appointed puisne
judge in the island of Dominica the couple separated without
regret, and Mrs Jameson visited the Continent again with her
father.
• The first work which displayed her powers of original thought
was her Characteristics of Women (1832). These analyses of
Shakespeare's heroines are remarkable for delicacy of critical
insight and fineness of literary touch. They are the result pf a
penetrating but essentially feminine mind, applied to the study
of individuals of its own sex, detecting characteristics and
defining differences not perceived by the ordinary critic and en-
tirely overlooked by the general reader. German literature and
art had aroused much interest in England, and Mrs Jameson
paid her first visit to Germany in 1833. The conglomerations 0/
bard lines, cold colours and pedantic subjects which decorated
Munich under the patronage of King Louis of Bavaria, were new
to the world, and Mrs Jameson's enthusiasm first gave them an
English reputation.
In 1836 Mrs Jameson was summoned to Canada by her husband,
who had been appointed chancellor of the province of Toronto.
He failed to meet her at New York, and she was left to make her
way alone at the worst season of the year to Toronto. After
six months' experiment she felt it useless to prolong a life far
from all ties of family happiness and opportunities of usefulness.
Before leaving, she undertook a journey to the depths of the
Indian settlements in Canada; she explored Lake Huron, and
saw much' of emigrant and Indian life unknown to travellers,
which she afterwards embodied in her Winter Studies and Summer
Rambles. She returned to England in 1838. At this period
Mrs Jameson began making careful notes of the chief private art
collections in and near London. The result appeared in her
Companion to the Private Galleries (1842), followed in the same
year by the Handbook to the Public Galleries. She edited the
Memoirs of the Marly Italian Painters in 184s. In the same year
she visited her friend Ottilie von Goethe. Her friendship with
Lady Byron dates from about this time and lasted fof some
seven years; it was brought to an end apparently through Lady
Byron's unreasonable temper. A volume of essays published
in 1846 contains one of Mrs Jameson's best pieces of work, The
House of Titian* In 1847 she went to Italy with her niece and
subsequent biographer (Memoirs, 1878), Geraldine Bate (Mrs
Macpherson), to collect mateikls for the work on which her
reputation rests— her series of Sacred and Legendary Art. The
time was ripe for such contributions to the traveller's library.
The Acta Sanctorum and the Book of the Golden Legend had had
their readers, but no one had ever pointed out the connexion
between these tales and the works of Christian art. The way
to these studies had been pointed out in the preface to Kugler's
Handbook of Italian Painting by Sir Charles Eastlake, who had
intended pursuing the subject himself.- Eventually he made
H7
over to Mrs Jameson die materials and references he had
collected. She recognised the extent of the ground before her
as a mingled sphere of poetry, history, devotion and art. She
infected her readers with her own enthusiastic admiration;
and, in spite of her slight technical and historical equipment,
Mrs. Jameson produced a book which thoroughly deserved its
great success.
She also took a keen interest in questions affecting the educa-
tion, occupations and maintenance of her own sex. Her early
essay on The Relative Social PotiHon of Mothers and Governesses
was the work of one who knew both sides; and in no respect does
she more clearly prove the falseness of the position she describes
than in the certainty with which she predicts its eventual reform.
To her we owe the first popular enunciation of the principle of
atale and female co-operation in works of mercy and education.
In her later years she took up a succession of subjects all bearing
on the same principles of active benevolence and the best ways
of carrying them into practice. Sisters of charity, hospitals,
penitentiaries, prisons and workhouses all claimed her interest
— all more or less included under those definitions of " the com-
munion of love and communion of labour " whkh are inseparably
connected with her memory. To the dear and temperate forms
in which she brought the results of her convictions before her
friends in the shape of private lectures— published as Sisters of
Charity (1855) and The Communion of Labour (1856)— may be
traced the source whence later reformers and philanthropists
took counsel and courage.
Mrs Jameson died on the 17th of March i860. She left the
last of her Sacred and Legendary Art series in preparation. It
was completed, under the title of The History of Our Lord in Art,
by Lady Eastlake.
JAMESON (or Jamesone), GBORQ* (<. 1587-1644). Scottish
portrait-painter, was born at Aberdeen, where his father was
architect and a member of the guild. After studying painting
under Rubens at Antwerp, with Vandyck as a fellow pupil, he
returned In 1620 to Aberdeen, where he was married in 1624 and
remained at least until 1630, after which he took np his residence
in Edinburgh. He was employed by the magistrates of Edin-
burgh to copy several portraits of the Scottish kings for presen-
tation to Charles I. on his first visit to Scotland in 1633, and the
king rewarded him with a diamond ring from his own finger.
This circumstanoa at once established Jameson's fame, and he
soon found constant employment in painting the portraits of
the Scottish nobility and gentry. He also painted a portrait
of Charles, which he declined to sell to the magistrates of
Aberdeen for the price they offered. He died at Edinburgh in
1644.
JAMBM*, LKAN0BR STARR (1853- ), British colonial
statesman, son of R. W. Jameson, a writer to the signet in Edin-
burgh, was bom at Edinburgh in 1853, and was educated for the
medical profession at University College Hospital, London
(M.R.C.S. 1875; M.D. 1877). After acting as bouse physician,
house surgeon and demonstrator of anatomy, and showing
promise of a successful professional career in London, his health
broke down from overwork in 1878, and he went out to South
Africa and settled down in practice at Kimberley. There he
rapidly acquired a great reputation as a medical man, and,
besides numbering President Kruger and the Matabete chief
Lobenguht among his patients, came much into contact with Cecil
Rhodes. In 1888 his influence with Lobengula was successfully
exerted to induce that chieftain to grant the concessions to the
agents of Rhodes which led to the formation of the British South
Africa Company; and when the company proceeded to open up
Mashona land, Jameson abandoned his medical practice and joined
the pioneer expedition of 1800. From this time his fortunes
were bound np with Rhodes'* schemes in the north. Imme-
diately after the pioneer column had occupied Mashonaland,
Jameson, with F. C. Selous and A. R. Colquhoun, went east to
Manicaland and was instrumental in securing the greater part
of that country, to which Portugal was laying claim, for the
Chartered Company. In 1891 Jameson succeeded Colquhoun
as administrator of Rhodesia. The events connected wi' u
148
JAMESON, R.— JAMESTOWN
vigorous administration and the wars with the Matabele are
narrated under Rhodesia. At the end of 1894 " Dr Jim "
(as he was familiarly called) came to England and was feted on
all sides; he was made a C.B., and returned to Africa in the
spring of 1895 with enhanced prestige. On the last day of that
year the world was startled to learn that Jameson, with a force
of 600 men, had made a raid into the Transvaal from Mafeking
in support of a projected rising in Johannesburg, which had been
connived at by Rhodes at the Cape (sec Rhodes and Trans-
vaal). Jameson's force was compelled to surrender at Doom-
hop, receiving a guarantee that the lives of all would be spared;
he and his officers were sent to Pretoria, and, after a short delay,
during which time sections of the Boer populace clamoured for
the execution of Jameson, President Kruger on the surrender
of Johannesburg (January 7) handed them over to the British
government for punishment. They were tried in London under
the Foreign Enlistment Act in May 1896, and Dr Jameson
was sentenced to fifteen months' inprisonment at. Holloway.
He served a year in prison, and was then released on account of
ill health. He stiU retained the affections of the white popula-
tion of Rhodesia, and subsequently returned there in an un-
official capacity. He was the constant companion of Rhodes on
bis journeys up to the end of his life, and when Rhodes died in
May 1002 Jameson was left one of the executors of his will. In
1003 Jameson came forward as the leader of the Progressive
(British) party in Cape Colony; and that party being victorious
at the general election in January-February 1904, Jameson
formed an -administration in which be took the post of prime
minister. He had to face a serious economic crisis and strenu-
ously promoted the development of the agricultural and pastoral
resources of the colony. He also passed a much needed Redis-
tribution Act, and in the session of 1906 passed an Amnesty Act
restoring the rebel voters to the franchise. Jameson, as prime
minister of Cape Colony, attended the Colonial conference held
in London in 1007. In September of that year the Cape parlia-
ment was dissolved, and as the elections for the legislative
council went in favour of the Bond, Jameson resigned office,
31st of January 1908 (see Caps Colony: History), In 1908 he
was chosen one of the delegates from Cape Colony to the inter-
colonial convention for the closer union of the South African
states, and he took a prominent part in settling the terms on
which union was effected in- 1909. It was at Jameson's sugges-
tion that the Orange River Colony was renamed Orange Free
State Province.
JAMESON, ROBERT (1774-1854), Scottish naturalist and
mineralogist, was born at Leith on the nth of July 1774. He
became assistant to a surgeon in his native town; but, having
studied natural history under Dr John Walker in 1792 and 1793,
he felt that his true province lay in that science. He went
in 1800 to Freiberg to study for nearly two years under Werner,
and spent two more in continental travel. In 1804 he succeeded
Dr Walker as regius professor of natural history in Edinburgh
university, and became perhaps the first eminent exponent in
Great Britain of the Wernerian geological system; but when he
found that theory untenable, he frankly announced his conver-
sion to the views of Hutton. As a teacher, Jameson was remark-
able for his power of imparting enthusiasm to his students, and
from his class-room there radiated an influence which gave a
marked impetus to the study of geology in Britain. His energy
also, by means of government aid, private donation and personal
outlay, amassed a great part of the splendid collection which
now occupies the natural history department of the Royal
Scottish Museum in Edinburgh. In 1819 Jameson, with Sir
David Brewster, started the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
whkh after the tenth volume remained under his sole conduct
till his death, which took place in Edinburgh on the 19th of
April 1854. His bust now stands in the hall of the Edinburgh
University library.
Jameson was the author of Outline of the Mineralogy of the Shetland
Juandi and of the Island of Arran (1798), incorporated with Afiner-
ol»ty of the Scottish IsUs (1800) ; Mineralogical Description of Scotland,
vol. i. pt. 1. (Dumfries, t&os); this was to have been the firet of a
scries embracing all Scot bud; System of Mineralogy (3 Vob., 1804-
1808; 3rd ed., 1820); Elements of Geognosy (1800); Minetalofknt
Travels thronth the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland Islands (2 vols.,
j 81 3); and Manual of Mineralogy (iter); besides a number of
occasional papers, of which a list wul be found in the Edinburgh New
Philosophical Journal for luly 1854, along with a portrait and bio-
graphical sketch of the author.
JAMBSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Stutsman
county, North Dakota, U.S.A., on the James River, about
93 m. W. of Fargo. Pop. (1000), 2853, of whom 587 were
foreign-born; (1005) 5093; (1910) 4358. Jamestown is served
by the Northern Pacific railway, of whkh it b a division bead-
quarters. At Jamestown is St John's Academy,' a school for
girls, conducted by the Sisters of St Joseph. The state
hospital for the insane is just beyond the city limits. The city
is the commercial centre of a prosperous farming and stock-
raising region in the James River valley, and has grain-elevators
and flour-mills. Jamestown was first settled in 1873, near Fort
Seward, a U.S. military post established in 1872 and abandoned
in 1877, and was chartered as a city in 1883.
JAMESTOWN, a city of Chautauqua county, New York,
U.S.A., at the 'S. outlet of Chautauqua Lake, 68 m. S. by W. of
Buffalo. Pop. (1900), 22,892, of whom -7270 were foreign-born,
mostly Swedish; (19x0 census) 31,297. It is served by the
Erie and the Jamestown-, Chautauqua & Lake Erie railways,
by electric lines extending along Lake Chautauqua to Lake Erie
on the N. and to Warren, Pennsylvania, on the S., and by
summer steamboat lines 00 Lake Chautauqua. Jamestown is
situated among the hills of Chautauqua county, and is a popular
summer resort. There Is a free public library. A supply of
natural gas (from Pennsylvania) and a fine water-power combine
to render Jamestown a manufacturing centre of considerable
importance. In 1905 the value of its factory products was
$10,349,752, an increase of 33*9% since 1900. The city owns
and operates its electric-lighting plant and its water-supply
system, the water, of exceptional purity, being obtained from
artesian weUs 4 m. distant. Jamestown was settled in 18 10,
was incorporated in 1827, and was chartered as a city In t886*
The city was named in honour of James Prendergast, an early
settler.
JAMBSTOWN, a former village In what is now James City
county, Virginia, U.S.A., on Jamestown Island, in the James
River, about 40 m. above Norfolk. It was here that the first
permanent English settlement in America was founded on the
13th of May 1607, that representative government was inau-
gurated on the American Continent in 1619, and that negro
servitude was introduced into the original thirteen colonies, also
in 1619. In Jamestown was the first Anglican church built in
America, The settlement was in a low marshy district which
proved to be unhealthy; it was accidentally burned in January
1608, was almost completely destroyed by Nathaniel Bacon in
September 1676, the state house and other buildings were again
burned in 1698, and after the removal of the seat of government
of Virginia from Jamestown to the Middle Plantations (now
Williamsburg) in 1699 the village fell rapidly into decay. Its
population had never been large: it was about 490 in 1609, and
183 in 1623; the mortality was always very heavy. By the
middle of the 19th century the peninsula on which Jamestown*
had been situated bad become an island, and by 1000 the James
River had worn away the shore but had hardly touched the
territory of the " New Towne " (1619), immediately E. of the
first settlement; almost the only visible remains, however, were
the tower of the brick church and a few gravestones. In 1900
the association for the preservation of Virginia antiquities, to
which the site was deeded in 1893, induced the United States
government to build a wall to prevent the further encroachment
of the river; the foundations of several of the old buildings have
since been uncovered, many interesting relics have been found,
and in 1007 there were erected a brick church (which b as far
as possible a reproduction of the fourth one built in 1630-1647)!
a marble shaft marking the site of the first settlement, another
shaft commemorating the first house of burgesses, a bronsc
monument to the memory of Captain John Smith, and another
monument to the memory of Pocahontas. At the bead of
JAMX— JAMRUD
Jamestown peninsula Cornwallis, in July 1 781, attempted to trick
the Americans under Lafayette and General Anthony Wayne by
displaying a iew men on the peninsula and concealing the
principal part of his army on the mainland; but when Wayne
discovered the trap he made first a vigorous charge, and then
a retreat to Lafayette's line. Early in the Civil War the Con-
federates regarded the site (then an island) as of such strategic
importance that (near the brick church tower and probably near
the site of the first fortifications by the original settlers) they
erected heavy earthworks upon it for defence. (For additional
details concerning the early history of Jamestown, see Virginia:
History.)
The founding at Jamestown of the first permanent English-
speaking settlement in America was celebrated in 1007 by the
Jamestown tercentennial exposition, held on grounds at
Sewell's Point on the shore of Hampton Roads. About twenty
foreign nations, the federal government, and most of the states
of the union took part in the exposition.
See L. G. Tyler. The Cradle of the Republic: Jamestown and James
Rieer (Richmond, and ed., 1906) ; Mrs R. A- Pryor, The Birth of the
Nation: Jamestown, 1607 (New York, 1007); and particularly
S H. Yonge, The Site of Old " James Towne, 1607-1698 (Richmond,
1004). embodying the results of the topographical investigations of
toe engineer in charge of the river-wall built in 1900-1901.
jAMi (N0R-ED-DIN *ABD-U*-RA9MAN IbN AflMAD) (1414-
1492), Persian poet and mystic, was born at Jam in Khorasan,
whence the name by which he is usually known. In his poems
he mystically utilizes the connexion of the name with the same
word meaning " wine-cup." He was the last great classic poet
of Persia, and a pronounced mystic of the SQfic philosophy.
His three diwans (1470-149O contain his lyrical poems and
odes; among his prose writings the chief is his Bahfirisian
("Spring-garden") (1487); and his collection of romantic
poems, Haft Aurang (" Seven Thrones "), contains the Saldmdn
vo Absdt and his Y&suJ wa Zalikha (Joseph and Potiphar's
wife).
On Jami's life and works sec V. von Rosenrwefg, B t
Notizen uber Mewlana Abdurrahman Dschami (Vienna, i
Ousdcy. Biographical Notices of Persian Poets (1846) ; 1
A Biographical Sketch of the Mystic Philosopher and t
(Calcutta, 1859); E. Beauvois s.v. Djami in NouvclU t
ttntrale : and H. Eth6 in Gciger and Kuhn's Grundrtssdt %
Pkilologie, ii. There are English translations of the Be r
E. Rehatsck (Benares, 1887) and Sorabji Fardunji (Botr ;
... Edward FittGeraldJiSs^w :
JAMIESON, JOHN (i 750-1838), Scottish lexicographer, son
of a minister, was born in Glasgow, on the 3rd of March 1759.
He was educated at Glasgow University, and subsequently
attended classes in Edinburgh. After six years' theological
study, Jamicson was licensed to preach in 1789 and became
pastor of an Anti-burghcr congregation in Forfar; and in 1797
he was called to the Anti-burghcr church in Nicolson Street,
Edinburgh. The union of the Burgher and Anti-burghcr sections
of the Secession Church in 1820 was largely due to his exertions.
He retired from the ministry in 1830 and died in Edinburgh
on the 1 2th of July 1838.
Tamieson's name stands at the head of a tolerably long list of
works in the Btbtiotheca britannica; but by far his most important
book is the laborious and erudite compilation, best described by
its own title-page: An Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Lou*
zuoze: illustrating the words in their different stgntficatums by examples
from Ancient and Modern Writers; shoeing their Affinity to those of
other Languages, and especially the Northern; explaining many terms
which though now obsolete in England were formerly common to both
countries; and elucidating National Riles, Customs and Institutions m
their Analogy to those of other nations; to which ts prefixed a Disserta-
tion on the Origin of the Scottish Language. This appeared in: 2 vols
4to, at Edinburgh in 1808, followed in 1825 by a Supplement in
J vols.. 4to. in which he was assisted by scholars in all parts of the
coantry. A revised edition by Longmuir and Donaldson was issued
in i«79-i887«
JAMIESON, ROBERT (c. 1780-1844), Scottish antiquary, was
bora in Morayshire. In 1806 he published a collection of
Popular Ballads and Songs from Tradition, Manuscript and
*49
Scarce Editions. Two pleasing lyrics of his own were included.
Scott, through whose assistance he received a government post
at Edinburgh, held Jamicson in high esteem and pointed out
his skill in discovering the connexion between Scandinavian
and Scottish legends. Jamieson's work preserved much oral
tradition which might otherwise have been lost. He was
associated with Henry Weber and Scott in Illustrations of
Northern Antiquities (1814). He died on the 14th of September
1*44.
JAM KHANDI, a native state of India, in the Deccan division
of Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratta Jagirs.
Area, 524 sq. m. Pop. (iooi), 105,357; estimated revenue,
£37,000; tribute, £1300. The chief is a Brahman of the
Patwardhan family. Cotton, wheat and millet are produced,
and cotton and silk doth are manufactured, though not exported.
The town of Jamkhandi, the capital, is situated 68 m. E. of
Kolhapur. Pop. (1001), 13,029.
JAMMU, or Jummoo, the capital of the state of Jammu and
Kashmir in Northern India, on the river Tavi (Ta-wi) , a tributary
of the Chenab. Pop. (1901), 36,130. The town and palace stand
upon the right bank of the river; the fort overhangs the left
bank at an elevation of 150 ft. above the stream. The lofty
whitened walls of the palace and citadel present a striking
appearance from the surrounding country. Extensive pleasure
grounds and ruins of great size attest the former prosperity of
the city when it was the seat of a Rajput dynasty whose
dominions extended into the plains and included the modern
district of Sialkot. It was afterwards conquered by the Sikhs,
and formed part of Ranjit Singh's dominions. After his death
it was acquired by Gulab Singh as the nucleus of his dominion?,
to which the British added Kashmir in 1846. It is connected
with Sialkot in the Punjab by a railway 16 m. long. In 1898 the
town was devastated by a fire, which destroyed most of the
public offices.
The state of Jammu proper, as opposed to Kashmir, consists
of a submontane tract, forming the upper basin of the Chenab.
Pop. (root), 1,521,307, showing an increase of 5% in the decade.
A land settlement has recently been introduced under British
supervision.
JAMNIA flaprfa or 'lauvtla), the Greek form of the Hebrew
name Jabncel — i.e. " God causeth to build " (Josh. xv. 11)— or
Jabneh (2 Chron. xxvi. 6), the modern Arabic Yebna, a town of
Palestine, on the border between Dan and Judah, situated 13 m.
S. of Jaffa, and 4 m. E. of the seashore. The modern village
stands on an isolated sandy hillock, surrounded by gardens
with olives to the north and sand-dunes to the west. It con-
tains a small crusaders' church, now a mosque. Jamnia
belonged to the Philistines, and Uzziah of Judah is said to have
taken it (2 Chron. xxvi. 6). In Maccabean times Joseph and
Aaarias attacked it unsuccessfully (r Mace. v. 55-62; 2 Mace,
xii. 8 seq. is untrustworthy). Alexander Jannaeus subdued it, and
under Pompey it became Roman. It changed hands several
times, is mentioned by Strabo (xvi. 2) as being once very
populous, and in the Jewish war was taken by Vespasian. The
population was mainly Jewish (Philo, Leg. ad Gaium, $ 30), and
the town is principally famous as having been the scat of the
Sanhedrin and the religious centre of Judaism from a.d. 70 to
135. It sent a bishop to Nicaea in 325. In 1144 a crusaders'
fortress was built on the hill, which is often mentioned under
the name Ibelin. There was also a Jabneel in Lower Galilee
(Josh. xix. 33), called later Caphar Yama, the present village
Yemma, 8 m. S. of Tiberias; and another fortress in Upper
Galilee was named Jamnia (Josephus, Vita, 37). Attempts
have been made to unify these two Galilean sites, but without
success.
JAMRUD, a fort and cantonment In India, just beyond the
border of Peshawar district, North -West Frontier Province,
situated at the mouth of the Khyber Pass, io| m. VV. of Peshawar
city, with which it is connected by a branch railway. It was
occupied by Hari Singh, Ranjit Singh's commander in 1836;
but in April 1837 Dost Mahommed sent a body of Afghans to
attack it. The Sikhs gained a doubtful victory, with the loss ^*
IS*
thtir r»««*l During thft military operations of 1878-79
laumitl bevamc a place of considerable importance as the
iwwxm output* on British territory towards Afghanistan, and
it wm a\m the Use of operations for a portion of the Tirah
i*mp«iftn In 1*07-1808. It is the headquarters of the Khybcr
Kkito», and the collecting station for the Khybcr tolls. Pop.
J AMI AND JELLIES. In the article Food Preservation
It U ttolntcd out that concentrated sugar solution inhibits the
itMWtlh ot organisms and has, therefore, a preservative action.
'I he pivparatiou of jams and jellies is based -upon that fact* All
(iv«h ami succulent fruit contains a large percentage of water,
Amounting to at least four-fifths of the whole, and a compara-
tive l> small proportion of sugar, not exceeding as a rule from
10 to 15%. Such fruit is naturally liable to decomposition
uuleft* the greater proportion of the water is removed or the
percentage of sugar is greatly increased. The jams and jellies
o( commerce are fruit preserves containing so much added sugar
that the total amount of sugar forms about two-thirds of the
weight of the articles. All ordinary edible fruit can be and is
made into jam. The fruit is sometimes pulped and stoned,
sometimes used whole and unbroken; oranges are sliced or
shredded For the preparation of jellies only certain fruit is
suitable, namcJy such as contains a peculiar material which on
boiling becomes dissolved and on cooling solidifies with the
formation of a gelatinous mass. This material, often called
pectin, occurs mainly in comparatively acid fruit like goose-
berries, currants and apples, and is almost absent from straw-
berries and raspberries. It is chemically a member of the group
of carbohydrates, is closely allied with vegetable gums abun-
dantly formed by certain sea-weeds and mosses (agar-agar and
Iceland moss), and is probably a mixture of various pentoses.
Pentoses are devoid of food-value, but, like animal gelatine,
with which they arc in no way related, can form vehicles for
food material. Some degree of gclatinization is aimed at also
in jams; hence to such fruits as have no gelatinizing power an
addition of apple or gooseberry juice, or even of Ice bad moss or
agar-agar, is made. Animal gelatin is very rarely used.
The art of jam and jelly making was formerly domestic, but
has become a very large branch of manufacture. For the
production of a thoroughly satisfactory conserve the boiling-
down must be carried out very rapidly, so that the natural
colour of the fruit shall be little affected. Considerable experi-
ence is required to stop at the right point; too short boiling
leaves an excess of water, leading to fermentation, while over-
concentration promotes crystallization of the sugar. The
manufactured product is on that account, as a rule,morc uniform
and bright than the domestic article. The finish of the boiling
is mostly judged by rule of thumb, but in some scientifically
conducted factories careful thermometric observation is em-
ployed. Formerly jams and jellies consisted of nothing but
fruit an4 sugar; now starch-glucose is frequently used by
manufacturers as an ingredient. This permits of the production
of a slightly more aqueous and gelatinous product, alleged also
to be devoid of crystallizing power, as compared with the home-
made article. The addition of starch-glucose is not held to be
an adulteration. Aniline colours are very frequently used by
manufacturers to enhance the colour, and the effect of an excess
of water is sought to be counteracted by the addition of some
salicylic acid or other preservative. There has long been, and
still exists to some extent, a popular prejudice in favour of sugar
obtained from the sugar-cane as compared with that of the
sugar-beet. This prejudice is absolutely baseless, and enormous
quantities of beet-sugar are used in the boiling of jam. Adul-
teration in the gross sense, such as a substantial addition of
coarse pulp, like that of turnips or mangolds.vcry rarely occurs;
but the pulp of apple and other cheap fruit is often admixed
without notice to the purchaser. The use of colouring matters
and preservatives is discussed at length in the article
Advitkration. (O. H.*)
JANESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Rock County,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated on both aides of the Rock river,
JAMS AND JELLIES— JANIN
70 m. S.W. of Milwaukee and 00 ra. NAV. of Chicago. Pop.
(tooo), 13,185, of whom 2409 were foreign-born; (1910
census), 13,894. It is served by the Chicago & NoTth-Western
and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by electric
tines connecting with Madison and Beloit, Wis., and Rockford,
Illinois. The Rock river is not commercially navigable at this
point, but furnishes valuable water-power for manufacturing
purposes. The city is picturesquely situated on bluffs above
the river. Janesville is the centre of the tobacco trade of the
state, and has various manufactures. The total value of the
city's factory product in 1905 was $3,846,038, an increase of
20-8 % since 1900. Its public buildings include a city hall,
court bouse, post office, city hospital and a public libra ry. It
is the seat of a school for the blind, opened as a private institu-
tion in 1849 and taken over by the state in 1850, the first
charitable institution controlled by the state, ranking as one of
the most successful of its kind in the United States. The first
settlement was made here about 1834. Janesville was named
in honour of Henry F. Janes, an early settler, and was chartered
as a city in 1853.
JANET, PAUL (1823-1899), French philosophical writer, was
born in Paris on the 30th of April 1823. He was professor of
moral philosophy at Bourges (1845-1848) and Strassburg (1848-
1857), and oi Logic at thelyceeLouis-k-Grand, Paris (1857-1864).
In 1864 he was appointed to the chair of philosophy at the Sor-
bonne, and elected a member of the academy of the moral and
political sciences. He wrote a large number of books and articles
upon philosophy, politics and ethics, on idealistic lines : La
Famillc, Hisioire de la philosophic dans I'attliquiU el dans U
lemps modcrnc, Hisioire de la science politique, Philosophic de la
Revolution Franqaise, &c They are not characterized by much
originality of thought. In philosophy he was a follower of
Victor Cousin, and through him of liegcl. His principal work
in this line, Thtoric de la morale, is little more than a somewhat
patronizing reproduction of Kant. He died in October 1899.
JANGIPUR, or Jahangikpuk, a town of British India, in
Murshidabad district, Bengal, situated on the Bhagirathi
Pop. (1901), 10,921. The town is said to have been founded by
the Mogul emperor Jahangir. During the early years of British
rule it was an important centre of the silk trade, and the site of
one of the East India Company's commercial residencies. Jangi*
pur is now best known as the toll station for registering all the
traffic on the Bhagtrathi. The number of boats registered
annually is about 10,000.
JANIN, JULES GABRIEL (1804-1874), French critic, was born
at St £tienne (Loire) on the 16th of February 1804, and died
near Paris on the 19th of June 1874. His father was a lawyer,.
and he was well educated, first at St £tienne, and then at the
lycee Louis-lc-Crand in Paris. He betook himself to journalism
very early, and worked on the Figaro, the Quotidicnne, &c, until
in 1830 he became dramatic critic of the Journal des Debet*.
Long before this, however, he had made a considerable literary
reputation, for which indeed his strange uovel VAne mart et U
femme guillotinfc (1829) would have sufficed. La Conjess'um
(1830), which followed, was less remarkable in substance but
even more so in style; and in Barnave (1S31) he attacked the
Orleans family. From the day, however, when Janin became
the theatrical critic of the Dcbals, though he continued to write
books indefatigably, he was to most Frenchmen a dramatic
critic and nothing more. He was outrageously inconsistent, and
judged things from no general point of view whatsoever, though
his judgment was usually good-natured. Few journalists have
ever been masters of a more attractive fashion of saying the first
thing that came into their heads. After many years of fcmlteton
writing he collected some of his articles in the work called
Hisioire de la literature dramatiquc en France (1853-1858), which
by no means deserves its title. In 1865 he made his first attempt
upon the Academy, but was not successful! till five years later.
Meanwhile he had not been content with Uhfcuilletons, written
persistently about all manner of things. No cne was more in
request with the Paris publishers for prefaces, letterpress to
illustrated books and such trifles. He travelled (picking up in
JANISSARIES
one of his journeys a curious windfall, a country house at Lucca,
in a lottery), and wrote accounts of his travels; be wrote numer-
ous tales and novels, and composed many other works, of which
by far the best is the Pin d'un monde et du neveu de Rameau
(1861), in which, under the guise of a sequel to Diderot's master-
piece, he showed his great familiarity with the late z8tb century.
He married in 1841; his wife had money, and he was always in
easy circumstances. In the early part of his career he had
many quarrels, notably one with F61ix Pyat (1810-1889), whom
be prosecuted successfully for defamation of character. For
the most part his work is mere improvisation, and has few ele-
ments of vitality except a light and vivid style. His (Euvres
choiria (12 vols., 187 5-1878) were edited by A. de la Fitzeliere.
A study on Janin with a bibliography was published by A. Pi6dag-
ad in 1874. See also Sainte-Beuve, Caustries du lundi, ii. and v..
and Gustave Planche, Portraits littiraires.
JANISSARIES (corrupted from Turkish yeni chtri, new
troops), an organised military force constituting until 1826 the
standing army of the Ottoman empire. At the outset of her
history Turkey possessed no standing army. All Moslems
capable of bearing arms served as a kind of volunteer yeomanry
known as akinjis; they were summoned by public criers, or, if
the occasion required it, by secret messengers. It Was under
Orkhan that a regular paid army was first organised: the soldiers
were known as yaya or piyadf. The result was unsatisfactory,
as the Turcomans, from whom these troops were recruited, were
unaccustomed to fight on foot or to submit to military discipline.
Accordingly in 1530, on the advice of Cbendereli Kara Khalil,
the system known as devshurmt or forced levy, was adopted,
whereby a certain number of Christian youths (at first 1000)
were every year taken from their parents and, after undergoing
a period of apprenticeship, were enrolled as yeni chtri or new
troops. The venerable saint Haji Bektash, founder of the Bek-
tashi dervishes, blessed the corps and promised them victory;
he remained ever after the patron saint of the janissaries.
At first the corps was exclusively ' recruited by the forced levy
of Christian children, for which purpose the officer known as
tomrnaji-bashi, or head-keeper of the cranes, made periodical
tours m the provinces. The fixed organization of the corps
dates only from Mahommed II., and its regulations were subse-
quently modified by Suleiman I. In early days all Christians
were enrolled indiscriminately; later those from Albania, Bosnia
and Bulgaria were preferred. The recruits while serving their
apprenticeship we re instructed in the principles of the faith by
kkojas, but according to D'Ohsson (vii. 327) they were not obliged
to become Moslems.
The entire corps, commanded by the aga of the janissaries,
was known as the ojak (hearth); it was divided into ottos or
units of varying numbers; the oda (room) was the name given to
the barracks in which the janissaries were lodged. There were,
after the reorganization of Suleiman I., 106 ortas of three classes,
via. the jemaat, comprising 101 ortas, the Uttluk, 61 ortas, and
the sdfetan, or seimen, 34 ortas; to these must be added 34 ortas
of afami or apprentices. The strength of the orta varied greatly,
sometimes being as low as xoo, sometimes rising considerably
beyond its nominal war strength of 500. The distinction
between the different classes seems to have been principally in
name; fn theory the jemaat, or yaya better, were specially charged
with the duty of frontier-guards; the beulukt had the privilege
of serving as the sultan's guards and of keeping the sacred banner
in their custody.
Until the accession of Murad IIL (1574) the total effective
of the janissaries, including the ajami or apprentices, did not
esxeed 20,000. Jn 158a irregularities in the mode of admission
to the ranks began. Soon parents themselves begged to have
their children enrolled, so great were the privileges attaching
to the corps; later the privilege of enlistment was restricted to
the children or relatives of former, janissaries; eventually the
regulations were much relaxed, and any person was admitted,
only negroes being excluded. In i59» the ojak numbered
48,688 men. Under Ibrahim (1640-1648) it was reduced by
Kara Mustafa to 17,000; but it soon rose again, and at the
accession of Mahommed IV. (1648), the accession-bakshish was
distributed to 50,000 janissaries. During the war of 1683-1608
the rules for admission were suspended, 30,000 recruits being
received at one time, and the effective of the corps rising to
70,000; about 1805 it numbered more than 1x2,000; it went
on increasing until the destruction of the janissaries, when it
reached 135,000. It would perhaps be more correct to say that
these are the numbers figuring on the pay-sheets, and that they
doubtless largely exceed the total of the men actually serving in
the ranks.
Promotion to the rank of warrant officer was obtained by
long or distinguished service; it was by seniority up to the rank
of odabaski, but odabashis were promoted to the rank of chorbaji
(commander of an orta) solely by selection. Janissaries advanced
in their own orta, which they left only to assume the command of
another. Ortas remained permanently stationed in the fortress
towns in which they were in garrison, being displaced in time of
peace only when some violent animosity broke out between two
companies. There were usually 12 in garrison at Belgrade,
14 at Khotin, 16 at Widdin, 20 at Bagdad, &c. The commander
was frequently changed. A new chorbaji was usually appointed
to the command of an orta stationed at a frontier post; he was
then transferred elsewhere, so that in- course of time he passed
through different provinces.
In time of peace the janissary received no pay. At first his
war pay was limited to one aspre per diem, but it was eventually
raised to a minimum of three aspres, while veterans received as
much as 29 aspres, and retired officers from 30 to 120. The aga
received 24,000 piastres per annum; the ordinary pay of a
commander was 120 aspres per diem. The aga and several of
his subordinates received a percentage of the pay and allowance
of the troops; they also inherited the property of deceased
janissaries. Moreover, the officers profited largely by retaining
the names of dead or fictitious janissaries on the pay-rolls.
Rations of mutton, bread and candles were furnished by tho
government, the supply of rice, butter and vegetables being at
the charge of the commandant. 'The rations would have .been
entirely inadequate if the janissaries had not been allowed,
contrary to the regulations, to pursue different callings, such as
those of baker, butcher, glazier, boatman, &c At first the
janissaries bore no other distinctive mark save the white felt
cap. Soon the red cap with gold embroidery was substituted.
Later a uniform was introduced, of which the distinctive mark
was less the colour than the cut of the coat and the shape of the
head-dress and turban. The only distinction in the costume of
commanding officers was in the colour of their boots, those of
the beuluks being red while the others were yellow; subordinate
officers wore black boots.
The fundamental laws of the janissaries, which were very
early infringed, were as follows: implicit obedience to their
officers; perfect accord and union among themselves; abstinence
from luxury, extravagance and practices unseemly for a soldier
and a brave man; observance of the rules of Haji Bektash and
of the religious law; exclusion from the ranks of all save those
properly levied; special rules for the infliction of the death-
penalty; promotion to be by seniority; janissaries to be
admonished or punished by their own officers only; the infirm
and unfit to be pensioned; janissaries were not to let their
beards grow, not to marry, nor to leave their barracks, nor to
engage in trade; but were to spend their time in drill and in
practising the arts of war.
In time of peace the state supplied no arms, and the janissaries
on service in the capital were armed only with clubs; they were
forbidden to carry any arm save a cutlass, the only exception
being at the frontier-posts. In time of war the janissaries
provided their own arms, and these might be any which took
their fancy. However, they were induced by rivalry to procure
the best obtainable and to keep them in perfect order. The
banner of the janissaries was of white silk on which verses from
the Koran were embroidered in gold. This banner was planted
beside the aga's tent in camp, with four other flags in red cases,
and his three horse-tails. Each orta had its flag, half-red and
15*
half yellow, placed before the tent of its- commander. Each
orta had two or three great caldrons used for boiling the soup
and pilaw; these were under the guard of subordinate officers.
A particular superstition attached to them: if they were lost
in battle all trie officers were disgraced, and the orta was no
longer allowed to parade with its caldrons in public ceremonies.
The janissaries were stationed in most of the guard-bouses of
Constantinople and other large towns. No sentries were on
duty, but rounds were sent out two or three times a day. It was
customary for the sultan or the grand vizier to bestow largess on
an orta which they might visit.
The janissaries conducted themselves with extreme violence
and brutality towards civilians. They extorted money from
them on every possible pretext: thus, it was their duty to sweep
the streets in the immediate vicinity of their barracks, but they
forced the civilians, especially if rayas, to perform this task or
to pay a bribe. They were themselves subject to severe corporal
punishments; if these were to take place publicly the ojak was
first asked for its consent.
At first a source of strength to Turkey as being the only well-
organized and disciplined force in the country, the janissaries
soon became its bane, thanks to their lawlessness and exactions.
One frequent means of exhibiting their discontent was to set
fire to Constantinople; 140 such fires are said to have been
caused daring the 28 years of Ahmed Iil.'s reign. The janis-
saries were at all times distinguished for their want of respect
towards the sultans; their outbreaks were never due to a real
desire for reforms of abuses or of roisgovernment,but were solely,
caused to obtain the downfall of some obnoxious minister.
The first recorded revolt of the janissaries is in 1443, on the
occasion of the second accession of Mahommed II., when they
broke into rebellion at Adrianople. A similar revolt happened
at his death, when Bayazid II. was forced to yield to their
demands and thus the custom of the accession-bakshish was
established; at the end of his reign it was the janissaries who
forced Bayazid to summon Prince Sclim and to hand over the
reins of power to him. During the Persian campaign of Selim I.
they mutinied more than once. Under Osmanll. their disorders
reached their greatest height and led to the dethronement and
murder of the sultan. It would be tedious to recall all their acts
of insubordination. Throughout Turkish history they were made
use of as instruments by unscrupulous and ambitious statesmen,
and in the 17th century they had become a praetorian guard in
the worst sense of the word. Sultan Selim III. in despair
endeavoured to organize a properly drilled and disciplined force,
under the name of nizam-i-jedid, to take their place; for some
•time the janissaries regarded this attempt in sullen silence; a
curious detail is that Napoleon's ambassador Sebastiani strongly
dissuaded the sultan fronvtaking this step. Again serving as
tools, the janissaries dethroned Selim I1L and obtained the
abolition of the nizam-i-jedid. But after the successful revo-
lution of Bairakdar Pasha of Widdin the new troops were re-
established and drilled: the resentment of the janissaries rose to
such a height that they attacked the grand vizier's house, and
after destroying it marched against the sultan's palace. They
were repulsed by cannon, losing 600 men in the affair (1806).
But such was the excitement and alarm caused at Constantinople
that the nizam-i-jedid, or sckbans as they were now called, had
to be suppressed. During the next so years the misdeeds and tur-
bulence of the janissaries knew no bounds. Sultan Mahmud II.,
powerfully impressed by their violence and lawlessness at his
accession, and with the example of Mehemet Ali's method of
suppressing the Mamhikes before his eyes, determined to rid
the state of this scourge; long biding his time, in 1825 he decided
to form a corps of regular drilled troops known as tshktnjis. A
/etez was obtained from the Shcikh-ul-Islam to the effect that
it was the duty of Moslems to acquire military science. The
imperial decree announcing the formation of the new troops was
promulgated at a grand council, and the high dignitaries present
(including certain of the principal officers of the janissaries who
concurred) undertook to comply with its provisions. But the
janissaries rose in revolt, and on the 10th of June 1826, began
JANIUAY— JAN MAYEN
to collect on the Et Meidan square at Constantinople; at mid-
night they attacked the house of the aga of janissaries, and,
finding he had made good his escape, proceeded to overturn the
caldrons of as many ortas as they could find, thus forcing the
troops of those ortas to join the insurrection. Then they pillaged
and robbed throughout the town. Meanwhile the government
was collecting its forces; the ulema, consulted by the sultan,
gave the following fetva: " If unjust and violent men attack
their brethren, fight against the aggressors and send them before
their natural judge ! " On this the sacred standard of the
prophet was unfurled, and war was formally declared against
these disturbers of order. Cannon were brought against the Et
Meidan, which was surrounded by troops. Ibrahim Aga, known
as Kara Jehennum, the commander of the artillery, made a last
appeal to the janissaries to surrender; they refused, and fire was
opened upon them. Such as escaped were shot down as they
fled; the barracks where many found refuge were burnt; those
who were taken prisoner were brought before the grand vizier
and hanged. Before many days were over the corps had ceased
to exist, and the janissaries, the glory of Turkey's early days and
the scourge of the country for the last two centuries, bad passed
for ever from the page of her history.
See M. d'Ohsson, Tableaux d* V empire ottoman (Paris, 1787-
1820); Ahmed Vcfyk, Lehji-i-ostnanii (Constantinople, 1290-1874);
A. DjcVad Bey, Etat miiitairc ottoman (Constantinople, 1885).
JANIUAY, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay, Philippine
Islands, on the Suaguc river, about 20 m. W.N.W. of Iloilo, the
capital. Pop. (1903), 27,399, including Lambunao (6661)
annexed to Janiuay in 1903. The town commands delightful
views of mountain and valley scenery. An excellent road
connects it with Pototan, about 10 m. E. The surrounding
country is hilly but fertile and well cultivated, producing rice,
sugar, tobacco, vegetables (for the Iloilo market), hemp and
Indian corn. The women weave and sell beautiful fabrics of
pina, silk, cotton and abaca. The language is Panay- Visayan.
Janiuay was founded in 1578; it was first established in the
mountains and was subsequently removed to its present site.
JANJLRA, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of
Bombay, situated along the coast among the spurs of the
Western Ghats, 40 m. S. of Bombay city. Area, 324 sq. m.
Pop. (1001), 85,4x4, showing an increase of 4% in the decade.
The estimated revenue is about £37,000; there is no tribute.
The chief, whose title is Nawab Sahib, is by descent a Sidi or
Abyssinian Mahommedan; and his ancestors were for many
generations admirals of the Mahommedan rulers of the Deccan.
The state, popularly known as Habsan (» Abyssinian), did not
come under direct subordination to the British until 187a It
supplies sailors and fishermen, and also firewood, to Bombay,
with which it is in regular communication by steamer.
The Nawab of Janjira is also chief of the state of Jafababad
(?»).
JAN MAYEN, an arctic island between Greenland and the
north of Norway, about 71 N. 8° W. It is 34 m. long and 9 in
greatest breadth, and is divided into two parts by a narrow
isthmus. The island is of volcanic formation and mountainous,
the highest summit being Beerenberg in the north (8350 ft.).
Volcanic eruptions have been observed. Glaciers are fully
developed. Henry Hudson discovered the island in 1607 and
called it Hudson's Tutches or Touches. Thereafter it was
several times observed by navigators who successively claimed
its discovery and renamed it. Thus, in 161 1 or the following
year whalers from Hull named it Trinity Island; in 1612 Jean
Vrolicq, a French whaler, called it lie de Richelieu; and in 1614
Joris Carohis named one of its promontories Jan Meys Hoek
after the captain of one of his ships. The present name of the
island is derived from this, the claim of its discovery by a Dutch
navigator, Jan Mayen, in 161 1, being unstrpportable. The
island is not permanently inhabited, but has been frequently
visited by explorers, sealers and whalers; and an Austrian
station for scientific observations was maintained here for a
year in 1 882-1 883. During this period a mean temperature of
27-8° F. was recorded.
JANSEN— JANSENISM
JAH8KV, CORNELIUS (1585-1638), bishop of Ypres, and father
of the religious revival known as Jansenism, was born of humble
Catholic parentage at Accoy in the province of Utrecht on the
28th of October 1585. In 160a he entered the university of
Louvain, then in the throes of a violent conflict between the
Jesuit, or scholastic, party and the followers of Michael Baius,
who swore by St Augustine. Jansen ended by attaching himself
strongly to the latter party,, and presently made a momentous
friendship with a like-minded fellow-student, Du Vergier de
IJauranne, afterwards abbot of Saint Cyran. After taking his
degree he went to Paris, partly to recruit his health by a change
of scene, partly to study Greek. Eventually he joined Du
Vergier at his country home near Bayonne, and spent some years
teaching at the bishop's college. All his spare time was spent
in studying the early Fathers with Du Vergier, and laying plans
for a reformation of the Church. In 1616 he returned to Louvain,
to take charge of the college of St Pulcheria, a hostel for Dutch
students of theology. Pupils found him a somewhat choleric
and exacting master and academic society a great recluse.
However, he took an active part in the university's resistance
to the Jesuits; for these had established a theological school of
their own in Louvain, which was proving a formidable rival to
the official faculty of divinity. In the hope of repressing their-
encroachments, Jansen was sent twice to Madrid, in 1624 and
1626; the second time he narrowly escaped the Inquisition. He
warmly supported the Catholic missionary bishop of Holland,
Rovenius, in his contests with the Jesuits, who were trying to
evangelize that country without regard to the bishop's wishes.
He also crossed swords more than once with the Dutch Presby-
terian champion, Voetius, still remembered for his attacks on
Descartes. Antipathy to the Jesuits brought Jansen no nearer
Protestantism; on the contrary, he yearned to beat these by
their own weapons, chiefly by showing them that Catholics
could interpret the Bible in a manner quite as mystical and
pictistic as theirs. This became the great object of his lectures,
when he was appointed regius professor of scriptural interpre-
tation at Louvain in 1630. Still more was it the object of his
Augustinus, a bulky treatise on the theology of St Augustine,
barely finished at the time of bis death. Preparing it had been
his chief occupation ever since he went back to Louvain. But
Jansen, as he said, did not mean to be a school-pedant all his
life; and there were moments when he dreamed political dreams.
He looked forward to a time when Belgium should throw off the
Spanish yoke and become an independent Catholic republic on
the model of Protestant Holland. These ideas became known
to his Spanish rulers, and to assuage them he wrote a philippic
called the Mars gallicus (1635), a violent attack on French
ambitions generally, and on Richelieu's indifference to inter-
national Catholic Interests in particular. The Mars gallicus
did not do much to help Jansen 's friends in France, but it
more than appeased the wrath of Madrid with Jansen himself;
in 1636 he was appointed bishop of Ypres. Within two years he
was cut off by a sudden illness on the fith of May 1638; the
Augustinus, the book of his life, was published posthumously in
164CV
Full details as to Jansen's career will be found in ReucnhVs
GttckidtU von Port Royal (Hamburg, 1839), vol. i. See also Janstnius
by the Abbes Callawaert and Nols (Louvain, 1893}. (St C.)
JAHSEMISM, the religious principles laid down by Cornelius
Jansen in his Augustinus. This was simply a digest of the teach-
ing of St Augustine, drawn up with a special eye to the needs of
the 17th century. In Jansen's opinion the church was suffering
from three evils. The official scholastic theology was anything
but evangelical. Having set out to embody the mysteries- of
faith in human language, it had fallen a victim to the excellence
of its own methods; language proved too strong for mystery.
Theology sank into a branch of dialectic; whatever would not fit
in with a logical formula; was cast aside as useless. But average
human nature does not take kindly to a syllogism, and theology
ted ceased to have any appreciable influence on popular religion.
Simple souk found their spiritual pasture in little mincing " devo-
Ooos "; while robustef minds built up for themselves a natural
153
moralistic religion, quite as close to Epictetus as to Christianity-
All these three evils were attacked by Jansen. As against the
theologians, be urged that in a spiritual religion experience, not
reason, must be our guide. As against the stoical, self-sufficiency
of the moralists, he dwelt on the helplessness of man and his
dependence on his maker. As against the ceremonialists, he
maintained that no amount of church-going will save a man,
unless the love of God is in him. But this capacity for love no
one can give himself. If he is bom without the religious instinct,
he can only receive it by going through a process of " conver-
sion." And whether God converts this man or that depends on
his good pleasure. Thus Jansen's theories of conversion melt
into predestination; although, in doing so, they omewhat
modify its grimness. Even for the worst miscreant there is
hope— for who can say but that God may yet think fit to convert
him? Jansen's thoughts went back every moment to his two
spiritual heroes, St Augustine and St Paul, each of whom had
been " the chief of sinners."
Such doctrines have a marked analogy to those of Calvin; but
in many ways Jansen differed widely from the Protestants. He
vehemently rejected their doctrine of justification by faith; con-
version might be instantaneous, but it was only the beginning of a
long and gradual process of justification. Secondly, although
the one thing necessary in religion was a personal relation of
the human soul to its maker, Jansen held that that relation
was only possible in and through the Roman Church. Herein
he was following Augustine, who had managed to couple together
a high theory of church authority and sacramental grace with a
Strongly personal religion. But the circumstances of the 17th
century were not those of the 5th; and Jansen landed his follow-
ers in an inextricable confusion. What were they to do, when
the outward church said one thing, and the inward voice said
another? Some time went by, however, before the two authori-
ties came into open conflict. Jansen's ideas were popularized in
France by his friend Du Vergier, abbot of St Cyran; and he
dwelt mainly on the practical side of the matter—on the necessity
of conversion and love of God, as the basis of the religious life.
This brought him into conflict with the Jesuits, whom he accused
of giving absolution much too easily, without any serious inquiry
into the dispositions of their penitent. His views are expounded
at length by his disciple, Antoine Arnauld, in a book on Frequent
Communion (1643). This book was the first manifestation of
Jansenism to the general public in France, and raised a violent
storm. But many divines supported Arnauld; and no official
action was taken against his party till 1640. In that, year the
Paris University condemned five . propositions from Jansen's
Augustinus, all relative to predestination. This censure, backed
by the signatures of eighty-five bishops, was sent up to Rome for
endorsement; and in 1653 Pope Innocent X. declared all five
propositions heretical.
This decree placed the JansenisU between two fires; for
although the five propositions only represented one side of
Jansen's teaching, it was recognized by both parties, that the
whole question was to be fought out on this issue. Under the
leadership of Arnauld, who came of a great family of lawyers,
the Jansenists accordingly took refuge in a series of legal tactics.
Firstly, they denied that Jansen had meant the propositions in
the sense condemned. Alexander VII. replied (1650) that his
predecessor had condemned them in the sense intended by their
author. Arnauld retorted that the church might be infallible
in abstract questions of theology; but as to what was passing
through an author's mind it knew no more than any one else.
However, the French government supported the pope. la
1656 Arnauld was deprived of his degree, in spite of Pascal's
Provincial Letters (1656-1657), begun in an attempt to save him
(see Pascal; Casuistiy). In 1661 a formulary, or solemn
renunciation of Jansen, was imposed on all his suspected
followers; those who would not sign it went into hiding, or
to the Bastille. Peace was only restored under Clement IX.
in 1669.
This peace was treated by Jansenist writers as a triumph;
really it was the beginning of their downfall. They had -set oat
JANSSEN, C— JANSSEN, J.
'5+
to reform the Church of Rome; they ended by having to fight
hard for a doubtful foothold within it. Even that foothold soon
gave way. Louis XIV. was a fanatic for uniformity, civil and
religious; the last thing he was likely to tolerate was a handful
of eccentric recluses, who believed themselves to be in special
touch with Heaven, and therefore might at any moment set their
conscience up against the law. During the lifetime of his cousin,
Madame de Longueville, the great protectress of the Jansenists,
Louis stayed his hand; on her death (1679) the reign of severity
began. That summer Arnauld, who had spent the greater part
of his life in hiding, was forced to leave France for good.
> Six years later he was joined in exile by Pasquier Quesnel
who succeeded him as leader of the party. Long before his
flight from France Quesnel had published a devotional commen-
tary— inflexions morales sur le Nouveau Testament— which had
gone through many editions without exciting official suspicion.
But in 1695 Louis Antoine de Noailles, bishop of Chalons, was
made archbishop of Paris. He was known to be very hostile to
the Jesuits, and at Chalons had more than once expressed
official approval of Quesnel's Reflexions. So the Jesuit party
determined to wreck archbishop and book at the same time.
The Jansenists played into their hands bysuddenlyraising(i70i)
in the Paris divinity school the question whether it was necessary
to accept the condemnation of Janseix with interior assent, or
whether a "respectful silence " was enough. Very soon ecclesi-
astical France was in a blaze. In 1703 Louis XIV. wrote to
Pope Clement XI., proposing that they should take joint action
to make an end of Jansenism for ever. Clement replied in 2705
with a bull condemning respectful silence. This measure only
whetted Louis's appetite. He was growing old and increasingly
superstitious; the affairs of his realm were going from bad to
worse; be became frenziedly anxious to propitiate the wrath of
his maker by making war on the enemies of the Church. In 171 x
he asked the pope for a second, and still stronger bull, that
would tear up Jansenism by the roots. The pope's choice of a
book to condemn fell on Quesnel's Reflexions; in 17x3 appeared
the bull Unigenitus, anathematizing no less than one-bundred-
and-one of its propositions. Indeed, in his zeal against the
Jansenists the pope condemned various practices in no way
peculiar to their party; thus, for instance, many orthodox
Catholics were exasperated at the heavy blow he dealt at popular
Bible reading. Hence the bull met with much opposition from
Archbishop de Noailles and others who did not call themselves
Jansenists. In the midst of the conflict Louis XIV. died
(September 1715); but the freethinking duke of Orleans, who
succeeded him as regent, continued after some wavering to
support the bulL Thereupon four bishops appealed against it
to a general council; and the country became divided into
*« appellants " and w acceptants " C*7 17). The regent's disrepu-
table minister, Cardinal Dubois, patched up an abortive truce in
1720, but the appellants promptly " re-appealed " against it.
During the next ten years, however, they were slowly crushed,
and in 1730 the Unigenitus was proclaimed part and parcel of
the law of France. This led to a great quarrel with the judges,
who were intensely Gallican in spirit (see Galucanism), and had
always regarded the Unigenitus as a triumph of ultramontanism.
The quarrel dragged indefinitely on through the 18th century,
though the questions at issue were really constitutional and
political rather than religious.
Meanwhile the most ardent Jansenists had followed Quesnel
to Holland. Here they met with a warm welcome from the
Dutch Catholic body, which had always been in dose sympathy
with Jansenism, although without regarding itself as formally
pledged to the A ugustimu. But it had broken loose from Rome
in 1702, and was now organizing itself into an independent
church (see Utsjecbt). The Jansenists who remained in France
had meanwhile fallen 00 evil days. Persecution usually begets
hysteria in its victims; and the more extravagant members of the
party were far advanced on the road which leads to apocalyptic
prophecy and "speaking with tongues." About 1798 the
" miracles of St Medard " became the talk of Paris. This was
the cemetery where was buried Francois de Paris, a young
Jansenist deacon of singularly holy life, and a perlervid opponent
of the Unigenitus. All sorts of miraculous cures were believed
to have been worked at his tomb, until the government closed
the cemetery in 1732. This gave rise to the famous epigram:
De par le roi, defense a Diem
Dejaire miracle en ce ken.
On the miracles soon, followed the rise of the so-called Convul-
sionaries. These worked themselves up, mainly by the use of
frightful self-tortures, into a state of frenzy, in which they
prophesied and cured diseases. They were eventually disowned
by the more reputable Jansenists, and were severely r e pr es se d
by the police. But in 1772 they were still important enough for
Diderot to enter the field against them. Meanwhile genuine
Jansenism survived in many country parsonages and convents,
and led to frequent quarrels with the authorities. Only one of
its latter-day disciples, however, rose to real eminence; this was
the Abbe" Henri Gregoire, who played a considerable part in the
French Revolution. A few small Jansenist congregations stiH
survive in France; and others have been started in connexion
with the Old Catholic Church in Holland.
h century see the Port Royal of
[888) in six volumes. See also H.
9yal (2 vols., Hamburg* 1830-1844).
3., London, 1861). No satisfactory
subject exists, though reference may
1 aistre's De I'iglise gaUicane (last ed.,
j ix of the 1 8th century no single work
( ion will be found m the oaltican
3., London, 1872). For a series of
( c, Les Derniers Jansenistts (3 vols.,
list of books bearing on the subject
e of the Cambridge Modem History;
i [Psris, 1909) may also be consulted.
(Sx C.)
JANSSEN, or Jansen (sometimes Johnson), CORNELIUS
(1593-1664), Flemish painter, was apparently born in London,
and baptized on the 14th of October 1593. There seems no
reason to suppose, as was formerly stated, that he was born at
Amsterdam. He worked In England from 16x8 to 1643, and
afterwards retired to Holland, working' at Middelburg, Am-
sterdam, The Hague and Utrecht, and dying at one of the last two
places about 1664. In England he was patronized by James I.
and the court, and under Charles I. he continued to paint the
numerous portraits which adorn many English mansions and
collections. Jahssen's pictures, chiefly portraits, are dis-
tinguished by dear colouring, delicate touch, good taste and
careful finish. He generally painted upon panel, and often
worked on a small scale, sometimes producing replicas of his
larger works. A characteristic of his style is the very dark
background, which throws the carnations of his portraits into
rounded relief. In all probability his earliest portrait (16x8)
was that of John Milton as a boy of ten.
JANSSEN, JOHANNES (1820-1891), German historian, was
born at Xanten on the xoth of April 1829, and was educated
as a Roman Catholic at Minister, Louvain, Bonn and Berlin,
afterwards becoming a teacher of history at Frankfort-on-the-
Main. He was ordained priest in i860; became a member of
the Prussian Chamber of Deputies in 1875; and m l88 ° *as made
domestic prelate to the pope and apostolic pronotary. He died
at Frankfort on the 24th of December 1891. Janssen was a
stout champion of the Ultramontane party in the Roman
Catholic Church. His great work is his GesckUkte des dc uta chm
Volkes seii dem Ausgang des Mitlelalter* (8 vols., Freiburg, 1878-
1804). In this book be shows himself very hostikto the Reforma-
tion, and attempts to prove that the Protestants were responsible
for the general unrest in Germany during the xoth and 17th
centuries. The author's partisanship led to some controversy,
and Janssen wrote An meine Kritiker (Freiburg, 1882) and
Ein tweites Wort an meine Kritiker (Freiburg, 1883) in reply to
the Janssens Gesekichte des deuisehem Volkes (Munich, 1883) of
M. Lenz, and other criticisms.
The Gesekichte, which has passed through numerous editions, has
been continued and improved by Ludwig Pastor, and the greater part
of it ha& been translated into English by M. A. Mitchell and A. U.
JANSSEN, P. J. C— JANUS
Christie (London, 1896, fol.). Of his other works perhaps the most
important are: the editing of Frankfurts Reichskorresfondens, 117&-
jjio (Freiburg, 1863-1872); and of the Leben, Briefe und kletnere
Schrifkn of his friend I. F. Boomer (Leipzig, 1868); a monograph
ScktUtr als Historther (Freiburg, 1863); and " * ' ' -"*
\Zeit- und Lebensbtidcr
(Freiburg, 1875)
See L. Pastor, Johannes Janssen (Freiburg, 1893) » F -
nerung an Johannes Janssen (Frankfort, 1896); Schwann, Johannes
'. Meister. Erin-
nor, Johannes Janssen (Freiburg, 189:
Johannes Janssen (Frankfort, 1896); .
Janssen und die Geschicht* der deutschen Reformation (Munich, 1893).
JANSSEN, PIERRE JULES CfiSAR (1824-1007), French
astronomer, was born in Paris on the 32nd of February 1824,
and studied mathematics and physics at the faculty of sciences.
He taught at the lycee Charlemagne in 1853, *nd in the school
of architecture 1865-1871, but his energies were mainly devoted
to various scientific missions entrusted to him. Thus in 1857
he went to Peru in order to determine the magnetic equator;
in 1861-1862 and 1864, he studied telluric absorption in the solar
spectrum in Italy and Switzerland; in 1867 he carried out
optical and magnetic experiments at the Azores; he successfully
observed both transits of Venus, that of 1874 in Japan, that of
1882 at Oran in Algeria; and he look part in a long series of
solar eclipse-expeditions, e.g. to Trani (1867), Guntoor (1868),
Algiers (1870), Siam (1875), the Caroline Islands (1883), and to
Akosebre in Spain (1905). To see the eclipse of 1 870 he escaped
from besieged Paris in a balloon. At the great Indian eclipse
of 1868 he demonstrated the gaseous nature of the red promi-
nences, and devised a method of observing them under ordinary
daylight conditions. One main purpose of his spectroscopic
inquiries was to answer the question whether the sun contains
oxygen or not. An indispensable preliminary was the virtual
elimination of oxygen-absorption in the earth's atmosphere,
and his bold project of establishing an observatory on the top of
Mont Blanc was prompted by a perception of the advantages to
be gained by reducing the thickness of air through which
observations have to be made. This observatory, the founda-
tions of which were fixed in the snow that appears to cover the
summit to a depth of ten metres, was built in September 1893,
and Janssen, in spite of his sixty-nine years, made the ascent
and spent four days taking observations. In 1875 he was
appointed director of the new astrophysical observatory estab-
lished by the French government at Meudon, and set on
foot there in 1876 the remarkable series of solar photographs
collected in his great AHas de photographies seiaires (1904).
The first volume of the Annates de Vobsenatoire de Meudon
was published by him in 1896. He died at Paris on the 23rd of
December 1907.
See A. M. Clerke, Hist, of Astr. during (he 19th Century (1903);
H. Macpherson, Astronomers of To-Day (1905).
JANSSENS (or Jansens), VICTOR H0N0R1US (1 664-1 739).
Flemish painter, was born at Brussels. After seven years in
the studio of an obscure painter named Volders, he spent four
years in the household of the duke of Holstcin. The next eleven
years Janssens passed in Rome, where he took eager advantage
of all the aids to artistic study, and formed an intimacy with
Tempesta, in whose landscapes he frequently inserted figures.
Rising into popularity, he painted a large number of cabinet
historical scenes; but, on his return to Brussels, the claims of
his increasing family restricted him almost entirely to the larger
and more lucrative size of picture, of which very many of the
churches and palaces of the Netherlands contain examples. In
1 718 Janssens was invited to Vienna, where he stayed three
years, and was made painter to the emperor. The statement
that be visited England is based only upon the fact that certain
fashionable interiors of the time in that country have been
attributed to him. Janssen's colouring was good, his touch
delicate and his taste refined.
JANSSENS (or Jansens) VAN NUYSSEN. ABRAHAM (1567-
1632), Flemish painter, was born at Antwerp in 1567. He
studied under Jan Snellinck, was a " master " in 1602, and in
1607 was dean of the master-painters. Till the appearance of
Rubens he was considered perhaps the best historical painter
of his time. The styles of the two artists are not unlike. In
correctness of drawing Janssens excelled his great contemporary;
'55
in bold composition and in treatment of the nude he equalled
him; but in faculty of colour and in general freedom of dis-
position and touch be fell far short. A master of chiaroscuro,
he gratified his taste for strong contrasts of light and shade
in his torchlights and similar effects. Good examples of this
master are to be seen in the Antwerp museum and the Vienna
gallery. The stories of his jealousy of Rubens and of his
dissolute life are quite unfounded. He. died at Antwerp in
1632.
JANUARIUS, ST, or San Gehnabo, the patron saint of
Naples. According to the legend, he was bishop of Benevento,
and flourished towards the close of the 3rd century. On the
outbreak of the persecution by Diocletian and Maximian, he
was taken to Nola and brought before Timotheus, governor of
Campania, on account of his profession of the Christian religion.
After various assaults upon his constancy, he was sentenced to
be cast into the fiery furnace, through which he passed wholly
unharmed. On the following day, along with a number of fellow
martyrs, he was exposed to the fury of wild beasts, which,
however, laid themselves down in tame submission at his feet.
Timotheus, again pronouncing sentence of death, was struck
with blindness, but immediately healed by the powerful inter-
cession of the saint, a miracle which converted nearly five
thousand men on the spot. The ungrateful judge, only roused
to further fury by these occurrences, caused the execution of
Januarius by the sword to be forthwith carried out. The body
was ultimately removed by the inhabitants of Naples to that
city, where the relic became very famous for its miracles, espe-
cially in counteracting the more dangerous eruptions of Vesuvius.
Whatever the difficulties raised by his Acta, the cult of St
Januarius, bishop and martyr, is attested historically at Naples
early as the 5th century {Bibiioth. hagiog. latina, No. 6558).
Two phials preserved in the cathedral are believed to contain the
blood of the martyr. The relic is shown twice a year — in May
and September. On these occasions the substance contained
in the phial liquefies, and the Neapolitans see in this phenomenon
a supernatural manifestation. The " miracle of St Januarius "
did not occur before the middle of the 1 5th century.
A great number of saints of the name of Januarius are
mentioned in the martyrologics. The best-known are the
Roman martyr (festival, the 10th of July), whose epitaph was
written by Pope Damasus (De Rossi, BuUdtino, p. 17, 1863),
and the martyr of Cordova, who forms along with Faustus and
Martialis the group designated by Prudentius (PerisUphanon,
iv. 70) by the name of tres corona*. The festival of these
martyrs is celebrated on the 13th of October.
See Acta sanctorum, September, vl. 761-891, G. SchcriHo,
Esame di nn codice grtco pubblicato net tomo secondo detia bibliotheca
casinensis (Naples, 1876); G. Taglialatela, Memorie slorico-crituhe
del culto del sangue di S. Ctnnaro (Naples, 1893), which contains
many facts, but little criticism ; "G. Albuii, Sulla mobilitd deiliquidi
viscosi non omogenei (Societa rcale di Napoli, Rendiconti, 2nd series,
vol. iv., 1890) ; Acta sanctorum, October, vi. 187-193. (H. De.)
JANUARY, the first month in the modern calendar, consisting
of thirty-one days. The name (Lat. Januarius) is derived from
the two-faced Roman god Janus, to whom the month was
dedicated. As doorkeeper of heaven, as looking both into the
past and the future, and as being essentially the deity who
busied himself with the beginnings of all enterprises, he was
appropriately made guardian of the fortunes of the new year.
The consecration of the month took place by an offering of meal,
salt, frankincense and wine, each of which was new. The
Anglo-Saxons called January Wulfmonath, in allusion to the
fact that hunger then made the wolves bold enough to come into
the villages. The principal festivals of the month are: New
Year's Day; Feast of the Circumcision; Epiphany; Twelfth-
Day; and Conversion of St Paul (see Calendar).
JANUS, in Roman mythology one of the principal Italian
deities. The name is generally explained as the masculine form
of Diana (J ana), and Janus as originally a god of light and day,
who gradually became the god of the beginning and origin of
all things. According to some, however, be is simply the p^ a
156
JAORA— JAPAN
(GEOGRAPHY _
of doorway* (jamiae) and in this connexion is the patron of all
entrances and beginnings. According to Mommsen, he was
41 the spirit of opening," and the double-head was connected
with the gate that opened both ways. Others, attributing to
him an Etruscan origin, regard him as the god of the vault of
heaven, which the Etruscan arch is supposed to resemble. The
rationalists explained him as an old king of Latium, who built
a citadel for himself on the Janicuhun. It was believed that
his worship, which was said to have existed as a local cult before
the foundation of Rome, was introduced there by Romulus,
and that a temple was dedicated to him by Numa. This temple,
in reality only an arch or gateway {Janus geminus) facing east
and west, stood at the north-east end of the forum. It was open
during war and closed during peace (Livy L 19) ; it was shut only
four times before the Christian era. A possible explanation is,
that it was considered a bad omen to shut the city gates while
the citizens were outside fighting for the state; it was necessary
that they should have free access to the dty, whether they
returned victorious or defeated. Similarly, the door of a
private house was kept open while the members of the family
were away, bufwhen all were at home it was closed to keep
out intruders. There was also a temple of Janus near the theatre
of Marcellus, in the forum olitorium, erected by Gaius Duilius
(Tacitus, Ann. ii. 49), if not earlier.
The beginning of the day (hence his epithet Matutinus), of
the month, and of the year (January) was sacred to Janus; on
the 9th of January the festival called Agonia was celebrated in
his honour. He was invoked before any other god at the
beginning of any important undertaking; his priest was the Rex
Sacrorum, the representative of the ancient king in his capacity
& religious head of the state. All gateways, housedoors and
entrances generally, were under his protection; he was the
^ventor of agriculture (hence Consivius, "he who sows or
■jjoats *'), of civil laws, of the coining of money and of religious
jiii iai(p He was worshipped on the Janiculum as the protector
jg tnvfe and shipping; his head is found on the as, together
«.& the prow of a ship. He is usually represented on the
y -wst coins with two bearded faces, looking in opposite
^paciaMs; in the time of Hadrian the number of faces is in-
j^-ri to four. In his capacity as porter or doorkeeper he
^p^ & staff in his right hand, and a key (or keys) in his left; as
,0.1 *e » catted Patulous (opener) and Clusius (closer). His
i jMfc Cameras, Patricius, Quirinus originate in his worship in
^ omMSi ta* curiae and the state, and have no reference to
f „ .p^ctt reactions or characteristics. In late, times, he is
- x u--x\t and unbearded; in place of the staff and keys, the
r -> -1 is* r*ht hand show the number 300 (CCC), those of
at a*asbet of the remaining days of the year (LXV.).
^ ■» JL 1* Cook {Classical Review, xviii. 367), Janus
7*»/Kr form of Jupiter, the name under which he was
... ^y *ie pre~Latin (aboriginal) inhabitants of Rome;
- . .-a-^wa by the Italians, Janus and Jana took their
, ^x^went divinities by the side of the Italian Jupiter
.^ -fe cwskfcrs it probable that the three-headed
'__ mt . x -nfifc eai-god worshipped in the form of two
^^* *>| a cross-bar (such as the tigilhem sororium,
«>; hence also the door, consisting of two
_i sacred to Janus. The three-headed
j tae original, from which the two-headed
^. ***** were developed. J. G. Fraser {The
. » v *&mi* pp. "4, 985)» who also identifies
.-.» - * v* opinion that Janus was not originally
, *. u H* door was called after him, not vice
„ -«• ^ xa miitciiyt Jan ua forts meaning a door
: *» ?** by the chief entrance, to serve as
- w* then joMM alone came to mean a door
•m-mm. the symbol of Janus.. The double
-•* m ♦*: desire to make the god look both
_■ --nim'-rr By J. Rhy» {Hibbert Lectures,
*« . *. seattfeed with the three-faced (some-
. ^w Ceraunnus, a chthonian divinity,
- *t Tetfoak Heimdal, the warder of
the gods of the under-world; like Janus, Cernunnus and Hrimdil
were considered to be the Jons el origo of all things.
See S. Ltnde, De Jano sumtno romanorum dee (Lund, iSm);
J. S. SpeVer, " Le Dieu romain Janus," in Reeve de rhistokm its
religions (xxvi., 1892): G. Wissowa. Religion und Kultus der Rdmser
(190a); W. Deecke, Etruskische Forschuugen, vol. ii.; W. Wank
Fowler, The Roma* Festivals of the Period of the Republic 0*99),
pp. 282-290; articles in W. H. Roscher's Lexikon der Myikologie*n4
Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des Antiguites; J. Toutain,
Etudes de Mytkotope (1909). On other jani (arched ps mi ay) in
Rome, frequented by business men and money chancers, see
O. Richter, Topographic der Stadt Rom (1901). (J. H. F.) ,
JAORA, a native state of Central India, in the Malwa agency.
It consists of two isolated tracts, between Ratlam and Neeaamch.
Area, with the dependencies of Piplauda and Pant Piplaeuda,
568 sq. m. Pop. (xooi), 84,202. The estimated revenue it
£57,000; tribute, £9000. The chief, whose title is nawab, is
a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. Hie state was confirmed
by the British government in 1818 by the Treaty of Mandsauc
Nawab Mahommed Ismail, who died in 1895, was an honorary
major in the British army; His son, Iftikhar Ali Khan, a minor
at his accession, was educated in the Daly College at Indore, with
a British officer for his tutor, and received powers of administra-
tion in 1906V The chief crops are millets, cotton, maiae and
poppy. The last supplies a large part of the Malwa opium of
commerce. The town of Jaora is on the Rajputana-Marwa
railway, 20 m. N. of Ratlam. Pop. (ioox), 23,854. It is well
laid out, with many good modern buildings, and has a high
school and dispensary. To celebrate Queen Victoria's Diamond
Jubilee, the Victoria Institute and a zenana dispensary were
opened in 1898.
JAPAN, an empire of eastern Asia, and one of the great powers
of the world. The following article is divided for conveniemce
into ten sections: — L Geography; II. The Peoflb; UL
Language and LrruuTUitE; IV. Art; V. Economic Condi-
tions; VI. Government and Administration; VTI. Religion;
VIII. Foreign Intercourse; DC Domestic History; X.
The Claim of Japan.
I.— Geography
The continent of Asia stretches two arms into the Pacific
Ocean, Kamchatka in the north and Malacca in the south*
between which lies a long cluster of islands
constituting the Japanese empire, which covers 2?2rL«*
37 14' of longitude and 29 n'of latitude. On the
extreme north are the Kuriles (called by the Japanese Ckiskima,
or the " myriad isles "), which extend to 156 32' E. and to
50 56' N. ; on the extreme south is Formosa (called by the
Japanese Taiwan), which extends to 122 6' E., and to 21 45*
N. There are six large islands, namely Sakhalin (called by the
Japanese Karafuto); Yezo or Ezo (which with the Kuriles is
designated Hokkaido", or the north-sea district); Nippon (the
"origin of the sun"), which is the main island; Shikoku (the
" four provinces "), which lies on the east of Nippon; KiQshiu
or Kyushu (the " nine provinces "), which lies on the south of
Nippon, and Formosa, which forms the most southerly link of
the chain. Formosa and the Pescadores were ceded to Japan
by China after the war of 1804*1895, and the southern half of
Sakhalin — the part south of 50° N.-~*was added to Japan by
cession from Russia in 1005. - Korea, annexed in August soxo*
is separately noticed.
Coastline. — The following table shows the numbers,
of coast-line, and the areas of the various groups of is
those being indicated that have a coast-line of at least 1
or that, though smaller, arc inhabited ; except in the case
and the Pescadores, where the whole numbers are given:
Length of
Number, coast in
miles.
Nippon 1 W6S<*S
Isles adjacent to Nippon ... 107 1, 2 75 09
Shikoku 1 1,100*85
Isles adjacent to Shikoku ... 75 548-12
CiO&hifl ........ 1 2,10128
Isles adjacent to-KiOskta ... 150 a^og-od
the lengths
lands, only
H (a* ok),
ofFoi
Area
470-Jb
\
V
fe
in
GEOGRAPHY] JAPAN 157
I
south by a range qT "mountains which sends out various lateral ' though not rising higher than°388o'ft., offer scenery which dispels
i S 8
JAPAN
(GEOGRAPHY
the delusion that nature as represented in the classical pictures
(bunjingwa) of China and Japan exists only in the artist's imagina-
tion. Farther south, in the province of Kai (Koshiu), and separating
two great rivers, the Fuji-kawa and the Tenriu-gawa, there lies a-
range of hills with peaks second only to those of the Japanese Alps
spoken of above. The principal elevations in this range are Shirane-
san— with three summits, Nddori (9970 ft.), Ai-no-take (10,300 ft.)
and Kaigane (10,330 ft.)— and Hodaan (9550 ft.). It will be observed
that all the highest mountains of Japan form a species of belt across
the widest part of the main island, beginning on the west with the
Alps of Etchiu, Hida and Shinano, and ending on the east with
Fujiyama. In all the regions of the main island southward of this
belt the only mountains of conspicuous altitude are Omine (6169 ft.)
and Odai-gaharaaau (5540 ft.) in Yamato and Daisen or Oyama
(5951 ft.) in Hfiki.
a* The island of Shikoku has no mountains of notable
magnitude. The highest is Ishizuchi-aan (7727 ft.), but
there are several peaks varying from 3000 to 6000 ft.
KiQshifl, though abounding in mountain chains, independent or
connected, is not remarkable for lofty peaks. In the neighbourhood of
MmmmtmtmM at Na&*»ki, over the celebrated solfataras of Unxcn-take
irm^. m (called also Onsen) stands an extinct volcano, whose
mmBam ' summit, Fugen-dake, is 4865 ft. high. More notable
is Aso-take, some 20 m. from Kumaraoto; for, though the highest of
its five peaks has an altitude of only 5545 ft., it boasts the largest
crater in the world, with walls nearly 2000 ft. high and a basin from
ip to 14 m. in diameter. Aso-take is still an active volcano, but its
eruptions during recent years have been confined to ashes and dust.
Only two other mountains in KiQshiQ need be mentioned — a volcano
(3743 ft.) on the island Sakura-jima, in the extreme south; and
rurohima-yama (5538 ft.), on the boundary of Hiuga, a mountain
specially sacred in Japanese eyes, because on its eastern peak
(Takacnibo-dake) the god Nintgi descended as the forerunner of the
first Japanese sovereign, Jimmu.
' Among the mountains of Japan there are three volcanic ranges,
namely, that of the Kuriles, that of Fuji, and that of Kirishima.
Ynkmnmt* ^"J* ** tne mo * t remarkable volcanic peak. The
' Japanese regard it as a sacred mountain, and numbers
of pilgrims make the ascent in midsummer. From 500 to 600 ft.
is supposed to be the depth of the crater. There are neither sul-
phuric exhalations nor escapes of steam at present, and it would seem
that this great volcano is permanently extinct. But experience
in other parts of Japan shows that a long quiescent crater may at
any moment burst into disastrous activity. Within the period
of Japan's written history several eruptions are recorded the last
having been in 1707, when the whole summit burst into flame, rocks
were shattered, ashes fell to a depth of several inches even in Yedo
fT6ky5), 60 m. distant, and the crater poured forth streams of lava.
Among still active volcanoes the following are the best known: —
Name of Volcano.
Height in feet: Remarks.
Tarumai (Yexo) 3969. Forma southern wall of a large ancient
crater now occupied by a lake (Shikotsu).
A little steam still issues from several
smaller cones on the summit of the ridge,
as well as from one, called Eniwa, on the
northern side.
Noboribetsu (Yeso) In a state of continaous activity, with
I j 48. frequent detonations and rumblings. The
crater is divided by a wooded rock-wall.
The northern part is occupied by a steaming
lake, while the southern part contains
numerous solfataras and boiling springs.
Komagatake (Yezo) The ancient crater-wall, with a lofty
383a. pinnacle on the western side, contains a
low new cone with numerous steaming rifts
and vents. In a serious eruption in 1856
the S.E. flank of the mountain and the
country side in that direction were denuded
of trees.
Esaa 2067. A volcano-promontory at the Pacific end
of the Tsugaru Strait : a finely formed cone
surrounded on three sides by the sea, the
crater breached on the land side. a The
central vent displays considerable activity,
while the rocky walls are stained with red,
yellow and white deposits from numerous
minor vents.
Agatsuma (Iwaki) Erupted in 1003 and killed two geolo-
5330. gists.
Bandai-san (Iwashiro) Erupted in 1888 after a long period of
6037, quiescence. The outbreak was preceded
by an earthquake of some severity, after
which about so explosions took place. A
huge avalanche of earth and rocks buried
the Naga«e Valley with its villages and
inhabitants, and devastated an area of
ovst 27 sq. m. The number of live* lost
was 401} four hamlets were completely
Bandai-san (Iwashiro) entombed with their inhabitants and cattle;
6037— (ami.). seven villages were partially wrecked;
forests were levelled or the trees entirely
denuded of bark; rivers were blocked op,
and lakes were formed. The lip of the
fracture is now marked by a line of steaming
vents.
Asuma-yama (Fuku- Long considered extinct, but has erupted
shima) 7733. several times since 1893, the last explosion
having been in 1900, when 8a sulphur-
diggers were killed or injured; ashes were
thrown to a distance of 5 m., accumulating ia
places to a depth of 5 ft. ; and a crater 300 ft
in diameter, and as many in depth, was
fornied on the E. side of the mountain. This
crater is still active. The summit-crater is
occupied by a beautiful lake. On the
Fukushima (E.) side of the volcano rises
a large parasitic cone, extinct.
Nasu (Tochigi) 6296. Has both a summit and a lateral crater,
which are apparently connected and per-
petually emitting steam. At or about the
main vents are numerous solfataras. The
whole of the upper part of the cone consists
of grey highly acidic lava. At the base is a
thermal spring, where baths have existed
since the 7th century.
Shirane (Nikko) 7422. The only remaining active vent of the
once highly volcanic Nikko district. Erup-
tion in 1889.
Shirane (Kai) 10,33a Eruption in 1905, when the main crater
was enlarged to a length of 3000 ft. It is
divided into three parts, separated by walls,
and each containing a lake, of which the
middle one emits steam and the two others
are cold. The central lake, during the
periods of eruption (which are frequent),
displays a geyscr-like activity. These lakes
contain free sulphuric acid, mixed with iron
and alum.
Unzen (Hixen) 4865. A triple-peaked volcano in the solfatara
stage, extinct at the summit, but displaying
considerable activity at its base in the
form of numerous tumaroles and boiling
sulphur springs.
Aso-take (Higo) 5545. Remarkable for the largest crater in the
world. It measures 10 m. by 15. and
rises almost symmetrically to a height of
about 2000 ft., with only one break
through which the river Shira flows. The
centre is occupied by a mass of peaks, on
the W. flank of which lier the modern active
crater. Two of the five compartments into
which it Is divided by walls of deeply
striated volcanic ash are constantly emitting
steam, while a new vent displaying great
activity has been opened at the base of the
cone on the south side. Eruptions have
been recorded since the earliest days of
Japanese history. In 1884 the ejected dust
and ashes devastated farmlands through
large areas. An outbreak in 1894 produced
numerous rifts in the inner walls from which
steam and smoke have issued ever since.
Kaimon (Kagoshima One of the most beautiful volcanoes of
Bay) 3041. Japan, known as the Satsuma-Fuji. The
symmetry of the cone is marred by a con-
vexity on the seaward (S.) side. This
volcano h all but extinct.
Sakura-jima (Kago- An island-volcano, with several parasitic
shima Bay) 3743. cones (extinct), on the N. and E. sides.
At the summit are two deep craters, the
southern of. which emits steam. Grass
grows, however, to the very edges of the
crater. The island is celebrated for ther-
mal springs, oranges and daikon (radishes),
which sometimes grow to a weight of 70 m.
Kiri-shima (Kagoshima A volcanic range of which Talcachiho,
Bay) 5538. the only active cone, forms the terminal
(S. E. ) peak. The crater.situated on the S, W.
side of the volcano, lies some 500 ft. below
the 4 summit-peak. It is of rem ar ka b ly
regular formation, and the floor is pierced
by a number of huge fu ma roles whence
issue immense volumes of st^am. -
Izuno Oshiroa (Vries The volcano on this island b called
Island) (Izu) 3461. Mihara. There is a double crater, the outer
being almost complete. The diameter of
■ the outer crater, within which rises the
modern cone to a height of 500 ft. above
GEOGRAPHY] JAPAN
Izuno OsMma (Vries the surrounding floor, is about am.; while
Island) (Ixu) 2461*- the present crater, which displays incessant
(cent.).
(Ise) 8136.
activity, has itself a diameter of \
The largest active volcano in Japan.
An eruption in 17*3. ™* n a deluge of
lava, destroyed an extensive forest and
overwhelmed several villages. The present
cone is the third, portions of two concentric
crater rings remaining. The present crater
is remarkable for the absolute perpendicu-
larity of its walls, and has an immense depth
—■ fr om 600 to 800 ft. It is circular, | m.
in circumference, with sides honeycombed
and burned to a red hue.
Some of the above information is based upon Mr. C. E. Bruce-
Mi t ford "s valuable work (see Ccog. Jour., Feb. 1008. &c). # #
Earthquakes. — Japan is subject to marked displays of seismic
violence. One steadily exercised influence is constantly at work,
for the shores bordering the Pacific Ocean are slowly though appre-
ciably rising, while on the side of the Japan Sea a corresponding sub-
sidence is taking place. Japan also experiences a vast number of
petty vibrations not perceptible without the aid of delicate instru-
ments. But of earthquakes proper, large or small, she has an excep-
tional abundance. Thus in the thirteen years ending in 1897— that is
to say. the first period when really scientific apparatus for recording
purposes was available— she was visited by no fewer than 17,750
shocks, being an average of something over 3} daily. The frequency
of these phenomena is in some degree ' : *" fn * *he
minor vibrations are believed to exercise ng
weak cleavages. Nevertheless the an he
three centuries before 1897 there were tly
disastrous to merit historical mention. ed
farther back— as has been done by the i on
committee of Japan, a body of scien in
studying these phenomena under gover nd
that, since the country's history began ;n-
tury A.D., there have been 2006 major < ch
as i£&? of these occurred before the wra
administration (early in the 17th centi sra
when methods of recording were com let
details are naturally lacking. The stor; ay
be gathered from the following table:—
Houses
destroyed.
Region.
Southern part of Tosa
Mutsu —
Ki6to —
TOkaidd —
Bungo —
Kidto —
Pacific Coast —
Aizu —
Pacific Coast (N.E.) ... —
Kidto 5.500
Echigo . —
Ugo 2.760
. Toky6 20,162
DateA.D. Region. Houses _ Deaths.
E8
2,000
700
2,000
5,000
3.700
1,700
500
1,500
390
1703 foo/12) . Toky6 20,162 5*233
1707 (28/10) . Pacific Coast of KiushiQ and
Shikoku 29.000 4,900
1751 (20/5) . Echigo 9.100 1,700
1766(8/3) . Hirosald 7.500 1,335
1792 (10/2) . Hizcn and H»go .... 12,000 15.000
1828 (18/3) . Echigo 11,750 1.443
1844 (8/5) . Echigo 34.000 12,000
1854 (6/7) • Yamato, Iga, he ... . 5.000 2400
Tdkaido (Shikoku) . . . 60,000 3.000
Yedo (T6ky6) 50,000 6,700
Mino,Owari 222,501 7,273
Shdnai 8,403 726
Sanriku I 3*°73 27,122
Ugo. Rikuchu 8,996 209
Formosa ...... 5.556 1,228
(1) An area of over 1,200,000 acres swallowed up by the sea.
(2) Tidal wave killed thousands of people
(3) Hamana lagoon formed.
In the capital (TSkyS) the average yearly number of shocks
throughout the 26 years ending in 1906 was 90, exclusive of minor
vibrations, but dunng the 50 years then ending there were only two
severe shocks (18S4 and 1894), and they were not directly responsible
for any damage to life or limb. The Pacific coast of the Japanese
islands is more liable than the western shore to shocks disturbing a
wide area. Apparent proof has been obtained that the shocks
occurring in the Pacific districts originate at the bottom of the sea—
the Tuscarora Deep is supposed to be the centre of seismic activity
—and they are accompanied in most cases by tidal waves. It would
seem that of late years Tajima, Hida, Kdzukc and some other regions
in central Japan have enjoyed the greatest immunity, while Musashi
m :
159
(in which province Tokyo* is situated) and Sagami have been most
subject to disturbance.
Plains.— Japan, though very mountainous, has many extensive
plains. The northern island — Yezo— contains seven, and there are
as many more in the main and southern islands, to say nothing of
flat lands of minor dimensions. The principal are given in the
following table.—
Names
Tokachi plain
Ishikari „
Kushiro „
Nemuro „
Kitami „
Hida lea
Teshto .,
Echigo „
Sendai
Kwanto „
Situation.
. Yezo.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
. Main Island.
do.
do.
Area.
744,000 acres.
480,000 „
1,239,000 „
320,000 ,,
230,000 „
200,000 „
180.000
Unascertained,
do.
do.
Remarks.
In this plain lie the
capital.Tdkyd, and the
town of Yokohama. It
supports about 6 mil-
lions of people.
Mino-Owart,, da do. Has l J million inhabi-
tants.
Kinai „ .. do. do. Has the cities of
Osaka, KiCto and Kobe,
and 2\ million people.
Tsukushi „ .. KiushiQ. do. The chief coalfield of
Japan,
Risers.— Japan is abundantly watered. Probably no country in
the world possesses a closer network of streams, supplemented by
canals and lakes. But the quantity of water carried seawards
varies within wide limits; for whereas, during the rainy season in
summer and while the snows of winter are melting in spring, great
volumes of water sweep down from the mountains, these broad
rivers dwindle at other times to petty rivulets trickling among a
waste of pebbles and boulders. Nor are there any long rivers;
and all are so broken by shallows and rapids that navigation is
generally impossible except by means of flat-bottomed boats
drawing only a few inches. The chief rivers are given in the follow-
ing table: —
Ishikari-gawa
Shinano-gawa .
Teshio-gawa
Tone-gawa
Mogami-gawa .
Yoshino-gawa .
Kitakarai-gawa
Tenriu-gawa
Go-gawa or Iwa-
megawa .
Abukuma-gawa
Tokachi-gawa .
Sendai-gawa .
Oi-gawa
Kiso-gawa . .
Ara-kawa . .
Naga-gawa . .
Length
in miles.
. 375
. 215
. 19a
• 177
. 151
• 149
146
136
X22
122
120
112
112
112
I04
102
Source.
Ishikari-dake . , ,
Kimpu-san . . .
Teshio-take . . .
Monju-zan, Kdzukc .
Dainichi-dake(Uzen).
Yahazu-yama (Tosa)
Nakayama-dake
(Rikuchiu)
Suwako (Shinano)
Mouth.
Otaru.
Nitgata.
Sea of Japan.
Choshi (Shi-
mosa).
Sakata.
Tokushima
(Awa).
Ishinomaki
(Rikuzen).
TStomi Bay.
Maruse-yama (Bingo) Iwami Bay.
Aaabi-take (Iwashiro) Matsushima Bay.
Tokachi-dake . . Tokachi Bay.
Kunimi-ran (Hiuga) . Kumizaki (Sat-
soma).
Shirane-san (Kai). . Suruga Bay.
Kiso-zan (Shinano) . Bay of Isenumi.
Chichibu-yama . Tdkyd Bay.
Nasu-yama (Shimo- Naka-no-minata
tsuke) .... (Huachi).
takes and Waterfalls. — Japan has many lakes, remarkable for
the beauty of their scenery rather than for their extent. Some
arc contained in alluvial depressions in the river valleys ; others have
been formed by volcanic eruptions, the ejecta damming the rivers
until exits were found over cuffs or through gorges. Some of these
lakes have become favourite summer resorts for foreigners. To that
category belong especially the lakes of Hakone, of Chiuzenji, of Shdtt,
of Inawashiro, and of Biwa. Among these the highest is Lake
Chiuzenji. which is 4375 ft. above sea-level, has a maximum depth
of 93 fat horns, and empties itself at one end over a fall (Kegon) 250 ft.
high. The Shoji lakes lie at a height of 3160 ft., and their neigh-
bourhood abounds in scenic charms. Lake Hakone is at a height
of 2428 ft.; Inawashiro, at a height of 1920 ft. and Biwa at a
height of 328 ft. The Japanese associate Lake Biwa (Omi) with
eight views of special loveliness( Omir-no-kakkei). Lake Suwa, in Shi-
nano, which is emptied by the Tenriu-gawa, has a height of 2624 ft.
In the vicinity of many of these mountain lakes thermal springs,
with remarkable curative properties, are to be found. (F. By.)
Geology.— \t is a popular belief that the islands of Japan consist
for the most part of volcanic rocks. But although this conception
might reasonably be suggested by the presence of many active and
x 6o JAPAN IGEOGRAFHY
; u-»iM «u«g«" ^ -™m-«7 «—««». j™ wwy un ivmag, , , qo. suipnurou* .... 1*7—14*
GEOGRAPHY] JAPAN l6l
N
Nasi
Nob
Shifa
Chti
Tak
Urct
Una
Wa 8
Van
Yua
a
nort
Gen
and
cone!
on i
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alon
vatc
four
Win
the
htt«
£ !
thei
tunc
duri
mim
vaii
aidei
wha
the i
havi
rt*
vari;
D
itati
duri
the
for
IWOC
ever
leasi
cade
The
Shai
PeV
Shai
Hak
Tok
San
Pelc
Sha
Hak
Tok
San
Pelc )
Sha r
Hat i
T6k i
l62
manipulation of the gardener, and is by him trained into i
remarkable grace. Its pure white or rose-red blossoms, I
the first approach of genial weather, are regarded with
favour and are accounted the symbol of unassuming hardil
The cherry (sakura) is even more esteemed. It will not suffer any
training, nor does it, like the plum, improve by pruning, but the
sunshine that attends its brief period of bloom in April, the magni-
ficence of its flower-laden boughs and the picturesque flutter of its
falling petals, inspired an ancient poet to liken it to the " soul of
Yamato " (Japan), and it has ever since been thus regarded. The
wild peach (momo) blooms at the same time, but attracts little atten-
tion. All these trees — the plum, the cherry and the peach — bear no
fruit worthy of the name, nor do they excel their Occidental repre-
sentatives in wealth of blossom, but the admiring affection they
inspire in Japan is unique. Scarcely has the cherry season passed
when that of the wistaria (fuji) comes, followed by the azalea (bateif/s)
and the iris (shoou), the last being almost contemporaneous with the
peony (botan), which is regarded by many Japan se as the king of
flowers and is cultivated assiduously. A species of weeping maple
(shutare-momtjt) dresses itself in peachy-red foliage and is trained
into many picturesque shapes, though not without detriment to its
longevity. Summer sees the lotus (rente) convert wide expanses
of take and river into sheets of white and red blossoms; a compara-
tively flowerless interval ensues until, in (October and November,
the chrysanthemum arrives to furnish an excuse for fashionable
gatherings. With the exception of the dog-days and the dead of
winter, there is no season when flowers cease to be an object of
attention to the Japanese, nor does any class fail to participate in
the sentiment. There is similar enthusiasm in the matter of gardens.
From the loth century onwards the art of landscape gardening
steadily grew into a science, with esoteric as well as exoteric aspects,
and with a special vocabulary. The underlying principle is to
reproduce nature's scenic beauties, all the features being drawn to
scale, so that however restricted the space, there shall be no violation
of proportion. Thus the artificial lakes and hills, the stones forming
rockeries or simulating solitary crags, the trees and even the bushes
are all selected or manipulated so as to fall congruously into the
fencral scheme. If, on the one hand, huge stones are transported
undreds of miles from sea-shore or river-bed where, in the lapse of
long centuries, waves and cataracts have hammered them into
strange shapes, and if the harmonizing of their various colours and
the adjustment of their forms to environment are studied with pro-
found subtlety, so the training and tending of the trees and shrubs
that keep them company require much taste and much toil. Thus
the red pine (aka-matsu or pinus denstfloro), which is the favourite
Sarden tree, has to be subjected twice a year to a process of spray-
ressing which involves the careful removal of every weak or aged
needle. One tree occupies the whole time of a gardener for about ten
days. The details are endless, the results delightful. But it has to
be clearly understood that there is here no mention of a flower-
Eirdcn in the Occidental sense of the term. Flowers are cultivated,
ut for their own sakes. not as a feature of the landscape garden.
If they are present, it is only as an incident. This of course does not
apply to shrubs which blossom at their seasons and fall always into
the general scheme of the landscape. Forests of cherry-trees, plum-
trees, magnolia trees, or kiyaku-jikkd (Later stroemia indica), banks of
azalea, clumps of hydrangea, groups ofcamellia — such nave their
Scrmanent places and their foliage adds notes of colour when their
owers have fallen. But chrysanthemums, peonies, roses and so
forth, are treated as special shows, and are removed or hidden when
out of bloom. There is another remarkable feature of the Japanese
gardener's art. He dwarfs trees so that they remain measurable
only by inches after their age has reached scores, even hundreds, of
years, and the proportions of leaf, branch and stem are preserved
with fidelity. The pots in which these wonders of patient skill are
grown have to be themselves fine specimens of the (ceramist's craft,
and as much as £200 is sometimes paid for a notably well trained tree.
There exists among many foreign observers an impression that
Japan is comparatively poor in wild-flowers; an impression probably
due to the fact that there are no flowery meadows or lanes. Besides,
the flowers are curiously wanting in fragrance. Almost the only nota-
ble exceptions arc the mokusei (Qsmanihus (ragram), the daphne and
the magnolia. Missing the perfume-laden air of the Occident, a visitor
is prone to infer paucity of blossoms. But if some familiar European
flowers are absent, they are replaced by others strange to Western
eyes— a wealth of Uspedexa and Indtgp-fera; a vast variety of lilies;
graceful grasses like the eulalia and the ominameshi (Patrwa scabuh
saefoiia); the richly-hued Pyrus japonica; azaleas, dicrvillas and
deutzias; the kikyo (Platycodon grandt/lorum), the gibdski (Funkia
ovate), and many another. The same is true of Japanese forests.
It has been wen said that " to enumerate the constituents and
inhabitants of the Japanese mountain-forests would be to name at
least hall the entire flora."
According to Franchet and Savatier Japan possesses :—
Fan "
Dicotyledonous plants . .
Monocotykdonous plants .
Higher Cryptogamous plants .
Vascular plants 154 1035 2743
JAPA^
(FLORA AND FAUNA
The investigations of Japanese botanist* are adding constantly to
the above number, and it is not likely that finality will be reached
for some time. According to a comparison made by A. Gray with
regard to the numbers of genera and species respectively represented
in the forest trees of four regions of the northern hemisphere, the
following is the case: —
Atlantic Forest-region of N. America . 66 genera and 155 species
Pacific Forest-region of N. America . 31 genera and 78 species
Japan and Manchuria Forest-region . «6 genera and 168 species
Forests of Europe 33 genera and 85 species.
While there can be no doubt that the luxuriance of Japan's flora
is due to rich soil, to high temperature and to rainfall not only
plentiful but well distributed over the whole year, the wealth and
variety of her trees and shrubs mutt be largely the result of immi-
gration. Japan has four insular chains which link her to the
neighbouring continent. On the south, the RiQkia Islands bring
her within reach of Formosa and the Malayan archipelago: on the
west, Old. Iki, and Tsushima bridge the sea between her and Korea;
on the north-west Sakhalin connects her with the Amur region;
and on the nonh, the Kurites form an almost continuous route to
Kamchatka. By these paths the germs of Asiatic plants were carried
v over to join the endemic flora of the country, and all found suitable
homes amid greatly varying conditions of climate and physiography.
Fasxo.— Japan is an exception to the general rule that comments
are richer in sauna than Are their neighbouring islands. It has
been said with truth that "an industrious collector of beetles,
butterflies, neuroptera, &c.. finds a greater number of species in a
circuit of some miles near Tokyo than are exhibited by the whole
British Isles."
Of mammals 50 species have been identified and catalogued.
Neither the lion nor the tiger is found. The true Camivora are three
only, the bear, the dog and the marten. Three species of bears are
scientifically recognized, but one of them, the ice-bear {Ursa
maritimus), is only an accidental visitor, carried downcby the Arctic
current. In the main island the black bear (kumn, Vrnu japomkm)
alone has its habitation, but the island of Yeao has the great brown
bear (called ski-tuma. okt-kuma or oka-kuma). the " grisly " of North
America. The bear does not attract much popular interest in Japan.
Tradition centres rather upon the fox (kxtsune) and the herigrr
(mujina), which are credited with supernatural powers, the former
being worshipped as the messenger of the harvest god, while the
Utter is regarded as a mischievous rollicker. Next to these comes
the monkey (saru), which dwells equally among the snows of the
north and in the mountainous regions of the south. Sara eaten
into the composition 0/ many place-names, an evidence of the
people's familiarity with the animal. There are ten species of bat
(komori) and seven of insect-eaters, and prominent in this class are
the mole (mugura) and the hedgehog (han-ntaitmi). Among the
martens there is a weasel (itachth which, though useful as a rat-
kilter, has the evil repute of being responsible for sudden and
mysterious injuries to human beings; there is a river-otter (***«•
uso), and there is a sea-otter (fakko) which inhabits the northern
seas and is highly valued for its beautiful pelt. The rodents are
represented by an abundance of rats, with comparatively few mice,
and by the ordinary squirrel, to which the people give the name of
tree-rat (ki-netumi), as well as the flying squirrel, known as the
momo-dori (peach-bird) in the north, where it hides from the light
in hollow tree-trunks, and in the south as the ban-tori (or bird of
evening). There are no rabbits, but hares (usagi) are to be found
in very varying numbers, and those of one species put on a white
coat during winter. The wild boar (shiskt or ti-noshishi) does not
differ appreciably from its European congener. Its flesh is much
relished, and for some unexplained reason is called by its vendors
" mountain-whale " (yomo-kujira). A very beautiful stag (saias),
with eight-branched antlers, inhabits the remote woodlands, and
there are five species of antelope (kamo-shika) which are found in
the highest and least accessible parts of the mountains. Domestic
animals have for representatives the horse (uma), a small beast with
little beauty of form though possessing much hardihood and endu-
rance; the ox (ushi). mainly a beast of burden or draught; the pig
(buta), very occasionally; the dog (inu), an unsightly and useless
brute; the cat (neko), with a stump in lieu of a tail; barndoor fowl
(nova-tori), ducks (akiro) and pigeons (halo). The turkey (ikicki-
mencho) and the goose (gachd) have been introduced but are little
appreciated as yet.
Although so-called singing birds exist in tolerable numbers, those
worthy olthe name of songster are few. Eminently first is a a
ilies. Genera.
Species.
1 795
»934
8 20a
S 38
t»
of nightingale (uguisu), which, though smaller than its congener of
the West, is gifted with exquisitely modulated flute-like notes of
considerable ranee. The ugitisu is a dainty bird in the matter of
temperature. After May it retires from the low-lying regions and
gradually ascends to higher altitudes as midsummer approaches.
A variety of the cuckoo called hototorisu (Cuculus poltocepkalns) in
imitation of the sound of its voice, is heard as an accompaniment of
the uguisu, and there are also three other specie*, the kakkMnri
(Cuculus canorus), the tsulsu-dori (€. htmoJayanus), and the masn*
kakari, or juichi (C. kyperythrus). To these the lark, ktbart (A laud*
japonica), joins its voice, and the cooing of the pigeon (kaio) in
supplemented by the twittering of the ubiquitous sparrow (mawssr),
FAUNA)
while over all are heard the raucous caw of the raven (karasu) and
the harsh scream of the kite (tombi). between which and the raven
there is perpetual feud. The falcon (taka), always an honoured bird
in Japan, where from time immemorial hawking has been an aristo-
cratic pastime, is common enough, and so is the sparrow-hawk
(hat- taka), but the eagle (wash*) affects solitude. Two English
ornithologists, Blakiston and Pryer. are the recognized authorities
on the birds of Japan, and in a contribution ro the Transactions of
the Asiatic Society of Japan (vol. x ) they have enumerated 359
species. Starlings (muku-dori) are numerous, and so are the wag.
tail (sekirei), the swallow (isubame) the martin {ten), the woodchat
Omsk) and the jay Vkakesu or kashi-dori), but the magpie (tigarasu),
though common in China, is rare in Japan. Blackbirds and thrushes
are not found, nor any species of parrot, but on the other hand, we
have the hoopoe (yalsugashira), the red-breast (komadori). the blue-
bird (ruri), the wren (misosatai), the golden-crested wren (itadaki),
the golden-eagle (inu-tcashi), the finch (htwa), the longtailed rose-
inch (benimashiko), the ouzel — brown (akahara), dusky (tsugwni)
and water (kawa-gorasu) — the kingfisher {kawasemi), the crake
(kuina) and the tomtit (kara). Among game-birds there are the
quail (uxura), the heathcock (eto-tachd), the ptarmigan (ezo-raichd
or tzo-yoma-dori), the woodcock (hodo-skigi). the snipe (ta-skigi)-^
with two special species, the solitary snipe (yama-skip) and the
painted snipe (tama-shigi)— and the pheasant (kiji). Of the last
there are two species, the kiji proper, a bird presenting no remark-
able features, and the copper pheasant, a magnificent bird with
plumage of dazzling beauty. Conspicuous above all others, not
only for grace of form but also for the immemorial attention paid
to them ov Japanese artists, are the crane {tsuru) and the heron
(sogi). Ot the crane there are seven species, the stateliest and most
beautiful being the Crus japonensis (tanchd or tanckd-suru), which
stands some 5 ft high and has pure white plumage with a red crown,
black tail-feathers and black upper neck. It is a sacred bird, and
it shares with the tortoise the honour of being an emblem of longevity.
The other species are the demoiselle crane (anewa-turu), the black
crane (kuro-turu or nczumi-turu, i.e. Crus cinerea), the Crus leucauchen
(mana-turu), the Crus monachus (nabe-zuru), and the white crane
(shiro-turu). The Japanese include in this category the stork
(kdturu), but it may be said to have disappeared from the island.
The heron (sagt) constitutes a charming feature in a Japanese land-
scape, especially the silver heron (shtra-sagi), which displays its
brilliant white plumage in the rice-fields from spring to early
autumn. The night-heron (goi-sagi) is very common. Besides
these waders there are plover (chidon) ; golden (muna-guro or af-
fair*); gray (rfatsen) ; ringed {sk+ro-ckidoriy, spur-winged (keri) and
Hartmgs sand-plover (ikaru-thtdort); sand -pipers— green (athiro-
skigi) and spoon-billed (kera-sktgi)— and water-hens (ban). Among
swimming birds the most numerous are the gull (kamome), of which
many varieties are found; the cormorant (u) — which is trained by
the Japanese for fishing purposes — and multitudinous 'flocks of
wild-geese (gan) and wild-ducks (kamo), from the beautiful mandarin-
dock (aski-dori), emblem of conjugal fidelity, to teal (koganto) and
widgeon (Mdori-gamo) of several species. Great preserves of wild-
duck and teal used to be a frequent feature in the parks attached to
the feudal castles of old Japan, when a peculiar method of netting
the birds or striking them with falcons was a favourite aristocratic
pastime. A few of such preserves still exist, and it is noticeable
that in the Palace-moats ot T6ky6 all kinds of water-birds, attracted
by the absolute immunity they enjoy there, assemble in countless
numbers at the approach of winter and remain until the following
spring, wholly indifferent to the close proximity of the city.
Of reptiles Japan has only 30 species, and among them is included
the marine turtle (umt-game) which can scarcely be said to frequent
her waters, since it is seen only at rare intervals on the southern
coast. This is even truer of the larger species (the skogakubo, i.e.
Chelonia up hah). Both are highly valued for the sake of the shell,
which has always been" a favourite material for ladies' combs and
hairpins. By carefully selecting certain portions and welding
them together in a perfectly flawless mass, a pure amber-coloured
object is obtained at heavy cost- Of the fresh-water tortoise there
are two kinds, the supfion (Trtonyx japontca) and the kame-no-ko
(Emys vulgaris japontca). The tatter is one of the Japanese emblems
of longevity. It is often depicted with a flowing tail, which appendix
attests close observation of nature ; for the mino-game, as it is called,
represents a tortoise to which, in the course of many scores of years,
confervae have attached themselves so as to form an appendage of
long green locks as the creature swims about. Sea-snakes occasion-
any make their way to Japan, being cairied thither by the Black
Current (Kuro Shi wo) and the monsoon, but they must be regarded
as merely fortuitous visitors. There are to species of land-snakes
(Ae&i), among which one only (the mamusht, or TngonocepkoJus
Blomhoffi) is venomous. The others for the most part frequent
the rice-fields and live upon frogs. The largest is the aodaisho
(Elapkis vir gains), which sometimes attains a length of 5 ft., but is
ouite harmless. Lizards (tokage). frogs (kavazu or kaeru), toads
(ebcgaytru) and newts (imori) are plentiful, and much curiosity
attaches to a giant salamander (sansko-vwo, called also haztkat and
other names according to localities), which reaches to a length of
5 ft., and (according to Rein) is closely related to the Andrias
SckeucJueri of the Oeningen strata.
JAPAN
163
The teas surrounding the Japanese islands may be called a resort
of fishes, for, in addition to numerous species which abide there
permanently, there are nugatory kinds, coming and foing with the
monsoons and with the great ocean streams that set to and from the
shores. In winter, for example, when the northern monsoon begins
to blow, numbers of denizens of the Sea of Okhotsk swim southward
to the more genial waters of north Japan ; and in summer the Indian
Ocean and the Malayan archipelago send to her southern coasts a
crowd of emigrants which turn homeward again at the approach of
winter. It thus falls out that In spite of the enormous quantity of
fish consumed as food or used as fertilizers year after year by the
Japanese, the seas remain as richly stocked as ever. Nine orders of
fishes have been distinguished as the piseifauna of Japanese waters.
They may be found carefully catalogued with all their included
species in Rein's Japan, and highly interesting researches by Japan-
ese physiographista are recorded in the Journal of the College of
Science of the Imperial University of Tokyo. Briefly* the chief
fish of Japan are the bream (tat), the perch (suauki), the mullet (bora),
the rock-fish (hatatate). the grunter (ont-o-kote), the mackerel (sabo).
the sword-fish (tacki-trwo), the wrasse (kusabi), the haddock (tara),
the flounder (karei), and its congeners the sole (htrame) and the
tu -t-— ' • -•» -»-- na< j (namosu), the salmon (shake), the m#su,
th the gold fish (kingyo), the gold carp (hig&i),
th -fng (nishin), the ruiaski(Ciupea melanostteta),
th rtger eef (anagc), the coffer-fish (hoko-vwo),
th ai (PleCoglossus ait welts), the sayori (Hemir*
at irk (same), the dogfish (manuka-tame), the
ra id-zame) and the maguro (Tkynnus sibi)
n broadly corresponds with that of temperate
re there are also a number of tropical species,
ies and beetles. The latter — for which the
is muski or katcM*— include some beautiful
jl beetle " (tema-muski), the " gold beetle "
' Chrytockroa fulgidissima, which glow and
ncy of gold and precious stones, to the jet
■ ot gc
is, whi
snsis, which seems to have been fashioned
5
SL.__ .
out of lacquer spotted with white. There is also a giant nasicornous
beetle. Among butterflies (ch&ckt) Rein gives prominence to the
broad-winged kind (Papilio), which recall tropical brilliancy. One
(Papilio maciltntus) is peculiar to Japan. Many others seem to be
practically identical with European species. That is especially true
of the moths (yachd), too species of which have been identified with
English types. There are seven large silk-moths, of which two only
(Bombyx tnori and Antkeraea yama-mai) are employed in producing
silk. Fishing lines are manufactured from the cocoons of the
genjiki-musht (Caligula japontca), which is one of the commonest
moths in the islands. Wasps, bees and hornets, genetically known
as hachi, differ little from their European types, except that they are
somewhat larger and more sluggish. The gad-fly (abu), the house-
fly (kai), the mosquito (ka), thenea (nomi) and occasionally the bed-
bug (called by the Japanese kara-mushi because it is believed to be
imported from China), are all fully represented, and the dragon-fly
Ctontbd) presents itself in immense numbers at certain seasons.
Grasshoppers (baUa) are abundant, and one kind {inago), which
frequent the rice-fields when the cereal is ripening, are caught and
fried in oil as an article of food- On the moors in late summer the
mantis (kama-kiri-muski) is commonly met with, and the cricket
(kdrogi) and the cockroach abound, ttirticularly obtrusive is the
cicada (semi), of which there are many species. Its strident voice
is heard most loudly at tiroes of great heat, when the song of the
birds is hushed. The dragon-fly and the cicada afford ceaseless
entertainment to the Japanese boy. He catches them by means of
a rod smeared with bird-lime, and then tying a fine string under their
wings, he flies them at its end. Spiders abound, from a giant species
to one of the minutest dimensions, and the tree-bug is always ready
to make a destructive lodgment in any sickly tree-stem. The
scorpion {sasori) exists but is not poisonous.
Japanese rivers and lakes are the habitation of several — seven or
eight — species of freshwater crab (kani). which live in holes on the
shore and emerge in the day-time, often moving to considerable
distances from their homes. Shrimps (kawa-ebi) also are found in
the rivers and rice-fields. These shrimps as well as a large species
of crab—mokuzf-gani — serve the people as an article of food, but
the small crabs which live in holes have no recognized raison d' ttrc.
In Japan, as elsewhere, the principal Crustacea are found in the sea.
Flocks of lupa and other species swim in the wake of the tropical
fishes which move towards Japan at certain seasons. Naturally
these migratory crabs are not limited to Japanese waters. Milne
Edwards has identified ten species which occur in Australian seas
also, and Rein mentions, as belonging to the same category,
the " helmet-crab " or " horse-shoe crab " (katmto-gani, Ltmulftf
na Hoeven). Very remarkable is the giant Taka-aski-
long fees (Maerocheirus Kaempferi), which has legs ij metres long
and is found in the seas of Japan and the Malay archipelago. There
is no lobster on the coasts of Japan, but there are various species
of crayfish (PaHnurus and ScyUarus) the principal of which, under
the names of ise-tbi (PaHnurus japonuus) and kuruma-ebt (Penaeus
canoliculatus) are. greatly prized as an article of diet.
Already in 1882, Dunker in his Index Molluscorum Maris Japoniei
enumerated nearly 1200 species of marine molluscs found in the
!*4
Japanese archipelago, and several others have afaco then been added
to the list. At for the land and fresh-water molluscs, some 200 of
which are known, they are mainly kindred with those of China and
Siberia, tropical and Indian forms being exceptional. There are
37 species 01 Helix {matwtaitsuburi, doiemuski. katatsumuri orkwagyi)
and 25 of Cloustita. (kiseru-gat or pipe-snail), including the two
largest snails in Japan, namely the CL Mortensi and the CI. Yoke*
kammsis. which attain to a length of 58 mm. and 14 mm. respec-
tively. The mussel (i-no-kai) n well represented by the species
muma-gai (marsh-mussel), karasu-gai (raven-mussel), kamisori-gai
(razor-mussel), sktjimi-no-kai (Corbicuta), of which there are nine
species. &c. Unlike the land-molluscs, the great majority of Japanese
sea-molluscs are akin to those of the Indian Ocean and the Malay
archipelago. Some of them extend westward as far as the Red Sea.
The best known and most frequent forms are the asari (Tapes
pkUippinarum), the hamaeuri (Meretrix lusona), the boko (liactra
sulcoUxric), the aka-gai (Scapkarca inflate), the kaki (oyster), the
atpabi {Haliotis japonica), the same (Turbo comulus), the hora-gai
(Tritonium triloniut), &c. Among the cephalopoda several are of
great value as articles of food, e.g. the surume (Onychotkeutkis
Banksii), the iako (octopus), the shtdako (Eledone). the ika (Sepia)
and the tako-fune (Argonauta).
Greet? enumerates, as denizens of Japanese seas, 26 kinds of sea-
urchins (fas* or uni) and 12 of starfish (Jkilode or tako-no-makura).
These, like the raollusca, indicate the influence of the Kuro Shiwo
and the sou ih- west monsoon, for they have close affinity with species
found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. For edible purposes the
most valuable of the Japanese echinoderms is the sea-slug or biche
de mer (ttamako), which is greatly appreciated and forms an important
staple of export to China. Rein writes: " Very remarkable in con-
nexion with the starfishes is the occurrence of AsUrias rubens on
the Japanese coast. This creature displays an almost unexampled
frequency and extent of distribution in the whole North Sea, in the
western parts of the Baltic, near the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Green-
land and the English coasts, so that it may be regarded as a charac-
teristic North Sea echinoderro form. Towards the south this star-
fish disappears, it seems, completely; for it is not yet known with
certainty to exist either in the Mediterranean or tn the southern
parts of the Atlantic Ocean. In others also AsUrias rubens is not
xnown — and then it suddenly reappears in Japan. Archaster
typicus has a pretty wide distribution over the Indian Ocean; other
Asteridae of Japan, on the other hand, appear to be confined to its
shores."
Japan is not rich in corals and sponges. Her most interesting
contributions are crust-corals (Corgontdae, Cor allium, Isis, &c).
and especially flint-sponges, called by the Japanese koshi-gai and
known as " glass-coral " \Hyalonema siebotdt). These last have not
been found anywhere except at the entrance of the Bay of T6ky6
at a depth of some 200 fathoms.
II.— The People
Population. — The population was as follows on the 31st of
December 1007:— Population
per
Population. Mates. Females. Totals. sq. m.
Japan proper. . 24,601,65824,172,62748,774,285 330
Formosa (Taiwan) 1,640,778 1476,137 3,116,01$ 224
Sakhalin . . . 7,175 3,631 10,806 o-i
JAPAN PAPULATION
According to quasi-historical records, the population of the empue
in the year ad. 610 was 4,988,842, and in 736 it had grown to
8.631 .770. It is impossible to say how much reliance may be placed
on these figures, but from the 18th century, when the name of every
subject had to be inscribed on the roll of a temple as a measure
against his adoption of Christianity, a tolerably trustworthy census
could always be taken. The returns thus obtained show that from
the year 1723 until 1846 the population remained almost stationary.
the figure in the former year being 26,065,422, and that in the latter
year 26,907.625. There had, indeed, been five periods of declining
population in that interval of 124 years, namely, the periods 1738-
1744, 1759-1762, 1773-1774. 1791-1793, and 1844-1B46. But alter
1872, when the census showed a total or 33,1 10,825. the population
grew steadily, its increment between 1872 and 1898 inclusive. a period
of 27 years, being 10,649,990. Such a rate of increase invests the
question of subsistence with great importance. In former times the
area of land under cultivation increased in a marked degree. Returns
prepared at the beginning of the 10th century showed 2 1 million acres
under crops, whereas the figure in 1 834 was over 8 million acres. Bui
the development of means of subsistence has been outstripped by
the growth of population in recent years. Thus, during the period
between 1899 and 1007 the population received an increment of
1 i-6% whereas the food-producing area increased by only 4-4%.
This discrepancy caused anxiety at one time, but large fields suitable
for colonization have been opened in Sakhalin, Korea, Manchuria
and Formosa, so that the problem of subsistence has ceased to be
troublesome. The birth-rate, taking the average of the decennial
period ended 1907, is 3-05% of the population, and the death-rate
is 2*05. Males exceed females in the ratio of 2% approximately
But this rule does not hold after the age of 65, where for every too
females only 83 males are found. The Japanese are of low stature
as compared with the inhabitants of Western Europe: about 16%
of the adult males are below 5 ft. But there are evidences of
steady improvement in this respect. Thus, during the period of ten
years between 1893 and 1902, it was found that the percentage of
recruits of 5 ft. 5 »*»• and upward grew from 1009 to 12-67, the rate
of increase having been remarkably steady; and the percentage of
those under 5 ft. declined from 20*21 to 1620.
Taxims.— then are in Japan 23 towns having a population of
over 50,000, and there are 76 having a population of over 20,000.
The larger towns, their populations and the growth of the tatter
during the five-year period commencing with 1898 were as follow:—
Totals
26,249,611 25,652,395 51,902,006
The following table shows the
quadrennial periods between 1891
Year.
1891 .
1895 •
1899 «■
1003
Males.
Females.
20,563,416 20,155,261
21,345.750 20,004,870
22,330,112 21,930,540
23,601,640 23,131.236
1907 . . 24,601,658 24,172,627
rate of increase in the four
and 1907 in Japan propers-
Average Population
Totals, increase per
per cent. sq. m.
40,718,677 1-09 272
42,270,620 1*09 286
44,260,652 i- 14 299
46.73*1876 1-54 3i6
48,774,285 1*13 330
The population of Formosa (Taiwan) during the ten-year
period 1898-1007 grew as follows:—
Average Population
Year. Males. Females. Totals, increase per
per cent. ^ sq. m.
1808 . 1,307,428 M57.539 2,464,067 — 182
T0O2 . 1,513,280 1,312,067 2,825,347 2-70 209
J907 - 1^40.778 1.476.137 3.116,915 *\37 224
Kr ,a
Yokohama
Hiroshima
Nagasaki .
Kanaaawa
Sendai . .
Hakodate .
Fukuoka .
Wakayama
Tokusnima
Kumamoto
Toyama
Qkayaraa .
Otaru . .
Kagoshima
Niigata .
Sakai . .
Sapporo
Kure . .
Sasebo
Urban Populations
1898.
Tdkyo" t ,440,1 2 1
Osaka 821,235
Kioto 333.139
. . . 244.45
. . . 215,780
. . . 193.76a
. . . 122,306
. . . 107422
• • • 83.595
. . . 83.325
. . . 70,040
. . . 66,190
... 63,667
. . . 61,501
. . , 61463
• • • 59.558
. . 58.025
. . . 56.961
. • • 53*481
. . • 53.366
. . 50.203
1903.
1.795.128
988,200
379.404
284,829
324.776
113.545
151.7^7
07.548
62.998
80.140
58;
52.007
The growth of Kure and Sasebo is attributable to the fact that they
have become the sites of large ship-building yards, the property of
the state.
The number of houses in Japan at the end of 1903. when the census
was last taken, was 8.725,544, the average number of inmates is
each house being thus 55.
Physical Characteristics.— The best authorities are agreed that
the Japanese people do not differ physical^ from their Korean
and Chinese neighbours as much as the inhabitants of northern
Europe differ front those of southern Europe. It is true that the
Japanese are shorter in stature than either the Chinese or the
Koreans. Thus the average height of the Japanese male »
only 5 ft. 3I in., and that of tfic female 4 ft. io| in., whereas in
the case of the Koreans and the northern Chinese the correspond-
ing figures for males arc 5 ft. 5! in. and 5 ft. 7 in. respectively.
Yet in other physical characteristics the Japanese, the Koreans
CHARACTERISTICS
JAPAN
ib S
and the Chinese resemble each other so closely that, under
similar conditions as to costume and coiffure, no appreciable
difference is apparent. Thus since it has become the fashion for
Chinese student* to flock to the schools and colleges of Japan,
there adopting, as do their Japanese fellow-students, Occidental
garments and methods of hairdressiag, the distinction of nation-
ality ceases to be perceptible. The most exhaustive anthro-
pological study of the Japanese has been made by Dr E Baels
(emeritus professor of medicine in the Imperial University of
Tfikyd), who enumerates the following sub-divisions of the race
inhabiting the Japanese islands. The Erst and most important
is the Manchu-Korean type, that is to say, the type which prevails
in north China and in Korea. This is seen specially among the
upper classes in Japan. Its characteristics are exceptional
ullnrss combined with slenderness and elegance of figure; a face
somewhat long, without any special prominence of the cheek-,
bones but having more or less oblique eyes, an aquiline nose;
a slightly receding chin, largish upper teeth, a long neck; a
narrow chest; a long trunk, and delicately shaped, small hands
with long, slender fingers. The most plausible hypothesis is that
men of this type are descendants of Korean colonists who, In
prehistoric times, settled in the province of Izumo, on the west
coast of Japan, having made their way thither from the Korean
peninsula by the island of Oki. being carried by the cold current
which flows along the eastern coast of Korea. The second type
is the Mongol. It is not very frequently found in Japan, per-
haps because, under favourable social conditions, it tends to
pass into the Manchu-Korcan type. Its representative has a
broad face, with pnominent cheek-bones, oblique eyes, a nose
more or less flat and a wide mouth. The figure is strongly and
squarely built, but this last characteristic can scarcely be called
typical. There is no satisfactory theory as to the route by which
the Mongols reached Japan, but it is scarcely possible to doubt
that they found their way thither at one time. More important
than either of these types as an element of the Japanese nation
is the Malay. Small in suture, with a well-knit frame, the cheek-
bones prominent, the face generally round, the nose and neck
short, a marked tendency to prognathism, the chest broad and
well developed, the trunk long, the hands small and delicate —
this Malay type is found in nearly all the islands along the east
coast of the Asiatic continent as well as in southern China and
in the extreme south-west of Korean peninsula. Carried
northward by the warm current known as the Kuro Shiwo, the
Malays seem to have landed in Kiushiu— the most southerly
of the main Japanese islands— whence they ultimately pushed
northward and conquered their Manchu-Korean predecessors,
the Izumo colonists. None of the above three, however, can be
regarded as the earliest settlers in Japan. Before them all was
a tribe of immigrants who appear to have crossed from north*
eastern Asia at an epoch when the sea had not yet dug brodd
channels between the continent and the adjacent islands.
These people — the Ainu— are usually spoken of as the aborigines
of Japan. They once occupied the whole country, but were
gradually driven northward by the Manchu-Koreans and the
Malays, until only a mere handful of them survived in the
northern island of Yezo. Like, the Malay and the Mongol types
they are short and thickly built, but unlike either they have
prominent brows, bushy locks, round deep-set eyes, long diver-
gent lashes, straight loses and much hair on the face and the
body. In short, the Ainu suggest much closer affinity with
Europeans than does any other of the types that go to make up
the population of Japan. It is not to be supposed, however,
that these traces of different elements indicate any lack of homo-
geneity in the Japanese race. Amalgamation has been com-
pletely effected in the course of long centuries, and even the
Ainu, though the small surviving remnant of them now live
apart, have left a trace upon their conquerors.
The typical Japanese of the present day has certain marked
physical peculiarities* In the first place, the ratio of the height
of his head to the length of his body is greater than it is in Euro-
peans. The Englishman's bead is often one-eighth of the length
oi his body or even less, and in continental Europeans, as a rule.
the ratio does not amount to one-seventh; but in the Japanese
it exceeds the latter figure. In all nations men of short stature
have relatively large heads, but in the case of the Japanese then
appears to be some racial reason for the phenomenon* Another
striking feature is shortness of legs relatively to length of trunk.
In northern Europeans the leg is usually much more than one-
half of the body's length, but in Japanese the ratio is one-half
or even less, so that whereas the Japanese, when seated, looks
almost as tall as a European, there may be a great difference
between their statures when both are standing. This special
feature has been attributed to the Japanese habit of kneeling
instead of sitting, but investigation shows that it Is equally
marked in the working classes who pass most of their time stand-
ing. In Europe the same physical traits— relative length of
head and shortness of legs— distinguish the central race (Alpine)
from the Teutonic, and seem to indicate an affinity between the
former and the Mongols. It is in the face, however, that we
•find specially distinctive traits, namely, in the eyes, the eye-
lashes, the cheekbones and the beard. Not that the eyeball
itself diners from that of an Occidental. The difference consists
in the fact that " the socket of the eye is comparatively small and
shallow, and the osseous ridges at the brows being little marked,
the eye is less deeply set than in the European. In fact, seen in
profile, forehead and upper lip often form an unbroken line."
Then, again, the shape of the eye, as modelled by the lids, shows
a striking peculiarity For whereas the open eye is almost
invariably horizontal In the European, it is often oblique in the
Japanese on account of the higher level of the upper corner.
" But even apart from obliqueness, the shape of the corners is
peculiar in the Mongolian eye. The inner corner is partly
or entirely covered by a fold of the upper lid continuing more
or less into the lower lid. This fold often covers also the
whole free rim of the upper lid, so that the insertion of the eye-
lashes is hidden " and the opening between the lids is so narrowed
as to disappear altogether at the moment of laughter. As for
the eye-lashes, not only are they comparatively short and sparse,
but also they converge instead of diverging, so that whereas in a
European the free ends of the lashes are further distant from
each other than their roots, in a Japanese they are nearer t<h
gether. Prominence of cheekbones- is another special feature',
but it is much commoner in the lower than in the upper classes,
where elongated faces may almost be said to be the rule. Finally,
there is marked paucity of hair on the face of the average Japan-
ese—apart from the Ainu— and what hair there is is nearly
always straight. It is not to be supposed, however, that because
the Japanese is short of stature and often«finely moulded, he
lacks either strength or endurance. On the contrary, he possesses
both in a marked degree, and his deftness of finger is not less
remarkable than the suppleness and activity of his body.
Moral Characteristics, — The most prominent trait of Japanese
disposition is gaiety of heart. Emphatically of a laughter-
loving nature, the Japanese passes through the world with a
smile on his lips. The petty ills of life do not disturb his equa-
nimity. He takes them as part of the day's work, and though he
sometimes grumbles, rarely, if ever, does he repine. Excep-
tional to this general rule, however, is a mood of pessimism
which sometimes overtakes youths on the threshold of manhood.
Finding the problem of life insolvable, they abandon the attempt
to solve it and take refuge in the grave. It seems as though
there were always a number of young men hovering on the brink
of such suicidal despair. An example alone is needed finally to
destroy the equilibrium. Some one throws himself over a
cataract or -leaps into the crater of a volcano, and immediately
a score or two follow. Apparently the more picturesquely
awful the manner of the demise, the greater its attractive force.
The thing is not a product of insanity, as the term is usually
interpreted; letters always left behind by the victims prove
them to have been in full possession of their reasoning faculties
up to the last moment. Some observers lay the blame at the
door of Buddhism, a creed which promotes pessimism by beget-
ting the anchorite, the ascetic and the shuddering believer in
seven hells. But Buddhism did not formerly produce such
i66
incidents, and, for the rest, the kith of Shaka has little sway
over the student mind in Japan. The phenomenon is modern:
jt is not an outcome of Japanese nature nor yet of Buddhist
teaching, but is due to the stress of endeavouring to reach the
standard* of Western acquirement with grievously inadequate
equipment, opportunities and resources. In order to support
himself and pay his academic fees many a Japanese has to fall
into the ranks of the physical labourer during a part of each day
or night. Ill-nourished, over-worked and, it may be, disap-
pointed, he finds the struggle intolerable and so passes out into
the darkiyra. But he is not a normal type. The normal type is
light-hearted and buoyant. One naturally expects to find, and
one doe* find, that this moral sunshine is associated with good
temper. The Japanese is exceptionally serene. Irascibility Is
aqgardcd as permissible in sickly children only, grown people
are supposed to be superior to displays of impatience. But
there is a limit of imperturbability, and when that limit is
ntached, the subsequent passion is desperately vehement. It
has been said that these traits go to make the Japanese soldier
what he is. The hardships of a campaign cause him little suffer-
ing since he never frets over them, but the hour of combat finds
him forgetful of everything .save victory. In the case of the
aauiLary class— and prior to the Restoration of 1867 the term
*■ military das* " was synonymous with " educated class " —
tma spkit of stoicism was built up by precept on a solid basis of
heredity. The samurai (soldier) learned that his first charao-
l g ^rtc must be to suppress all outward displays of emotion.
^n, pleasure, passion and peril must all find him unperturbed.
^>c supreme test, satisfied so frequently as to be commonplace,
waa a. shocking form of suicide performed with a placid mien.
Taa capacity, coupled with readiness to sacrifice life at any
mnm mi on the altar of country, fief or honour, made a remark-
a*fr heroic character. On the other hand, some observers hold
uau ihe education of this stoicism was effected at the cost of the
nags k sought to conceal In support of that theory ft is
fSBttd out that the average Japanese, man or woman, will re-
am a death or some other calamity in his own family with a.
fedearr crim, if not a smiling, face. Probably there isa measure
a ""^ m the criticism. Feelings cannot be habitually hidden
c^ont being more or less blunted. But here another Japanese
-pn present* itself— politeness. There is no more polite nation
at me world than the Japanese. Whether in real courtesy of
pat tky excel Occidentals may be open to doubt, but in all
» iom of comity they are unrivalled. Now one of the car-
ina, mksof p^*"**** *• to avoid burdening a stranger with the
~**L* one's own, woes. Therefore a mother, passing from the
s which his just witnessed her paroxysms of grief, will
c nHy to a stranger— especially a foreigner— the death
""" «k duld. The same suppression of emotional display
U ^*c » observed in all the affairs of life. Youths and
* ^/ »aioui« towards each other a demeanour of reserve
*" al * S adjftcMOCt, from which it has been confidently affirmed
^^ .^ ^ «jua in Japan. The truth is that in no other
**" am » stt^y dual suicides occur— suicides of a man and
^*^ * oiublc to be united in this world, go to a union
^ ^* 1 ^ w> U u t rue, nevertheless, that love as a prelude
J ■*'** c *^ m etiy « tmsll place in Japanese ethics. Mar-
, '***? not sujoriiy of cases ar* arranged with little
» 1SF ' '* !*»*»«&«* ol the parties concerned. It might be
it ***** * , «Jut»T W«Uty must suffer from such a custom.
10 &** ^unoSy to too case °* lnc b«*hend, but emphati-
19 ♦ ** W|,L To** <* l he wtf *' ^^ ^° u 8h she be cog-
" »-of h« husband's extra-marital relations*
~ l •*■*""* tl* <* * h « duty which she Jias^becn taught to
pen *" .--•-- r - *
Year
ftoft
jk
• * 4 * ' **T«o mors beautiful type of character than
- ■ « : ~V vtxun. bhe i* entirely unselfish; exqui-
* ' wL t*ta «ny lWfl « ** * V™* 6 ' » boundm « m
. •■*■ ' J tkMi <t|*f urcd by egoism; patient in the
"•< - mm *Jm»» *»** ** *****"' * Wthful wife; a
_ ■ •"**'*,.. j history shows,
i.W
JAPAN [CHARACTERISTICS
of sexual virtue and morality in Japan, grounds for a conclusive
verdict are hard to find. In the interests of hygiene prostitution
is licensed, and that fact is by many critics construed as proof of
tolerance. But licensing is associated with strict segregation,
and it results that the great cities are conspicuously free from
evidences of vice, and that the streets may be traversed by women
at all hours of the day and night with perfect impunity and with-
out fear of encountering offensive spectacles. The ratio of
marriages is approximately 8 46 per thousand units of the popu-
lation, and the ratio of divorces is 1 • 36 per thousand. There are
thus about 16 divorces for every hundred marriages. Divorces take
place chiefly among the lower orders, who frequently treat marriage
merely as a test of a couple's suitability to be helpmates in the
struggles of life. If experience develops incompatibility of temper
or some other mutually repellent characteristic, separation
follows as a matter of course. On the other hand, divorces among
persons of the upper classes are comparatively rare, and divorces
on account of a wife's unfaithfulness are almost unknown.
Concerning the virtues of truth and probity, extremely con-
flicting opinions have been expressed. The Japanese samwroi
always prided himself on having " no second word." He never
drew his sword without using it; he never gave his word without
keeping it. Yet k may be doubted whether the value attached
in Japan to the abstract quality, truth, is as high as the value
attached to it in England, or whether the consciousness of having
told a falsehood weighs as heavily on the heart. Much depends
upon the motive. Whatever may be said of the upper class, it
is probably true that the average Japanese will not sacrifice
expediency on the altar of truth. He will be veracious only so
long as the consequences are not seriously injurious. Perhaps
no more can be affirmed of any nation. The "white lie " of the
Anglo-Saxon and the kdben no uso of the Japanese are twins.
In the matter of probity, however, it is possible to speak with
more assurance. There is undoubtedly in the lower ranks of
Japanese tradesmen a comparatively large fringe of persons
whose standard of commercial morality is defective. They are
descendants of feudal days when the mercantile dement, being
counted as the dregs of the population, lost its self-respect
Against this blemish— which is in process of gradual correction
— the fact has to be set that the better class of merchants, the
whole of the artisans and the labouring classes in general, obey
canons of probity fully on a level with the best to be found else-
where. For the rest, frugality, industry and patience charac-
terise all the bread-winners; courage and burning patriotism are
attributes of the whole nation.
There are five qualities possessed by the Japanese in a marked
degree. The first is frugality. From time immemorial the
great mass of the people have lived in absolute ignorance of
luxury in any form and in the perpetual presence of a necessity
to economize. Amid these circumstances there has emerged
capacity to make a little go a long way and to be content with
the most meagre fare. The second quality is endurance. It is
born of causes cognate with those whjch have begotten frugality.
The average Japanese may be said to live without artificial heat;
his paper doors admit the light but do not exclude the cold
His brazier barely suffices to warm his hands and bis face.
Equally is'he a stranger to methods of artificial cooling. He
takes the frost that winter inflicts and the fever that summer
brings as unavoidable visitors. The third quality is obedience;
the offspring of eight centuries passed under the shadow of mili-
tary autocracy. Whatever he is authoritatively bidden to do,
that the Japanese will do. The fourth quality is altruism. In
the upper classes the welf areof the family has been set above the
interests of each member. The fifth quality is a genius fbrdetau.
Probably this is the outcome of an extraordinarily elaborate
system of social etiquette. Each generation has added some-
thing to the canons of its predecessor, and for every ten points
preserved not more than one has been discarded. An instinctive
respect for minutiae has thus been inculcated, and has gradually
extended to all the affairs of life. That this accuracy may some-
times degenerate into triviality, and that such absorption is
trifles may occasionally hide the broad horison, is conceivable.
history shows,
the question
LANGUAGE]
JAPAN
167
But the only hitherto Apparent evidence of such defects is an
excessive clinging to the letter of the law; a marked reluctance
to exercise discretion; and that, perhaps, is attributable rather to
the habit of obedience. Certainly the Japanese have proved them-
selves capable of great things, and their achievements seem to
have been helped rather than retarded by their attention to detail.
m.— Language and Literature
Language. — Since the year 1820, when Klaproth concluded that
the Japanese language bad sprung from the Ural-Altaic stock,
philologists have busied themselves in tracing its affinities. If the
theories hitherto held with regard to the origin of the Japanese
people be correct, close relationship should exist between the
Japanese and the Korean tongues, and possibly between the
Japanese and the Chinese. Aston devoted much study to the
former question, but although he proved that in construction the
two have a striking similarity, he could not find any correspond-
ing likeness in their vocabularies. As far back as the beginning
of the Christian era the Japanese and the Koreans could not hold
intercourse without the aid of interpreters. If then the languages
of Korea and Japan had a common stock, they must have
branched off from it at a date exceedingly remote. As for the
languages of Japan and China, they have remained essentially
different throughout some twenty centuries in spite of the fact
that Japan adopted Chinese calligraphy and assimilated Chinese
literature. Mr K. Hirai has done much to establish his theory
that Japanese and Aryan had a common parent. But nothing
has yet been substantiated. Meanwhile an inquirer is confronted
by the strange fact that of three neighbouring countries between
which frequent communication existed, one (China) never
deviated from an ideographic script; another (Korea) invented
an alphabet, and the third (Japan) devised a syllabary. Anti-
quaries have sought to show that Japan possessed some
form of script before her first contact with either Korea or
China. But such traces of prehistoric letters as are supposed
to have been found seem to be corruptions of the Korean
alphabet rather than independent symbols. It is commonly
believed that the two Japanese syllabaries — which, though
distinct in form, have identical sounds— were invented by
Kukai (790) and Kibi Daijin (760) respectively. But the
evidence of old documents seems to show that these syllabaries
had a gradual evolution and that neither was the outcome of a
ingle scholar's inventive genius.
sequence of events appears to have been this: — Japan's
earliest contact with an oversea people was with the Koreans, and
she made some tentative efforts to adapt their alphabet to the
expression of her own language. Traces of these efforts survived,
and inspired the idea that the art of writing was practised by the
Japanese before the opening of intercourse with their continental
neighbours. Korea, however, had neither a literary nor an ethical
message to deliver, and thus her script failed to attract much atten-
tion. Very different was the case when China presented her noble
code of Confucian philosophy and the literature embodying it.
The Japanese then recognized a lofty civilization and placed them-
selves as pupils at its feet, learning its script and deciphering its
books. Their veneration extended to ideographs. At first they
adapted them frankly to their own tongue. .For example, the
ideographs signifying rice or metal or voter in Chinese were used to
convey the same ideas in Japanese. Each ideograph thus came to
have two sounds, one Japanese, the other Chinese — e.g. the ideo-
graph for rice had for Japanese sound kome and for Chinese sound bet.
Nor was this the whole story. There were two epochs in Japan's
study of the Chinese language: first, the epoch when she received
Confucianism through Korea; and, secondly, the epoch when she
began to study Buddhism direct from China. Whether the sounds
that came by Korea were corrupt, or whether the interval separating
these epochs had sufficed to produce a sensible difference of pronun-
ciation in China itself, it would seem that the students of Buddhism
who flocked from Japan to the Middle Kingdom during the Sui era
(a.d. s£<H>I9) insisted on the accuracy of the pronunciation ac-
quired there, although it diverged perceptibly from the pronuncia-
tion already recognized in Japan. < Thus, in fine, each word came
to have three sounds — two Chinese, known as the kan and the go,
and one Japanese, known as the kun. For example. —
" KAN " " CO M JAPANESE
SOUND. SOUND. SOUND. MEANING.
Set Jo Koe Voice
Nen Zen Toski Year
Jinkom Ningxn Hitonoaida Human being.
As to which of the first two methods of pronunciation had chro-
nological precedence, the weight of opinion is that the kan came later
than the go. Evidently this triplication of sounds had many dis-
advantages, but, on the other hand, the whole Chinese language may
be said to have been grafted on the Japanese. Chinese has the
widest capacity of any tongue ever invented. It consists of thou-
sands of monosyllabic roots, each having a definite meaning. These
monosyllables may be used singly or combined, two, three or four
at a time, so that the resulting combinations convey almost any
conceivable shades of meaning. Take, for example, the word
" electricity." The very idea conveyed was wholly novel in Japan.
But scholars were immediately able to construct the following ; —
L Den.
E Ki
E Denki.
T Dempd. JW- tidings.
E Dento. TO -lamp.
N Jndenki. In — the negative principle.
P< Yodenku Yo - the positive principle.
T Netsudenki. iVeto«=heat.
D RyOdo-denki. Ryfido-> fluid.
T _ Denwa. Ira -conversation.
Every branch of learning can thus be equipped with a vocabulary.
Potent, however, as such a vehicle is for expressing thought, its
ideographic script constitutes a great obstacle to general acquisition,
and the Japanese soon applied themselves to minimizing the difficulty
by substituting a phonetic system. Analysis showed that all the
required sounds could be conveyed with 47 syllables, and having
selected the ideographs that corresponded to those sounds, they
reduced them, first, to forms called hiragana, and. secondly, to still
more simplified forms called katakana.
Such, in brief, is the story of the Japanese language. When we
come to dissect it, we find several striking characteristics. First,
the construction is unlike that of any European tongue: all qualifiers
precede the words they qualify, except prepositions which become
postpositions. Thus instead of saying " the house of Mr $mith
is in that street," a Japanese says "Smith Mr of house that street
in is." Then there is no relative pronoun, and the resulting com-
plication seems great to an English-speaking person, as the following
illustration will show: —
Japanese. English.
Zenahu too saiban sum tame no The unique standard which
Virtue vice-judging sake of is used for judging virtue Of
mochiitaru yuitsu no hyojun wa vice is benevolent conduct
used unique standard solely.
jiai no k6i tada
benevolence of conduct only
kore nomi.
this alone.
It will lje observed that in the above sentence there are two untrans-
lated words, wo and wa. These belong to a group of four auxiliary
particles called teniwoha (or wa), which serve to mark the cases of
nouns, te (or de) being the sign of the instrumental ablative; ni that
of the dative; wo that of the objective, and wa that of the nomina-
tive. These exist in the Korean language also, but not in any other
tongue. There are also polite and ordinary forms of expression,
often so different as to constitute distinct languages; and there
are a number of honorifics which frequently discbarge the duty of
pronouns. Another marked peculiarity is that active agency is
never attributed to neuter nouns. A Japanese does not say the
poison killed htm " but " he died on account of the poison;" nor
does he say " the war has caused commodities to appreciate," but
<i j_;.._ l ' * i in consequence of the war." That
th owing to this limitation cannot be
dc are almost completely banished.
an Occidental who attempts to learn
Ja i are three languages to be acquired :
hi second, the polite colloquial; and,
th ry colloquial differs materially from
it; 1 unlike the written form as modern
It 1. "Add to this," writes Professor
B ssity of committing to memory two
s> any variant forms, and at least two
01 raphs, in forms standard and cursive
— ich are. susceptible of three or four
di :ircumstance, — add, further, that all
th are apt to be encountered pell mell
oi [mastering Japanese becomes almost
H his there is a strong movement in
fa ese script: that is to say, abolishing
th its place the Roman alphabet. But
wl » magnitude of the relief that would
th yet been little substantial progress.
A pted from its infancy to ideographic
tr tted to phonetic uses.
.. ,, An Unabridged Japanese-English
Dictionary (Tokyo. 1806); Y. Shimada, English-Japanese Dictionary.
(Tokyo, 1897); Webster's Dictionary, trans, into Japanese, (T**
i68
JAPAN
[LITERATURE
»*99) : J* H. Gubbins, Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Words ft volt.,
London, 1889); J. C. Hepburn, Japanese-English and Engtish-
Japanese Dictionary (London, 1903) ; E. M. Satow and I. Masakata,
English-Japanese Dictionary (London, 1904).
Literature. — From the neighbouring continent the Japanese
derived the art of transmitting ideas to paper. But as to
the date of that acquisition there is doubt. An authenticated
work compiled a.d. 720 speaks of historiographers having been
appointed to collect local records for the first time in 403,
from which it is to be inferred that such officials had already
existed at the court. There is also a tradition that some kind
of general history was compiled in 620 but destroyed by fire
in 645. At all events, the earliest book now extant dates from
712. Its origin is -described in its preface. When the emperor
Temmu (673-686) ascended the throne, he found that there did
not exist any revised collection of the fragmentary annals of the
chief families. He therefore caused these annals to be collated.
There happened to be among the court ladies one Hiyeda no Are,
who was gifted with an extraordinary memory. Measures were
taken to instruct her in the genuine traditions and the old lan-
guage of former ages, the intention being to have the whole ulti-
mately dictated to a competent scribe. But the emperor died
before the project could be consummated, and for twenty-five
years Are's memory remained the sole depository of the collected
annals. Then, under the auspices of the empress GemmyS, the
original plan was carried out in 712, Yasumaro being the scribe.
The work that resulted is known as the Kojiki {Record of Ancient
Matters). It has been accurately translated by Professor B. H.
Chamberlain (Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol.x.),
who, in a preface justly regarded by students of Japan as an
exegetical classic, makes the pertinent comment: " Taking the
word Altaic in its usual acceptation, viz. as the generic name of
all the languages belonging to the Manchu, Mongolian, Turkish
and Finnish groups, not only the archaic, but the classical,
literature of Japan carries us back several centuries beyond the
earliest extant documents of any other Altaic tongue." By the
term " archaic " is to be understood the pure Japanese language
of earliest times, and by the term " classical " the quasi-Chinese
language which came into use for literary purposes when Japan
appropriated the civilization of her great neighbours. The
Kojiki is written in the archaic form: that is to say, the language
is the language of old Japan, the script, although ideographic, is
used phonetically only, and the case-indicators are represented
by Chinese characters having the same sounds. It is a species of
saga, setting forth not only the heavenly beginnings of the Japan-
ese race, but also the story of creation, the succession of the
various sovereigns and the salient events of their reigns, the
whole interspersed with songs, many of which may be attributed
to the 6th century, while some doubtless date from the fourth or
even the third. This Kojiki marks the parting of the ways.
Already by the time of its compilation the influence of Chinese
civilization and Chinese literature had prevailed so greatly in
Japan that the next authentic work, composed only eight years
later, was completely Chinese in style and embodied Chinese
traditions and Chinese philosophical doctrines, not distinguishing
them from their Japanese context. This volume was called the
Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan). It may be said to have wholly
supplanted its predecessor in popular favour, for the classic style
—that is to say, the Chinese— had now come to be regarded as
the only erudite script. The Chronicles re-traversed much of the
ground already gone over by the Record, preserving many of the
songs in occasionally changed form, omitting some portions,
supplementing others, and imparting to the whole such an
exotic character as almost to disqualify the work for a place in
Japanese literature. Yet this was the style which thenceforth
prevailed among the litterati of Japan. " Standard Chinese soon
became easier to understand than archaic Japanese, as the former
alone was taught in the schools, and the native language changed
rapidly during the century or two that followed the diffusion
of the foreign tongue and civilization " (Chamberlain). The
neglect into which the Kojiki fell lasted until the 17th century.
Almost simultaneously with iu appearance in type (1644)
and its consequent accessibility, there arose a galaxy of
scholars under whose influence the archaic style and the ancient
Japanese traditions entered a period of renaissance. The story
of this period and of its products has been admirably told by Sir
Ernest Satow (*' Revival of Pure Shiatft," Proceedings of the
Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. iii.), whose essay, together with
Professor Chamberlain's Kojiki, the same author's introduction
to The Classical Poetry of the Japanese, and Mr W. G. Aston's
Nihongi, are essential to every student of Japanese literature.
To understand this 17th century renaissance, knowledge of one
fact is necessary, namely, that about the year a.d. 810, a cele-
brated Buddhist priest, Kukai, who had spent several yean
studying in China, compounded out of Buddhism, Confucianism
and ShintS a system of doctrine called Rydbu Shintd (Dual
Shinto), the prominent tenet of which was that the Shinto deities
were merely transmigrations of Buddhist divinities. By this
device Japanese conservatism was effectually conciliated, and
Buddhism became in fact the creed of the nation, its positive
and practical precepts entirely eclipsing the agnostic intuition-
alism of Shinto. Against this hybrid faith several Japanese
scholars arrayed themselves in the 17th and 18th centuries, the
greatest of them being Mabuchi and Motoori. The litter's
magnum opus, Kojikidcn (Exposition of the Record of Ancient
Matters), declared by Chamberlain to oe " perhaps the most
admirable work of which Japanese erudition can boast," con-
sists of 44 large volumes, devoted to elucidating the Kojiki and
resuscitating the ShintS cult as it existed in the earliest days.
This great work of reconstruction was only one feature of the
literary activity which marked the 17th and x8th centuries,
when, under Tokugawa rule, the blessing of long-unknown
peace came to the nation. Iyeyasu himself devoted the last
years of his life to collecting ancient manuscripts. In hit
country retreat at Shizuoka' he formed one of the richest libraries
ever brought together, in Japan, and by will he bequeathed the
Japanese section of it to his eighth son, the feudal, chief of
Owari, and the Chinese section to his ninth son, the prince of
Kishu, with the result that under the former feudatory's auspices
two works of considerable merit were produced treating of ancient
ceremonials and supplementing the Nihongi. Much more
memorable, however, was a library formed by Iyeyasu's grand-
son the feudal chief of Mito (1662-1700), who not only collected
a vast quantity of bdoks hitherto scattered among Shinto and
Buddhist monasteries and private houses, but also employed
a number of scholars to compile a history unprecedented in
magnitude, the Dav-Nihon-shi. It consisted of 240 volumes, and
it became at once the standard in its own branch of literature.
Still more comprehensive was a book emanating from the same
source and treating of court ceremonials. It ran to more than
500 volumes, and the emperor honoured the work by bestowing
on it the title Reigi Ruiten (Rules of Ceremonials). These com-
pilations together with the Nikon Gvoaishi (History of Japan
Outside the Court), written by Rai Sanyo and published in 1827,
constituted the chief sources of historical knowledge before the
Meiji era. Rai Sanyo devoted twenty years to the preparation
of his 22 volumes and took his materials from 250 Japanese and
Chinese works. But neither he nor his predecessors recognized
in history anything more than a vehicle for recording the mere
sequence of events and their relat ions, together with some account
of the personages concerned. Their volumes mike profoundly
dry reading. Vicarious interest, however, attaches to the pro-
ductions of the Mito School on account of the political influence
they exercised in rehabilitating the nation's respect for the throne
by unveiling the picture of an epoch prior to the usurpations
of military feudalism. The struggles of the great rival dans,
replete with episodes of the most tragic and stirring character,
inspired quasi-historical narrations of a more popular character,
which often took the form of illuminated scrolls. But it was not
until the Meiji era that history, in the modern sense of the term,
began to be written. During recent times many students have
turned their attention to this branch of literature. Works of
wide scope and clear insight have been produced, and the
Historiographers' section in the Imperial University «f Tokyd
LITERATURE JAPAN 1 69
has been
material*
oftheki
la the!
impervioi
known cc
it of all
Japanese
and ver>
5 syllable
\uia or la
consisting
total of 31
they may
Sand7s
jstheibi
17 syllab
vehicle m
are. for t\
loan they
KaS
Mini
Halo
Inocl
There is 1
It is nc
they were
eluded evi
many of t
words wei
ism " pec
line was
rhyme ws
Such cou]
Japanese <
were Hito
to them a
10th cent
to any su<
those of m
in a book
volume re
U.d. OX>5;
(CoBeclurH
anthologii
sfltute th
Reigns).
Hundred}
we have i
of the uia
when a g<
aristocrat!
syllables,
utarowase,
to the Oc
may be sa
Japanese !
men. The
spoken lai
than that
the hiraga
pens an
entirely. <
mispronoi
be impost
refer to t)
and the iiakura no Ztski "(about the same data). The former, by ' Minora, it stands as high as ever in popular favour. Concerning the
170
Japan
{LITERATURE
five school* into which the NO i» divided, their characteristics and
their differences— these are matters of interest to the initiated alone.
The Japanese are essentially a laughter-loving people. They are
highly susceptible of tragic emotions, but they turn g'
ThaPmnx. brighter phases of life. Hence a need wa
ran * 9 of something to dispel the pessimism of t
that something took the form of comedies played in tr
of the NO and called Kydgen (mad words). The Kyflg
elaborate description: it is a pure farce, never immode
The classic drama NO and its companion the Kydg
children, the Jdntri and the Kabuki. They were born
Tho Tbemirm °* the Ioth C* 11101 ? and ^^ owed tneir °
^^'growing influence of the commercial class, v
a right to be amused but were excluded from enioyi
aristocratic NO and the KyOgen. The loruri is a dran
sung or recited to the accompaniment of the samisen ai
with the movements of puppets. It came into exister
and was thence transferred to Yedo (TOkyO). where the greatest of
Japanese playwrights, Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1724), and a
musician of exceptional talent, Takemoto GidayQ, collaborated to
render this puppet drama a highly popular entertainment. It
flourished for nearly 300 years in Yedo, and is still occasionally
performed in Osaka. Like the NO the Joruri dealt always with
sombre themes, and was supplemented by the Kabuki (farce).
This last owed its inception to a priestess who, having abandoned
her holy vocation at the call of love, espoused dancing as a means of
livelihood and trained a number of girls for the purpose. The law
presently interdicted these female comedians (onna-kabnki) in the
interests, of public morality, and they were succeeded by " boy
comedians " (wakashu-kabuki) who simulated women's ways and
were vetoed in their turn, giving place to yaro-kabuki (comedians
with queues). Gradually the Kabuki developed the features of a
genuine theatre; the actor and the playwright were discriminated,
and. the performances taking the form of dom<
f domestic drama {Wagoto
mud Sewamono) or historicafdrama (Aragoto or Jidaimono), actors
ef perpetual fame sprang up, as Sakata TOjflrO and Ichikawa
DanjinrO (1660-1704). Mimetic posture-dances (Skosagoto) were
always introduced as interludes; past and present indiscriminately
contributed to the playwright's subjects; realism was carried to
e tti e w e s ; a revolving stage and all mechanical accessories were
sappfied; female parts were invariably taken by males, who attained
afcnost incredible skill in these simulations; a chorus— relic of the
Ko— chanted expositions of profound sentiments or thrilling inci-
dests; and histrionic talent of the very highest order was often
wacsayed. But the Kobuki-za and its yakusha (actors) remained
dears a plebeian institution. No samurai frequented the former
m sg uc iit ed with the latter. With the introduction of Western
ej.j fa f -;— . m modern times, however, the theatre ceased to be
ohssei by the aristocracy. Men and women of all ranks began to
«sc s- the emperor himself consented (1887) to witness a perform-
■asWthe great stars of the stage at the private residence of Marquis
rj_ * dramatic reform association was organized by a number of
^^~— - aofcimen and scholars; drastic efforts were made to
fLn)T?Lt «M historical dramas of anachronisms and inconsistencies,
!^r "berth a theatre (the Yuraku-ta) was built on purely European
■■^ ^T- -— *t»d of sitting from morning to night witnessing
Mt drama with interludes of whole farces, a visitor
c>
J.»
pn
bee
aloi
rap*
of f
negJt
Aim*
iiteurs into the ... . ~. .. .
- — *. --uurfT «» absolutely exclusive m Japan. Children
*** ^^^LT^Teew t** »» fath< rt ' mantles, and the idea that a non-
wff -TW^ ». nt9i ^ rnc hallowed ground of the stage did not
w rtustf w ^.^^ gut with the advent of the new regimen in
t9tr m '!!If*M«e a desire for social plays depicting the life of the
llfw** ,l "T_^ —1 »• th«e "croDDV dramas." (mmpatsv-
the
iox
red
na-
ich
tad
h©-
ud*
thy
nee
an
tale
the
rs).
&o-
Hi;
BtlC
line
»er,
cnt
idc
to the kanrakusho of that time. For their day and country they were
emphatically the salt of earth." But naturally not all were be l ieve r s
in the same philosophy. The fervour of the followers of Chu-Hi
(the orthodox school) could not fail to provoke opposition. Thus
some arose who declared allegiance to the idealistic intuttUxiaKsin
of Wang Yang-ming, and others advocated direct study of the works
of Confucius and Mencius. Connected with this rejection of Cho-
Hi were such eminent names as those of ltd Tunsai (1627-1718),
ItO TOgai (1617-1736), Ogyu SOrai (1 666-1 728) and Dazai Shuntai
(1670-1747). These Chinese scholars made no secret of their
contempt for Buddhism, and in their turn they were held in aversion
by the Buddhists and the Japanese scholars (toagakusha). so that the
second half of the 18th century was a time of perpetual wrangling
and controversy. The worshippers at the shrine of Chinese philo-
sophy evoked a reactionary^spirit of nationalism, just as the excessive
worship of Occidental civilization was destined to do in the 19th
century.
Apart from philosophical researches and the development of
the drama, as above related, the Tokugawa era is remarkable for
folk-lore, moral discourses, fiction and a peculiar form of poetry
This last does not demand much attention. Its principal variety
is the kaikai, which is nothing more than a tanka shorn of its con-
cluding fourteen syllables, and therefore virtually identical whh the
kokku, already described. The name of Bashd is immcmorialiy
associated with this kind of lilliputian versicle, which reached the
extreme of impressionism. A more important addition to Japanese
literature was made in the 17th century in the form of children's
tales (Otogibanashi). They are charmingly simple and graceful,
and they have been rendered into English again and again since the
beginning of the Meiji era. But whether they are to be regarded as
genuine folk-lore or merely as a branch of the fiction of the age when
they first appeared in book form, remains uncertain. Of fiction
proper there was an abundance. The pioneer of this kind of litera-
ture is considered to have been Saikaku (1641-1693), who wrote
sketches of e very-day life as he saw it, short tales of some merit
and novels which deal with the most disreputable phases of human
existence. His notable successors in the same line were two men of
Kioto, named TishO (1675-1745) and Kiseki (1666-1716). They had
their own publishing house, and its name Hachmonji-ya (figure-of-
eight store) came to be indelibly associated with this kind of litera-
ture. But these men did little more than pave the way for the true
romantic novel, which first took shape under the hand of Santo
KyOden (1761-1816), and culminated in the works of Bakin, Tane-
hiko, Samba, Ikku, Shunsui and their successors. Of nearly all the
books in this class it may be said that they deal largely in sensation-
alism and pornography, though it does not follow that their language
is either coarse or licentious. The life of the virtuous Japanese
woman being essentially uneventful, these romancists not unnatur-
ally sought their female types among dancing-girls and courtesans.
The books were profusely illustrated with wood-cuts and chromo-
xylographs from pictures of the ukiyoe masters, who, like the play-
wright, the actor and the romancer, ministered to the pleasure of
the " man in the street." Brief mention must also be made of two
other kinds of books belonging to this epoch ; namely, the Skxngak*-
sho (ethical essays) and the Jitsuroku-mono (true records). The
latter were often little more than historical novels founded on facts;
and the former, though nominally intended to engraft the doctrines
of Buddhism and ShmtO upon the philosophy of China, were really
of rationalistic tendency.
Although the incursions made into Chinese philosophy and the
revival of Japanese traditions during the Tokugawa Epoch contri-
buted materially to the overthrow of feudalism and ,^_ „__
the restoration of the Throne's administrative power, *****'*
the immediate tendency of the last two events was to °**
divert the nation's attention wholly from the study of either
Confucianism or the Record of Ancient Matters. A universal thirst
set in for Occidental science and literature, so that students
occupied themselves everywhere with readers and grammars
modelled on European lines rather than with the Analects or the
Kojiki. English at once became the language of learning. Thus
the three colleges which formed the nucleus of the Imperial Univer-
sity of TOkyO were presided over by a graduate of Michigan College
(Professor Toyama), a member of the English bar (Professor
HOzumi} and a graduate of Cambridge (Baron Kikuchi). If Japan
was eminently fortunate in the men who directed her pohtcaJ
career at that time, she was equally favoured in those that prawned
over her literary culture. Fukuzawa Yukichi, founder of the
KeiO Giiuku, now one of Japan's four universities, did more than
any of his contemporaries by writing and speaking to spread a
knowledge of the West, its ways and its thoughts, and Naxamura
Keiu laboured in the same cause by translating Smiles's Siif-lul}
and Mill's Representative Government. A universal geography (by
Uchida Masao); a history of nations (by Mitsukuri KinshO), a
translation of Chambers's Encyclopaedia by the department of
education; Japanese renderings of Herbert Spencer and of Gtriaor
and Buckle — all these made their appearance during the hrst fourteen
years of the epoch. The influence of politics may be strongly
traced in the literature of that time, for the first romances produced
by the new school were all of a political character: Knkokv Btdsu
{Model for Statesmen, with Epaminondas for hero) by Yano Futnio;
NEWSPAPERS)
JAPAN
Setek*bai(Plum-Uossmsin snow) *ndKwaJhean-d(NizktingaU Among
Flowers) by Suyehiro. This idea of subserving literature to political
ends b said to nave been suggested by Nakae Tokusuke's translation
of Rousseau's Contrat social. The year 1882 saw Julius Caesar in a
Japanese dress. The translator was Tsubouchi Sh&yo, one of the
greatest writers of the Meiji era, His Shdsetsu Shinsui (Essentials
of a Novel) was an eloquent plea for realism as contrasted with the
artificiality of the characters depicted by Bakin, and hb own works
illustrative of thia theory took the public by storm. He also brought
out the first literary periodical published ia Japan, namely, the
Waseda Buugaku, so called because Tsubouchi was professor of
literature in the Waseda University, an institution founded by Count
Oka ma, whose name cannot be omitted from any history of Meiji
literature, not as an author bat as a patron. As illustrating the
rapid development of familiarity with foreign authors, a Japanese
retrospect of the Meiji era notes that whereas Macaulay s Essays .
were in the curriculum of the imperial University in 1 881-1882, they
were studied, five or six years later, in secondary schools, and pupils
of the latter were able to read with understanding the works of
Goldsmith, Tennyson and Thackeray. Up to Tsubouchi's time the
Mdji literature was all in the literary language, but there was then
formed a society calling itself Kenyusha, some of whose associates —
as Bimyceai — used the colloquial language in their works, while
others— as K6yo, Rohan, Ac.— went back to the classical diction
of the Genroku era (1635-1703). Rohan is one of the most renowned
of Japan's modern authors, and some of hb historical romances have
had wide vogue. Meanwhile the business of translating went on
apace. Great numbers of European and American authors were
rendered into Japanese— Calderon, Lytton, Disraeli, Byron*, Shake-
speare, Milton, Turgueniev, Carlyle, Daudet, Emerson, Hugo, Heine*
Dc Quincey, Dickens, Korner, Goethe-Hheir nameb legionand their
influence upon Japanese literature b conspicuous. In 1888 a
special course of German literature was inaugurated at the Imperial
University, anefwith it b associated the name of Mori Ogai, Japan's
most faithful interpreter of German thought and speech. Virtually
every literary magnate of the Occident has found one or more inter-
preter* in modern Japan. Accurate reviewers of the era have
divided it into periods of two or three years each,, according to the
varioos groups of foreign authors that were in vogue, and every year
sees a large addition to the number of Japanese who study the
masterpieces of Western literature in the original.
Newspapers, as the term b understood in the West, did not exist
in old Japan, though block-printed leaflets were occasionally issued
to describe some specially stirring event. Yct>the
t Japanese were not entirety unacquainted with
"urnalbm. During the last decade* ot the factory at
eshima the Dutch traders made it a yearly custom to
submit to the governor of Nagasaki selected extracts
from newspapers arriving from Batavia, and these extracts, having
been translated into Japanese, were forwarded to the court in Yedo
together with their originals. To such compilations the name of
Oramda Jusetsu-sho (Dutch Reports) was given. Immediately after
the conclusion of the first treaty in 1857, tjie Yedo authorities
instructed the office for studying foreign books (Bunsho torishirabe-
iokoro) to translate excerpts from European and American journals.
Occasionally these translations were copied for circulation among
officials, out the bulk of the people knew nothing of them. Thusthe
first real newspaper did not see the light until 1861, when a Yedo
publisher brought out the Batavia News, a compilation of items
from foreign newspapers, printed on Japanese paper from wooden
blocks. Entirely devoid of local interest, this journal did not
survive for more than a few months. It was followed, in 1864, by
the Shimbun-shi (News), which was published in Yokohama, with
K'nmida Ginkd for editor and John Hiko for sub-editor. The latter
had been cast away, many years previously, on the coast of the
United States and had become a naturalized American citizen. He
retained a knowledge of spoken Japanese, but the ideographic script
was a sealed book to him, and hb editorial part was limited to oral
translations from American journals which the editor committed
to writing. The Skimbun-shi essayed to collect domestic news as
well as foreign. It was published twice a month and might possibly
have created a demand fox its wares had not the editor and sub-
editor left for America after the issue of the 10th number. The
example, however, had now been set. During the three years that
separated the death of the Skimtnin-ski from the birth of the Meiji
era (October 1867) no less than ten quasi-journal* made their
appearance. They were in fact nothing better than inferior maga-
zines, printed from wood-blocks, issued Weekly or monthly, and
giving little evidence of enterprise or intellect, though ton nee ted
with them were the names of men destined to become famous in the
world of literature, as Fukuchi Genichiro. TsQji Shiaji (afterwards
Baron TsOji) and Suzuki YuichL These publications attracted little
interest and exercised no influence. Journalism was regarded as a
mere pastime. The first evidence of its potentialities was furnbhed
by the Koko Shimbun (The World) under the editorship of Fukuchi
Genichiro and Sasano Dempei. To many Japanese observers it
seemed that the restoration of 1867 had merely transferred the ad-
ministrative authority from the Tokugawa Shogun to the clans of
Satsuma and CnoshO. The Kdho Shimbun severely attacked the
two clans as specious usurpers. It was not in the mood of Japanese
171
officialdom at that time to brook such assaults. The Kdho Shimbum
was suppressed; Fukuchi was thrust into prison, and all journals
or periodicals except those having official sanction were vetoed,
A - L L • • r — ■
V
f
I
F
h
tl
door to official preferment, nearly all editorial pens were directed
against the government. So strenuous did thb campaign become
that, in 1875. a press law was enacted empowering the minister of
home affairs and the police to suspend or suppress a journal and to
fine or imprison its editor without public trial. Many suffered under
this taw, but the ultimate effect was to invest the press with new
popularity, and very soon the newspapers conceived a device which
effectually protected their literary staff, for they employed " dummy
editors " whose sole function was to go to prison in lieu of the true
editor.
Japanese journalistic writing in these early years of Meiji was
marred by extreme and pedantic classicism. There had not yet
been any real escape from the tradition which assigned the crown
of scholarship to whatever author drew most largely upon the
resources of the Chinese language and learning. The example set
by the Imperial court, and still set by it, did not tend to correct
this style. The sovereign, whether speaking by rescript or by
ordinance, never addressed the bulk of his subjects. Hb words
were taken from sources so classical as to be intelligible to only the
highly educated minority. The newspapers sacrificed theiraudience
to their erudition and preferred classicbm to circulation. Their
columns were thus a sealed book to the whole of the lower middle
classes and to the entire female population. The Yomiuri Shimbun
(Buy and Read News) was the first to break away from this perni-
cious fashion. Established in 1875, it adopted a style midway
between the classical and the colloquial, and it appended the
syllabic characters to each ideograph, so that its columns became
intelligible to every reader of ordinary education. It was followed
by the Yeiri Shimbun (Pictorial Newspaper), the first to insert illus-
trations and to publbh feuiUeton romances. Both of these jour nab
devoted space to social news, a radical departure from the austere
restrictions observed by their aristocratic contemporaries.
The year 1881 saw the nation divided into political parties and
within measured distance of copstitutfonal government. Thence-
forth the great majority of the newspapers and perio-
dicals ranged themselves under the nag of this or that fir**/
party. An era of embittered polemics ensued. The Poiftfcaf
journals, while fighting continuously against each Partis*,
other's principles, agreed in attacking the ministry,
and the latter found it necessary to establish organs of its own which
preached the German system 01 state.autocracy. Editors seemed to
be incapable of rising above the dead level of political strife, and
their utterances were not relieved even by a semblance of fairness.
Readers turned away in disgust, and journal after journal passed
out of existence. The situation was saved by a newspaper which
from the outset of its career obeyed the best canons of journalism.
Born in 1882, the Jiji Shxnp& (Times) enjoyed the immense advan-
tage of having its policy controlled by one of the greatest thinkers
of modern Japan, Fukuzawa Yukichi. Its basic principle was
liberty of the individual, liberty of the family and liberty of the
nation; it was always found on the side of broad-minded justice, and
it derived its materiab from economic, social and scientific sources.
Other newspapers of greatly improved character followed the Jiji
Shimpd, especially notable among them being the Kokumin Shimbun.
In the meanwhile Osaka, always pioneer in matters of commercial
enterprise, had set the example of applying the force of capital to
journalbtic development. Tdkyd journals were all
on a literary or political basis, but the Osaka Asahi 1
Shimbun (Osaka Rising Sun News) was purely a «
business undertaking. Its proprietor, Maruvama
Ryuhei, spared no expense to obtain news from all quarters of the
JAPAN
t-jt
world, and for the first time the Japanese public learned what stores
01 information may be found in the column* of a really enterprising
journal. Very soon the Asaht had a keen competitor in the Osaka,
Afotnichi Sktmbun (Osaka Daily News) and these papers ultimately
crushed all rivals in Osaka. In i88& Maruvama established another
Asahi in Tokyo, and thither he was quickly followed by his Osaka
rival, which in Tdky6 took the name of Maintchi Dempd (Daily
Telegraph). These two newspapers "now stand alone as purveyors
of copious telegraphic news, and in the next rank, not greatly lower,
cornea the Jijt Shtmpd.
With the opening of the diet in 1890, politics again obtruded
themselves into newspaper columns, but as practical living issues
flow occupied attention, readers were no longer wearied by the
abstract homilies of former days. Moreover, freedom of the press
was at length secured. Already (1887) the government had volun-
tarily made a great step in advance by divesting itself of the right
to imprison or fine editors by executive order. But it reserved the
power of suppressing or suspending a newspaper, and against that
reservation a majority of the lower house voted, session after session,
only to ace the bill rejected by the peers, who shared the govern-
ment s opinion that to grant a larger measure of liberty would
certainly encourage licence. Not until 1807 was this opposition
fully overcome. A new law, passed by both houses and confirmed
bythe emperor, took from the executive all power over journals,
except in cases of lese majeste. and nothing now remains of the
former arbitrary system except that any periodical having a political
complexion is required to deposit security varying from 175 to 1000
3**\The result Has falsified all sinister forebodings. A much more
moderate tone pervades the writings of the press since restrictions
mt j^ en . tire, y removed, and although there are now 1775 journals
find periodicals published throughout the empire, with a total annual
Circulation of some 700 million copies, intemperance of language,
such as in former times would have provoked official interference, is
practically unknown to-day. Moreover, the best Japanese editors have
caught with remarkable aptitude the spirit of modern journalism.
But a few years ago they used to compile laborious essays, in which
the inspiration was drawn from Occidental text-books, and the alien
character of the source was hidden under a v e n eer of Chinese
apnorums. To-day they write terse, succinct, closely-reasoned
articles, seldom diffuse, often witty; and generally free from extra-
••pnee of thought or diction. Incidentally they are hastening
the assimilation of the written and the spoken languages (genbun
5 iL u ^ "^X possibly prelude a still greater reform, abolition
•J the Ideographic script. Yet, with few exceptions, the profession
adjournal Um u not remunerative. Very low rates of subscription.
and almost prohibitory charges for advertising, are chiefly to blame. 4
TV* vicissitudes of the enterprise may be gathered from the fact
•>*«» whereas 2767 journals and periodicals were started between
> *N>»» >d 1804 (inclusive), no less than 2465 ceased publishing. The
HffW** circulation recorded in 1908 was about 150,000 copies daily,
**4 the honour of attaining that exceptional figure belonged to the
«**** At+ki Skimbun, (F. By.)
IV.— Japanese A*t
tomtint, and Engraving.— In Japanese art the impressionist
atttwMM it predominant. Pictures, as the term is understood in
^^^ Europe, can scarcely be said to have existed at
JJ^* any time in Japan. The artist did not depict
emotion: he depicted the subjects that produce
j<*ww*s Therefore he took his motives from nature rather
•■■•» $v<*i history; or, if he borrowed from the latter, what
* **tavted was a scene, not the pains or the passions of its
««M0sw Moreover, he never exhausted his subject, but was
***** Anfal to leave a wide margin for the imagination of the
y*v v\» This latter consideration sometimes impelled him to
m„-*v*< UsJags which, to European eyes, seem trivial or insig-
^^ W which really convey hints of deep significance. In
«*•* NliiittH pictures are like Japanese poetry: they do not
^ *•<* ***<«* but only awaken it. Often their methods show
?L^— -MaV*. but it is conventionalism so perfect and free
^ v _u>anati that nature seems to suggest both the motive
*„ k ;i**ts*at. Thus though neither botankally nor orni-
\.x^»^y comet, their flowers and their birds show a truth
" - ».** 4t>i * &abit of minute observation in the artist, which
"* * two a»*ch admired. Every blade of grass, each leaf
"* fc w " t tw* been the object of loving and patient study.
»». x** rashly assumed by some writers that the Japanese
,.mJ ttom nature. All their work is an emphatic pro-
" "Li to* supposition. It can in fact be shown con-
*- *^jau is* Japanese have derived all their fundamental
■4 rate of subscription to a daily journal is twelve
uwunn, and the usual charge (or advertisement is
* *, mnXu*i P* r line of aa ' ' * ' u ut nine words).
[ART
ideas of symmetry, so different from ours, from a close study of
nature and her processes in the attainment of endless variety.
A special feature of their art is that, while often closely and
minutely imitating natural objects, such as birds, flowers and
fishes, the especial objects of their predilection and study, they
frequently combine the facts of external nature with a conven-
tional mode of treatment better suited to their purpose. During
the long apprenticeship that educated Japanese serve to acquire
the power of writing with the brush the complicated charac-
ters borrowed from Chinese, they unconsciously cultivate the
habit of minute observation and the power of accurate
imitation, and with these the delicacy of touch and freedom of
hand which only long practice can give. A hair's-breadth devia-
tion in a line is fatal to good calligraphy, both among the Chinese
and the Japanese. When they come to use the pencil in drawing,
they already possess accuracy of eye and free command of the
brush. Whether a Japanese art-worker sets himself to copy
what he sees before him or to give play to his fancy in combining
what he has seen with some ideal in his mind, the result shows
perfect facility of execution and easy grace in all the lines.
The beauties of the human form never appealed to the Jap-
anese artist. Associating the nude solely with the performance
of menial tasks, he deemed it worse than a solecism to transfer
such subjects to his canvas, and thus a wide field of motive was
closed to him. On the other Rand, the draped figure received
admirable treatment from his brush, and the naturalistic school
of the 17th, 1 8th and 19th centuries reached a high level of skul
in depicting men, women and children in motion. Nor has there
ever been a Japanese Landseer. Sosen's monkeys and badgers
constitute the one possible exception, but the horses, oxen, deer,
tigers, dogs, bears, foxes and even cats of the best Japanese
artists were ill drawn and badly modelled. In the field of land-
scape the Japanese painter fully reached the eminence on which
his great Chinese masters stood. He did not obey the laws of
linear perspective as they are formulated in the Occident, nor
did .he show cast shadows/ but bis aerial perspective and his
foreshortening left nothing to be desired. It has been suggested
that he deliberately eschewed chiaroscuro because his pictures,
destined invariably to hang in an alcove, were required to be
equally effective from every aspect and had also to form part of
a decorative scheme. But the more credible explanation b that
he merely followed Chinese example in this matter, as he did also
in linear perspective, accepting without question the curious
canon that lines converge as they approach the spectator.
It is in the realm of decorative art that the world has chiefly
benefited by contact with Japan. Her influence is second only
to that of Greece. Most Japanese decorative designs
consist of natural objects, treated sometimes in a more ^^
or less conventional manner, but always distinguished
by delicacy of touch, graceful freedom of conception and delight-
fully harmonised tints. Perhaps the admiration which the
Japanese artist has won in this field is due not more to his weahh
of fancy and skilful adaptation of natural forms, than to fab
individuality of character in treating his subjects. There is
complete absence of uniformity and monotony. Repetition
without any variation is abhorrent to every Japanes e . He will
not tolerate the stagnation and tedium of a dull uniformity by
mechanical reproduction. His temperament will not let him
endure the labour of always producing the same pattern. Hence
the repetition of two articles exactly like each other, and,
generally, the division of any space into equal parts are
instinctively avoided, as nature avoids the production of any
two plants, or even any two leaves of the same tree, whkh in
all points shall be exactly alike.
The application of this principle in the same free spirit is the
secret of much of the originality and the excellence of the decora-
tive art of Japan, Her artists and artisans alike aim at symmetry,
not by an equal division of parts, as we do, but rather by a cer-
tain balance of corresponding parts, each different from the
other, and not numerically even, with an effect of variety and
freedom from formality. They seek it, in fact, as nature attains
the same end.^11 we take for instance the skins of animals th*4
ART)
JAPAN
arc striped or spotted, we have the best possible illustration of
nature's methods in this direction. Examining the tiger or the
leopard, in all the beauty of their symmetrical adornment, we do
not sec in any one example an exact repetition of the same
st ripes or spots on each side of the mesial line. They seem to be
alike, and yet are all different. The line of division along the
spine, it will be observed, is not perfectly continuous or defined,
but in part suggested; and each radiating stripe on either side
is full of variety in size, direction, and to some extent m colour
and depth of shade. Thus nature works, and so, following in
ber footsteps, works the Japanese artist. The same law pre-
vailing in all nature's creation, in the plumage of birds, the paint-
ing of butterflies' wings, the marking of shells, and in all the
infinite variety and beauty of the floral kingdom, the lesson is
constantly renewed to the observant eye. Among flowers the
orchids, with all their fantastic extravagance and mimic imita-
tions of birds and insects, are especially prolific in examples of
symmetrical effects without any repetition of similar parts or
divisions into even numbers.
The orchids may be taken as offering fair types of the Japanese
artist's ideal in all art work. And thus, close student of nature's
processes, methods, and effects as the Japanese art workman is,
he ever seeks to produce humble replicas from his 'only art
master. Thus he proceeds in all his decorative work, avoiding
studiously the exact repetition of any lines and spaces, and all
diametrical divisions, or, if these be forced upon him by the shape
of the object, exercising the utmost ingenuity to disguise the
fact, and train away the eye from observing the weak point,
as nature does in like circumstances. Thus if a lacquer box in
the form of a parallelogram is the object, Japanese artists will not
divide it in two equal parts by a perpendicular line, but by a
diagonal, as offering a more pleasing line and division. If the
box be round, they will seek to lead the eye away from the naked
regularity of the circle by a pattern distracting attention, as,
for example, by a zigzag breaking the circular outline, and sup-
ported by other ornaments. A similar feeling is shown by them
as coJourists, and, though sometimes eccentric and daring in
their contrasts, they never produce discords in their chromatic
scale. They have undoubtedly a fine sense of colour, and a
similarly delicate and subtle feeling for harmonious blending of
brilliant and sober hues. As a rule they prefer a quiet and
refined style, using full bat low-toned colours. They know the
value of bright colours, however, and how best to utilize them,
both supporting and contrasting them with their secondaries and
complementaries.
The development of Japanese painting may be divided into
the following six periods, each signalized by a wave of progress.
' ; 0) From the middle of the 6th to the middle of the
f^f?** 9th century: the naturalization of Chinese and Chino-
rvrW Buddhist art. (2) From the middle of the gth to the
middle of the 15th century: the establishment of great
native schools under Kos6 no Kanaoka and his descendants and
followers, the pure Chinese school gradually falling into neglect.
(3) From the middle of the 15th to the latter part of the 17th
century: the revival of the Chinese style. (4) From the latter
part of the 17th to the latter part of the 18th century: the estab-
lishment of a popular school. (5) From the latter part of the
1 8th to the latter part of the 19th century: the foundation of a
naturalistic school, and the first introduction of European influ-
ence into Japanese painting; the acme and decline of the popular
school. (6) From about 1875 to the present time: a period of
transition.
Tradition refers to the advent of a Chinese artist named
Nanriu, invited to Japan in the 5th century as a painter of the
__ Imperial banners, but of the labours and influence of
JjJJdL this man and of his descendants we have no record.
The real beginnings of the study of painting and sculp-
ture in their higher branches must be dated from the introduction
of Buddhism from China in the middle of the 6th century, and
for three centuries after this event there is evidence that the
practice of the arts was carried on mainly by or under the
instruction of Korean and Chinese immigrants.
*7S
The paintings of which we have any mention were almost limited
to representations of Buddhist masters of the Tang dynast v (618-
005), notably Wo Tao-zu (8th century), of whose genius romantic
stories are related. The oldest existing work of this period is a
mural decoration in the hall of the temple of HoryQ-ji, Nara,
attributed to a Korean priest named Doncho, who lived in Japan
in the 6th century; and this painting, in spite of the destructive
effects of time and exposure, shows traces of the same power of line,
colour and composition that stamps the best of the later examples
of Buddhist art.
The native artist who crested the first great wave of
Japanese painting was a court noble named Kosc no Kanaoka,
Living under the patronage of the emperor Seiwa
(850-859) and his successors down to about the end of
the 9th century, in the midst of a period of peace and
culture. Of his own work few, if any, examples have reached us;
and those attributed with more or less probability to his hand are
all representations of Buddhist divinities, showing a somewhat
formal and conventional design, with a masterly calligraphic
touch and perfect harmony of colouring. Tradition credits him
with an especial genius for the delineation of animals and land-
scape, and commemorates his skill by a curious anecdote of a
painted horse which left its frame to ravage the fields, and was
reduced to pictorial stability only by the sacrifice of its eyes. He
left a line of descendants extending far into the 15th century, all
famous for Buddhist pictures, and some engaged in establishing
a native style, the Wo-guto-ryH.
At the end of the 9th century there were two exotic styles of
painting, Chinese and Buddhist, and the beginning of a native
style founded upon these. All three were practised by the same
artists, and it was not until a later period that each became the
badge of a school.
The Chinese style (Karm+yU), the fundamental essence of all
Japanese art* has a fairly distinct history, dating back to the
introduction of Buddhism into China (a. d. 62), and it > ~,
is said to have been chiefly from the works of Wu jp 22f**
Tao-zu, the master of the 8th century, that Kanaoka % str *'
drew his inspiration. This early Chinese manner, which lasted
in the parent country down to the end of the 13th century, was
characterized by a virile grace of line, a grave dignity of composi-
tion, striking simplicity of technique, and a strong but incomplete
naturalistic ideal. The colouring, harmonious but subdued in
tone, held a place altogether secondary to that of the outline,
and was frequently omitted altogether, even in the most famous
works. Shadows and reflections were ignored, and perspective,
approximately correct for landscape distances, was isometneal for
near objects, while the introduction of a symbolic sun or moon
lent the sole distinction between a day and a night scene. The art
was one of imperfect evolution, but for thirteen centarios it was the
only living pictorial art in the world, and the Chinese deserve the
honour of having created landscape painting. The materials used
were water-colours, brushes, usually of deer-hair, and a surface of
unsized paper, translucid silk or wooden panel. The chief motives
were landscapes of a peculiarly wild and romantic type, animal life,
trees and flowers, and figure compositions drawn from Chinese and
Buddhist history and laoist legend ; and these, together with the
grand aims and strange shortcomings of its principles and the
limited range of its methods, were adopted almost without change
by Japan. It was a noble art, but unfortunately the rivalry of the
Buddhist and later native styles permitted it to fall into comparative
neglect, and it was left for a few of the faithful, the most famous of
whom was a priest of the 14th century named Kawo, to preserve it
from inanition till the great Chinese renaissance that lent its stamp
to the next period. The reputed founder of Japanese caricature may
also be added to the list. He was a priest named Kakuyu, but
better known as the abbot of Toba, who lived in the 12th century.
An accomplished artist in the Chinese manner, he amused himself and
his friends by burlesque sketches, marked by a grace and humour
that his imitators never equalled. Later, the, motive of the Toba
~ u caricatures were called, tended to. degenerate, and
es of KakuyO. were replaced by scrawls that often
rency and ugliness for art and wit. Some of the
e Yamato school were, however, admirable in their
burlesque, and in modern times Ky5sai, the last of
K>1, outdid all his predecessors in the riotous origin-
i and comic fancies. A new phase of the art now
s of the newspaper press.
style was probably even more ancient than the
scheme of colouring distinctive of the Buddhist
ost certainly of Indian origin; brilliant rtntMutt
and heightened by a lavish use of tZZl?^
ntial to the effect of a picture destined ^*
t of the Buddhist temple. The style was applied
escntations of sacred personages and scenes, and
*7+
as the traditional forms and attributes, of the Brahmanic and
Buddhist divinities were mutable only within narrow limits,
the subjects seldom afforded scope for originality of design or
observation of nature. The principal Buddhist painters down to
the 14th century were members of the Kos6, Takuma and Kasuga
lines, the first descended from Kanaoka, the second from Takuma
Tameuji (ending 10th century), and the third from Fujiwara no
Motomitsu (nth century). The last and greatest master of the
school was a priest named Meicho. better known as Cho Deosu, the
Japanese Fra Angclico. It is to him that Japan owes the possession
of some of the most stately and most original works in her art,
sublime in conception, line and colour, and deeply instinct with the
religious spirit. He died in 1427, at the age of seventy-six, in the
seclusion of the temple where he had passed the whole of his days.
The native style, Yamatoor Wa-gtoa-ryA, was an adaptation of
Chinese art canons to motives drawn from the court life, poetry
NmHv anc * stor * es of old Japan. It was undoubtedly prac-
Styi$. tised by the Kose line, and perhaps by their prede-
cessors, but it did not take shape as a school until the
beginning 0/ the nth century under Fujiwara no Motomitsu,
who was a pupil of Kose no Kinmochi; it then became known
as Yamato-ryu. a title which two centuries later was changed to
that of Tosa, on the occasion of one of its masters, Fujiwara no
Tsunetaka, assuming that appellation as a family name. The
Yamato-Tosa artists painted in ail styles, but that which was the
speciality of the school, to be found in nearly all the historical rolls
bequeathed to us by their leaders, was a lightly-touched outline
filled in with flat and bright body-colours, in which verdigris-green
played a great part. The originality of the motive did not prevent
the adoption of all the Chinese conventions, and of some new ones
of the artist's own. The curious expedient of spiriting away the
roof of any building of which the artist wished to show the interior
was one of the most remarkable of these. Amongst the foremost
names of the school are those of Montoraitsu (nth century). No*
butane (13th century), Tsunetaka (13th century), Mitsunobu (15th
and 1 6th centuries), his son Mitsushige. and Mitsuoki (17th century).
The struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans for the power
that had long been practically abandoned by the Imperial line
lasted through the nth and the greater part of the 12th centuries,
ending only with the rise of Yoritomo to the shdgunate in 1165.
These internecine disturbances had been unfavourable to any new
departure in art, except in matters appertaining to arms and armour,
and the strife between two puppet emperors for a shadow of authority
In the 14th century brought another distracting element. It was
not until the triumph of the northern dynasty was achieved through
the prowess of an interested champion of the Ashikaga clan that the
culture of ancient Japan revived. The palace of the Ashikaga
shdguns then replaced the Imperial court as the centre of patronage
of art and literature and established a new era in art history.
Towards the close of the Ashikaga shdgunate painting entered
on a new phase. Talented representatives of the Kose, Takuma
and Tosa .lines maintained the reputation of the
native and Buddhist schools, and the long-neglected
Chinese school was destined to undergo a vigorous
revival. The initiation of the new movement is attributed to a
priest named Jdsctsu, who lived in the early part of the 15th
century, and of whom little else is known. It is not even certain
whether he was of Chinese or Japanese birth; he is, however,
believed by some authorities to have been the teacher of three
great artists — Shubun, SesshQ and Kano Masanobu — who be-
came the leaders of three schools: SbQbun, that of the pure
Chinese art of the Sung and Yuan dynasties (10th and 13th
centuries); SesshQ, that of a modified school bearing his name;
and Masanobu, of the great Kano school, which has reached to
the present day. The qualities of the new Chinese schools
were essentially those of the older dynasties: breadth, sim-
plicity, a daringly calligraphic play of brush that strongly
recalled the accomplishments of the famous scribes, and a
colouring that varied between sparing washes of flat local tints
and a strength and brilliancy of decorative effort that rivalled
even that of the Buddhist pictures. The motives remained
almost identical with those of the Chinese masters, and so
imbued with the foreign spirit were many of the Japanese
disciples that it is said they found it difficult to avoid
introducing Chinese accessories even into pictures of native
scenery.
SesshQ {1421-1507) was a priest who visited China and studied
painting there for several years, at length returning in 1460, dis-
appointed with the living Chinese artists, and resolved to strike out
a style of his own, based upon that of the old masters. He was the
boldest and most original of Japanese landscape artists, leaving
powerful and poetic records of the scenery of his own land as well
JAPAN
fftW
WRT
as that of China, and trusting more to the sure and sweeping stroke
of the brush than to colour. ShQbun was an artist of little less
power, but he followed more closely his exemplars, the Chinese
musters of the 12th and 13th centuries; while Kano MasaoobQ
( 1 424-1520), trained in the love of Chinese art, departed little from
the canons he had learned from Jdsctsu or Oguri Solan. It was left
to his more famous son, Motonobu, to establish the school which
bears the family name. Kano Motonobu 0477-»559) was ooe
of the greatest Japanese painters, an eclectic of genius, who excelled
in every style and every branch of his art. His variety was in-
exhaustible, and he remains to this day a model whom the most
distinguished artists are proud to imitate. The names of the cele-
brated members of this long line are too many to quote here, but the
most accomplished of his descendants was Tanya, who died in 1674;
at the age of seventy-three. The close of this long period brought
a new style of art, that of the Kdrio school. Ogata Kfirin (1653-
1716) is claimed by both the Tosa and Kano schools, but his work
bears more resemblance to that of an erratic offshoot of the Kano
line named SOtauu than to the typical work of the academies. He
was an artist of eccentric originality, who achieved wonders in bold
decorative effects in spite of a studied contempt for detail. As a
larqucr painter he left a strong mark upon the work of his con-
temporaries and successors. His brother and pupil. Kenxan,
adopted his style, and left a reputation as a decorator of pottery
hardly less brilliant than Kdrin's in that of lacquer; and a later
follower, Hditsu (1762-1828), greatly excelled the master in delicacy
and refinement, although inferior to him in vigour and invention.
Down to the end of this era painting was entirely in the hands of a
patrician caste— courtiers, priests, feudal nobles and their military
retainers, all men of high education and gentle birth, living in a
polished circle. It was practised more as a phase of aesthetic
culture than with any utilitarian views. It was a labour of loving
service, untouched by the spirit of material gain, conferring upon
the work of the older masters a dignity and poetic feeling which we
vainly seek in much of the later work. Unhappily, but almost inevit*
ably, over-culture led to a gradual falling-off from the old virility.
The strength of Mcich6, SesshQ, Motonobu and TanyO $ave place
to a more or less slavish imitation of the old Japanese painters and
their Chinese exemplars, till the heirs to the splendid traditions of
the great masters preserved little more than their conventions and
shortcomings. It was time for a new departure, but there seemed
to be no sufficient strength left within the charmed circle of the
orthodox schools, and the new movement was fated to come from
the masses, whose voice had hitherto been silent in the art world.
A new era fn art began in the latter half of the 17th century
with the establishment of a popular school under an embroiderer 1 !
draughtsman named Hishigawa Moronobu (c. 1646-
17 13). Perhaps no great change is ever entirely a
novelty. The old painters of the Yamato-Tosa lino
had frequently shown something of the daily life
around them, and one of the later scions of the school, named
Iwasa Matahei, had even made a speciality of this class of
motive; but so little is known of Matahei and his work that
even his period is a matter of dispute, and the few pictures
attributed to his pencil are open to question on grounds of
authenticity. He probably worked some two generations before
the time of Moronobu, but there is no reason to believe that his
labours bad any material share in determining the creation and
trend of the new school.
Moronobu was a consummate artist,* with all the delicacy and
calligraphic force of the best of the Tosa masters, whom he un-
doubtedly strove to emulate in style; and his pictures are not only
the most beautiful but also the most trustworthy records of the hit
of his time. It was not to his paintings, however, that he owed his
greatest influence, but to the powerful impulse be gave to the
illustration of books and broadsides by wood-engravings. It is
true that illustrated books were known as early as 1608, if sot before,
but they were few and unattractive, and did little to inaugurate
the great stream of ehon, or picture books, that were to take so large
a share in the education of his own class. It is to Moronobu that
Japan owes the popularization of artistic wood-engravings, far
nothing before his series of xylograph ic albums approached his best
work in strength and beauty, and nothing since has surpassed it.
Later there came abundant aid to the cause of popular art, partly
from pupils of the Kano and Tosa schools, but mainly from the
artisan class. Most of these artists 1 were designers for books and
broadsides by calling, painters only on occasion, but a few of them
did nothing for the engravers. Throughout the whole of tms
period, embracing about a hundred years, there still continued to
work, altogether apart from the men who were making the success
of popular art, a large number of able painters of the Kano, Tosa
and Chinese schools, who multiplied pictures that had every merit
except that of originality. These men living in the past, paid tittle
attention to the great popular movement, which seemed to be quite
outside their social and artistic sphere and scarcely worthy of
ART]
JAPAN
cultured criticism. It was in the middle of the 18th century that
the decorative, but relatively feeble, Chinese art of the later Ming
period found favour in Japan and a clever exponent in a painter
named RyOrilcvO It must be regarded as a sad decadence from the
old Chinese ideals, which was further hastened, from about 1765,
1 was a weak
.-_ _ ... . .1 about 1765,
by the popularity of the southern Chinese style. This
Affectation that found its chief votaries amongst literary men
ambitious of an easily earned artistic reputation. The principal
Japanese supporter of this school was Taigadd (1722-1775), but the
volume of copies of his sketches, Taitadd sansni juseki, published
about 1870. is one of the least attractive albums ever printed in
Japan.
The fifth period was introduced by a movement as momentous
as that which stamped its predecessor — the foundation of a
naturalistic school under a group of men outside the
orthodox academical circles. The naturalistic principle
was by no means a new one; some of the old Chinese
masters were naturalistic in a broad and noble manner,
and their Japanese followers could be admirably and
minutely accurate when they pleased; but too many of the
latter were content to construct their pictures out of fragmentary
reminiscences of ancient Chinese masterpieces, not presuming to
see a rock, a tree, an ox, or a human figure, except through
Chinese spectacles. It was a farmer's son named Okyo, trained
in bis youth to paint in the Chinese manner, who was first bold
enough to adopt as a canon what his predecessors had only
admitted under rare exceptions, the principle of an exact
imitation of nature. Unfortunately, even he had not all the
courage of his creed, and while he would paint a bird or a fish
with perfect realism, he no more dared to trust his eyes in
larger motives than did the most devout follower of Shubun or
Motonobu. He was essentially a painter of the classical schools,
with the speciality of elaborate reproduction of detail in certain
sections of animal life, but fortunately this partial concession
to truth, emphasized as it was by a rare sense of beauty, did
large service.
Okyd rose into notice about 1775. and a number of pupils flocked
to his studio in ShijG Street, Kioto (whence Shijd school). Amongst
these the most famous were Goshun (1742-181 1). who is sometimes
regarded as one of the founders of the school; Soscn (1757-1821), an
immal painter of remarkable power, but especially celebrated for
pictures of monkey life; Shuho, the younger brother of the last, also
an animal painter; Rosetsu (i755~ , 799). the best landscape painter
of his school; Ketbun. a younger brother of Goshun, and some later
followers of scarcely less fame, notably Hoyen. a pupil of Ketbun;
Tessa n, an adopted son of Sosen; Ippo and Y6sai (1788-1878), well
known for a remarkable set of volumes, the Zenktn kojitsu, con-
taining a long series of portraits of ancient Japanese celebrities.
Osrai and Ojyu, the sons of Oky6, painted in the style of their
father, but tailed to attain great eminence. Lastly, amongst the
associates of the Shiio master was the celebrated Ganku (1798-
1837). who developea a special style of his own, and is sometimes
regarded as the founder of a distinct school. He was; however,
greatly influenced by Okyo's example, and his sons, Gantai, Ganryo,
sod Gantoku or Rcnsan, drifted into a manner almost indistin-
guishable from that of the Shijd school..
It remains only, to allude to the European school, if school it
can be called, founded by Kokan and Denkichi, two contem-
poraries of Okyo. These artists, at first educated in
one of the native schools, obtained from a Hollander
in Nagasaki some training in the methods and prin-
ciples of European painting, and left a few oil paintings in which
the laws of light and shade and perspective were correctly
observed. They were not, however, of sufficient capacity to
render the adopted manner more than a subject of curiosity,
except to a few followers who have reached down to the present
generation. It is possible that the essays in perspective found
in the pictures of Hokusai, Hiroshige, and some of the popular
artists of the 19th century, were suggested by Kokan 's drawings
and writings.
The sixth period began about 187s, when an Italian artist was
engaged by the government as a professor of painting in the
Engineering College at Tokyo. Since that time some
jKpal distinguished European artists have visited Japan,
and several Japanese students have made a pilgrim-
age to Europe to see for themselves what lessons may be
gained from Western art. These students, confronted by a
175
strong reaction in favour of pure Japanese art, have fought man-
fully to win public sympathy, and though their success is not yet
crowned, h is not impossible that an Occidental school may ulti-
mately be established. Thus far the great obstacle has been
that pictures painted in accordance with Western canons are
not suited to Japanese interiors and do not appeal to the taste
of the most renowned Japanese connoisseurs. Somewhat more
successful has been an attempt — inaugurated by Hashimoto
Gaho and Kawabata Gyokusho — to combine the art of the West
with that of Japan by adding to the latter the chiaroscuro and
the linear perspective of the former. If the disciples of this
school could shake off the Sesshu tradition of strong outlines and
adopt the Kano Motonobu revelation of modelling by mass
only, their work would stand on a high place. But they, too,
receive little encouragement. The tendency of the time is
conservative in art matters.
A series of magnificent publications has popularized art and its
best products in a manner such as could never have been anticipated.
The Kokka, a monthly magazine richly and beautifully illustrated
and edited by Japanese students, has reached its 223rd number;
the Shimbi Daikan, a colossal album containing chromoxylographic
facsimiles of celebrated examples in every branch of art, has been
completed in 20 volumes; the masterpieces of Kdrin and Motonobu
have been reproduced in similar albums; the -masterpieces of the
Ukiyo-€ are in process of publication, and it seems certain that the
Japanese nation will ultimately be educated to such a knowledge
of its own art as will make for permanent appreciation. Meanwhile
the intrepid group of painters tn oil plod along unflinchingly, having
formed themselves into an association (the hakkba-kai) which gives
periodical exhibitions, and there are, in TdkyO apd Kidto, well-
organized and flourishing art schools which receive a substantial
measure of state aid, as well as a private academy founded by
Okakura with a band of seccders from the hybrid fashions of the
Gah6 system. Altogether the nation seems to be growing more
and more convinced that its art future should not wander far from
the lines of the past. (W. An.; F. By.)
Although a little engraving on copper has been practised in
Japan of late years, it is of no artistic value, and the only
branch of the art which calls for recognition is the ^. /JW ^-
cutting of wood-blocks for use either with colours or
without. This, however, is of supreme importance, and as its
technique differs in most respects from the European practice,
it demands a somewhat detailed description.
The wood used is generally that of the cherry-tree, sakura, which
has a grain of peculiar evenness and hardness. It is worked plank-
wise to a surface parallel with the grain, and not across it. A desiga
is drawn by the artist, to whom the whole credit of the production
f;enerally belongs, with a brush on thin paper, which is then pasted
ace downwards 00 the block. The engraver, who is very rarely
the designer, then cuts the outlines into the block with a knife,
afterwards removing the superfluous wood with gouges and chisels.
Great skill is shown in this operation, which achieves perhaps the
finest facsimile reproduction of drawings ever known without the
aid of photographic processes. A peculiar but highly artistic
device is that of gradually rounding off the surfaces where necessary,
in order to obtain in printing a soft and graduated mass of colour
which does not terminate too abruptly. In printing with colours
a separate block is made in this manner for each tint, the first con-
taining as a rule the mere lines of the composition, and the others
providing for the masses of tint to be applied. In all printing
the paper is bid on the upper surface of the block, and the impres-
sion rubbed off with a circular pad, composed of twisted cord within
a covering of paper cloth and bamboo-leaf, and called the baren. In
cokmr-pnnting, the colours, which are much the same as those in
use in Europe, are mixed, with rice-paste as a medium, on the block
for each operation, and the power of regulating the result given by
this custom to an intelligent craftsman (who, again, is neither the
artist nor the engraver) was productive in the best period of very
beautiful and artistic effects, such as could never have been obtained
by any mechanical device. A wonderfully accurate register, or
successive superposition of each block, is got mainly by the skill of
the printer, who is assisted only by a mark defining one corner and
another mark showing the opposite side limit.
The origins of this method of colour-printing are obscure. It
has been practised to some extent in China and Korea, but there
is no evidence of its antiquity in these countries. It appears
to be one of the few indigenous arts of Japan. But before
accepting this conclusion as final, one must not lose sight of the
fact that the so-called chiaroscuro engraving was at the height
of its use in Italy at the same time that embassies from the
Christians in Japan visited Rome, and that it is thus possible
176
JAPAN
(ART
JAPAN Plate i.
PAINTING
(These illustrations are reproduced by permission of the Kohha Company, Tokyo, Japan.)
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Plate IV. JAPAN
PAINTING
Fig. 9. — Plum Trees and Stream— Screen on Gold Ground. By Korin (1661-1716).
f;~ *~— p eacocks. By Ganku (1 749-1838).
JAPAN Plate V.
SCULPTURE
Fig. ii.— VajraMalla. By Unkei (13th century). Fig. 12.— Statue of Asanga (12th century, artist
unknown).
Fig. 13. — Statues of Buddha Ami'tabha arid Two Bodhisattvas (7th century).
Plate VIII.
JAPAN
POTTERY AND PORCELAIN
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ART)
ancient date ill Japan. Its antiquity is not, indeed, comparable
to that of ancient Egypt or Greece, but no country besides Japan
can boast a living and highly developed art that has
numbered upwards of twelve centuries of unbroken
and brilliant productiveness. Setting aside rude
prehistoric essays in stone and metal, which have special interest
for the antiquary, we have examples of sculpture in wood and
metal, magnificent in conception and technique, dating from
the earliest periods of what we may term historical Japan; that
is, from near the beginning of the great Buddhist propaganda
under the emperor Kimmei (540-571) and the princely hicrarch,
Shotoku Taishi (573-621)- Stone has never been in favour in
Japan as a material for the higher expression of the sculptor's
art.
The first historical period of glyptic art in Japan reaches from
the end of the 6th to the end of the 12th century, culminating
in the work of the great Nara sculptors, Unkci and
Pwrtodm his pupil Kwaikci. Happily, there are still preserved
in the great temples of Japan, chiefly in the ancient
capital of Nara, many noble relics of this period.
he
of
to
ize
at
fa
ior
at
of the 'great bronzes fn Japan, but ranks far below the Yakusfn-ji
image tn artistic qualities. The present head, however, is a later
substitute for the original, which was destroyed by fire.
The great Nara school of sculpture in wood was founded in the
early part of the nth century by a sculptor of Imperial descent
named JochO. who is said to have modelled his style upon that of
the Chinese wood-carvers of the Tang dynasty; his traditions were
maintained by descendants and followers down to the beginning of
the 13th century. All the artists of this period were men of aristo-
cratic rank and origin, and were held distinct from the carpenter-
architects of the imposing temples which were to contain their
works.
Sacred images were net the only specimens of glyptic art pro-
duced in these six centuries; reliquaries, bells, vases, incense-
burners, candlesticks, lanterns, decorated arms and armour, and
many other objects, showing no less mastery of design and execution,
have reached us. Gold ami silver had been applied to the adornment
of helmets and breastplates from the 7th century, but it was in the
1.2th century that the decoration reached the high degree of elabo-
ration shown us in the armour of the Japanese Bayard, YoshitsunS,
which is still preserved at Kasuga, Nara.
Wooden masks employed in the ancient theatrical performances
were made from the 7th century, and offer a distinct and often
grotesque phase of wood-carving. Several families of experts have
Been associated with this class of sculpture, and their designs have
been carefully preserved and imitated down to the present day.
The second period in Japanese glyptic art extends from the
beginning of the 13th to the early part of the 17th century.
The great struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans had
ended, but the militant spirit was still strong, and brought
work for the artists who made and ornamented arms and armour.
XV 4
JAPAN 177
The Miydchins, a line that claimed ancestry from the 7th century,
were at the head of their calling, and their work in iron breast-
plates and helmets, chiefly in rcpoussi, is still un-
rivalled. It was not until the latter half of the 15th
century that there came into vogue the elaborate decor-
ation of the sword, a fashion that was to last four hundred years.
i of iron or precious alloy , wasadorned
wi laid with gold and silver. The fret
en 1 a metallic cap or pommel {kashira),
th >uba was embraced by an oval ring
(/ fixed on each side a special ornament
ca 1 in material and workmanship to
ha e kodsuka, or handle of a little knife
in- he short sword or dagger, was also
of ike care. The founder of the first
gr artists was Gotd Y Qj5 ( 1 440-1 51 2), a
iri ttonobu, whose designs he adopted.
M prang up at a later period, furnishinjg
tn down to the present day, and their
lal hnical mastery apd refined artistic
t'u llcl in the art industries of Europe;
Ji means neglected.during this period,
bi call for special notice. The most
nc \o by Ono Goroyfimon in 1252 of the
wi w . Camakura Daibutsu.
The third period includes the 17th, 18th and the greater part
of the 19th centuries. It was the era of the artisan artist. The
makers of Buddhist images and of sword ornaments
carried on their work with undiminished industry fH^d.
and success, and some famous schools of the latter
arose during this period. The Buddhist sculptors, however,
tended to grow more conventional and the metal-workers more
naturalistic as the 18th century began to wane. It was in con-
nexion with architecture that the great artisan movement began.
The initiator was Hidari Jingoro (1 594-1652), at first a simple
carpenter, afterwards one of the most famous sculptors in the
land of great artists. The gorgeous decoration of the mausoleum
of Iyeyasu at Nikkd, and of the gateway of the Nishi Hongwan
temple at Kioto, are the most striking instances of his handiwork
or direction.
iry avail-
at t»d sculp-
tu even pic-
to arvea in
so overlaid
chapel of
; those of
of paint-
s. From
b carpen-
, and the
>n of the
oronobu,
A little later arose another art industry, also emanating from
the masses. The use of tobacco, which became prevalent in the
17th century, necessitated the pouch. In order to suspend this
from the girdle there was employed a kind of button or toggle—
the netsuke. The metallic bowl and mouthpiece of the pipe
offered a tempting surface for embellishment, as well as the clasp
of the pouch; and the netsuke, being made of wood, ivory or
other material susceptible of carving, also gave occasion for art
and ingenuity.
The engravers of pipes," pouch clasps/ and the metallic discs
(kagami-buta) attached to certain netsuke, sprang from the same
class and were not less original. They worked, too. with a skill little
inferior to that of the Gotds, Naras, and other aristocratic sculptors
of sword ornaments, and often with a refinement which their relative
disadvantages in education and associations render especially remark-
able. The netsuke and the pipe, with all that pertained to it, were
for the commoners what the sword-hilt and guard were for the gentry.
Neither class cared to bestow jewels upon their persons, but neither
spared thought or expense in the embellishment of the object they
most loved. The final manifestation of popular glyptic art was the
okimono, an ornament pure and simple, in which utility was alto-
gether secondary in intention to decorative effect. Its manufacture
as a special branch of art work dates from the rise of the naturalistic
school of painting and the great expansion of the popular school
under the Katsugawa, but the okimono formed an occasional amuse-
ment of the older glyptic artists. Some of the most exquisite and
2a
178
JAPAN
tAKT
moat Ingenious of these earlier productions, such as the magnmeent
iron eagle in the South Kensington Museum, the wonderful articu-
lated models of crayfish, dragons, serpents, birds, that are found in
6uny European collections, came from the studios of the Miyochins:
ut these were the play of giants, and were not made as articles of
commerce. The new artisan makers of the okimono struck out a
line for themselves, one influenced more by the naturalistic and
popular schools than by the classical art, ana the quails of Kamejo,
the tortoises of Scimin. the dragons of Tdun and Tory u, and in recent
years the falcons and the peacocks of Suiuki Chokkhi, are the joy of
the European collector. The best of these are exquisite in workman-
ship, graceful in design, often strikingly original in conception, and
usually naturalistic in ideal. They constitute a phase of art in which
Japan has few rivals.
The present generation is more systematically commercial in
its glyptic produce than any previous age. Millions of commer-
cial articles in metal-work, wood and ivory flood the European
markets, and may be bought in any street in Europe at a small
price, but they offer a variety of design and an excellence of
workmanship which place them almost beyond Western compe-
tition. Above all this, however, the Japanese sculptor is a
force In art. He is nearly as thorough as his forefathers, and
maintains the same love of all things beautiful; and if he cannot
♦how any epoch nuking novelty, he is at any rate doing his best,
to MiptKut utuurpAvicd the decorative traditions of the past.
Hi«toiy hat been eminently careful to preserve the names
*ml tt\w\l* of the men who chiselled sword furniture. The
£»W> »«\ml being regarded as the soul of the samurai,
****** tNviy one who contributed to its manufacture,
*-' ~* u whether a* forger of the blade or sculptor of the
liumtuiv, w,u Mvl in high repute. The Goto family worked
»\> *vUv \l\thiui 14 generations, and its 19th century representa-
tox v»oW\ Ivhito will always be remembered as one of the
\\ " V* »u*U'%l fkperu. But there were many others whose
^»o,Umu«u lullv equalled and often excelled the best efforts
v w\ 1 he v»ot\\ The following list gives the names and periods of
yh> tttoM tvnowtwU Untitles; —
\U tKtmht to mH*d that the division by centuries indicates the
\\ y n s A 4 Ut<u>\ \ titiiiin. In a great majority of cases the rcprcsen-
Vamv\< *U «*vh Herniation worked on through succeeding centuries).
1 5 Ik and 1 6th Centuries.
MoAMu, t*»|ft; Ontcuda; Muneta; Aoki; Sdami; Nakai
tflk Century.
Ku*itmiit« 1 Mltuno; Koichi; Nagayosbi;
fvmtuwtt VuhUhlge; Katsugi; Tsuji;
M>nM\^*M, 1'itilahira; Shoami; Hosono;
\t«Vo\ *, N.hj; Okada; Okamoto; Kinai; Akao;
VulouU, lltMta; Nomura; Wakabayashi; Inouye;
\a«ut, I hlyot Kancko; Uemura; Iwamoto.
t8tk Century.
<,,M\4*lr Mioemont Kikugawa; Yasuyama; Noda; Tamagawa;
Ivm.Ui KUmoIh, Klfaemon; Hamano; Omori; Okamoto; kashi-
^^^, Kw««hAit. SbUhibci; ltd.
tQth Century.
Na»»h»m Uhl«ufo) Vanagawa; Honjo; Tanalca; Oka no; Kawara-
|»u*>-l»»t I hit 1 *ml many masters of the Omori. Hamano and
* nm<l.. Muni!", ••well as the five experts, Shuraku. Temmin,
t > mnlit, Mi«|rt anil Minkoku. (W. An.; F. By.)
I hfiv U * radical difference between the points of view of
Ihn Jamiim* ami the Western connoisseur in estimating the
M „ M .„ mrrlu of sculpture in metal. The quality of the
JvmIT thlwlling Is the first feature to which the Japanese
•fr* 1 duett* hi* attention; the decorative design is the
lulms oblail of ihe Occidental's attention. With very rare
!*t«i'li<»». lh# decorative motives of Japanese sword furniture
*•«• atway* supplied by painters. Hence it is that the
l.u.*Hm mnnoUsrur draws a clear distinction between the
tt.ioullvf design and lis technical execution, crediting the
t>M«m<t i«i th* iiniorial artist and the latter to the sculptor.
Hv <l«Uit« In iw stroke of a chisel and the lines of a graving
tool mhlitMv* beauties which appear to be hidden from the
auki HMlmHy «d Wc»tcrn dilettanti. He estimates the rank
v\ 4 .iwi im«n by tto quality of the chisel-work. The Japanese
*,», t H tki (mrUl sculptor) -uses thirty-six principal dasses of
(ltd I v,uh with lU distinctive name, and as most of these
< |,t*.t « MimpiUf from five to ten sub-varieties, Ws cutting
and auviug lu*di ofgicgate about two hundred and fifty.
Scarcely less important in Japanese eyes than the chiselling
of the decorative design itself is the preparation of the field to
which it is applied. There used to be a strict canon j^ jq^af
with reference to this in former times. Namako fr
(fish-roe) grounds were essential for the mountings * r
of swords worn on ceremonial occasions, the iskime
(stone-pitting) or jimigaki (polished) styles being considered leas
aristocratic.
Namako is obtained by punching the whole surface — except the
portion carrying the decorative design — into a texture of micro-
scopic dots. The first makers of namako did not aim at regularity in
the distribution of these dots: they were content to produce the
effect of millet -seed sifted haphazard over the surface. But from
the 15th century the punching of the dots in rigidly straight lines
came to be considered essential, and the difficulty involved was so
great that namako-making took its place among the highest technical
achievements of the sculptor, when it is remembered that the
punching tool was guided solely by the hand and eye, and that three
or more blows of the mallet had to be struck for every dot, some
conception may be formed of the patience and accuracy needed to
produce these tiny protuberances in perfectly straight lines, at
exactly equal intervals and of absolutely uniform size. Namako
disposed in straight parallel lines originally ranked at the head of this
kind of work. But a new kind was introduced in the 16th century.
It was obtained by punching the dots in intersecting lines, so
arranged that the dots fell uniformly into diamond-shaped groups
of five each. This is called go-no-tne-namako, because ol its resem-
blance to the disposition of chequers in the Japanese game of go.
A century later, the daimyd ncmako was invented, in which lines of
dots alternated with lines of polished ground. Iskime may be briefly
described as diarxring. There is scarcely any limit to the inge-
nuity and ? kill of the Japanese expert in diapering a metal surface.
It is not possible to enumerate here even the principal styles of
ishimo, but mention may be made of the tara-maki (broad-cast), in
which the surface is finely but irregularly pitted after the manner
of the face of a stone: the nashi-ji (pear-ground), in which we have
a surface like the rind of a pear; the kari-iskime (needle tshiroe),
where the indentations are so minute that they seem to have been
made with the point of a needle; the gama-ishimc, which is intended
to imitate the skin of a toad; the tsuya-ishime, produced with a
chisel sharpened so that its traces have a lustrous appearance; the
ore-kuchi (broken-tool), a peculiar kind obtained with a jagged tool;
and the gozami, which resembles the plaited surface of a fine straw
mat.
Great importance has always been attached by Japanese experts
to the patina of metal used for artistic chiselling. It was mainly
for the sake of their patina that value attached to the
remarkable alloys skakudo (3 parts of gold to 97 of
copper) and shibutchi (1 part ol silver to 3 of copper).
Neither
metal, when it emerges from the furnace, has any beauty, shakudo
being simply dark-coloured copper and shibuichi pale gun-metal.
But after projjcr treatment 1 the former develops a glossy black
patina with violet sheen, and the latter shows beautiful shades of
grey with silvery lustre. Both these compounds afford, delicate,
unobtrusive and effective grounds for inlaying with gold, silver
and other metals, as well as for sculpture, whether incised or in
relief. Copper, too, by patina-producing treatment, is made to
show not merely a rich golden sheen with pleasing limpidity, but
also red of various hues, from deep coral to light vermilion, several
shades of grey, and browns of numerous tones from dead-leaf to
chocolate. Even greater value has always been set upon the patina
of iron, and many secret recipes were preserved in artist families
for producing the fine, satin-like texture so much admired by aB
connoisseurs.
In Japan, as in Europe, three varieties of relief carving are distin-
guished — alio (taka-bori), mezzo (ckunikm-bori) and basso (usnnitw
bori). In the opinion of the Japanese expert, these styles ,
hold the same respective rank as that occupied by the \
three kinds of ideographic script in caligraphy. High relief
carving corresponds to the kaisho, or most classical form of writing:
medium relief to the gydsko, or semi-cursive style: and low relief to
the sdsko or grass character. With regard to incised chiselling the
commonest form is kebori (hair-carving), which may be called engrav-
ing, the lines being of uniform thickness and depth. Very beautiful
results are obtained by the kebori method, but incomparably the
finest work in the incised class is that known as fco/a-JciW-frert la
this kind of chiselling the Japanese artist can claim to be unique as
well as unrivalled. Evidently the idea of the great Yokoya experts,
the originators of the style, was to break away from the somewhat
formal monotony of ordinary engraving, where each line performs
exactly the same function, and to convert the chisel into an artist**
1 It is first boiled in a lye obtained by lixiviating wood ashes: it
is next polished with charcoal powder; then immersed ia plum
vinegar and salt ; then washed with weak lye and placed in a tub
of water to remove all trace* of alkali, the final step being to digest
in a boikug solution of copper sulphate, verdigris and water.
ART]
broth instead of using it as a common cutting toot They succeeded
admirably. In the kau-kiri-bori every line has its proper value
in the pictorial design, and strength and directness become cardinal
dements in the strokes of the burin just as they do in the brush-
work of the picture-painter. The same fundamental rule applied,
loo, whether the field of the decoration was silk, paper or metal.
The artist's tool, be it brush or burin, must perform its task by one
effort. There must be no appearance of subsequent deepening, or
extending, or re-cutting or finishing. Kata-luri-bori by a great
expert is a delight. One is lost in astonishment at the nervous yet
perfectly regulated force and the unerring fidelity of every trace of
the chiseL Another variety of carving much affected by artists
of the 17th century, and now largely used, is called skishi-ai-bori
or niku-ai'bori. In this style the surface of the design is not raised
above the general plane of the field, but an effect of projection is
obtained either by recessing the whole space immediately surround-
ing the design, or by enclosing the latter in a scarped frame. Yet
another and very favourite method, giving beautiful results, is to
model the design on both faces of the metalso as to give a sculpture
in the round. The fashion is always accompanied by chiselling
I jour (sukaski*bori), so that the sculptured portions stand out in
their entirety.
Inlaying with gold or silver was among the early forms of
decoration in Japan. The skid developed in modem times is at
fah te least equal to anything which the past can show, and
■■^J'* 1 ' the results produced are much more imposing. There
are two principal kinds of inlaying: the first called hon-xogan (true
inlaying), the second nmnowu-tdgan (linen-mesh inlaying). As to
the former, the Japanese method does not differ from that seen
in the beautiful iron censers and vases inlaid with gold which the
Chinese produced from the Suen-U era (1426-1436). In the surface
of the metal the workman cuts grooves wider at the base than at the
top. and then hammers into them gold or silver wire. Such a process
presents no remarkable features, except that it has been carried by
the Japanese to an extraordinary degree of elaborateness. The
aunome-zdgan is more interesting. Suppose, for example, that the
artist desires to produce an inlaid diaper. His first business is to
chisel the surface in lines forming the basic pattern of the design.
Thus, for a diamond-petal diaper the chisel is carried across the face
of the metal horizontally, tracing a number of parallel bands
divided at fixed intervals by ribs which are obtained by merely
straightening the chisel and striking it a heavy blow. The 6aroe
process is then repeated in another direction, so that the new bands
cross the old at an angle adapted to the nature of the design. Several
independent chisellings may be necessary before the lines of the
diaper emerge clearly, but throughout the whole operation no
measurement of any kind is taken, the artist being guided entirely
by his hand and eye. The metal is then heated, not to redness, but
sufficiently to develop a certain degree of softness, and the workman,
taking a very thin sheet of gold (or silver), hammers portions of it
into the salient points of the design. In ordinary cases this is the
sixth process. The seventh is to hammer gold into the outlines of
the diaper; the eighth, to hammer it into the pattern filling the
spaces between the lines, and the ninth and tenth to complete the
details. Of course the more intricate the design the more numerous
the processes. It is scarcely possible to imagine a higher effort of
hand and eye than this nunome-zdgan displays, for while intricacy
and elaborateness are carried to the very extreme, absolute mechani-
cal accuracy is obtained. Sometimes in the same design we see gold
of three different hues, obtained by varying the alloy. A third kind
of inlaying, peculiar to Japan, is sumi-zogan (ink-inlaying), so. called
because the inlaid design gives the impression of having been painted
with Indian ink beneath the transparent surface of the metal The
difference between this process and ordinary inlaying is that for
sumi-tdgen the design to be inlaid is fully chiselled out 01 an indepen-
dent block of metal with sides sloping so as to be broader at the
base than at the top. The object which is to receive the decoration
is then channelled in dimensions corresponding to those of the design
block, and the Utter having been fixed in the channels, the surface
is ground and polished until an intimate union is obtained between
die inlaid design and the metal forming its field. Very beautiful
effects are thus produced, for the design seems to have grown up to
the surface of the metal field rather than to have been planted in it.
Shibuichi inlaid with shakudo used to be the commonest combination
of metals in this class of decoration, and the objects usually depicted
were bamboos, crows, wild-fowl under the moon, peony sprays and
so forth.
A variety of decoration much practised by early experts, and
carried to a high degree of excellence in modern times, is mokume-ji
Warn*. (wood-grained ground). The process in this case is to
wmmm take a thin plate of metal and beat it into another plate
of similar metal, so that the two. though welded together,
retain their separate forms. The mass, while still not. is
coated with kena-lsuchi (a kind of marl) and rolled in straw ash. in
which state it is roasted over a charcoal fire raised to glowing heat
with the bellows. The day having been removed, another plate of
the same metal is beaten in, and the same process is repeated. This
b done several times, the number depending on the Quality of grain-
ing that the expert desires to produce. The manifold plate is then
heavily punched from one side, so that the opposite face protrudes in
JAPAN
*79
broken blisters, which are then hammered down until each becomes a
centre of wave propagation. In fine work the apex of the blister is
ground off before the final hammering. Iron was the metal used
exclusively for work of this kind down to the i6th century, but
various metals began thenceforth to be combined. Perhaps the
choicest variety is gold graining in a shakudo field. By repeated
hammering and polishing the expert obtains such control of the
wood-grain pattern that its sinuosities and eddies seem to have
developed symmetry without losing anything of their fantastic)
grace. There are other methods of producing mikume-ji.
It has been frequently asserted by Western critics that the
year (1876) which witnessed the abolition of sword-wearing in
Japan, witnessed also the end of her artistic mrtlll -jr 0l f fr »g 1 nf
work. That is a great mistake. The art has merely Amoemt
developed new phases in modern times. Not only are** 1 *
its masters as skilled now as they were in the days of the Goto,
the Nara, the Yokoya and the Yanagawa celebrities, but also
their productions must be called greater in many respects and
more interesting than those of their renowned predecessors.
They no longer devote themselves to the manufacture of sword
ornaments, but work rather at vases, censers, statuettes,
plaques, boxes and other objects of a serviceable or ornamental
nature. All the processes described above are practised by
them with full success, and they have added others quite as
remarkable.
Of these, one of the most interesting is called kinbame (insertion).
The decorative design having been completely chiselled in the round.
is then fixed in a neld of a different mctaf, in which a design of
exactly similar outline has been cut out. The result is that the
picture has no blank reverse. For example, on the surface of a
shibuichi box-lid we sec the backs of a flock of geese chiselled in
silver, and when the lid is opened, their breasts and the under-sides
of their pinions appear. The difficulty of such work is plain. Micro-
scopic accuracy has to be attained in cutting out the space for the
insertion of the design, and while the latter must be soldered firmly
in its place, not the slightest trace of solder or the least sign of
junction must be discernible between the metal of the inserted
picture and that of the field in which it is inserted. Suzuki Gensuke
is the inventor of this method. He belongs to a class of experts
called uckintono-ski (hammerers) who perform preparatory work
for glyptic artists in metal. The skill of these men is often wonder-
ful. Using the hammer only, some of them can beat out an intricate
shape as truly and delicately as a sculptor could carve it with his
chisels* Ohori Masatoshi, an uchimono-shi of Aim (d. 1897), made
a silver cake-box in the form of a sixteen-petaUed chrysanthemum.
The sliapes of the body and lid corresponded so intimately that,
whereas the lid could be slipped on easily and smoothly without any
attempt to adjust its curves to those of the body, it always fitted so
closely that the box could be lifted by grasping the lid only.
Another feat of his was to apply a lining of silver to a shakudo box
by shaping and hammering only, the fit being so perfect that the
lining clung like paper to every part of the box. Suzuki Gensuke
and Hirata SOkd are scarcely less expert- The latter once exhibited
inTokyo a silver game-cock with soft plumage and surface modelling
of the most delicate character. It had been made by means of the
hammer only. Suzuki's kiribame process is not to be confounded
with the kinbame-zdgtm (inserted inlaying) of Tdyoda Kokfi, also a
modem artist. The gist of the latter method is that a design
chiselled d jour has its outlines veneered with other metal which
serves to emphasize them. Thus, having pierced a spray of flowers
in a thin sheet of shibuichi, the artist fits a slender rim oi gold, silver
or shakudo to the petals, leaves and stalks, so that an effect is
produced of transparent blossoms outlined in gold, silver or purple.
Another modern achievement — also due to Suzuki Gensuke — is
maze-gone (mixed metals). It is a singular conception, and the
results obtained depend largely on chance. Shibuichi and shakudo
are melted separately, and when they have cooled just enough not
to mingle too intimately, they are cast into a bar which is subse-
quently beaten flat. The pfate thus obtained shows accidental
clouding, or massing of dark tones, and these patches are taken as
the basis of a pictorial design to which final character is given by
inlaying with gold and silver, and by kata-kiri sculpture. Such
pictures partake largely of the impressionist character, but they
attain much beauty in the hands of the Japanese artist with his
extensive rfpertnire of suggestive symbols. A process resembling
maze-gane. bul less fortuitous, is skibmcln-ddski (combined shibui-
chi). which involves beating together two kinds of shibuichi and then
adding a third variety, after which the details of the picture »rt
worked in as in the case of maze-gane. The charm of these methods
is that certain parts of the decorative dcnign seem to float, not on
the surface of the metal, but actually within it, an admirable effect
of depth and atmosphere being thus produced. Mention must also
be made of an extraordinarily elaborate and troublesome process
invented by Kajima Ippu. a great artist of the present day. It Is
called togi-Joshi-tigon (ground-out inlaying). In this exquisite and
i8o
Ingenious kind of work the design appears to be growing up from the
depth* of the metal, and a delightful impression of atmosphere and
water U obtained. All these processes, as well as that of repoussi, in
which the Japanese have excelled from a remote period, are now
practised with the greatest skill in TdkyS, Kioto, Osaka and Kana-
zawa. At the art exhibitions held twice a year in the principal
cities there may be seen specimens of statuettes, alcove ornaments,
and household utensils which show that the Japanese worker in
metals stands more indisputably than ever at the head of the world's
artists in that fieM. The Occident does not yet appear to have
full realized the existence of such talent in Japan; partly perhaps
because its displays in former times were limited chiefly to sword-
furniture, possessing little interest for the average' European or
American; and partly because the Japanese have not yet learned
to adapt their skill to foreign requirements. They confine themselves
at present to decorating plaques, boxes and cases for cigars or
cigarettes, and an occasional tea or coffee service; but the whole
domain of salvers, dessert-services, race-cups and so on remains
virtually unexplored. Only within the past few years have stores
been established in the foreign settlements for the sale of silver
utensils, and already the workmanship on these objects displays pal-
Kble signs of the deterioration which all branches of Japanese art
ve undergone in the attempt to cater for foreign taste. In a general
sense the European or American connoisseur is much less exacting
than the Japanese. Broad effects of richness and splendour
captivate the former, whereas the latter looks for delicacy of finish,
accuracy of detail and. above alt, evidences of artistic competence.
It is nothing to a Japanese that a vase should be covered with pro-
fuse decoration of flowers and foliage: he requires that every
blossom and every leaf -shall be instinct with vitality, and the
comparative costliness of fine workmanship does not influence his
choice. But if the Japanese sculptor adopted such standards in
working for foreign patrons, his market would be reduced to very
narrow dimensions. He therefore adapts himself to his circum-
stances, and, using the mould rather than the chisel, produces
Specimens which show tawdry handsomeness and are attractively
cheap. It must be admitted, however, that even though foreign
appreciative faculty were sufficiently educated, the Japanese artist
|n metals would still labour under the great difficulty of devising
thapes to take the place of those which Europe and America have
(earned to consider classical.
Bronze it called by the Japanese kora-kanc, a term signify-
ing " Chinese metal " and showing clearly the source from
i which knowledge of the alloy was obtained. It is a
copper-lead-tin compound, the proportions of its con-
stituents varying from 72 to 88 % of copper, from 4
to to % of lead and from 2 to 8 % of tin. Thete are also present
smdH quantities of arsenic and antimony, and zinc is found gener-
ally as a mere trace, but sometimes reaching to 6 %. Gold is
supposed to have found a place in ancient bronzes, but its
presence has never been detected by analysis, and of silver not
more than 1 % teems to have been admitted at any time. Mr W.
Cowbnd has shown that, whatever may have been the practice of
Japanese bronze makers in ancient and medieval eras, their suc-
< c Mors in later days deliberately introduced arsenic and antimony
Into lb* compound in order to harden the bronze without impair-
ing lit fusibility, so that it might take a sharper impression of
I hr mould. Japanese bronze is well suited for castings, not only
tin xute of Its low melting-point, great fluidity and capacity for
l.tUnf sharp Impressions, but also because it has a particularly
timntih surface and readily develops a fine patina. One variety
ilt'H'rvrt special mention. It is a golden yellow bronze, called
nnlrkn -this being the Japanese pronunciation of Sucn-ii, the
( m of the Ming dynasty of China when this compound was
IhViiHfil Copper, tin, lead and zinc, mixed in various propor-
tions !>y different experts, are the ingredients, and the beautiful
gMi 11 hti'i and glossy texture of the surface are obtained by
iMiina |»Mn!u<lng processes, in which branch of metaj-work the
ja^tiusv show altogether unique skill.
t u>m ihs Mhw when they began to cast bronze statues, Japanese
% v ( '. n» timlrrtinod how to employ a hollow, removable core round
wlnvh tht mrial wm run in a skin just thick enough for strength
v, > ^iwi *4»l« ul material: and they also understood the use of wax
u . u.^Ulu'M imriMMrt, In ordinary circumstances, a casting thus
^ .> *sX \\*\ ihf f«rm of a shell without any break of continuity.
iT* tw* v*«» !*»*• «a*tlng» the process had to be modified. The
J l,i* hanu Buddha at Nara, for example, would
JAPAN
v V» tt. In height were it standing erect, and its weight is
^ v w W«s. 1 hv colossal Amida at Kamakura has a height
' \ W It *«uld have been scarcely possible to cast such
"*'*„*«* w«*r in mIm, or. If cast elsewhere, to transport them
-* ***^ ^ j^^i ** their pedestal* Th * nUn nursued was to
(ART
build them up gradually In their places by casting segment after
segment. Thus, for the Nara Dai-butsu, the mould was constructed
in a series of steps ascending 12 in. at a time, until the head and
neck were reached, which, of course, had to be cast in one shell,
12 ft. high.
The term " parlour bronzes " serves to designate objects for
domestic use, as flower-vases, incense-burners and alcove orna-
ments. Bronze-casters began, to turn their attention to these
objects about the middle of the 17th century. The art of casting
bronze reached its culmination in the hands of a group of great
experts — Seimin, T6un, Masatune, TeijS, Somin, Keisai. Takusai.
Gido, Zenryflsai and Hotokusai — who nourished during the second
half of the 18th century and the first hah* of the 10th. Many
brilliant specimens of these men's work survive, their general
features being that the motives are naturalistic that the quality
of the metal is exceptionally fine, that in addition to beautifully
clear casting obtained by highly skilled use of the cero-perdmt*
process, the chisel was employed to impart delicacy and finish to
the design, and that modelling in high relief is most successfully
introduced. But it is a mistake to assert, as many have asserted,
that after the era of the above ten masters — the latest of whom,
Somin, ceased to work in 1871 — no bronzes comparable with theirs
were cast. Between 1875 and 1879 some of the finest bronzes ever
produced in Japan were turned out by a group of experts working
under the business name of Sanseisha. Started by two brothers,
Oshima Katsujiro (art-name J6un) and Oshima Yasutaro (art-
name ShOkaku), this association secured the services of a number of
skilled chisellers of sword-furniture, who had lost their occupation
by the abandonment of sword-wearing. Nothing could surpass the
delicacy of the works executed at the Sanseisha s atelier in Tokyo,
but unfortunately such productions were above the standard of the
customers for whom they were intended. Foreign buyers, who
alone stood in the market at that time, failed to distinguish the fine
and costly bronzes of Jdun, ShSkaku and their colleagues from cheap
imitations which soon began to compete with them, so that ulti-
mately the Sanseisha had to be dosed. This page in the modern
history of Japan's bronzes needs little alteration to be true of bm
applied art in general. Foreign demand has shown so little dis-
crimination that experts, finding it impossible to obtain adequate
remuneration for first-class work, have been obliged to abandon the
field altogether, or to lower their standard to the level of general
appreciation, or by forgery to cater for the perverted taste which
attaches unreasoning value to age. Jdun has produced, and u
thoroughly capable of producing, bronzes at least equal to the best of
Seimin s masterpieces, yet he has often been induced to put Setmin's
name on objects for the sake of attracting buyers who attach more
value to cachet than to quality. If to the names of Jdun and his bril-
liant pupil Ryflki we add those of Suzuki Ch6kichi, Okaaki Sessd.
Hasegawa Kumazo, Kanaya Gorosaburo and Jomi Eisuloe, we have
a group of modern bronze-casters who unquestionably surpass the
ten experts beginning with Seimin and ending with Somin. Okazaki
Sessei has successfully achieved the casting of huge panels carrying
designs in high relief; and whether there is question of patina or 01
workmanship, Jdmi Eisuke has never been surpassed.
Occidental influence has been felt, of course, in the field of modern
bronze-casting. At a school of art officially established in Tokyo
in 1873 under the direction of Italian teachers— a school which owed
its signal failure partly to the incompetence and intemperate
behaviour of some of its foreign professors, and partly to a strong
renaissance of pure Japanese classicism — one of the few accomplisb-
ments successfully taught was that of modelling in plaster and
chiselling in marble after Occidental methods. Marble statues are
out of place in the wooden buildings as well as in the parka of Japan,
and even plaster busts or groups, though less incongruous perhaps,
have not yet found favour. Hence the skill undoubtedly ponstmd
by several graduates of the defunct art school has to be devoted
chiefly to a subordinate purpose, namely, the fashioning of models
for metal-casters. To this combination of modellers in European
style and metal-workers of such force as Suzuki and Okazaki. Japan
owes various memorial bronzes and effigies which are gradually
finding a place in her parks, her museums, her shrines or her private
houses. There i> here little departure from the well-trodden paths
of Europe. Studies in drapery, prancing steeds, ideal poses, heads
with fragments of torsos attached (in extreme violation of true art).
crouching beasts of prey— all the stereotyped styles are reproduced.
The imitation is excellent.
Among the artists of early times it is often difficult to dis-
tinguish between the carver of wood and the caster of bronze.
The latter sometimes made his own models in wax, GmHmgtm
sometimes chiselled them in wood, and sometimes had *W aarf
recourse to a specialist in wood-carving. The group *••*
of splendid sculptors in wood that graced the nth, 12th and ijth
centuries left names never to be forgotten, but undoubtedly
many other artists of scarcely less force regarded bronze-casting
as their principal business. Thus the story of wood-carving fs
very difficult to trace. Even in the field of architectural
ARCHITECTURE]
JAPAN
decoration for interiors, tradition tells us scarcely anything about
the masters who carved such magnificent works as those seen in
the Kioto temples, the Tokugawa mausolea, and some of the old
castles. There are, however, no modern developments of such
work to be noted. The ability of former times exists and is
exercised in the old way, though the field for its employment has
been greatly narrowed.
When Japanese sculpture in wood or ivory is spoken of, the first
Idea that presents itself is connected with the netsuke, which, of all
the art objects found in Japan, is perhap- » k - — ^t
essentially Japanese. If Japan had given g
but the netsuke, we should still have no < n
differentiating the bright versatility of h il
genius from the comparatively sombre, mechanic and un e
temperament of the Chinese. But the netsuke may no' o
be a thing of the past. The mro (medicine-box), whk y
served to fix in the girdle, has been driven out of fashion r
civilization imported from the West, and artists who w WU «u .«.»e
carved netsuke in former times now devote their chisels to statuettes
and alcove ornaments. It is not to be inferred, however, though it
is a favourite assertion of collectors, that no good netsuke have been
made in modern times. That theory is based upon the fact that
after the opening of the country to foreign intercourse in 1857,
hundreds of inferior specimens of netsuke were chiselled by inexpert
hands, purchased wholesale by treaty-port merchants, and sent to
New York, London and Paris, where, though they brought profit
to the exporter, they also disgusted the connoisseur and soon earned
discredit for their whole class. But in fact the glyptic artists of
TdkyO, Osaka and Ki6to, though they now devote their chisels
chiefly to works of more importance than the netsuke, are in no sense
inferior to their predecessors of feudal days, and many beautiful
netsuke bearing their signatures are in existence. As for the
modem ivory statuette or alcove ornament, of which great numbers
are now carved for the foreign market, it certainly stands on a plane
much higher than the netsuke, since anatomical defects which
escape notice in the latter owing to its diminutive sue, become
obtrusive in the former.
One of the most remarkable developments of figure sculpture in
modern Japan was due to Matsumoto Kisaburo (1830-1869). He
__ carved human figures with as much accuracy as though
*"* they were destined for purposes of surgical demonstra-
~— - f _m - *' on * Considering that this man had neither art educa-
injrBruvw. tion n<jr anatomica j instruction, and that he never
enjoyed an opportunity of studying from a model in a studio,
hb achievements were remarkable. He and the craftsmen of the
school he established completely refute the theory that the anatomi-
cal solecisms commonly seen in the works of Japanese sculptors
are due to faulty observation. Without scientific training of any
land Matsumoto and his followers produced works in which the eye
of science cannot detect any error. But it is impossible to admit
within the circle of high-art productions these wooden figures of
everyday men and women, unrelieved by any subjective dement,
and owing their merit entirely to the fidelity with which their con-
tours are shaped, their muscles modelled, and their anatomical
proportions preserved. They have not even the attraction of being
cleanly sculptured in wood, out are covered with thinly lacquered
muslin, which, though doubtless a good preservative, accentuates
their puppet-like character. Nevertheless, Matsumoto's figures
marked an epoch in Japanese wood sculpture. Their vivid realism
appealed strongly to the taste of the average foreigner. A consider-
able school of carvers soon began to work in the Matsumoto style,
and hundreds of their productions have gone to Europe and America,
finding no market in Japan.
Midway between the Matsumoto school and th«
approved I
by the native taste in former times stan ber
^^ c mmttm °* wocd<arvers headed by Takamura rho
2* i *™' occupies in the field of sculpture much the ice
SSg ■» that held by Hashimoto Gaho in tl of
■ c ■ pa,, oainting. K6un carves figures in the r ich
not only display great power of chisel and breadth of si Iso
tdl a story not necessarily drawn from the motives of cal
school. This departure from established canons must to
the influence of the short-lived academy of Italian ar led
by the Japanese government early in the Meiii era. re-
front of the new movement are to be found men like Yor kai
and Shinkai Taketaro; the former chiselled a figure ot jenner for
the Medical Association of Japan when they celebrated the centenary
of the great physician, and the latter has carved life-size effigies of
two Imperial princes who lost thdr lives in the war with China (18^4-
95). The artists of the Koun school, however, do much work which
appeals to emotions in general rather than to individual memories.
Thus Arakawa Reiun, one of Koun's most brilliant pupils, has
exhibited a figure of a swordsman in the act of driving home a
furious thrust. The weapon is not shown. Reiun sculptured
simply a man poised on the toes of one foot, the other foot raised,
the arm extended, and the body straining forward in strong yet
elastic muscular effort. A more imaginative work by the same
181
artist is a figure of a farmer who has just shot an eagle that swooped
upon his grandson. The old man holds his bow still raised. Some
of the eagle's feathers, blown to his side, suggest the death of the
bird; at nis feet lies the corpse of the little boy, and the horror,
grief and anger that such a tragedy would inspire are depicted with
striking realism in the farmer^ face. Such work has very close
affinities with Occidental conceptions. The chief distinguishing
feature is that the glyptic character is preserved at the expense ot
surface finish. The undisguised touches of the chisel tell a story
of technical force and directness which could not be suggested by
perfectly smooth surfaces. To subordinate process to result is the
European canon ; to show the former without marring the latter is
the Japanese ideal. Many of Kdun's sculptures appear unfinished
to eyes trained in Occidental galleries, whereas the Japanese
connoisseur detects evidence of a technical feat in their seeming
roughness.
t
Architecture. — From the evidence of ancient records it appears
that before the 5th century the Japanese resided in houses of
a very rude character. The sovereign's palace itself
was merely a wooden hut. Its pillars were thrust 2wwj£«s.
into the ground and the whole framework — con-
sisting of posts, beams, rafters, door-posts and window-frames
— was tied together with cords made by twisting the long
fibrous stems of climbing plants. The roof was thatched, and
perhaps had a gable at each end with a hole to allow the
smoke of the wood fire to escape. Wooden doors swung on
a kind of hook; the windows were mere holes in the walls.
Rugs of skins or rush matting were used for sitting on, and
the whole was surrounded with a palisade. In the middle
of the 5th century two-storeyed bouses seem to have been built,
but the evidence on the subject is slender. In the 8th century,
however, when the court was moved to Nara, the influence of
Chinese civilization made itself fdL Architects, turners, tile-
makers, decorative artists and sculptors, coming from China
and from Korea, erected grand temples for the worship of Buddha
enshrining images of much beauty and adorned with paintings
and carvings of considerable merit. The plan of the city itself
was taken from that of the Chinese metropolis. A broad central
avenue led straight to the palace, and on either side of it ran four
parallel streets, crossed at right angles by smaller thoroughfares.
During this century the first sumptuary edict ordered that the
dwellings of all high officials and opulent civilians should have
tiled roofs and be coloured red, the latter injunction being evi-
dently intended to stop the use of logs carrying their bark.
Tiles thenceforth became the orthodox covering for a roof, but
vermilion, being regarded as a religious colour, found no favour
in private dwellings. In the 9th century, after the capital had
been established at Kioto, the palace of the sovereigns and the
mansions of ministers and nobles were built on a scale of unpre-
cedented grandeur. It is true that all the structures of the time
had the defect of a box-like appearance. Massive, towering
roofs, which impart an air of stateliness even to a wooden build-
ing and yet, by their graceful curves, avoid any suggestion of
ponderosity, were still confined to Buddhist edifices. The
architect of private dwellings attached more importance to
satin-surfaced boards and careful joinery than to any appearance
of strength ox solidity.
, the palace had
1 t>n. The latter
< house lived, ate
1 d on the north,
t i northern suite
t tra suites being
1 joined the prin-
( le idea had not
I under the same
1 Its centre was
< ound which ran
J e. The parent
( with interlacing
1 i plaited effect;
1 ceiling. Sliding
(.w.., . ,.».. .*.»...•..». .^»w.w „. ., >VW i... jopmj.ose houses, haa
not yet come into use, and no means were provided for closing the
veranda, but the ambulatory was surrounded by a wall of latticed
timber or plain boards, the lower half of which could be removed
altogether, whereas the upper half, suspended from hooks, could be
swung upward and outward. Privacy was obtained by blinds of
182
split bamboo, aod the parent chamber was separated from the
ambulatory by similar bamboo blinds with silk cords for raisins
or towering them, or by curtains. The thick rectangular mats of
uniform size which, fitting together so as to present a level unbroken
surf are, cover the floor of all modern Japanese houses, were not yet
in use; floors were boarded, having only a limited space matted.
Tr.i* form of mansion underwent little modification until the 12th
century, when the introduction of the Zen sect of Buddhism wtth its
contemplative practice called for greater privacy. Interiors were
thrn divided into smaller rooms' by means of sliding doors covered
wi'h tbin rice-paper, which permitted the passage of light while
otntriicting vision; the hanging lattices were replaced by wooden
A*™ which could be slid along a groove so as to be removable in
the daytime, and an alcove was added in the principal chamber
for a sacred picture or Buddhist image to serve as an object of
contemplation for a devotee while practising the rite of abstraction.
Thrn the main features of the Japanese dwelling-house were.evolved,
and little change took place subsequently, except that the brush
of the painter was freely used for decorating partitions, and in
aristocratic mansions unlimited care was exercised in the choice
of rare woods.
The Buddhist temple underwent little change at Japanese
hands except in the matter of decoration. Such as it was in
Boddbisi outline when first erected in accordance with Chinese
TcmtpU models, such it virtually remained, though in later
*«M*aam times all the resources of the sculptor and the
painter were employed to beautify it externally and internally.
** The building, sometimes of huge dimensions, is invariably sur-
rounded by a raised gallery, reached by a flight of steps in the centre
of the approach front, the balustrade of which is a continuation of
the gallery railing. This gallery is sometimes supported upon a
deep system of bracketing, corbelled out from the feet of the main
pillars. Within this raised gallery, which is sheltered by the over-
sailing eaves, there is, in the larger temples, a columned loggia passing
round the two sides and the front of the building, or. in some cases,
placed on the facade only. The ceilings of the loggias are generally
•loping, with ricnly carved roof •timbers showing below at intervals;
and quaintly carved braces connect the outer pillars with the main
posts of the building. Some temples are to be seen in which the
ceiling of the loggia is boarded flat and decorated with large paintings
of dragons in black and gold. The intercolumniation is regulated
by a standard of about six or seven feet, and the general result of
the treatment of columns, wall-posts, Ac, is that the whole mural
space, not filled in with doors or windows, is divided into regular
oblong panels, which sometimes receive plaster, sometimes boarding
and sometimes rich framework and carving or painted panels.
Diagonal bracing or strutting is nowhere to be found, and in many
cases mortises and other joints are such as very materially to
weaken the timbers at their points of connexion. It would seem
that only the immense weight of the roofs and their heavy projec-
tions prevent a collapse of some of these structures in high winds.
The principal facade of the temple is filled in one, two or three com-
partments with hinged doors, variously ornamented and folding
outwards, sometimes in double folds. From these doorways, gener-
ally left open, the interior light is principally obtained, windows, as
the term is generally understood, being rare. An elaborate cornice
of wooden bracketing crowns the walls, forming one of the principal
ornaments of the building. The whole disposition of pillars, posts,
brackets and rafters is harmonically arranged according to some
measure of the standard of length. A very important feature of
the facade is the portico or porch-way, which covers the principal
steps and is generally formed by producing the central portion of
the main root over the steps and supporting such projection upon
isolated wooden pillars braced together near the top with horizontal
ties, carved, moulded and otherwise fantastically decorated. Above
these ties are the cornice brackets and beams, corresponding in
general design to the cornice of the walls, and the intermediate space
is filled with open carvings of dragons or other characteristic designs.
The forms of roof are various, but mostly they commence in a steep
slope at the top, gradually flattening towards the eaves so as to
produce a slightly concave appearance, this concavity being ren-
dered more emphatic by the tift which is given to the eaves at the
four corners. The appearance of the ends of the roof is half hip.
half gable. Heavy ribs of tile-cresting with large terminals arc
carried along the ridge and the slope of the gable. The result of
the whole is very picturesque, and has the advantage of looking
equally satisfactory from any point of view. The interior arrange-
ment of wall columns, horizontal beams and cornice bracketing
corresponds with that on the outside. The ceiling is invariably
boarded and subdivided by ribs into small rectangular coffers.
Sometimes painting is introduced Into these panels and lacquer and
metal clasps are added to the ribs. When the temple is of very
large dimensions an interior peristyle of pillars is introduced to
assist in supporting the roof, and In such cases each pillar carries
profuse bracketing corresponding to that of the cornice. The
construction of the framework of the Japanese roof is tuch that the
weights all act vertically; there {■ no thru it on the outer walls,
JAPAN
(ARCHITECTURE
and every available point of the interior is used as a means of
support.
*' The floor is partly boarded and partly matted. The shrines, altars
and oblatory tables are placed at the back in the centre, and there
are often other secondary shrines at the sides. In temples 0/ the
best class the floor of the gallery and of the central portion of the
main building from entrance to altar are richly lacquered; in those
of inferior class they are merely polished by continued rubbing."
—(J Conder, in the Proceedings of the Royal Institute of British
Architects.)
None' of the magnificence of the Buddhist temple belongs
to the Shinto shrine. In the case of the latter conservatism has
been absolute from time immemorial. The shrines
of Ise, which may be called the Mecca of Shinto*
devotees, are believed to present to-day precisely the ■"*
appearance they presented in 478, when they were moved thither*
in obedience to a revelation from the Sun-goddess. It has been
the custom to rebuild them every twentieth year, dternatefy on
each of two sites set apart for the purpose, the features of the old
edifice being reproduced in the new with scrupulous accuracy.
They are enlarged replicas of the primeval wooden hut described
above, having ratters with their upper ends crossed; thatched or
shingled roof, boarded floors, and logs laid on the roof-ridge at right
angles for the purpose of binding the ridge and the rafters firmly
together. A thatched roof is imperative in the orthodox shrine,
but in modern days tiles or sheets of copper are sometimes substi-
tuted. At Ise, however, no such novelties are tolerated. The
avenue of approach generally passes under a structure called torii.
Originally designed as a perch for fowls which sang to the deities at
daybreak, this torii subsequently came to be erroneously regarded
as a gateway characteristic of the Shinto shrine. It consists of two
thick trunks placed upright, their upper ends mortised into a hori-
zontal log which projects beyond them at either side. The structure
derives some grace from its extreme simplicity.
Textile Fabrics and Embroidery. — In no branch of applied art
does the decorative genius of Japan show more attractive results
than in that of textile fabrics, and in none has there been mere
conspicuous progress during recent years. Her woven and em-
broidered stuffs have always been beautiful; but in former times
few pieces of size and splendour were produced, if we except the
curtains used for draping festival cars and the hangings of
temples. Tapestry, as it is employed in Europe, was not
thought of, nor indeed could the small hand-looms of the period
be easily adapted to such work. All that has been changed,
however. Arras of large dimensions, showing remarkable
workmanship and grand combinations of colours, is now manu-
factured in Kioto, the product of years of patient toil on the part
of weaver and designer alike. Kawashima of Kioto has acquired
high reputation for work of this kind. He inaugurated the
new departure a few years ago by copying a Gobelin, but it may
safely be asserted that no Gobelin will bear comparison with the
pieces now produced in Japan.
The most approved fashion of weaving is called tstmn~ori
(linked-wcaving) ; that is to say, the cross threads are laid in with
tlie fingers and pushed into their places with a comb by hand, very
little machinery being used. The threads extend only to the outlines
of each figure, and it follows that every part of the pattern baa a rim
of minute holes like pierced lines separating postage stamps ia a
sheet, the effect being that the design seems to hang suspended in
the ground — linked into it, as the Japanese terra implies. 1 A
specimen of this nature recently manufactured by Kawashrma s
weavers measured 20 ft. by 13, and represented the annual festival
at the Ntkkd mausolea. The chief shrine was shown, as were also
the gate and the long flight of stone steps leading op to it, several
other buildings, the groves of cryptomeria that surround the
mausolea, and the festival procession. All the architectural aod
decorative details, all the carvings and colours, all the accessories—
everything was wrought in silk, and each of the 1500 figures forming
the procession wore exactly appropriate costume. Even this wealth
of detail, remarkable as it was, seemed less surprising than the fact
that the weaver had succeeded in producing the effect of atmosphere
and aerial perspective. Through the graceful cryptomerias dtstant
mountains and the still more distant sky could be seen, and between
the buildings in the foreground and those in the middle distance
atmosphere appeared to be perceptible. Two years of incessant
labour with relays of artisans working steadily throughout the
twenty-four hours were required to finish this piece. Naturally
' This method is some 300 years old. It is by no means a modern
invention, as some writers have asserted.
CERAMICS! JAPAN
such specimens are not produced in large numbers. Next In decora-
tive importance to tsuzure-ori stands yiaen birddo, commonly
known among English-speaking people as cut velvet. Dyeing by
the ytiaen process is an innovation of modem times. The design
ia painted on the fabric, after which the latter is steamed, and the
picture is ultimately fixed by methods which are kept secret. The
soft silk known as kabttaye is a favourite ground for such work, but
silk crape also is largely employed. No other method permits the
decorator to achieve such fidelity and such boldness of draughtsman-
ship. The difference between the results of the ordinary and the
yflzen p roc ess es of dyeing is, in fact, the difference between a sten-
cilled sketch and a finished picture.
183
yOzen process is supi
In the case of cut velvet, the
ted as follows: The cutter, who works
at an ordinary wooden bench, has no tool except a small sharp
chisel with a V-shaped point. This chisel is passed into an iron
pencil having at the end guards, between which the point of the
chisel projects, so that it is impossible for the user to cut beyond a
certain depth. When the velvet comes to him, it already carries a
coloured picture permanently fixed by the yflzen process, but the
wires have not been withdrawn. It is, in fact, velvet that has
passed through all the usual stages of manufacture except the
cutting of the thread along each wire and the withdrawal of the
wires. The cutting artist lays the piece of unfinished velvet on his
bench, and proceeds to carve into the pattern with his chisel, just
as though he were shading the lines of the design with a steel pencil.
When the pattern is lightly traced, he uses his knife delicately ; when
the lines are strong and the shadows heavy, he makes the point
pierce deeply. In short, the little chisel becomes in his fingers a
painter's brush, and when it is remembered that, the basis upon which
he works being simply a thread of silk, his hand must be trained to
such delicacy of muscular effort as to be capable of arresting the
edge of the knife at varying depths within the diameter of the tiny
filament, the difficulty of the achievement will be understood. Of
course it is to be noted that the edge * '* ftr
allowed to trespass upon a line whicl ign
require to be solid. The vcining of a he
tessellation of a carp's scales, the scrra ne
lines remain intact, spared by the cut) ?lf,
or the petal, or the scales of the fish, h era
cut so as to show the velvet nap and ef.
In one variety of this fabric, a slip of g<
.... ... . . . |$
3
the
nd
tde
and left in position after the wire
being then used with freedom in some .
gold gleams through the severed tti
suggestive effect. Velvet, however, i
the basis for pictures so elaborate an as
those produced by the yflzen proces r ye.
The rich-toned, soft plumage of birds or the magnificent blending
of colours in a bunch of peonies or chrysanthemums cannot be
obtained with absolute fidelity on the ribbed surface of velvet.
The embroiderer's craft has been followed for centuries in
Japan with eminent success, but whereas it formerly ranked
with dyeing and weaving, it has now come to be
T ' regarded as an art. Formerly the embroiderer was
content to produce a pattern with his needle, now be paints a
picture. So perfectly does the modern Japanese embroiderer
elaborate his scheme of values that all the essential elements of
pictorial effects — chiaroscuro, aerial perspective and atmosphere
are present in his work. Thus a graceful and realistic school
has replaced the comparatively stiff and conventional style of
former times.
Further, an improvement of a technical character was recently
made, which has the effect of adding greatly to the durability of
these embroideries. Owing to the use of paper among the threads
of the embroidery and sizing in the preparation of the stuff forming
the ground, every operation of folding used to cause perceptible
injury to a piece, so that after a few years it acquired a crumpled
and dingy appearance. But by the new method embroiderers now
succeed in producing fabrics which defy all destructive influences
^-except, of course, dirt and decay.
Ceramics. — All research proves that up to the 12th century of
the Christian era the ceramic ware produced in Japan was of a
very rude character. The interest attaching to it is
j^ffi^ ' historical rather than technical. Pottery was certainly
manufactured from an early date, and there is evi-
dence that kilns existed in some fifteen provinces in the 10th
century. But although the use of the potter's wheel had long
been understood, the objects produced were simple utensils to
contain offerings of rice, fruit and fish at the austere ceremonials
of the ShintO faith, jars for storing seeds, and vessels for common
domestic use. In the 13th century, however, the introduction of
tea from China, together with vessels for infusing and serving it,
revealed to the Japanese a new conception of ceramic possibilities.
for the potters of the Middle Kingdom had then (Sung dynasty)
fully entered the road which was destined to carry them ulti-
mately to a high pinnacle of their craft. It had long been cus-
tomary in Japan to send students to China for the purpose of
studying philosophy and religion, and she now (1233) sent a
potter, Kato Shirozaemon, who, on his return, opened a kiln at
Selo in the province of Owari, and began to produce little
jars for preserving tea and cups for drinking it. These
were conspicuously superior to anything previously manuiao
turcd. Kato is regarded as the father of Japanese ceramics.
But the ware produced by him and his successors at the
Seto kilns, or by their contemporaries in other parts of the
country, had no valid daim to decorative excellence. Nearly
three centuries elapsed before a radically upward movement
took place, and on this occasion also the inspiration came
from China. In 1520 a potter named Gorodayu Goshonzui
(known to posterity as Shonzui) made bis way to Fuchow and
thence to King-te-chen, where, after five years' study, he acquired
the art of manufacturing porcelain, as distinguished from pottery,
together with the art of applying decoration in blue under the
glaze. He established his kiln at Arita in Hizen, and the event
marked the opening of the second epoch of Japanese ceramics.
Yet the new departure then made did not lead far. The exis-
tence of porcelain clay in Hizen was not discovered for many
years, and Shonzui's pieces being made entirely with kaolin
imported from China, their manufacture ceased after his death,
though knowledge of the processes learned by him survived and
was used in the production of greatly inferior wares. The third
clearly differentiated epoch was inaugurated by the discovery of
true kaolin at Izumi-yama In Hizen, the discoverer being one of
the Korean potters who came to Japan in the train of Hide*
yoshi's generals returning from the invasion of Korea, and the
date of the discovery being about 1605. Thus much premised,
it becomes possible to speak in detail of the various wares for
which Japan became famous.
The principal kinds of ware are Hizen, Kioto, Satsuma,
Kutani, Owari, Bizen, Takatori, Banko, Izumo and Yatsushiro.
There are three chief varieties of Hizen ware, namely, (1) the
enamelled porcelain of Arita — the " old Japan " of European collec-
tors: (2) the enamelled porcelain of Nabeshima; and !«*-*
(3) the blue and white, or plain white, porcelain of
Hirado. The earliest manufacture of porcelain— as distinguished
from pottery — began in the opening years of the 16th century, but
its materials were exotic. Genuine Japanese porcelain dates from
about a century later. The decoration was confined to blue under
the glare, and as an object of art the ware possessed no special merit.
Not until the year 1620 do we find any evidence of the style for
which Arita porcelain afterwards became famous, namely, decora-
tion with verifiable enamels. The first efforts in this direction were
comparatively crude; but before the middle of the 17th century,
two experts— Goroshichi and Kakiemon — carried the art to a point
of considerable excellence. From that time forward the Arita
factories turned out large quantities of porcelain profusely decorated
with blue under the glaze and coloured enamels over it. Many
pieces were exported by the Dutch, and some also were specially
manufactured to their order. Specimens of the latter are still
preserved in European collections, where they are classed as genuine
examples of Japanese ceramic art, though beyond question their
style of decoration was greatly influenced by Dutch interference.
The porcelains of Arita were carried to the neighbouring town of
I man for sale and shipment. Hence the ware came to be known to
Japanese and foreigners alike as Imari-yoki {yaki - anything baked ;
hence ware). .
The Nabeshima porcelain—so called because of its production at
private factories under the special patronage of Nabeshima Naoshige,
feudal chief of Hizen— was produced at Okawachiyama.
It differed from Imari-yaki in the milky whiteness and N*t»*blm*.
softness of its glaze, the comparative sparseness of its
enamelled decoration, and the relegation of blue sous cowerte to an
entirely secondary place. This is undoubtedly the finest jewelled
porcelain in Japan; the best examples leave nothing to be desired.
The factory's period of excellence began about the year 1680, and
culminated at the close of the 18th century.
The Hirado porcelain— so called because it enjoyed the special
Ratronage of Matsuura, feudal chief of Hirado— was produced at
ltkawa-uchi-yama, but did not attain excellence until mnOt^
the middle of the 18th century, from which time until
about 1830 specimens of rare beauty were produced. They were
decorated with blue under the glaze, but some were pure white
with exquisitely chiselled designs incised or in relief. The production
1 84
JAPAN
„, ilmyt icanty, ud, owing to o«cW prohibitions, th» w»re did
iftjays js&sa^&arss, *» &. «« ,»« »««
uilT,; Antirelv different category from the Hizcn porcelains
belongs «o^^ygJ23J the^iitory of individual ceramist.
***•• rather than of special manufactures. Speaking broadly,
however, four different varieties are usually distinguished. They
axeraku-yaki, owotcyaki. iwakura-yah and ktyomtzu-pnH.
iSSt-yM is essentially the domestic faience of Japan; for,
beS eiSrely hand-made and fired at a very low temperature,
Deing «»"}'* uf||cUir0 offers few difficulties, and has conae-
*•** fluently been carried on by amateurs in their own
L nmM ftt various places throughout the country. The raku-yaki
^ K?5to I. thrirent of all tlTe rest It was first produced oy a
Korean who em grated to Japan in the early part of the 1 6th cen-
tu?y! BuV the tJrm raai^Edid not come into use until the dose
of The century, when Chojirp (artistic ruune. Ch6ryu) received from
?l(loyo.hl (the Taiko) a seal bearing the Ideograph raku, with which
hr then?" orth stamped his productront. Thirteen generations of the
Lmefarnly carried on the work, each usuig a stamp with the same
however, differing sufficiently to be identi
taience is thick and clumsy, having soft.
The staple type has black glaze showing
, % ... varieties this is curiously speckled and
ninwf with red. Salmon-coloured, red. yellow and white glares
r iK very Uiht A*/*. The staple type hasblack glaze showing
ill lie lustrV and In choice varieties this is curiously, speckled and
I
FJurnVT nwml muih of its popularity to the patronage of the tea
ffl ¥K ni tu.o of Hi fpaS^and glaze adapted it for the infusion
of powilerrHl im. and Its homely character suited the austere canons
0t Jl h waiI?yaTi7 iMhrbeat known among the ceramic productions of
u»ia, TUcn Is evidence to show that the art of decoration with
K,m °' in*,nJu over the glaze reached Kioto from Hizen in
A»«f* !nP m |,|(Ue of the 17th century. Just at that time
Vestem capital a potter of remarkable ability,
iJuUvii Yokiut. rod, green, gold and silver.
it Aw-U. «•"} »»»»• brought that factory intoprominencc. Nomura
? iVukV • or rWl as ho is commonly called, was one of Japan.
u ,„ u.l irmmW.. (ienuino examples of his faience have alwavs
. 1 hliihlv nrl-wl. and numerous imitations were subsequently
„ umhT all sUH»p«Kl with the ideograph Ninseu After Ninsc/s
iMllliwit «" «•»-' *"- . ___-,;-»- rt f t h* Awat.i fartnnc* were
r:
K,"M#,»ir(i<.H« I
!.?.'. 1! »,. « a n vol ill koaan <i74S-i76o>: Hozan (1690-1721):
|jtt IIIIMIIIM *' H, J* \. „, /,ai/wiHt«^ nnrl Tanran whn «r»s still
iVm lli n»«.»l raiiownH ceramists of the Awato factories were
- fifiMH I74<»)l KI'l^l. a contemporary of Kenzan; Dohachi
M), who ■uliscciucntly moved to Kiydmizu^zafca. another
fc
iH(H))i Itijtitn (1810-1838); and Tanzan, who was still
'Vuil'iii'IiMNi ll m»'"t •* notcd l " at "v*™* ot these narae »« as
V ,. .!• I i«Vi'» hi, Klnko*«n, Hozan and Taiaan were not limited to
v it. ,n, , » . . -«-.»« anrl thrkiicrh tht> nates. «m> nnve
I/*
(MM t«Ml»l
I 'iii'v aw family names, and though the dates we have
'he most noted ceramists in each family.
... ii.aIs ilm was of the most noted ceramists in each fa
! mm l "mil ^ .It aw any chronological conclusion from the
? \V» "l J • *• Iiwh la-ar. .»ch and such a name. .
I»ritiw "I «»•• lw.ikura.yakl U somewhat
1 uiiiiv at an early date, becomes cc
H*Ui* JJ !| W Awala yakl, from which, indeed, i
all> »U«*"-
liM^v
lk¥*^H
obscure, and its
confused with that
it does not materi-
» faience
1 above,
id Iwa-
le same
irticular
corative
t chiefly
On the
tnber of
iriations
ts were:
sen and
ut more
(1782-
»{^
ed from
i a high
:h coral-
ter cera-
I yellow
. Some
1 Kiahfl,
s Kawa-
;~; »a \to iwpwth.pl western collectors than
' Jl^ « »«'*' * n Western collections. Nine
,^\\ i«»*» P^« r » out of r e1 W thousand
\ ., k o»Mi»w rwimples of this prince of
\a\«4 »*• ■ MU ^ n*^*" 1 forgers. In
[CERAMICS
point of fact, the production of faience decorate d with gold and
coloured enamels may be said to have commenced at the beginning
of the 19th century in Satauma. Some writer, maintain that it
did actually commence then, and that nothing of the kind had
existed t here previously. Setting aside, however, the strong improb-
ability that a style of decoration so widely practised and so highly
esteemed could have remained unknown during a century and a
half to experts working for one of the most puissant chieftain, in
Japan, we have the evidence of trustworthy traditions and written
records that enamelled faience was made by the potters at Tat-
surironjt — the principal factory of Satsuma-ware in early day*— as
far back as the year 1676. Mitsuhisa, then feudal lord of Satauma,
was a munificent patron of art. He summoned to hi. fief the painter
Tangen— • pupil of the renowned TanyO, who died in 1674 — and
employed him to paint faience or to furnish designs for the ceramist,
of TatsumonjL The ware produced under these circumstances
is still known by the name of Satsuma Tangen. But the number of
specimens was small. Destined chiefly for private use or for pre-
sents, their decoration was delicate rather than rich, the colour
chiefly employed being brown, or reddish brown, under the glaze,
and the decoration over the glaze being sparse and chaste. Not until
the close of the 18th century or the beginning of the 19th did the
K
scarce. Its manufacture dates from the close of the 17th
century, when the feudal chief of Kaga took the industry
under his patronage. There were two principal varieties of the ware :
ao-Kulam, so called because of a green (00) enamel of great brilliancy
and beauty which was largely used in its decoration, and Kutani
with painted and enamelled p&te varying from hard porcelain to
pottery. Many of the pieces are distinguished by a peculiar creamy
whiteness of glaze, suggesting the idea that they were intended to
imitate the soft-paste wares of China. The enamels are used to
delineate decorative subjects and are applied in masses, the principal
colours being green, yellow and soft Prussian blue, all brilliant and
transparent, with the exception of the last which is nearly opaque.
In many cases we find large portions of the surface completely
covered with green or yellow enamel overlying black diapers or
scroll patterns. The second variety of Kutani ware may often be
m .oot, M t™ "ojd Japan " (i.e. Imari porcelain). The roost charac-
01 it are distinguishable, however, by the prcpon-
mistaken for ' „.„
tcristic examples <
derating presence of a peculiar russet red, differing essentially from
the full-bodied and comparatively brilliant colour of the Arita
pottery. Moreover, the workmen of Kaga did not follow the Arita
precedent of massing blue under the glaze. In the great majority
of cases they did not use blue at all in this position, and when they
did, its place was essentially subordinate. They also employed
silver freely for decorative purposes, whereas we rarely find 11 thus
used on " old Japan " porcelain.
About the time (1843) of the ao-Kutani revival, a potter called
Iida riachirocmon introduced a style of decoration which subse-
quently came to be regarded as typical of all Kaga procetains.
Taking the Eiraku porcelains of Kioto as models, Hachiroemon
employed red grounds with design, traced on them in gold. The
style was not absolutely new in Kaga. We find similar decoration
on old and choice examples of Kutani-yaki. But the character of
the old red differs essentially from that of the modern manufacture—
the former being a soft, subdued colour, more like a bloom than an
enamel: the latter a glossy and comparatively crude pwment.
In Hachiroemon'. time and during the twenty year, following the
date of his innovation, many beautiful examples of elaborately
decorated Kutani porcelain were produced. The richness, profusion
and microscopic accuracy of their decoration could scarcely have been
surpassed; but, with very rare exceptions, their lack of delicacy ©f
technique disqualifies them to rank as fine porcelains.
JAPAN
CERAMICS]
It was at the little village of Seto, some five miles from Nagoya,
the chief town of the province of Owari, or Bishfi, that the celebrated
Kato Shirozaemon made the first Japanese faience
owm ' worthy to be considered a technical success. Shiro-
zaemon produced dainty little tea-jars, ewers and other cha-no-
ju utensils. These, being no longer stoved in an inverted posi-
tion, as had been the habit before Shirozaemon *s time, were not
disfigured by the bare, blistered lips of their predecessors. Their
tdte was close and well-manufactured pottery, varying in colour
from dark brown to russet, and covered with thick, lustrous glazes
—black, amber-brown, chocolate and yellowish grey. These glazes
were not monochromatic: they showed differences of tint, and
sometimes marked varieties ot colour; as when chocolate-brown
passed into amber, or black was relieved by streaks and clouds of
grey and dead-leaf red. 'This ware came to be known as Tdshiro-
yoia, a term obtained by combining the second syllable of Katfi
with the two first of Shiroza em on. A genuine example of it is at
* i its weight in gold to Japanese dilettanti,
little more than interesting. Shirozaemon
i by three generations ot his family, each
tie name of Toshiro, and each distinguish-
ice of his work. Thenceforth Seto became
inufacture of cha-no-yu utensils, and many
out there deserve high admiration, their
ind their mahogany, russet-brown, amber
wonderful lustre and richness. Seto, in
despread reputation for its ceramic pro-
xto-mono (Seto article) came to be used
generally lor au pottery and porcelain, just as " China " is in the
West. Seto has now ceased to be a pottery-producing centre, and
ha6 become the chief porcelain manufactory of Japan. The porce-
lain industry was inaugurated in 1807 by Tamikichi, a local cera-
mist, who had visited Hizen and spent three years there studying
the necessary processes. Owari abounds in porcelain stone; but
it does not occur in constant or particularly simple forms, and as
the potters have not yet learned to treat their materials scientifically,
their work is often marred by unforeseen difficulties. For many
years after Tamikichi's processes had begun to be practised, the
only decoration employed was blue under the glaze. Sometimes
Chinese cobalt was used, sometimes Japanese, and sometimes a
mixture of both. To Kawamoto Hansuke, who flourished about
1850-1845, belongs the credit of having turned out the richest and
most attractive ware of this class. But, speaking generally, Japanese
blues do not rank on the same decorative level with those of China.
At Arita, although pieces were occasionally turned out of which
the colour could not be surpassed in purity and brilliancy, the
general character of the blue sous cowmte was either thin or dulL
At Hirado the ceramists affected a lighter and more delicate tone than
that of the Chinese, and, in order to obtain it, subjected the choice
pigment of the Middle Kingdom to refining processes of great severity.
The Hirado blue, therefore, belongs to a special aesthetic category.
But at Owari the experts were content with an inferior colour,
and their blue-and-white porcelains never enjoyed a distinguished
reputation, though occasionally we find a specimen of great merit.
Decoration with vitrifiable enamels over the glaze, though it
began to be practised at Owari about the year 1840, never became
a speciality of the place. Nowadays, indeed, numerous examples
of porcelains decorated in this manner are classed among Owari
products. But they receive their decoration, almost without
exception, m TokyS or Yokohama, where a large number of artists,
called e-tsuke-shi, devote themselves entirely to porcelain-painting.
These men seldom use vitrifiable enamels, pigments being much
more tractable and less costly. The dominant feature of the designs
is pictorial. They are frankly adapted to Western taste. Indeed,
of this porcelain it may be said that, from the monster pieces of
blue-and-white manufactured at Seto — vases six feet high and
garden pillar-lamps half as tall again do not dismay the BishQ
ceramist— to tiny coffee-cups decorated in Tokyo, with their
delicate miniatures of birds, flowers, insects, fishes and so forth,
everything indicates the death of the old severe aestheticisra. To
•och a depth of debasement had the ceramic art fallen in Owari, that
before the happy renaissance of the past ten years, Nagoya dis-
credited itself by employing porcelain as a base for cloisonne enamel-
ling. Many products of this vitiated industry have found their
way into the collections of foreigners.
Pottery was produced at several hamlets in Bizen as far back as
the 14th century, but ware worthy of artistic notice did not make its
_. appearance until the close of the 16th century, when
*■«■• the TaikS himself paid a visit to the factory at Imbc.
Thenccforth utensils for the use of the tea clubs began to be
manufactured. This Bizen-yaki was red stoneware, with thin
diaphanous glaze. Made of exceedingly refractory clay, it under-
went stoving for more than three weeks, and was consequently
remarkable for its hardness and metallic timbre. Some fifty years
later, the character of the choicest Bizcn-yaki underwent a marked
change. It became slate-coloured or bluish-brown faience, with
p&te as fine as pipe-clay, but very hard. In the ao-Biwn (blue
Bixen), as well as in the red variety, figures of mythical beings and
animals, birds, fishes and other natural/objects, were modelled with
a degree of plastic ability that can scarcely be spoken of in too high
185
terms. Representative specimens are truly admirable— every line,
every contour faithful. The production was very limited, and good
pieces soon ceased to be procurable except at long intervals and
heavy expense. The Bizen-yaki familiar to Western collectors is
comparatively coarse brown or reddish brown, stoneware, modelled
rudely, though sometimes redeemed by touches of the genius never
entirely absent from the work of the Japanese artisan-artist. Easy
to be confounded with it is another ware of the same type manu-
factured at Shidoro in the province of Totomi.
The Japanese potters could never vie with the Chinese in the
sr — — —
cei
of
Bi
ab
fie
Among a multitude of other Japanese wares, space allows us to
mention only two, those of Izumo and Yatsushiro. The .
chief of the former is faience, having light grey, close «» IB0 '
pdte and yellow or straw-coloured glaze, with or without crackle.
i86
to which it applied decoration in sold and green enamel Another
variety ha# chocolate glaze, clouded with amber and flecked with
%fAA duit. The former faience had its origin at the close of the
17th century, the latter at the dose of the 18th; but the Isumo-
yaki now procurable is a modern production.
The Yatsubhiro faience is a production of tr ,
where a number of Korean potters settled i »
rmiiitfcii f 7 lD century. It is the only J a pane e
fhhmms. tharactcrinics of a Korean original ai
served. Its diaphanous, pearl-grey glaze, uniforr r
<f*t Vied, overlying encaustic decoration in wh i
of n • *arm reddish p&ie, and the general excellc ,
have stwsyi commanded admiration. It is pr
iv\'i*\,\c quantities, but the modern ware fa i
pmiccMor,
Many examples of the above varieties deserve the enthusiastic
admiration they have received, yet they unquestionably belong
to a lower rank of ceramic achievements than the choice produc-
tions of Chinese kilns. The potters of the Middle Kingdom,
from the early eras of the Ming dynasty down to the latest years
of the iSth century, stood absolutely without rivals as makers
of porcelain. Their technical ability was incomparable — though
in grace of decorative conception they yielded the palm to the
Japanese— and the representative specimens they bequeathed
to posterity remained, until quite recently, far beyond the imita-
tive capacity of European or Asiatic experts. As for faience
ami pottery, however, the Chinese despised them in all forms,
with one notable exception, the yuksing-yao, known in the
Occident as boccaro. Even the yi-ksing-yao, too, owed much of
Its popularity to special utility. It was essentially the ware of
the tea-drinker. If in the best specimens exquisite modelling,
wonderful accuracy of finish and p&Us of interesting tints arc
found, such pieces ire, none the less, stamped prominently with
the character of utensils rather than with that of works of art.
In short, the artistic output of Chinese kilns in their palmiest
days was, not faience or pottery, but porcelain, whether of soft
or hard paste. Japan, on the contrary, owes her ceramic distinc-
tion In the main to her faience. . A great deal has been said by
enthusiastic writers about the familU ckrysanLhemo-pionienne of
I marl and the genre Kakiemon of Nabeshima, but these porce-
lains, beautiful as they undoubtedly are, cannot be placed on the
Same level with the kwan-yao and jamille rose of the Chinese
experts. Tho Imarl ware, even though its thick biscuit and
generally ungraceful shapes be omitted from the account, shows
no enamels that can rival the exquisitely soft, broken tints of
the f am lilt rose; and the Kakiemon porcelain, for all its rich
though chaste contrasts, lacks the delicate transmitted tints of
the shell-like kwan-yao. So, too, the blue-and-white porcelain
of lllrodo, though assisted by exceptional tenderness of sous-pdu
colour, by milk-white glaze, by great beauty of decorative
design, and often by an admirable use of the modelling or graving
tool, represents a ceramic achievement palpably below the soft
pasto kal pien-yao of King-te-chen. It is a curious and inter-
rating fart that this last product of Chinese skill remained
unknown in Japan down to very recent days. In the eyes of
a Chinese connoisseur, no blue-and-white porcelain worthy of
consideration exists, or ever has existed, except the kai-pien-yae,
with its imponderable pdtc, its wax-like surface, and its rich,
glowing blue, entirely free from superficiality or garishncss and
broken into a thousand tints by the microscopic crackle of the
gluze. The Japanese, although they obtained from their neigh-
bour almost everything of value she had to give them, did not
know this wonderful ware, and their ignorance is in itself sufficient
to prove their ceramic inferiority. There remains, too, a wide
domain In which the Chinese developed high skill, whereas the
Japanese ran scarcely be said to have entered it at all; namely,
the domain of monochromes and polychromes, striking every
iuAl of colour from the richest to the most delicate; the domain
of IntUi and JtambS glazes, of yt-pUn-yoo (transmutation ware),
§tni of *gg shell with Incised or translucid decoration. In all
I hoi irgUm of aihinvemcnt the Chinese potters stood alone and
aiming! y unapproachable. The Japanese, on the contrary,
u^>\k 4i H»i<iiy »f (alrnce, and In that particular line they
t»*+Ui m l,<gli suihlard of excellence. No faience produced
JAPAN
(CERAMICS
either in China or any other Oriental country can dispute the
palm with really representative specimens of Satsuma ware.
Not without full reason have Western connoisseurs lavished
panegyrics upon that exquisite production. The faience of the
Kioto artists never reached quite to the level of the Satsuma in
quality of pdle and glowing mellowness of decoration; their
materials were slightly inferior. But their skill as decorators
was as great as its range was wide, and they produced a multi-
tude of masterpieces on which alone Japan's ceramic fame might
safely be rested.
When the mediatization of the fiefs, in 1871, terminated
the local patronage hitherto extended so munificently to
artists, the Japanese ceramists gradually learned n,iiii if
that they must thenceforth depend chiefly upon the stj*mhr
markets of Europe and America. They had to «*»«es«ai»>
appeal, in short, to an entirely new public, and * lB **
how to secure its approval was to them a perplexing problem.
Having little to guide them, they often interpreted Western
taste incorrectly, and impaired their own reputation in a
corresponding degree. Thus, in the early years of the Mciji
era, there was a period of complete prostitution. No new
skill was developed, and what remained of the old was
expended chiefly upon the manufacture of meretricious
objects, disfigured by excess of decoration and not relieved
by any excellence of technique. In spite of their artistic
defects, these specimens were exported in considerable
numbers by merchants in the foreign settlements, and their first
cost being very low, they found a not unremunerative market.
But as European and American collectors became better ac-
quainted with the capacities of the pre-Meiji potters, the great
inferiority of these new specimens was recognized, and the prices
commanded by the old wares gradually appreciated. What then
happened was very natural: imitations of the old wares were
produced, and having been sufficiently disfigured by staining and
other processes calculated to lend an air of rust and age, they
were sold to ignorant persons, who laboured under the singu-
lar yet common hallucination that the points to be looked for in
specimens from early kilns were, not technical excellence, deco-
rative tastefulness and richness of colour, but dingincss, imper-
fections and dirt; persons who imagined, in short, that defects
which they would condemn at once in new porcelains ought to be
regarded as merits in old. Of course a trade of that kind, based
on deception, could not have permanent success. One of the
imitators of " old Satsuma " was among the first to perceive
that a new line must be struck out. Yet the earliest results of
his awakened perception hejped to demonstrate still further the
depraved spirit that had come over Japanese art. For be appbed
himself to manufacture wares having a close affinity with the
shocking monstrosities used for sepulchral purposes in ancient
Apulia, where fragments of dissected satyrs, busts of nymphs or
halves of horses were considered graceful excrescences for the
adornment of an amphora or a pithos. This iiakusu faience,
produced by the now justly celebrated Miyagawa Sboxaxt of Ota
(near Yokohama), survives in the form of vases and pots having
birds, reptiles, flowers, Crustacea and so forth plastered over
the surface — specimens that disgrace the period of their tnase-
facture, and represent probably the worst aberration of Japanese
ceramic conception.
A production so degraded as the early Makuzu faience could
not possibly have a lengthy vogue. Miyagawa soon began to
cast about for a better inspiration, and found it in -^ 3 nt af
the monochromes and polychromes of the Chinese raa—
Kane-hsi and Yung-cheng kilns. The extraordinary Jt *** i *
value attaching to the incomparable red glazes of China, not
only in the country of their origin but also in the United States,
where collectors showed a fine instinct in this matter, seems to
have suggested to Miyagawa the idea of imitation. He took for
model the rich and delicate " liquid-dawn " monochrome, and
succeeded in producing some specimens of considerable merit.
Thenceforth his example was largely followed, and it nay bow be
said that the tendency of many of the best Japanese *—»»*■>«
is to copy Chinese ekefs-d'eaart. To find them thus renewing
CERAMICS]
JAPAN
18?
their reputation by reverting to Chinese models, is not only
toother tribute to the perennial supremacy of Chinese porce-
lains, but also a fresh illustration of the eclectic genius of Jap-
anese art. All the products of this new effort are porcelains
proper. Seven kilns are devoted, wholly or in part, to the new
wares: belonging to Miyagawa Shdzan ol Ota, Seifu Yohei o(
Kioto, Takemoto Hayata and Kato Tomojiro of Tokyo, Higuchi
Haruzane of Hirado, Shida Yasukyo of Kaga and Kato Masukicbi
of Seto.
Among the seven ceramists here enumerated, Seiffl of KiSto
probably enjoys the highest reputation. If wc except the ware of
S»M at Satsuma, it may be said that nearly all the fine faience
JqJZ of Japan was manufactured formerly in Kifito. Nomura
^^ Ninsci, in the middle of the 17th century, inaugurated
a long era of beautiful productions with his cream-like " fish-roe "
croqueU glaxes, carrying rich decoration of clear and brilliant
ritrifiable enamels. It was he who gave their first really artistic
impulse to the kilns of Awata, Mizoro and Iwakura, whence so
many delightful specimens of faience issued almost without inter-
ruption until the middle of the 19th century and continue to
issue to-day. The three Kenzan, of whom the third died in 1820;
Ebisei; the four Ddhachi, of whom the fourth was still alive
in 1909; the Kagiya family, manufacturers of the celebrated
Kinkozan ware; Hozan, whose imitations of Delft faience and his
P&te-sur-p&te pieces with fern-scroll decoration remain incomparable;
Taizan Yohei, whose ninth descendant of the same name now pro-
duces fine specimens of Awata ware for foreign markets: Tanzan
Ydshitaro and his son Rokuro, to whose credit stands a new departure
in the form of faience having pote-sur-pdle decoration of lace patterns,
diapers and archaic designs executed in low relief with admirable
skill and minuteness; the two Bizan, renowned for their represen-
tations of richly apparelled figures as decorative motives; Rokubci,
who studied painting under Maruyama Okyfi and followed the
naturalistic style of that great artist; Mokubci, the first really
expert manufacturer of translucid porcelain in Kioto; Shuhei,
Kintei, and above all, Zengoro Hdzen, the celebrated potter of
Eiraku wares — these names and many others give to Kioto ceramics
ao eminence as well as an individuality which few other wares of
Japan can boast. Nor is it to be supposed that the ancient capital
now lacks great potters. Okamura Yasutaro, commonly called
Shdzan, produces specimens which only a very acute connoisseur
can distinguish from the work of Nomura Ninsci; Tanzan Rokuro's
half-tint enamels and soft creamy glazes would have stood high in
any epoch; Taizan Yohei produces Awata faience not inferior to
that of former days; Kaciya Sdbci worthily supports the reputation
of the Kinkozan ware; Kawamoto Eijiro has made to the order of
a well-known Kidto firm many specimens now figuring in foreign
collections as old masterpieces; and It6 Tozan succeeds in decorating
faience with seven colours sons towxrte (black, green, blue, russet -
red, tea-brown, purple and peach), a feat never before accomplished.
It is therefore an error to assert that Kioto his no longer a title
to be railed a great ceramic centre. Seifu Y6hci, however, has the
special faculty of manufacturing monochromatic and jewelled
porcelain and faience, which differ essentially from the traditional
Kidto types, their models being taken directly (rom China. But a
sharp distinction has to be drawn between the method of Seifu and
that of the other six ceramists mentioned above as following Chinese
fashions. It is this, that whereas the Utter produce their chromatic
effects by mixing the colouring matter with the glaze, Seifu paints
the biscuit with a pigment over which he runs a translucid colourless
glaze. The Kioto artist's process is much easier than that of his
rivals, and although his monochromes are often of most pleasing
delicacy and fine tone, they do not belong to the same category ol
technical excellence as the wares they imitate. From this judg-
ment must be excepted, however, his ivory-white and tilodon wares,
as well as his porcelains decorated with blue, or blue and red sous
convert*, and with verifiable enamels over the glaze. In these five
varieties he is emphatically great. It cannot be said, indeed, that
his ciladon shows the velvety richness of surface and tenderness of
colour that distinguished the old Kuang-yao and Lungchuan-yao
ol China, or that he has ever essayed the moss-edged crackle of the
beautiful Ko-yao. But his ciladon certainly equals the more modern
Chinese examples from the Kang-hsi and Yung^-thene kilns. As for
his ivory-white, it distinctly surpasses the Chinese Ming Ckcn-yao
in every quality except an indescribable intimacy of glaze and
pdu which probably can never be obtained by cither Japanese or
European methods.
Miyagawa Shdzan, or Makuzu. as he is generally called, has never
followed ScifQ's example in descending from the difficult manipu-
M r_ w lation of coloured glazes to the comparatively simple
&h£?ZZ process of painted biscuit. This comment does not
— ° mMm refer to the use of blue and red sous couverte. In that
class of beautiful ware the application of pigment to the unglazcd
pdJs is inevitable, and both Seifu and Miyagawa, working on
the same lines as their Chinese predecessors, produce porcelains
that almost rank with choice Kang-h*i specimens, though they
have not yet mastered the processes sufficiently to employ
them in the manufacture of large imposing pieces or wares of
moderate price. But in the matter of true monochromatic and
polychromatic glazes, to Shdzan belongs the credit of having
inaugurated Chinese fashions, and if he has never fully succeeded in
achieving lang-yao (sang-de-bceuf), chi-hung fliquid-dawn red),
chiang'tou-hung (bean-blossom red, the " peach-blow " of American
collectors), or above all pinkwo-tring (apple-green with red bloom),
his efforts to imitate them have resulted in some very interesting
pieces.
S 1
h
Takemoto and Kat8 of T5kyo" entered the field subsequently to
designs. A majority of the artists are content to copy old pictures
of Buddha's sixteen disciples, the seven gods of happiness, and other
similar assemblages of mythical or historical personages, not only
because such work offers large opportunity for the use of striking
colours and the production of meretricious effects, dear to the eye
of the average Western householder and tourist, but also because
a complicated design, as compared with a simple one, has the advan-
tage of hiding the technical imperfections of the ware. Of late there
have happily appeared some decorators who prefer to choose their
subjects from the natural field in which their great predecessors
excelled, and there is reason to hope that this more congenial and
more pleasing style will supplant its modern .usurper. The best
known factory in Tokyd for decorative purposes is the Hvochi-cn.
It was established in the Fukagawa suburb in 1875, with the imme-
diate object of preparing specimens for the first TOkyO exhibition
held at that time. Its founders obtained a measure of official*: aid,
and were able to secure the services of some good artist v among
whom may be mentioned Obanawa and Shimauchi. The porcelains
of Owari and Arita naturally received most attention at the hands of
the HyOchi-en decorators, but there was scarcely one or the principal
wares of Japan upon which they did not try their skill, and if a piece
of monochromatic Minton or Sevres came in their way, they under-
took to improve it by the addition of designs copied from old masters
or suggested by modern taste. The cachet of the Fukagawa
atelier was indiscriminately applied to all such pieces, and has
probably proved a source of confusion to collectors. Many other
factories for decoration were established from time to time in
TokyO. Of these some still exist; others, ceasing to be profitable,
have been abandoned. On the whole, the industry may now be
said to have assumed a domestic character. In a house, presenting
no distinctive features whatsoever, one finds the decorator with a
cupboard full of bowls and vases of glazed biscuit, which he adorns*
piece by piece, using the simplest conceivable apparatus and a meagre
supply of pigments. Sometimes he fixes the decoration himself,
employing for that purpose a small kiln which stands in bis back
garden ; sometimes he entrusts this part of the work to a factory.
As in the case of everything Japanese, there is no pretence, no usclcas
expenditure about the process. Yet it is plain that this school of
TOkyO decorators, though often choosing their subjects badly, have
contributed much to the progress of the ceramic art during the past
few years. Little by little there has been developed a degree of skill
which compares not unfavourably with the work of the cud masters;
Table services of Owari porcelain — the ware itself excellently
manipulated and of almost egg-shell fineness — are now decorated
with floral scrolls, landscapes, snsecta, birds, figure-subjects and all
i88
sorts of designs, chaste, elaborate or quaint; and these services,
representing so much artistic labour and originality, are sold for
prices that Dear no due ratio to the skill required m their manu-
facture.
There is only one reservation to be made in speaking of the
modern decorative industry of Japan under its better aspects.
In TokyO, KiOto, Yokohama and Kobe — in all of which places
decorating ateliers (eisuke-dokoro), similar to those of TOkyO, have
been established in modern times— the artists use chiefly pigments,
seldom venturing to employ vitrifiable enamels. That the results
achieved with these different materials are not comparable is a fact
which every connoisseur must admit. The glossy surface of a porce-
lain glare is ill fitted for rendering artistic effects with ordinary
colours. The proper field for the application of these is the biscuit,
in which position the covering glaze serves at once to. soften and to
preserve the pigment. It can scarcely be doubted that the true
instincts of the ceramist will ultimately counsel him to confine his
decoration over the glaze to vitrihable enamels, with which the
Chinese and Japanese potters of former times obtained such brilliant
results. But to employ enamels successfully is an achievement
dcmandingspccial training and materials not easy to procure or to
prepare. The TOkyO decorators are not likely, therefore, to change
their present methods immediately.
An impetus was given to ceramic decoration by the efforts of- a
new school, which owed its origin to Dr G. Wagencr, an eminent
German expert formerly in the service of the Japanese government.
Dr Wagerier conceived the idea of developing the art of decoration
under the glaze, as applied to faience. Faience thus decorated has
always been exceptional in Japan. Rare specimens were produced
in Satsuma and Kioto, the colour employed being chiefly blue,
though brown and black were used in very exceptional instances.
The difficulty of obtaining clear, rich tints was nearly prohibitive,
and though success, when achieved, seemed to justify the effort,
this class of ware never received much attention in Japan. By
careful selection and preparation of pdte, glaze and pigments, Dr
Wagener proved not only that the manufacture was reasonably
feasible, but also that decoration thus applied to pottery possesses
unique delicacy and softness. ' Ware manufactured by his direction
at the TOkyO school of technique (shokkd gakkd), under the name of
csahi-yaki, ranks among the interesting productions of modern
Japan. The decorative colour chiefly employed is chocolate brown,
which harmonizes excellently with the glaze. But the ware has
never found favour in Japanese eyes, an element of unpleasant
garishness being imparted to it by the vitreous appearance of the
glaze, which is manufactured according to European methods.
The modern faience of I to TCzan of Kioto, decorated with colour
under the glaze, is incomparably more artistic than the TOkyO
csahi-yaki, from which, nevertheless, the KiOto master doubtless
borrowed some ideas. The decorative industry in TOkyO owed
much also to the kOshO-kaisha, an institution started by Wakai and
Matsuo in 1873, with official assistance. Owing to the intelligent
patronage of this company, and the impetus given to the ceramic
trade by its enterprise, the style of the TOkyO etsuke was much jm-
i)roved and the field of their industry extended. It must be acknow-
edged, however, that the Tokyo artists often devote their skill to
purposes of forgery, and that their imitations, especially of old
Satsuma,-yaki, are sometimes franked by dealers whose standing
should forbid such frauds. In this context it may be mentioned
that, of late years, decoration of a remarkably microscopic character
has been successfully practised in Kioto, Osaka and Kobe, its
originator being Meisan of Osaka. Before dismissing the subject
of modern TOkyO ceramics, it may be added that KatO TomatarO,
mentioned above in connexion with the manufacture of special
glazes, has also been very successful in producing porcelains deco-
rated with blue sous convert* at his factory in the Koishikawa
suburb.
Higuchi of Hirado is to be classed with ceramists of the new school
on account of one ware only, namely, porcelain having translucid
decoration, the so-called grains of rice ' of American
JAPAN
iv^^/ collectors, designated holcrv-d* (firefly style) in japan.
ntmia That, however, is an achievement of no small con-
sequence, especially since it had never previously
been essayed outside China. The Hirado expert has not yet attained
technical skill equal to that of the Chinese. He cannot, like them,
cover the greater part of a specimen's surface with a lacework of
transparent decoration, exciting wonder that p&le deprived so greatly
of continuity could have been manipulated without accident. But
his artistic instincts are higher than those of the Chinese, and there is
reasonable hope that in time he may excel their best works. In
other respects the Hirado factories do not produce wares nearly
5.!^ tiru i. M J th ^ wnu i actu ^ d L tnere bet*«n »759 and 1840,
when the Htrado-yaki stood at the head of all Japanese porcelain
on account of its pure, close-grained pdte, its lustrous milk-white
•"**• ""d™.* «oft clear blue of its carefully executed decoration.
The Owari potters were slow to follow the lead of Miyagawa
SbOzan and SeifQ YOheu At the industrial exhibition in KiOto
Wsnot ( f "95). the first results of their efforts were shown.
Owmri. attracting attention at once. In medieval times Owari
1- ~ wa « .celebrated for faience glazes of various colours,
much affected by the tea-clubs, but its staple manufacture from the
[CERAMICS
beginning of the 19th century was porcelain decorated with blue
under the glaze, the best specimens of which did not approach their
Chinese prototypes in fineness of pate, purity of glaze or richness of
colour. During the first twenty-five years of the Meiji era the
Owari potters sought to compensate the technical and artistic
defects of their pieces by giving them magnificent dimensions; but
at the T6ky6 industrial exhibition (1891 ) they were able to contribute
some specimens showing decorative, plastic and graving skill of no
mean order.' Previously to that time, one of the Seto experts.
KatO Gosuke, had developed remarkable ability in the manufacture
of cUadon, though in that field he was subsequently distanced by
SeifQ of KiOto. Only lately did Owari feel the influence of the new
movement towards Chinese types. Its potters took flamte glazes
for models, and their pieces possessed an air of novelty that attracted
connoisseurs. But the style was not calculated to win general
popularity, and the mant '
occupy the attention of grc
egg-shell porcelain, remark
Seto to the KiOto industri
of the Yung- lo era ( 1403-141
of ware to which the name
account of its wonderfully a
this porcelain had incised dc
much to the beauty of the |
King-tc-chen did not fail tc
but its only Japanese rep
inferior in more than one
of Hizcn and Hirado, some _ _.. , ^. ^,^„
to protect their extreme fragility. The Seto experts, however, are
now making bowls, cups and vases that rank nearly as high aa
the celebrated Yung-lo totai-ki. In purity of tone and velvet-
like gloss of surface there is distinct inferiority on the side of the
Japanese ware, but in thinness of pile it supports comparison, and
in profusion and beauty of incised decoration it excels its Chinese
original.
Latest of all to acknowledge the impulse of the new dep a r tur e
have been the potters of. Kaga. For many years their ware enjoyed
the credit, or discredit, of being the most lavishly deco- «- -
rated porcelain injapan. It is known to Western collectors rZl
as a product blazing with red and gold, a very degenerate ****
offspring of the Chinese Ming type, which Hozen 01 KiOto reproduced
60 beautifully at the beginning of the 19th century under the name
of eirakn-yakL Undoubtedly the best specimens of this kimam-4*
(brocade) porcelain of Kaga merit praise and admiration; bat, on
the wholCjWare so gaudy could not long hold a high place in public
esteem. The Kaga potters ultimately appreciated that defect.
They still manufacture quantities of tea and coffee sets, and dinner
or dessert services of rcd-and-gold porcelain for foreign markets;
but about 1885 some of them made zealous and patient efforts to
revert to the processes that won so much fame for the old Kutani-
yaki. with its grand combinations of rich, lustrous, soft-toned glazes.
The attempt was never entirely successful, but its results r e st o f cd
something of the Kaga kilns' reputation. Since 1895, again, a
to* " ' re has been made by Morishita Hachizaernon,
a conjunction with Shida Yasukyo, president of
th joint stock company {Kaga bussan kmbuskiki
ka in the Kaga industrial school. The line chosen
b> j purely Chinese. Their great aim seems to be
he exquisite Chinese monochromes known as
e of the sky after rain) and yuek-pek (cfatr-dr-
> devote much attention to porcelains decorated
us convene. Their work shows much promise,
cimens of the Sino-Japanese school, the prices
ict wide custom.
The sum of the matter is that the modem Japanese ^^mfot.
after many efforts to cater for the taste of the Occident,
evidently concludes that his best hope consists in -
devoting all his technical and artistic resources to " r "
reproducing the celebrated wares of China. In explanation of
the fact that he did not essay this route in former times, it may
be noted, first, that be had only a limited acquaintance with the
wares in question; secondly, that Japanese connoisseurs never
attached any value to their countrymen's imitation of Chinese
porcelains so long as the originals were obtainable; thirdly, that
the ceramic art of China not having fallen into its present state
of decadence, the idea of competing with it did not occur to out-
aiders; and fourthly, that Europe and America had not deve-
loped their present keen appreciation of Chinese masterpieces.
Yet it is remarkable that China, at the dose of the 19th century,
should have again furnished models to Japanese eclecticism.
Lacquer.— Japan derived the art of lacquering from China
(probably about the beginning of the 6th century), but she
ultimately carried it far beyond Chinese conception. At fiat
hex experts confined themselves to plain black lacquer. From
LACQUER)
JAFAJSJ
189
the early part of the 8th century they began to ornament it
with dust of gold or mother-of-pearl, and throughout the Hcian
epoch (9th to 1 2th century) they added pictorial designs, though
of a formal character, the chief motives being floral subjects,
arabesques and scrolls. All this work was in the style known as
kiro-makie (flat decoration); that is to say, having the decorative
design in the same plane as the ground. In the days of the great
dilettante Yoshimasa (1449-1490), lacquer experts devised a
new style, Uxka-makic, or decoration in relief, which immensely
augmented the beauty of the ware, and constituted a feature
altogether special to Japan. Thus when, at the close of the
1 6th century, the Tailed inaugurated the fashion of lavishing all
the resources of applied art on the interior decoration of castles
and temples, the services of the lacquerer were employed to an
extent hitherto unknown, and there resulted some magnificent
work on friezes, coffered ceilings, door panels, altar-pieces and
cenotaphs. This new departure reached its climax in the Toku-
gawa mausolea of Yedo and Nikkd, which are enriched by the
possession of the most splendid applications of lacquer decora-
lion the world has ever seen, nor is it likely that anything of
comparable beauty and grandeur will be again produced in the
same line. Japanese connoisseurs indicate the end of the 17th
century as the golden period of the art, and so deeply rooted is
this belief that whenever a date has to be assigned, to any
specimen of exceptionally fine quality, it is unhesitatingly
referred to the time of Joken-in (Tsunayoshi).
A: .ong the many skilled artists who have practised this beautiful
craft since the first on record, Kiyohara Nonsuyc (c. 1169), may be
mentioned Koyetsu (1558-1637) and his pupils, who are especially
noted for their into (medicine-cases worn as part of the costume);
Kajikawa Kinjird (c 1680). the founder of the great Kajikawa
family, which continued up to the 19th century ; and Koma KyQhaku
Id, 1715). whose pupils and descendants maintained his traditions
lor a period of equal length. Of individual artists, perhaps the most
notable b Ogata K&rin (d. 1716), whose skill was equally great in
the arts of painting and pottery. He was the eldest son of an artist
named Ogato S&ken, and studied the styles of the KanO and Toss
schools successively. Among the artists who influenced him were
KaaoTsunenobu, Nomura Sotatsu and Koyetsu, His lacquer- ware is
distinguished for a bold and at times almost eccentric impressionism ,
and his use of inlay is strongly characteristic. Ritsu& (1663-1747),
a pupil and contemporary of K&rin. and like him a potter and
L-/- 1.. -.-_ __.!*l... l~~..__. ~t —„. .kill Tk«. UM**m.*A
anzan. the two Shiome. Y a ma mot o Shunsbo and his pupils,
»mada J&ka and Kwanshosai Toyd (late 18th century). In the
inning of the 19th century worked Shdkwasai. who frequently
1 . . ..... - a l- r • " L?L -'— L -
Work.
collaborated with the metal- worker Shibayama, encrusting his
lacquer with small decorations in metal by the latter.
No important new developments have taken place during modern
times in Japan's lacquer manufacture. Her artists follow the old
ways faithfully; and indeed it is not easy to see how
they could do better. On the other hand, there has
not been any deterioration ; all the skill of former days
is still active. The contrary has been repeatedly affirmed by foreign
critics, but no one really familiar with modern productions can
entertain such a view. Lacquer-making, however, being essentially
an art and not a mere handicraft, has its eras of great masters and
its seasons of inferior execution. Men of the calibre of Koyetsu K&rin,
FGt*u&. Kajikawa and Mitsutoshi must be rare in any age, and the
epoch when they flourished is justly remembered with enthusiasm.
But the Meiji era has had its Zcshin, and it had in 1909 Shirayama
Fokomatsu, Kawanabe Itcbo. Oglwa Sb&min. Uematsu H&min,
Shibayama S&ichi. Morishita Monhachi and other lesser experts, all
masters in designing and execution. Zeshin. shortly before he died,
indicated Shirayama Fukumatsu as the man upon whom his mantle
should descend, and that the judgment of this really great craftsman
was correct cannot be denied by any one who has seen the works
of Shirayama. He excels in his representations of landscapes and
waterscapes, and baa succeeded in transferring to gold-lacquer
panels tender and delicate pictures of nature's softest moods — pic-
tures that show balance, richness, harmony and a fine sense of
decorative proportion. Kawanabe Itchd is celebrated for his
representations of flowers and foliage, and Morishita Monhachi
and Asano Saburo (of Kaga) are admirable in all styles, but especially,
perhaps, in the charming variety called top-dashi (ground down),
which is pre-eminent for Us satin-like texture and for the atmosphere
of dreamy softness that pervades the decoration. The togi-dashi
design, when finely executed, seems to bang suspended in the velvety
lacquer or to float under its silky surface. The magnificent sheen and
richness of the pure kin-maku (gold lacquer) are wanting, but in
their place we have inimitable tenderness and delicacy.
The only branch of the Jacqueffar's art that can be said to have
shown any marked development in the Meiji era is that ia which
parts of the decorative scheme consist of objects in gold, silver,
shakudo, shibuichi, iron, or, above all, Ivory or mother- -.
of pearl. It might indeed be inferred, from some of JJJV,
the essays published in Europe on the subject of Japan's \^mu
ornamental arts, that this application of ivory and
mother-of-pearl holds a place of paramount importance. Such
is not the case. Cabinets, fire-screens, plaques and boxes resplen-
dent with gold lacquer grounds carrying elaborate and profuse
decoration of ivory and mother-of-pearl > are not objects that appeal
to Japanese taste. They belong essentially to the catalogue of
articles called into existence to meet the demand of the foreign
market, being, in fact, an attempt to adapt the lacquerer's art to
decorative furniture for European houses. On the whole it is a
successful attempt. The plumage of gorgeously-hued birds, the
blossoms of flowers (especially the hydrangea), the folds of thick
brocade, microscopic diapers and arabesques, are built up with tiny
fragments of iridescent shell, in combination with silver-foil, gold>
lacquer and coloured bone, the whole producing a rich and sparkling
effect. In fine specimens the workmanship is extraordinarily
minute, and every fragment of metal, shell, ivory or bone, used to
construct the decorative scheme, is imbedded firmly in its place.
But in a majority of cases the work of building is done by means of
paste and glue only, so that the result lacks durability. The employ-
ment of mother-of-pearl to ornament lacquer grounds dates from a
period as remote as the 8th century, but its use as a material for
constructing decorative designs began in the 17th century, and was
due to an expert called Shibayama, whose descendant, Shibayama
S&ichi, has in recent years been associated with the same work in
T6kyo.
In the manufacture of Japanese lacquer there are three processes.
The first is the extraction and preparation of the lac: the second,
its application; and the third, the decoration of the j^^^
lacquered surface. The lac, when taken from an incision "■"*■■■*
in the trunk of the Rhus vemicifcra (urvski-no-ki), contains approxi-
mately 70 % of lac add, 4 % of gum arabic, 2 % of albumen, and
24% of water. It is strained, deprived of its moisture, and receives
an admixture of gamboge, cinnabar, acetous protoxide or some
other colouring matter. The object to be lacquered, which is
generally made of thin white pine, is subjected to singularly thorough
and painstaking treatment, one of the processes being to cover it
with a layer of Japanese paper or thin hempen cloth, which is fixed
by means of a pulp of rice-paste and lacquer. In this way the danger
of warping is averted, ana exudations from the wooden surface are
prevented from reaching the overlaid coats of lacquer.^ Numerous
operations of luting, sizing, lacquering, polishing, drying, rubbing
down, and so on, are performed by the nurmono-shi, until, after
many days' treatment, the object emerges with a smooth, lustre-
like dark-grey or coloured surface, and is ready to pass into the hands
of the makte-shi, or decorator. The latter is an artist; those who
have performed the preliminary operations are merely skilled arti-
sans. The makie-shi may be said to paint a picture on the surface
of the already lacquered object. He takes for subject a landscape,
a seascape, a battle-scene, flowers, foliage, birds, fishes, insects — in
short, anything. This he sketches in outline with a paste of white
lead, and then, having filled in the details with gold and colours, he
superposes a coat of trans! ucid lacquer, which is finally subjected
to careful polishing. If parts of the design are to be in relief, they
are built up with a putty of black lacquer, white lead, camphor and
lamp-black. In all fine lacquers gold predominates so largely that
the general impression conveyed by the object is one of glow and
richness. It is also an inviolable rule that every part must show
beautiful and highly finished work, whether it be an external or an
internal part. The makie-shi ranks almost as high as the pictorial
artist in Japanese esteem. He frequently signs his works, and a
great number of names have been thus handed down during the
past two centuries.
Cloisonnl Enamel. — Cloisonne enamel is essentially of modern
development in Japan. The process was known at an early
period, and was employed for the purpose of subsidiary
decoration from the close of the 16th century, but not until the
19th century did Japanese experts begin to manufacture
the objects known in Europe as "enamels;" that is to say,
vases, plaques, censers, bowls, and so forth, having their surface
covered with vitrified pastes applied either in the champleU or the
chisontti style. It is necessary to insist upon this fad, because
it has been stated with apparent authority that numerous speci-
mens which began to be exported from 1865 were the qutcome
of industry commencing in the 16th century and reaching its
point of culmination at the beginning of the x8th. There is
not the slenderest ground for such a theory. The work began in
1838, and Kaji Tsunekicm' of Owari was its originator. During
20 years previously to the reopening of the country in 1858.
» Obtained from the shea of the H*licti$.
190
cloisonne enamelling was practised in the manner now understood
by the term; when foreign merchants began to settle in Yoko-
hama, several experts were working skilfully in Owari after the
methods of Kaji Tsunckichi Up to ihat time there had been
little demand for enameb of large dimensions, but when the
foreign market called for vases, censers, plaques and such things,
no difficulty was found in supplying them. Thus, about the
year 1865, there commenced an export of enamels which had no
prototypes in Japan, being destined frankly for European and
American collectors. From a technical point of view these
specimens had much to recommend them. The base, usually of
copper, was as thin as cardboard, the cloisons, exceedingly fine
and delicate, were laid on with care and accuracy; the colours
were even, and the designs showed artistic judgment. Two
faults, however, marred the work— first, the shapes were clumsy
and unpleasing, being copied from bronzes whose solidity
justified forms unsuited to thin enamelled vessels, secondly,
the colours, sombre and somewhat impure, lacked the glow and
mellowness that give decorative superiority to the technically
inferior Chinese enamels of the later Ming and early Tsing eras
Very soon, however, the artisans of Nagoya (Owari), Yokohama
and Tdkyo — where the art had been taken up— found that
faithful and fine workmanship did not pay. The foreign mer-
chant desired many and cheap specimens for export, rather than
few and costly. There followed then a period of gradual decline,
and the enamels exported to Europe showed so much inferiority
that they were supposed to be the products of a widely different
era and of different makers. The industry was threatened with
extinction, and would certainly have dwindled to insignificant
dimensions had not a few earnest artists, working in the face of
many difficulties and discouragements, succeeded in striking out
new lines and establishing new standards for excellence.
Three clearly differentiated schools now (1875) came into existence.
One, headed by Namikawa Yasuyuki of Kioto, look for its objects
1^ the utmost delicacy and perfection of technique, rich-
~-fr.fr ncss of decoration, purity of design and harmony of
colour. The thin clumsily-shaped vases of the Kaji
school, with their uniformly distributed decoration of diapers,
scrolls and arabesques in comparatively dull colours, ceased alto-
gether to be produced, their place being taken by graceful specimens,
technically flawless, and carrying designs not only free from stiffness,
but also executed in colours at once rich and soft. This school may
be subdivided. Kioto representing one branch, Nagoya, Tokyo and
Yokohama the other. In the products of the Kioto branch the
decoration generally covered the whole surface of the piece; in the
products of the other branch the artist aimed rather at pictorial
effect, placing the design in a monochromatic field of low tone. It
is plain that such a method as the latter implies great command of
coloured pastes, and. indeed, no feature of the manufacture is more
conspicuous than the progress made during the period J 880- 1900
in compounding and bring verifiable enamels. Many excellent
examples of cloisonne 1 enamel have been produced by each branch
of this school. There has been nothing like them in any other
country, and they stand at an immeasurable distance above the
works of the early Owari school represented by Kaji Tsunckichi
and his pupils and colleagues.
The second of the modern schools is headed by Namikawa Sosuke
of Tokyo. It isan easily traced outgrowth of thesccond branch of the
f first school just described, for one can readily under-
stand that from placing the decorative design in a
monochromatic field of low tone, which is essentially
a pictorial method, development would proceed in the direction
of concealing the mechanics of the art in order to enhance the
pictorial effect. Thus arose the so-called " doisonlcss enamels "
(musenjippd). They are not always without cloisons. The design
b generally framed at the outset with a ribbon of thin metal
precisely after the manner of ordinary cloisonn6 ware. But as
the work proceeds the cloisons are hidden— unless their presence
b necessary to give emphasis to the design— and the final result b
a picture in vitrified enamels.
The characteristic productions of the third among the modern
schools are monochromatic and translucid enamels. All students
Moaachm. °* ln * OPTamic * rt know that the monochrome porce-
fj~ iw ^ lams of China owe their beauty to the fact that the
r^ nm§ M colour is in the glaze, not under it. The ceramist
finds no difficulty in applying a uniform coat of pig-
ment to porcelain biscuit, and covering the whole with a diaphanous
glaae. The colour b fixed and the glaze set by secondary firing at a
lower temperature than that necessary for hardening the pSU.
Such porcelains, however, lack the velvet-like softness ^nd depth of
tone so justly prised in the genuine monochrome, where the glaae
JAPAN
(COMMUNICATIONS
itself contains the colouring matter, pile and glaae being fired
simultaneously at the same high temperature. It b apparent that
a vitrified enamel may be made to perform, in part at any rate, the
function of a porcelain gljzc. Acting upon that theory, the experts
of Tdkyd and Nagoya have produced many very beautiful speci-
mens of monochrome enamel— yellow (canary or straw), rose dm
Barry, liquid-dawn. red. aubergine purple, green (grass or leaf),
dove-grey and lapis lazuli blue. The pieces do not quite reach the
level of Chinese monochrome porcelains, but their inferiority is not
marked. The artist's great difficulty b to hide the metal base
completely. A monochrome loses much of its attractiveness when
the colour merges into a metal rim. or when the interior of a vase
is covered with crude unpolished paste. But to spread and fix the
enamel so that neither at the rim nor in the in tenor shall there be
any break of continuity, or any indication that the base b copper,
not porcelain, demands quite exceptional skill.
The translucid enameb of the modern school are generally
associated with decorative bases. In other words, a suitable design
is chiselled in the metal base so as to be visible through
the diaphanous enamel. Very beautiful effects of broken
and softened lights, combined with depth and delicacy of
colour, arc thus obtained. But the decorative designs which lend
themselves to such a purpose are not numerous. A gold base deeply
chiselled in wave-diaper and overrun with a paste of aubergine
purple is the most pleading. A still higher achievement b to apply
to the chiselled base designs executed in coloured enamels, finally
covering the whole with translucid paste. Admirable results are
thus produced; as when, through a medium of cerulean blue, bright
goldhs-h and blue-backed carp appear swimming in silvery waves,
or brilliantly plumaged birds seem to soar among fleecy clouds. The
artists of this school show also much skill in using enameb for the
Rurposes of subordinate decoration — suspending enamelled butter*
ics, birds or floral sprays, among the reticulations of a sUva*
vase chiselled d jour; or filling with translucid enamels parts of a
decorative scheme sculptured in iron, silver, gold or shakudo.
V.— Economic Conditions
Communications. — From the conditions actually existing in
the 8th century after the Christian era the first compilers of
Japanese history inferred the conditions which might sfo*+am4
have existed in the 7th century before that era. One Po*tMkt
of their inferences was that, in the early days, com- Eg-fr
munication was by water only, and that not until 7to **»
549 B.C. did the most populous region of the empire — the
west coast — come into possession of public roads. Six hundred
years later, the local satraps are represented as having received
instructions to build regular highways, and in the 3rd century
the massing of troops for an over-sea expedition invested
roads with new value. Nothing is yet heard, however, about
posts. These evidences of civilization did not make their
appearance until the first great era of Japanese reform, the
Taika period (645-650), when stations were established along
the principal highways, provision was made of post-horses,
and a system of bells and checks was devbed for distinguishing
official carriers. In those days ordinary travellers were required
to carry passports, nor had they any share in the benefits of
the official organization, which was entirely under the control of
the minister of war. Great difficulties attended the movements
of private persons. Even the task of transmitting to the
central government provincial taxes paid in kind had to be dis-
charged by specially organized parties, and this journey from the
north-eastern districts to the capital generally occupied three
months. At the close of the 7th century the emperor Mommu is
said to have enacted a law that wealthy persons living near the
highways must supply rice to travellers, and fn 745 an empress
(Koken) directed that a stock of medical necessaries must be
kept at the postal stations. Among the benevolent acts attri-
buted to renowned Buddhist priests posterity specially remembers
their efforts to encourage the building of roads and bridges. The
great emperor Kwammu (782-806) was constrained to devote
a space of five years to the reorganization of the whole system of
post -stat ions. Owing to the anarchy which prevailed during
the 10th, nth and 12th centuries, facilities of communication
disappeared almost entirely, even for men of rank a long journey
involved danger of starvation or fatal exposure, and Hit pains
and perils of travel became a household word among the people.
Yoritomo. the founder of feudalism at the close of the lath century,
was «do great a statesman to underestimate the value of roads sad
RAILWAYS!
posts. Hie highway between his stronghold. Kamakura, and the
Imperial city, KiOto, began in his time to develop features which
ultimately entitled it to be called one of the finest roads in the world.
But after Yoritorao's death the land became once more an armed
camp, in which the rival barons discouraged travel beyond the
limits of their own domains. Not until the Tokugawa family
obtained military control of the whole empire (1603), and, fixing its
capital at Yedo, required the feudal chiefs to reside these every
second year, did the problem of roads and post<«tations force itself
once more on official attention. Regulations were now strictly
enforced, fixing the nui ' '" ' " " ' ich
station, the loads to be as
the transport services t ind
ami the fees he had to j me
into existence, but thoj est
kind of food. By des dal
chiefs to and from Ycd al,
developed features of c ice
of good roads and a led
attention. This found em
snore elaborate than an icr
the name of " flying tr cd.
The first class were ii tc.
They carried official m< ice
of 348 miles— in four c! of,
relays. The second cL :he
fiefs and the Tokugawa Jo,
for in the alternate yc in
that city his family ha in*
tained by a syndicate for
transmitting letters be ka
and Yedo and interveni ike
to deliver a letter dir ted
was to expose letters a of
their destination, leavi ires
that such things had it
represented a great t *al
times.
The nation does not seem to have appreciated the deficiencies of
the syndicate's service, supplemented as it was by a network of
waterways which greatly increased the facilities for .transport.
After the cessation of civil wars under the sway of the Tokugawa, the
building and improvement of roads went on steadily. It is not too
math to say, indeed, that when Japan opened her doors to foreigners
in the middle of the 19th century, she possessed a system of roads
some of. which bore striking testimony to her medieval greatness.
_^ The most remarkable was the TOkaidO (castern-sca way),
J2 L« «o called because it ran eastward along the coast from
T9Kumk Kidto. This great highway, 345 m. long, connected Osa ka
and Kioto with Yedo. The date of its construction is not recorded,
but it certainly underwent signal improvement in the 12th and 13th
centuries, and during the two and a half centuries of Tokugawa sway
in Yedo. A wide* well-made and well-kept avenue, it was lined
throughout the greater part of its length by giant pine-trees, render-
ing it the most picturesque highway in the world. Iycyasu, the
founder of the Tokugawa dynasty of shoguns, directed that his
body should be interred at Nikko, a place of exceptional beauty,
consecrated eight hundred years previously. This meant an exten-
sion of the TOkaidO (under a different name) nearly a hundred mites
northward, for the magnificent shrines erected then at Nikko and
the periodical ceremonies thenceforth performed there demanded a
correspondingly fine avenue of approach. The original TOkaidO
was taken for model, and Yedo and NikkO were joined by a highway
flanked by rows of cryptomeria. Second only to the TOkaidO is
__ the Naka&cndO (mid-mountain road), which also was
J"J ~ constructed to join Kioto with Yedo, but follows an
«■*****«* inland course through the provinces of Yaroashiro,
Omi, Mi no, ShiashG, Kdtzukc and Musashi. Its length is 340 m.,
and though not flanked by trees or possessing so good a bed as the
Tdkaidd, it is nevertheless a sufficiently remarkable highway. A
third road, the OshGkaidO runs northward from Yedo
J*?-- M (now T5ky6) to Aomori on the extreme north of the
O tftSEs ftM. main is | an< j t a dfcfancc of 445 m., and several lesser
highways give access to other regions.
The question of road superintendence received early attention
from the government of the restoration. At a general assembly
of local prefects held at TOkyO in June 1875 it was
decided to classify the different roads throughout the
' empire, and to determine the several sources from
s/«m4s. wn jch the sums necessary for their maintenance and
repair should be drawn. After several days* discussion all roads
were eventually ranged under one or other of the following
heads:—
I. National roads, consisting of—
Class 1. Roads leading from T0ky6 to the various treaty
porta,
JAPAN 191
Class a, Roads leading from TOkyfl to the ancestral shrines
in the province of ls€, and also to the cities or to
military stations.
Class 3. Roads leading from TOkyO to the prefecture! offices,
• and those forming the lines of connexion between
cities and military stations.
II. Prcfectural roads, consisting of —
Class 1. Roads connecting different prefectures, or leading
from military stations to their outposts.
Class 2. Roads connecting the head offices of cities and
prefectures with their branch offices.
Class 3. Roads connecting noted localities with the chief
town of such neighbourhoods, or leading to seaports
convenient of access. •
III. Village roads, consisting of-*
Class 1, Roads passing through several localities in
succession, or merely leading from one locality to
another.
Class 2. Roads specially constructed for the convenience
of irrigation, pasturage, mines, factories, Ac., in
accordance with measures determined by the people
of the locality.
Class 3. Roads constructed for the benefit of ShintO
shrines, Buddhist temples, or to facilitate the culti-
vation of rice-fields and arable land.
Of the above three headings, it was decided that all national
roads should be maintained at the national expense, the regu-
lations for their up-keep being entrusted to the care of the prefec-
tures along the b'ne of route, and the cost incurred being paid
from the Imperial treasury. Prefectural roads are maintained
by a joint contribution from the government and from the par-
ticular prefecture, each paying one-half of the sum needed.
Village roads, being for the convenience of local districts alone,
arc maintained at the expense of such districts under the general
supervision of the corresponding prefecture. The width of
national roads was determined at 42 ft. for class 1, 36 f L for class
2, and 30 ft. for class 3; the prefectural roads were to be from
24 to 30 ft., and the dimensions of the village roads were optional,
according to the necessity of the case.
fr<
th
completely taken" by the jmrikisha, a two^whecled r .
vehicle pulled by one or two men who think" nothing _2rf««A*-
of running 20 m. at the rate of 6 m. an hour. The ,imnMUQm *
jmrikisha was devised by a Japanese in 1B70, and since then it has
come into use throughout the whole of Asia eastward of the Suez
Canal. Luggage, ofcourse, could not be carried by norimono or
kago. It was necessary CO have recourse to packmen, packhorscs
or baggage-carts drawn by men or horses. All these still exist and
arc as useful as ever within certain limits. In the cities and towns
horses used as beasts of burden are now shod with iron, but in rural
or mountainous districts straw shoes are substituted, a device which
enables the animals to traverse rocky or precipitous roads with
safety.
Railways.— It is easy to understand that an enterprise like
railway construction, requiring a great outlay of capital with
returns long delayed, did not at first commend itself to the Jap-
anese, who were almost entirely ignorant of co-operation as a
factor of business organization. Moreover, long habituated to
snail-like modes of travel, the people did not rapidly appreciate
the celerity of the locomotive. Neither the ox-cart, the norimono,
nor the kago covered a daily distance of over 20 m. on thcaverage,
I <)4 JAPAN CRAILWAYS
interior was subsequently constructed, strategical consideration*
were not allowed completely to govern its direction.
When this building of railways began in Japan, much d i s cus sion
s taking place in England and India as to the relative advantages
*• of the wide and narrow gauges, and so strongly did the arguments
* in favour of the latter appeal to the English advisers of the Japanese
-. government that the metre gauge was chosen. Some fitful efforts
4 made in later years to change the system proved unsuccessful. The
* lines are single, for the most part ; and as the embankments, the
* cuttings, the culverts and the bridge-piers have not been constructed
- for a double line, any change now would be very costly. The
J average speed of passenger trains in Japan is 18 m. an hour, the
corresponding figure over the metre-gauge roads in India being
* 16 m., and the figure for English parliamentary trains from 19 to
1 28 m. British engineers surveyed the routes for the first lines and
3 superintended the work of construction, but within a few years the
Japanese were able to dispense with foreign aid altogether, both
1 in building and operating their railways. They also construct
a carriages, wagons and locomotives, and they may therefore be
3 said to have become entirely independent in the matter of railways.
a for a government iron-foundry at Wakamatsu in KiushiQ is able
to manufacture steel rails.
The total length of lines open for traffic at the end of March 1006
was 4746 m., 1470 m. having been built by the state and 3276 by
* private companies; the former at a cost of 16 millions sterling for
" construction and equipment, and the Latter at a cost of 25 millions.
Thus the expenditure by the state averaged £10.884 per mile, and
'i that by private companies, £7631. This difference is explained by
; the facts that the state lines having been the pioneers, portions of
them were built before experience bad indicated cheap methods;
that a very large and costly foreign staff was employed on these
roads in the early days, whereas no such item appeared in the
accounts of private lines; that extensive works for the building of
locomotives and rolling stock are connected with the government's
roads, and that it fell to the lot of the state to undertake lines in
districts presenting exceptional engineering difficulties, such dis-
tricts being naturally avoided by private companies. The gross
earnings otall the lines during the fiscal year 1905-1906 were 7 mfl»
lions sterling, approximately, and the gross expenses (including the
payment of interest on loans and debentures) were under j| millions,
so that there remained a net profit of 3J millions, being at the rate
of a little over 8| % on the invested capital. The facts that the
outlays averaged less than 47% of the gross income, and that
accidents and irregularities arc not numerous, prove that Japanese
management in this kind of enterprise is efficient.
When the fiscal year 1906-1907 opened, the number of private
companies was no less than 36. owning and operating 3270 m. of
railway. To say that this represented an average ^^^^
of 91 m. per company is to convey an over-favourable « .. «
:a~* f«r -c a m^for «f f ac t, 1$ of the companies p ri9Mm
Vnythtng like efficient co- /t^dtwtrt
such circumstances, and
rd about delays in transit and undue
led ownership had long suggested the
but not until 1906 could the diet be
Dn March 31 of that year, a railway
lulgated. It enacted that, within a
x> 1915. the state should purchase the
ch had a length of 2812 m.. and whose
>ment had been 23 i millions sterling.
15 other railways, with an aggregate
hese were eliminated as beinsunes of
al purchase price of the 17 unes was
g (about double their cost price), on the
at equal to 20 times the sum obtained
nstruction at the date of purchase by
to the cost of construction during the
tnpany from the second half-year of
•yv« iv tiiv ...3» ..-..-7<.«. w, 1005. (b) The amount of the actual
cost of stored articles converted according to current prices thereof
into public loan-bonds at face value, except in the case of articles
which had been purchased with borrowed money. The government
agreed to hand over the purchase money within $ years from the
date of the acquisition of the lines, in public loan-bonds bearing 5%
interest calculated at their face value; the bonds to be redeemed
out of the net profits accruing from the purchased railways. It was
calculated that this redemption would be effected in a period of
32 years, after which the annual profit accruing to the state from
the lines would be 5} millions sterling. But the nationalisation
scheme, though apparently the only effective method of linking
together and co-ordinating an excessively subdivided system of noes,
has proved a source of considerable financial embarrassment. For
when the state constituted itself virtually the sole owner of railways,
it necessarily assumed responsibility for extending them so that they
should suffice to meet the wants of a nation numbering some 50
millions. Such extension could be effected only by borrowing money.
Now the government was pledged by the diet in 1907 to an expendi-
ture of 1 ij millions (spread over 8 years) for extending the old state
system of roads, and an expenditure of 6J millions .(spread over 12
years) for improving them. But from the beginning of that year, •
MARITIME COMMUNICATIONS)
period of extreme commercial and financial depression tec in, and
the treasury had to postpone all le c ow se to loans for whatever
purpose* so that railway p r og re s s was completely checked in the
field alike of the original and the acquired state fines. Moreover,
all securities underwent such sharp depreciation that, on the one
hand, the government hesitated to hand over the bonds representing
the purchase-price of the railways, lest such an addition to the
volume of stocks should cause furtner depreciation, and, on the other,
the former owners of the nationalized fines found the character of
their bargain greatly changed. In these circumstances the govern-
ment decided to take a strong step, namely, to place the whole of
the railways owned by it — the original state lines as well as those
nationalised — in an account independent of the regular budget, and
to devote their entire profits to works of extension and improve*
ment, supplementing the amount with loans from the treasury when
In the sequel of the war of 15)04-5 Japan, with China's consent,
acquired from Russia the lease oft he portion of the South-Manchuria
•__,«, . railway (see Manchuria) between Kwang-cheng-tsze
tyVirti (Chang-chnn) on the north and Tairen (Dalny), Port
2*Jr~™ Arthur and Niuchwang on the sooth— a total length
***"**• of 470 m. At the close of 1906 this road was handed
over to a joint-stork company with a capital of 30 millions sterling,
the government contributing 10 millions in the form of the road and
its associated properties; the public subscribing 2 millions, and the
company being entitled to issue debentures to theextent of 8 millions,
the principal and interest of these debentures being officially guar-
anteed. Four millions' worth of debentures were issued in London
in 1907 and 4 millions in 1908. This company's programme is not
limited to operating the railway. It also works coal-fields at Yentai
and Fushun; has a line of steamers plying between Tairen and
Shanghai; and engages in enterprises of electricity, warehousing
and the management of houses and lands within cones 50 /*' (17 m.)
wide on either side of the line. The government guarantees 6%
interest on the capital paid up by the general public.
Not until 1905 did Japan come into possession of an electric
railway. It was a short line of 8 m., built in Kioto for the purposes
of a domestic exhibition held in that city. Thence-
forth this class of enterprise grew ^steadily in favour,
so that, in 1907, there were 16 companies with an
aggregate capital of 8 millions sterling, having 165 m. open to traffic
and 77 m. under construction. Fifteen other companies with an
aggregate capital of 3 millions had also obtained charters. The
principal of these is the T6ky6 railway company, with a subscribed
capital of 6 millions (j| paid up), 90} m. of line open and 149 m.
under construction. In 1907 it carried 153 million passengers, and
its net earnings were £300,000. -
The traditional story of prehistoric Japan indicates that the
first recorded emperor was an over-sea invader, whose followers
must therefore have possessed some knowledge of
sbip-building and navigation. But in what kind of
craft they sailed and how they handled them, there is
nothing to show clearly. Nine centuries later, but still
500 years before the era of surviving written annals, an empress
is said to have invaded Korea, embarking her forces at Kobe
(then called Takekura) in 500 vessels. In the middle of the 6th
century we read of a general named Abe-no-hirafu who led a
flotilla up the Amur river to the invasion of Manchuria (then
called Shukushin). All these things show that the Japanese
of the earliest era navigated the high sea with some skill, and at
later dates down to medieval times they are found occasionally
sending forces to Korea and constantly visiting China in vessels
which seem to have experienced no difficulty in making the
voyage. The x6th century was a period of maritime activity
so marked that, had not artificial checks been applied, the Japan-
ese, in all probability, would have obtained partial command of
Far-Eastern waters. They invaded Korea ; their corsairs harried
the coasts of China; two hundred of their vessels, sailing under
authority of the Taiko's vermilion seal, visited Siam, Luzon,
Cochin China and Annam, and they built ships in European
style which crossed the Pacific to Acapulco. But this spirit of
adventure was chilled at the dose of the 16th century and early
in the 17th, when events connected with the propagation of
Christianity taught the Japanese to believe that national
safety could not be secured without international isolation. In
1638 the ports were closed to all foreign ships except those flying
the flag of Holland or of China, and a strictly enforced edict
forbade the building of any vessel having a capacity of more than
500 koku (1 50 tons) or constructed for purposes of ocean naviga-
tion. Thenceforth, with rare exceptions, Japanese craft confined
JAPAN « 93
themselves to the coastwise trade. Ocean-going enterprise
ceased altogether.
Things remained thus until the middle of the 19th century,
when a growing knowledge of the conditions existing in the West
warned the Tokugawa administration that continued isolation
would be suicidal. In 1853 the law prohibiting the construction
of sea-going ships was revoked and the Yedo government built
at Uraga a sailing vessel of European type aptly called the
" Phoenix " (" Howo Maru "). Just 243 years had elapsed since
the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty constructed Japan's first
ship after a foreign model, with the aid of an English pilot, Will
Adams. In 1853 Commodore M. C. Perry made his appearance,
and thenceforth everything conspired to push Japan along the
new path. The Dutch, who had been proximately responsible
for the adoption of the seclusion policy in the 17th century, now
took a prominent part in promoting a liberal view. They sent
to the Tokugawa a present of a man-of-war and urged the vital
necessity of equipping the country with a navy. Then followed
the establishment of a naval college at Tsukiji in Yedo, the
building of iron-works at Nagasaki, and the construction at
Yokosuka of a dockyard destined to become one of the greatest
enterprises of its kind in the East. This last undertaking bore
witness to the patriotism of the Tokugawa rulers, for they reso-
lutely carried it to completion during the throes of a revolution
which involved the downfall of their dynasty. Their encourage-
ment of maritime enterprise had borne fruit, for when, in 1867,*
they restored the administration to the Imperial court, 44
ocean-going ships were found among their possessions and 04
were in the hands of the feudatories, a steamer and 20 sailing
vessels having been constructed in Japan and the rest purchased
abroad.
If the Tokugawa had been energetic in this respect, the new
government was still more so. It caused the various maritime
carriers to amalgamate into one association called the Nippon*
koku yubinjokisen kaisha (Mail SS. Company of Japan), to which
were transferred, free of charge, the steamers, previously the
property of the Tokugawa or the feudatories, and a substantial
subsidy was granted by the state. This, the first steamship com-
pany ever organized in Japan, remained in existence only four
years. Defective management and incapacity to compete with
foreign-owned vessels plying between the open ports caused its
downfall (1875). Already, however, an independent company
had appeared upon the scene. Organized and controlled by a
man (Iwasaki Yataro) of exceptional enterprise and business
faculty, this mitsubishi kaisha (three lozenge company, so called
from the design on its flag), working with steamers chartered^
from the former feudatory of Tosa, to which clan Iwasaki
belonged, proved a success from the outset, and grew with each
vicissitude of the state. For when (1874) the Meiji government's
first complications with a foreign country necessitated the des-
patch of a military expedition to Formosa, the administration
had to .purchase 63 foreign steamers for transport purposes, and
these were subsequently transferred to the mitsubishi company
together with all the vessels (17) hitherto in the possession of
the Mail SS. Company, the Treasury further granting to the
mitsubishi a subsidy of £50,000 annually. Shortly afterwards
it was decided to purchase a service maintained by the Pacific
Mail SS. Company with 4 steamers between Yokohama and
Shanghai, and money for the purpose having been lent by the
state to the mitsubishi, Japan's first line of steamers to a foreign
country was firmly established, just 20 years after the law!
interdicting the construction of ocean-going ^vessels, bad been!
rescinded./
The next memorable event in this chapter of history occurred in
1877, when the Satsuma clan, eminently the most powerful and most
warlike among all the former feudatories, took the field in open
rebellion. For a time the fate of the government hung in the balance*
and only by a flanking movement over-sea was the rebellion crushed.
This strategy compelled the purchase of 10 foreign steamers, and
these too were subsequently handed over to the mitsubishi company,
which, in 1880, found itself possessed of 32 ships aggregating 25.600
tons, whereas all the other vessels of foreign type in the country
totalled only 27 with a tonnage of 6500. It had now become
1 94. JAPAN (MARITIME COMMUNICATIONS
th rcgai
the foil
9 tons at home and bought 177,600 abroad, so that the net
ise to her mercantile fleet of steamers was 133,000 tons. The
ring table shows the growth of her marine during the tea years
g 1907 —
Steamers. Sailing Vessels. Total*.
Noaiber - rSSSt. N »"*«- t^bt Nonlw. t2£l
. . . 1130 477430 1914 170.194 3044 048.324
. . . 1221 5*0,007 3322 286,923 4543 4*7.93©
.1329 543.365 3«50 320,57a 5-79 863.937
. . • 1395 583.532 4026 336,5^8 5471 020,060
. . .1441 610445 3907 336.154 534* 946.600
. . .1570 663.220 3934 328.953 5504 992.173
. . . 1815 798.240 3940 329.125 5755 M27.363
. . . 1988 939.749 4132 336,571 6170 1,276.320
. . . 2103 1.041.569 4547 353.356 6700 1,395.925
. . . 2139 Ml***© 4728 365.559 6867 1,4*1,439
w ird to the development of ship-building in Japanese
ollowing figures convey information :—
Numbers op Vessels built in Japan and Numbers
Purchased Abboad
Built in Japan. Purchased abroad,
ir. Steamers. Sailing Vessels. Steamers. Sailing Vessels.
►8 . ; .479 1301 194 9
»9 ... 554 2771 199 12
*> . . . 653 3302 206 7
>i .. 754 3559 215 6
)2 . . . 813 3585 .220 6
»3 • • • 855 5304 233 8
►4 • • .947 332$ 277 8
11
II
17 . • .1150 4033 4«9 12
the building of Iron and steel ships the Japanese are obliged
port much of the material used, but a large steel-foundry has
established under government auspices at Wakamatsu in
liu, that position having been chosen on account of comparative
mity to the Taiya iron mine in China, where the greater part
i iron ore used for the foundry is procured,
lultancously with the growth of the mercantile marine there
cen a marked development in the number of licensed mariners;
is to say, seamen registered by the government „__
iving passed the examination prescribed by law. "'■■*■
I76 there were only 4 Japanese subjects who satisfied that
tion as against 74 duly qualified foreigners holding responsible
cms. In 1895 the numbers were 4135 Japanese and 835
ners, and ten years later the corresponding figures were 16,866
49 respectively. In 1904 the ordinary seamen of the mercao-
tarine totalled 202,710.
ere are in Japan various institutions where the theory and
ice of navigation are taught. The principal of these u the
J slid sen gakkd (TokyS mercantile marine college, .
lished in 1875), where some 600 of the men now'
ig as officers and engineers have graduated. Well
ped colleges exist also in seven other places, all having bee*
fished with official co-operation. Mention must be made o£
rtners' assistance association (kaiin ekizai-kai, established in
which acts as a kind of agency for supplying mariners to ship*
rs, and of a distressed manners' relief association (jsreaa*
i-kai) which has succoured about a hundred thousand seamen
its establishment in 1899.
e duty of overseeing all matters relating to the maritime
ing trade devolves on the department of slate for communica^
and is delegated by the latter to one of its .
2
and is delegated by the latter to one of its M .
us (the Kwa*seu-kyoJtH, or ships superintendence vf™
u), which, again, is divided into three sections: C£?
rtr» ineivtrrirxt «>/%cca1c aha (Vtr Avimininiv vmiMnrtr* ••^■^fc
V or inspecting vessels, one for examining mariners,
tl me for the general control of all shipping in Japanese waters.
of he better discharge of its duties this bureau parcels out the
of e into 4 districts, having their headquarters at Tokyd, Osaka*
cei saki and Hakodate; and these four districts are in turn sub*
the ed into 18 sections, each having an office of marine affairs
wai ji-kyokk).
the mpetition between Japanese and foreign ships in the carriage
Kiu> e country's over-sea trade soon began to assume appreciable
whol tsions. Thus, whereas in 189 1 the portion carried
Tok) ipanese bottoms was only l| millions sterling
it aj st 12) millions carried by foreign vessels, the
engn sponding figures in 1902 were 20 J millions against
coa« litlions. In other words, Japanese steamers carried cJlI;
1 1 % of the total trade in 1891, but their share rose ""**
in % in 1902.. The prospect suggested by this record caused
. ! uneasiness, which was not allayed by observing that while
"j^f omiage of Japanese vessels in Chinese ports was only »%
fOSTS AND TELEGRAPHS)
JAPAM
in 1896 m compared with tortic* vessels, the former figure grew to
16% in 1902; while in Korean ports Japanese steamers almost
monopolized the carrying trade, leaving only 18% to their foreign
rivals* and even in Hong-Kong the tonnage of Japanese snips
increased from 4% in 1890 to 13% in 1900. In 1898 Japan stood
eleventh on the hat of the thirteen principal maritime countries of the
world, but in 1907 she rose to the fifth place. Her principal company,
the Nippon yusen kaisha, though established as lately as 1885, now
ranks ninth in point of tonnage among the 21 leading maritime
companies of the world. This company was able to su ppty 55 out of
* total neet of 207 transports furnished by all the steamship com-
panies of Japan for military and naval purposes daring the war
with Russia in 1904-5. It may be noted in conclusion that the
development of Japan's steam-shipping during the five decades
ended 1907 was as follows:—
Tons.
At the end of 1868 17.95*
At the end of 1878 63,468
At the end of 1888: ......... 197,365
At the end of 1898 648,324
At the end of 1907 1,115,880
There are 33 ports in Japan open as places of call for foreign
Qst n rpffi- s t eamef8 ' Their names with the dates of their open-
^^ ing are as follow : —
Name. Date of Opening.
Yokohama 1859
Kobe ....... 1868
Niigata 1867
Osaka 1899
Yokkaichi ...... do.
Shimonoseki •• do.
Itozaki do.
Taketoyo do.
Shimizu
Tsuruga ,
Nanao
Fushiki .
Sakai
Hamada
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Miyazu '. do.
Aomori ....... 1906
Nagasaki, 1859
Moii ....... 1899
Hakata do.
Karatsu do.*
Kuchinotsu do.
Misuari do.
Suminoye 1906
Izuhara 1899
Sasuna do.
Shikami % . do.
Nafa . do.
Otaru do.
Kushiro ....... do.
Mororan do.
Hakodate 1865
Kelung 1899
Tamsui ..*..... do.
Takow do.
Anping do.
Situation.
Main Island.
do.
do.
do.
do.
,do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
KiOshiQ.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
do.
Tsushima.
do.
do.
RiukiQ.
Yezo.
do.
do.
do.
Formosa.
do.
do.
do.
Emigration. — Characteristic of the Japanese is a spirit of
adventure: they readily emigrate to foreign countries if any
inducement offers. A strong disposition to exclude them has
displayed itself in the United States of America, in Australasia
and in British Columbia, and it is evident that, since one nation
cannot force its society on another at the point of the sword,
this anti-Asiatic prejudice will have to be respected,* though it
has its origin in nothing more respectable than the jealousy of
the labouring classes. One result is an increase in the number
of Japanese emigrating to Korea, Manchuria and S. America.
The following table shows the numbers residing at various places
outside Japan. in 1904 and 1906 respectively: —
Number in Number in
Place. 1004. 1006.
China 9.417 27,126
Korea . 31,093 100.000
Manchuria — 43.823
Hong-Kong ....... 600 756
Singapore 1,292 1,428
British India 413 53°
Europe 183 697
1899.
1906.
1.296
1,650
3,013
2.155
134
211
46A
158
540
)6 5
532
670
*?b
12,425
254
*9S
Number in Number in
Place. 1904. 1906.
United States of America . . 33,849 130,228
Canada 3,838 5*088
Mexico 456 1,204
S. America 1,496 2,500
Philippines ....... 2,652 2,185
Hawaii 65,008 64,319
Australasia 71,129 3,274
Foreign Residents. — The number of foreigner! residing in
Japan and their nationalities in 1889, 1899 and 1906, respec-
tively, were as folidW: —
1889.
Americans .... 899
British 1,701
Russians 63
French 335
Portuguese .... 108
Germans 550
Chinese 4,975
Koreans 8
There are also small numbers of Dutch, Peruvians, Belgians,
Swiss, Italians, Danes, Swedes, Austrians, Hungarians, &c.
This slow growth of the foreign residents is remarkable when
contrasted with the fact that the volume of the country's foreign
trade, which constitutes their main business, grew in the same
period from 13! millions sterling to 92 millions.
Posts and Telegraphs. — The government of the Restoration
did not wait for the complete abolition of feudalism before
organizing a new system of posts in accordance with modem
needs. At first, letters only were carried, but before the close
of 1 87 1 the service was extended so as to include newspapers,
printed matter, books and commercial samples, while the area
was extended so as to embrace all important towns between
Hakodate In the northern island of Yezo and Nagasaki in the
southern island of KiushiO. Two years later this field was
closed to private enterprise, the state assuming sole charge of
the business. A few years later saw Japan in possession of an
organization comparable in every respect with the systems
existing in Europe. In 1892 a foreign service was added.
Whereas in 1871 the number of post-offices throughout the
empire was only 179, it had grown to 6449 in 1907, while tht
mail matter sent during the latter year totalled 1254 millions
(including 15 millions of parcels), and 67,000 persons were en-
gaged in handling it. Japan labours under special difficulties
for postal purposes, owing to the great number of islands included
in the empire, the exceptionally mountainous nature of the
country, and the wide areas covered by the cities in proportion
to the number of their inhabitants. It is not surprising to find,
therefore, that the means of distribution arc varied. The state
derives a net revenue of 5 million yen approximately from its
postal service. It need scarcely be added that the system of
postal money-orders was developed pari passu with that of
ordinary correspondence, but in this context one interesting fact
may be noted, namely, that while Japan sends abroad only some
£25,000 annually to foreign countries through the post, she
receives over £450,000 from her over-sea emigrants.
Japan at the time of the Restoration (1867) was not entirely with-
out experience which prepared her (or the postal money-order
system. Some 600 years ago the idea of the bill of
exchange was bom in the little town of Totsugawa
(Yamato province), though it did not obtain much
development before the establishment of the Tokugawa
shogunate in the 17th century. The feudal chiefs, having then to
transmit large sums to Yedo for the purposes of their compulsory
residence there, availed themselves of bills of exchange, and the
shogun's government, which received considerable amounts in
Osaka, selected ten brokers to whom the duty of effecting the transfer
of these funds was entrusted. Subsequently the 10 chosen brokers
were permitted to extend their services to the general public, and a
recent Japanese historian notes that Osaka, thus became the birth-
place of banking business in Japan. Postal money-orders were
therefore easily appreciated at the time of their introduction in
1875. This was not true of the postal savings bank, however, an
institution which came into existence in the same year. It Wat
19+
*j>parer.
might a
affairs, '
more r.v,
wasofii*
(Union I
it recciv*
to provi
Japan h>
private c
fleet of v.
in lime <->■
two com
peting in
After thi-
gamated
pany) wit
fixed on
come int.
100 small
com pet in
Japan i
Year.
1870 . .
1892 . .
NcvertheK
in Japane
This disc i>
of the diet
navigation
Japan Ma
opened a n
raw cotton
assumed gr
for the first
after the est
China, whi<
men to the
for more th.»
dkf not suftii
or chartered
marine of Ja,
the sailing \<
In 1897 th
influence on t
mercantile m
ratifications o:
period of tranr,
to restore all t !
then recognize
must be prcpar
than the one f
when the crucii
means for trm
leadership of Pr
in March 1896 1
tion. Under t!
commercial com
ese subjects, c>
Japan and forci.
Vesscls, which ni
shipping list of t
donate to the di
under the ship-bui
tion of iron or stc«
Japanese subject o
shareholders were
was marked. In the
vessels of 455,000 to
treasury found it sell
six hundred thousand
remarkable dcvcloprr
aggregating 57 tons \
steamers totalling 538.
were launched in 1900
ship yards and 42 priv.
were able to build first -
the private docks were
When war broke out wit
of steam shipping, but
materially augment even
With the war sh e lost 71,0
1 The largest is the mil
722 ft. Next stands the k.
is the uraga.
-rasmAebe*
-_ ixtsd sort,
^aar, taot is
u3i thesRss
• aemn m tk
Acm.
7^9«»
1*7*595
147M45
*2J75
S&1
i*J97
-r«o
MINERALS)
JAPAN
197
*»
(*).
$
1897 . . .
1906 . . .
While the quantity of certain [
filatures anq factories diminishes,
are coming to be conducted on a
caae. Thus in sericulture the
1897 to 3843 in 1906; the numb
X 123 at the same dates, and the
to 1929.
It is generally said that wh<
entire population is engaged in 1
. the progressive natio
AjHuittuiat oi gecntific principle!
*■*?*•■ take for unit the avei
m9atMm in Italy, we obtain tht
Italy
India
Germany ....
France .....
Egypt
Japan
In the realm of agriculture,
Japan's material development, a
activity. Thus, in the year 1^
designed to correct the execssiv
to utilize unproductive areas ly
straighten roads; to facilitate
machinery; to make known th
conserve streams and to prevei
to furnish capital for the pur
and commercial banks — one in
with a central institution a
assists them to collect funds,
subsequently a bank of Forma
was framed to encourage the 1
which should develop a systen
sale and purchase and concent
stations were another official c
carry on investigations relating
pests, stock-breeding, the use c
agricultural products and cogn
grants in aid was also given to 1
mental farms by private persons
farms are now to be found every
equally successful results, extend
tea-growing. There are two sta
where not only the rearing of s
filatures are taught, but also c
institutions, like the state agricul
for institutes on the same line
conditioning house at Yokohan
to prevent and remove disea
and cattle, and regulations to
fertilizers, complete the record
agriculture during the Meiji era.
One of the problems of mod
With a rapidly growing taste fo
ei^aj. not an article of d
T^tL- diminution in the sto
******' ber of the Utter in
total 158,504 were slaughtered,
were 1,190,373 and 167,458, r
(3500 in 1906) increases slowly,
1897 and 74,750 in 1906) and su
1906) grow with somewhat grea
do not suit Japanese taste, and g
their milk. The government ha
ment of cattle and horses by im
whole, the mixed breed is not 1
in 1904-5 having clearly disclost
for artillery and cavalry purpos<
American and European cattle «
of race-clubs has been encourag<
. Forests. — Forests occupy an a
of the total superficies of Japa
namely, 18 million acres, approx:
It cannot be said that any very 1
to develop this source of wealtl
at only 13 million yen in the bt
figure compares favourably wit
derived from the same source i
failure to utilize a valuable asset
cations, but the demand for tin
In 1907 a revised forestry law w
the administration is compete... . . . _ . r — - „-,
forests and to cause the planting of plains and waste-lands, or the ' part of the petroleum now obtained,
also elaborated for
table account, while,
ion.
se have been great
coasted islands teem
ways constituted an
tury, the Tokugawa
Ltion, interdicted the
>le's enterprise in the
k. But shortly after
:> rescinded, but also
id a marine products
to promote pelagic
he marine products
Hal prince. Fishery
iodical exhibitions of
ion and improvement
!es the area of opcra-
m proved types came
*as of Sakhalin, the
raters of Kamchatka
fishermen with 2000
sh in Korean waters;
e coasts of Sakhalin
n the salmon-fishing
: of Japanese marine
1 \ millions sterling,
llions, to which must
products. Fourteen
whole catch, namely,
to), sardines {iivosht),
ka), mackerel (saba),
ms (ebi), sole (karer).
, sea-ear (awabi) and
roducts are known in
diet. Among manu-
order of their impor-
ish, dried and boiled
he export of marine
it £400,000 ten years
r imports, they were
■&, but by degrees a
lines (for fertilizing),
so that whereas the
rew to over £400,000
cis of Japan. They
>rth-east. with chains
Itese schists rocks of
>mewhat complicated
ir. Precious stones,
[uartz and antimony
re not infrequent,
paleozoic or volcanic
I is not large, but it
y possibly
apttal and
Qotd.
tdy equal to that of
s (especially tuff), in
iated with
a than either of the
ga thickness of from
are found -„„„,
dimentary °°«* r -
ft* and other volcanic
es that Japan is rich
nagnetite) occurs at
ity of p !& Iran.
not exceed ^^
to import from the
9 iron needed by her
acitcand bituminous.
;reatly inferior to the
abundance rAml
d medium ^^
now actually worked
tion to her sources of
ten the Fushun mines
> her. During the 10
coal mined in Japan
6 millions.
ninence on the list of
-which occur mainly
mosa, but «,<„*,„„.
, he greater rnnuKnmu
the Yezo and Formosa wells
*9*
JAPAN
(INDUSTRIES
fecnf ttiD little CTpfwtrl The quantity of petroleum obtained
iajipaa ta 1897 was 9 million gallons, whereas the quantity
obtained in 1006 was 55 minions. #
Japanese mining enterprise was more than trebled during the
decade 1897 to 1006. for the value of the minerals taken out in the
former year was only 3) millions sterling, whereas the corresponding
figure lor 1906 was It millions. The earliest mention of gold-
m*io* in Japan take* us back to the year a.d. 696, and by the 16th
century the country had acquired the reputation of being rich in
gold. During the days of her medieval intercourse with the outer
world, her stores of the precious metals were largely reduced, for
between the years 1602 and 1766, Holland, Spain, Portugal and
China look from her 3«3.*» fb (troy) of gold and 11.230,000 lb of
Copper occupied a scarcely less important place in Old Japan.
From a period long anterior to historic times this metal was
employed to manufacture mirrors and swords, and the introduction
of Buddhism in the 6th century was quickly followed by the
cauing of sacred images, many of which still survive. Finding in
th* 18th century that her foreign intercourse not only had largely
denuded hw of gold and silver, but also threatened to denude her
of copper, Japan set a limit (34»5 tons) to the yearly export of the
falter metal. After the resumption of administrative power by the
emprror in 1867. attention was quickly directed to the question of
mineral resources; several Western experts were employed to
<ondurt surveys and introduce Occidental mining methods, and ten
of th#- mo*t Imporunt mines were worked under the direct auspices
of the »t«t* in ortU'r to serve as object lessons. Subsequently these
mm** were all tra referred to private hands, and the government
now f?tAim w#Me*Mon of only a few iron and coal mines whose
Mv»,«f% are nr<.<M for dockyard and arsenal purposes. The
loiU,«>t,n t*l»te shows the recent progress and present condition of
Mining »ndu»try in Japan; —
Cold
Silver
Copper
Quantity,
ox.
Value,
£
Quantity. Value,
oz. £
Quantity. Value.
Tons. £
1*77 <
. 34.553
, 82.517
. 00.84*
136.834
330.076
303.7 » 5
1,809,805 208,200
19,722 869,266
IV 1 -
1,824,842 211,682
26495 1.625.244
JVO .
2,623,212 243,914
37.254 3.007.992
1
BOM
Coal
Petroleum
Quantity.
Tons.
Value,
£
Quantity. Value.
Tons. £
Quantity. Value. '<
Gallons. £
f«97 •
'. 4M5*
. 85.203
103.559
5.229,662 1,899.592
9,248.800 44,389
39.351.960 227.841
1901 .
123.701
9.025.325 3.060.931
12,980,103 6,314,400
I906 .
268,911
55.»35.88o 3»4.550
Antimony
Manganese
Quantity
Tons.
Value.
£
Quantity.
Tons.
Value. Value.
£ £
1897 •
* 1,133
27.362
13.175
15.738
8.758 3.863
1901 .
< 529
££
10.846 3.450
I906 .
. 293
12.322
5L365 4».338
The number of mine employees in 1907 was 190,000, in round
numbers; the number of mining companies, 189; and the aggregate
paid-up capital, 10 millions sterling.
Industries. — In the beginning of the Meiji era Japan was
practically without any manufacturing industries, as the term
is understood in the Occident, and she bad not so much as one
joint-stock company. At the end of 1006, her joint-stock com-
panies and partnerships totalled 9329, their paid up capital
exceeded 100 millions sterling, and their reserves totalled 26
millions. It is not to be inferred, however, from the absence
of manufacturing organizations 50 years ago that such pursuits
were deliberately eschewed or despised in Japan. On the con-
trary, at the very dawn of the historical epoch we find that sec-
tions of the people took their names from the work carried on by
them, and that specimens of expert industry were preserved in
the sovereign's palace side by side with the imperial insignia.
Further, skilled artisans from the neighbouring continent
always found a welcome in Japan, and when Korea was success-
fully invaded in early times, one of the uses which the victors
made of their conquest was to import Korean weavers and dyers.
Subsequently the advent of Buddhism, with its demand for
images, temples, gorgeous vestments and rich paraphernalia,
gave a marked impulse to the development of artistic industry,
which at the outset took its models from China, India and Greece,
but gradually, while assimilating many of the best features of
the continental schools, subjected them to such great modifi-
cations in accordance with Japanese genius that they ceased
to retain more than a trace of their originals. From the 9th
century luxurious habits prevailed in Kioto under the sway of
the Fuji want regents, and the imperial city's munificent patron-
age drew to its precincts a crowd of artisans. But these were
not industrials, in the Western sense of the term, and, further,
their organization was essentially domestic, each family select-
ing its own pursuit and following it from generation to genera-
tion without co-operation or partnership with any outsider.
The establishment of military feudalism in the 12th century
brought a reaction from the effeminate luxury of the metropolis,
and during nearly 300 years no industry enjoyed large popularity
except that of the armourer and the sword-smith. No sooner,
however, did the prowess of Oda Nobunaga and, above all, of
Hidcyoshi, the taikd, bring within sight a cessation of civil war
and the unification of the country, than the taste for beautiful
objects and art ist ic utensils recovered vitality. By degrees there
grew up among the feudal barons a keen rivalry in art industry,
and the shogun's court in Yedo set a standard which the feuda-
tories constantly strove to attain. Ultimately, in the days
immediately antecedent to its fall, the shogun's administration
sought to induce a more logical system by encouraging local
manufacturers to supply local needs only, leaving to Kioto and
Yedo the duty of catering to general wants.
But before this reform had approached maturity, the second
advent of Western nations introduced to Japan the products of
an industrial civilization centuries in advance of her own from
the point of view of utility, though nowise superior in the
application of art. Immediately
Lead the nation became alive to the
Quantity. Value, necessity of correcting its own io-
Tons. £ fcriority in this respect. But the
1.744 £$40 P^ff }*"* W ? li ": ,y wi . t J oul
2,72l 49.690 m odels for organization, without
QittsttiTB ' financial machinery and with-
sulphur out the iAeA ^ j oint $tock
/ uc * enterprise, the government had
33.588 to choose between entering the
38.612 field as an instructor, and leaving
61,386 ln e nation to struggle along an
arduous and expensive way
Total Values, to tardy development. There
£ could be no question as to which
5^70 508 course would conduce more to
io!839,783 the general advantage, and thus,
in days immediately subse-
quent to the resumption of administrative power by the emperor,
the spectacle was seen of official excursions into the domains of
silk-reeling, cement-making, cotton and silk spinning, brick-
burning, printing and book-binding, soap-boiling, type-casting
and ceramic decoration, to say nothing of their establishing
colleges and schools where all branches of applied science were
taught. Domestic exhibitions also were organized, and speci-
mens cf the country's products and manufactures were sent
under government auspices to exhibitions abroad. On the other
hand, the effect of this new departure along Western lines could
not but be injurious to the old domestic industries of the country,
especially to those which owed their existence to tastes and tra-
ditions now regarded as obsolete. Here again the government
came to the rescue by establishing a firm whose functions were
to familiarize foreign markets with the products of Japanese
artisans, and to instruct the latter in adaptations likely to appeal
to Occidental taste. Steps were also taken for training women
as artisans, and the government printing bureau set the example
of employing female labour, an innovation which soon developed
large dimensions. In short, the authorities applied themselves
to educate an industrial disposition throughout the country, and
as soon as success seemed to be in sight, they gradually trans-
ferred from official to private direction the various model enter-
prises, retaining only such as were required to supply the needs
of the state.
The result of all this effort was that whereas, in the beginning of
the Meiji era. Japan had virtually no industries worthy of the name,
she possessed in 1896— that is to say, after an Interval of 25 years
Quantity.
Tons.
13.»38
16,007
27.406
Others
COMMERCE? JAPAN
of effort— no less than 4995 industrial and ou t uiu w tM companies,
joint stock or partnership, with a paid-up capital of 40 millions
sterling. Her development during the decade ending in 1906 is
shown in the following table:—
Number of Paid-up capital (millions
companies, (millions sterling), sterling).
1807 . . i ... 6.113 53 6
1901 8,603 83 12
1906
9.3*9
8
107
26
What effect this development exercised upon the country's over-sea
trade may be inferred from the fact that, whereas the manufactured
goods exported in 1870 were nil, their value in 1901 was 8 millions
sterling, and in 1906 the figure rose to over 20 millions. In the
following table are given some facts relating to the principal in*
dustriea in which foreign markets are interested : —
Cotton Yarns
Spindles.
Operatives.
Quantity
produced.
Remarks.
Male.
Female.
1897
1901
1906
768,328
1,181,762
1425406
9.933
13481
13.032
35.059
49.540
59.281
lb
216,913.196
274.861.380
383.359.» »3
This is a wholly
new industry in
Japan. It had
no existence be-
fore the Meiji era
Woven Goods
Looms.
Operatives.
Market value
of products.
Remarks.
Male.
Female
1897
1901
1006
947.134
7I9.550
736328
54.1-9
43.172
40.886
987.110
747.946
751.605
Millions sterling.
19
2
It is observable
that a decrease
in the number of
opcrativcsiicon-
current with an
increase of pro-
duction.
Matches
it
1!
Operatives.
Quantity
produced.
Value.
Remarks.
Male.
Female.
1897
1901
1906
269
261
250
21.447
5.656
5.468
26.277
16.504
18,721
Cross.
24.038.960
32 .901.3 1 9
54,802,293
£
654.849
926,680
1.551.698
This is an
altogether
new indus-
try. Japan-
ese matches
now hold the
leading place
in all Far-
Eastern mar-
kets.
FoitiGN Paper (as distinguished from Japanese)
i
*
Operatives.
Quantity
produced.
Value.
Remarks.
Male.
Female.
1897
1001
1906
9
13
22
164
2635
3,774
109
-.397
>.778
It
46,256.649
113.348.340
218,032,434
£
300.662
714.094
1415.778
Had not
Japanese fac-
tories been
established all
thispapermust
have been im-
ported.
In the field of what may be called minor manufactures— as ceramic
wares. lacquers, straw-plaits, Ac. — there has been corresponding
growth, for the value of these productions increased from I } millions
sterling in 1897 to 3} millions in 1906. But as these manufactures
do not enter into competition with foreign goods in either Eastern
or Western markets, they are interesting only as showing the
development of Japan's producing power. They contribute
nothing to the solution of the problem whether Japanese industries
are destined ultimately to drive their foreign rivals from the markets
of Asia* if not to compete injuriously with them even in Europe and
199
America. Japan seems to have one great advantage over Occidental
countries: she possesses an abundance of dexterous and exception-
ally cheap labour. It has been said, indeed, that this latter advan-
tage is not likely to be permanent, since the wages of labour and the
cost of living are fast increasing. The average cost of labour doubled
in the interval between 1895 a °d 1906, but, on the other hand, the
number of manufacturing organizations doubled in the same time*
while the amount of their paid-up capital nearly trebled. As to the
necessaries of life, if those specially affected by government mono-
polies be excluded, the rate of appreciation between 1900 and 1906
averaged about 30%, and it thus appears that the cost of living is
not increasing with the same rapidity as the remuneration earned
by labour. The manufacturing progress of the nation seems, there-
fore, to have a bright future, the only serious impediment being
deficient capital. There is abundance of coal, and steps have been
taken on a large scale to utilize the many excellent opportunities
which the country offers for developing electricity by water-power.
The fact that Japan's exports of raw silk amount to more than
12 millions sterling, while she sends over-sea only 3} millions'
worth of silk fabrics, suggests some marked inferiority Silk*
on the part of her weavers. But the true explanation wtsvtag.
seems to be that her distance. from the Occident handicaps her
in catering for the changing fashions of the West. There cannot
be any doubt that the skill of Japanese weavers was at one time
eminent. The sun goddess herself, the predominant figure in
the Japanese pantheon, is said to have practised weaving; the
names of four varieties of woven fabrics were known in pre-
historic times; the 3rd century of the Christian era saw the arrival
of a Korean maker of dot:.; after him came an influx of Chinese
who were distributed throughout the country to improve the arts
of sericulture and silk- weaving ; a sovereign (Yuriaku) of the 5th
century employed 92 groups of naturalized Chinese for similar pur-
poses; in 421 the same emperor issued a decree encouraging the cul-
ture of mulberry trees and calling for taxes on silk and cotton;
the manufacture of textiles was directly supervised by the consort
of this sovereign; in 645 a bureau of weaving was established;
many other evidences are conclusive as to the great antiquity of the
art of silk and cotton weaving in Japan.
The coming of Buddhism in the 6th century contributed not a little
to the development of the art, since not only did the priests require
for their own vestments and for the decoration of temples silken
fabrics of more and more gorgeous description, but also these holy
men themselves, careful always to keep touch with the continental
developments of their faith, made frequent voyages to China,
whence they brought back to Japan a knowledge of whatever
technical or artistic improvements the Middle Kingdom could show.
When Kidto became the permanent metropolis of the empire, at
the close of the 8th century, a bureau was established for weaving
brocades and rich silk stuffs to be used in the palace. This preluded
an era of some three centuries of steadily developing luxury in Kioto;
an era when an essential part of every aristocratic mansion's furni-
ture was a collection of magnificent silk robes for use in the sumptuous
N6. Then, in the 15th century came the " Tea Ceremonial, when
the brocade mountings of a picture or the wrapper of a tiny tea-jar
possessed an almost incredible value, and such skill was attained by
weavers and dyers that even fragments of the fabrics produced by
them command extravagant prices to-day. Kiftto always remained,
and still remains, the chief producing centre, and to such a degree
has the science of colour been developed there that no less than 4000
varieties of tint are distinguished. The sense of colour, indeed, stems
to have been a special endowment of the Japanese people from the
earliest times, and some of the combinations handed down from
medieval times are treasured as incomparable examples. During
the long era of peace under the Tokugawa administration the cos-
tumes of men and women showed an increasing tendency to richness
and beauty. This culminated in the Cenroku epoch (1688-1700),
and the aristocracy of the present day delight in viewing histrionic
performances where the costumes of that age and of ks rival, the
Momoyama (end of the loth century) are reproduced.
It would be possible to draw up a formidable catalogue of the
various kinds of silk fabrics manufactured in Japan before the open-
ing of the Meiji era, and the signal ability of her weavers has derived
a new impulse from contact with the Occident. Machinery has
been largely introduced, and though the products of hand-looms
still enjoy the reputation of greater durability, there has unquestion-
ably been a marked development of producing power. Japanese
looms now turn out about 17 millions sterling of silk textiles, of
which less than 4 millions go abroad. Nor is increased quantity
alone to be noted, for at the factory of Kawashima in Kioto Gobelins
are produced such as nave never been rivalled elsewhere.
Commerce in Tokugawa Times. — The conditions existing in
Japan during the two hundred and fifty years prefatory to the
modern opening of the country were unfavourable to the develop-
ment alike of national and of international trade. A* to the
former, the system of feudal government exercised a crippling
influence, for each feudal chief endeavoured to check the exit
of any kind of property from his fief, and free interchange of
JAPAN
[COMMERCE
^i,,,,,^^ V *u virtually that cases are
i i,. ■». .\ .v^.t^u »ly tog of starvation while
, k ^. i vv>i\>w4 «ibiinJuncc. International
\u . i U.^ U * uv^, Uv uiuUr Iho veto oC the central
'\o^U i»u»»uU»-a with death anyone attempting
i t i \ ^ v » >yuh fcuclgiwra. Thus the fiefs practised a
' ' . » . A ... » \\\»\sn\ at home, and united to maintain a
1,1 * t::r ^Llouabioad. Yet it was uiuler the feudal
k ' /lA ihu •«■»*» ■»«"« l development of Japanese trade took
1 ' ' , I -hh« Om pioitwa of that development have much
|;;,; M ;Vl i,>it,t*t llw UwUe tlotc attention.
* ,l I. ..Ik of a frinl.l1 chief* income was paid in rice, arrange-
\, tin '/*'■"' " . Jof ^ruling the grain to market and trans-
,H ' "' ' ■".V 1 Vm.^mVu iliU was ejected originally by establishing
\"*\T\ li - (*iiffl-yiiiA<*0. under the charge of samurai, who
, u i » ,m .*'«»" * v , . ,' . merchants in that city and remitted the
ll'YIu'monllily Instalments to an appointed place, rendering yearly
It !»y nj ,,n «J"7 ' riving commission at the rate of from 2 to 4%
*» i" 1 1. »it no upcf ial licence, but they were honourably regarded and
t.ll Tuiinauiihed by an official title or an hereditary pension,
oft m IWW(iw»n ^ j uch ^jj^ M the Mitgui and the ^ onoikc
r J.iYJL wa- in effect, a banker charged with the finances of several
#3 In Osaka the method of sale was uniform. Tenders were
Invli rd and these having been opened in the presence of all the store
X lali and kake-ya, the successful tenderers had to deposit bargain-
mnnev paying the remainder within ten days, and thereafter becom-
Inff entitled to take delivery of the rice in whole or by instalments
within a certain time, no fee being charged for storage. A similar
lUtcm existed in Yedo. the shSgun's capital. Out of the custom of
deferred delivery developed the establishment of exchanges where
advances were made against sale certificates, and purely speculative
transactions came into vogue. There followed an experience
common enough in the West at one time: public opinion rebelled
against these transactions in margins on the ground that they tended
to enhance the price of rice. Several of the brokers were arrested
and brought to trial; marginal "dealings were thenceforth forbidden,
and a system of licences was inaugurated in Yedo, the number of
licensed dealers l being restricted to 108.
The system of organized trading companies had its origin m the
1 2th century, when, the number of merchants admitted within the
confines of Yedo being restricted, it became necessary for those not
obtaining that privilege to establish some mode of co-operation,
and there resulted the formation of companies with representatives
stationed in the feudal capital and share-holding members in the
provinces. The Ashikaga shoguns developed this restriction by
selling to the highest bidder the exclusive right of engaging in a
particular trade, and the Tokugawa administration had recourse
to the same practice. But whereas the monopolies instituted by
the Ashikaga had for sole object the enrichment of the exchequer,
the Tokugawa regarded it chiefly as a means of obtaining worthy
representatives in each branch of trade. The first licences were
issued in Yedo to keepers of bath-houses in the middle of the 17th
century. As the city grew in dimensions these licences increased
in value, so that pawnbrokers willingly accepted them in pledge
for loans. Subsequently almanack-sellers were obliged to take
out licences, and the system was afterwards extended to money-
changers.
It was to the fishmongers, however, that the advantages of
commercial organization first presented themselves vividly. The
greatest fish-market in Japan is at Nihon-bashi in T6ky6 (formerly
Yedo). It had its origin in the needs of the Tokugawa court.
When Iyeyasu (founder of the Tokugawa dynasty) entered Yedo
in 1590, his train was followed by some fishermen of Settsu, to
whom he granted the privilege of plying their trade in the adjacent
seas, on condition that they furnished a supply of their best fish
for the use of the garrison. The remainder they offered for sale
at Nihon-bashi. Early in the 17th century one Sukegoro of Yamato
province (hence called Yamato-ya) went to Yedo and organized the
fishmongers into a great gild. Nothing is recorded about this
man's antecedents; though his mercantile genius entitles him to
historical notice. He contracted for the sale of all the fish obtained
in the neighbouring teas, advanced money to the fishermen on the
security of their catch, constructed preserves for keeping the fish
alive until they were exposed in the market, and enrolled all the
dealers in a confederation which ultimately consisted of wi whole-
sale merchants and 246 brokers. The main purpose of Sukegoro's
system was to prevent the consumer from dealing direct with the
producer. Thus in return for the pecuniary accommodation
granted to fishermen to buy boats and nets they were required to
give every fish they caught to the wholesale merchant from whom
they had received the advance; and the latter, on his side, had to
sell in the open market at prices fixed by the confederation- A
somewhat similar system applied to vegetables, though in this case
the monopoly was never so close.
It will be observed that this federation of fishmongers approxi-
mated closely to a trust, as the term is now understood; that is to
say, an association of merchants engaged in the same branch of
trade and pledged to observe certain rule* in the conduct of their
business as well as to adhere to fixed rates. The idea was extended
to nearly every trade. 10 monster confederations being organized
in Yedo and 24 in Osaka. These received official recognition,
and contributed a sum to the exchequer under the euphonious
name of " benefit money," amounting to nearly £20.000 annually.
They attained a high state of prosperity, the whole of the tities*
supplies passing through their hands. 1 No member of a. confedera-
tion was permitted to dispose of his licence except to a near relative,
and if anyone not on the roll of a confederation engaged in the same
business he became liable to punishment at the hands of the officials.
In spite of the limits thus imposed on thc.transfcr of licences, one
of these documents commanded from £80 to £6400, and in the
beginning of the 19th century the confederations, or gilds, had
increased to 68 in Yedo, comprising 1195 merchants. The gild
system extended to maritime enterprise also. In the beginning of
the 17th century a merchant of Sakai (near Osaka) established a
junk service between Osaka and Yedo, but this kind of business did
not attain any considerable development until the close of that
century, when 10 gilds of Yedo and 24 of Osaka combined to
organize a marine-transport company for fhc purpose of conveying
their own merchandise. Here also the principle of monopoly was
strictly observed, no goods being shipped for unaffiliated merchants.
This carrying trade rapidly assumed large dimensions. The number
of junks entering Yedo rose to over 1500 yearly. They raced from
port to port, just as tea-clippers from China toEuropc used to race
in recent times, and troubles incidental to their rivalry became so
serious that it was found necessary to enact stringent rules. Each
junk-master had to subscribe a written oath that he would comply
strictly with the regulations and observe the sequence of sailing as
determined by lot. The junks had to call tn route at Uraga for the
purpose of undergoing official examination. The order of their
arrival there was duly registered, and the master making the best
record throughout the year received a present in money as well as a
complimentary garment, and became the shippers' favourite next
season.
Operations relating to the currency also were brought under the
com rol of gilds. The business of money-changing seem* to have bona
taken up as a prolcssion from the beginning of the 15th century,
but it was then in the hands of pedlars who carried strings of copper
cash which they exchanged for gold or silver coins, then in rare
circulation, or for parcels of gold dust. From the early part of the
17th century exchanges were opened in Yedo, and in 1718 the men
engaged in this business formed a gild after the fashion of the time.
Six hundred of these received licences, and no unlicensed person
was permitted to purchase the avocation. Four representatives
of the chief exchange met daily and fixed the ratio between gold
and silver, the figure being then communicated to the various
exchanges and to the shogun s officials. As for the prices of gold or
silver in terms of copper or bank-notes, 24 representatives of the
exchanges met every evening, and, in the presence of an official
censor, settled the figure for the following day and recorded the
amount of transactions during the past 24 hours, full information
on these points being at once sent to the city governors and the
street elders.
The exchanges in their ultimate form approximated very dosefy
to the Occidental idea of banks. They not only bought gold, saver
•and copper coins, but they also received money on deposit, made
loans and issued vouchers which played a very important part in
commercial transactions. The voucher seems to nave come into
existence in Japan in the 14th century. It originated in the Yoshino
market of Yamato province, where the hilly nature of the district
rendered the carriage of copper money so arduous that rich mer-
chants began to substitute written receipts and engagement*
which quickly became current. Among these documents there
was a " joint voucher " (kumvri~fudo), signed by several persons,
any one of whom might be held responsible for its redemption.
This had large vogue, but it did not obtain official recognition until
1636, when the third Tokugawa shOgun selected 30 substantial
merchants and divided them into 3 gilds, each authorized to issue
vouchers, provided that a certain sum was deposited by way of
security. Such vouchers were obviously a form of bank-note.
Their circulation by the exchange came about in a similar manner.
During many years the treasure of the shogun and of the feudal
1 They were called fuda-sashi (ticket -holders), a term derived
from the fact that rice-vouchers were usually held in a split bamboo
which was thrust into a pile of rice-bags to indicate their buyer.
* In 1725. when the population of Yedo was arjc^ threc^uarfers
nillio * ...... i -l. •.
of rice; 795.856 casks of sake; 132.892 casks of soy (fish-sauce):
18,209.087 bundles of fire-wood; 809.790 bags of charcoal: 00.8U
tubs of oil; 1,670,850 bags of salt and 3.613,500 pieces of cotton
cloth.
COMIIERCHJ
chiefs was carried to Yeda by pack-lionet mad cooties of the regular
postal service. Butthecc«twiessof such a niethod led to the selec-
tion ia 1*91 of 10 exchange agents who were appointed bankers to the
Tokugawa government and were required to furnish money within
*> days of toe date of an order drawn on them. "^
fcythai
t of the " ten-men gild."
These agents
the firm of
Mitsui was added, but it enjoyed the spedaJprivilege of being allowed
tgo days to collect a specified amount. The giwf recerVedf moneys
on account of the Tokugawa or the feudal chiefs. at provincial
centres, and then made its own arrangements for cashing the
cheques drawn upon it by the ahogun or the daimyo in Yedo. If
coin happened to be immediately available, it was employed to cash
the cheques; otherwise the vouchers of the gild served instead. It
was in Osaka, boweventhat the functions of the exchanges acquired
fullest developme n t. That dty has exhibited, in all eras, a remark-
able aptitude for trade. Its merchants, as already shown, were not
only entrusted with the duty of selling the rice and other products
of the surrounding fiefs, but also they became depositories of the
proceeds,, which they paid out on account of the owners in whatever
sums the latter desired. Such an evidence of official confidence
JAPAN 201
established, tteence feat, however, being abolished, and no Hmit
set to the number of firms in a gild. Things remained thus until
the beginning of the Meiii era (1867), when the gilds shared the
cataclysm that overtook all the country's old institutions.
Japanese commercial and industrial life presents another feature
rhich seems to suggest special aptitude for combination. In mercan-
tile or manufacturing families, while the eldest son always succeeded
to his father's business, not only the younger sons but also the appren-
tices and employees, after they had served faithfully for a number
of years, e xp ected to be set up as branch houses under the auspices
greatly strengthened their credit, and they received further en-
couragement from the second Tokugawa »h«5gun (1605-1623,) and from
lshimaru Sedatsugu, governor of the dty in 1661. He fostered
wholesale transactions, sought to introduce a large element of credit
into commerce by instituting a system of credit sales; took measures
to promote the circulation of cheques; inaugurated market sales'of
gold and silver and appointed ten chiefs of exchange .who were
empowered to oversee the business of money-exchanging in general
These ten received exemption from municipal taxation and were
permitted to wear swords. Under them were 22 exchanges forming
a gild, whose members agreed to honour one another's vouchers and
mutually to facilitate business. Gradually they elaborated a regular
system of banking, so that, in the middle of the 18th century, they
issued various descriptions of paper-orders for fixed sums payable at
certain places within fixed periods; deposit notes redeemable on
the demand of an indicated person or his order; bills of exchange
drawn by- A upon B in favour of C (a common form for use in
monthly or annual settlements); promissory notes to be paid at a
future time, or cheques payable at sight, for goods purchased; and
storage orders engaging to deliver goods on account of which earnest
money had been paid. These last, much employed in transactions
relating to rice and sugar, were generally valid for a period of 3 years
and 3 months, were signed by a confederation of exchanges or mer-
chants on joint responsibility, and guaranteed the delivery of
the indicated merchandise independently of all accidents. They
passed current as readily as coin, and advances could always be
obtained against them from pawnbrokers.
All these documents, indicating a well-developed system of
credit, were duly protected by law, severe penalties being inflicted
for any failure to implement the pledges they embodied. The
merchants of Yedo and Osaka, working on the system of trusts here
described, gradually acquired great wealth and fell into habits of
marked luxury. It is recorded that they did not hesitate to pay
£5 for the first bonito of the season and £11 for the first egg-fruit.
Naturally the spectacle of such extravagance excited popular dis-
content. Men began to grumble against the so-called " official
merchants " who, under government auspices, monopolized every
branch of trade; and this feeling grew almost uncontrollable in 1830,
when rice rose to an unprecedented price owing to crop failure.
Men loudly ascribed that state of affairs to regrating on the part of
the wholesale companies, and murmurs similar to those raised at
the dose of the 19th century in America against the trust system
began to reach the ears of the authorities perpetually. The cele-
brated Fujita Toko of Mito took up the question. He argued that
the monopoly system, since it included Osaka, exposed the Yedo
market to ail the vicissitudes of the former dty, which had then
lost much of its old prosperity.
Finally, in 1841, the shOgun's chief minister, Mixuno Echizcn-no-
Kami, withdrew all trading licences, dissolved the gilds and pro-
claimed that every person should thenceforth be free to engage in
any commerce without let or hindrance. This recklessly drastic
measure, vividly illustrating the arbitrariness of feudal officialdom,
not only included the commercial gilds, the shipping gilds, the
exchange gilds and the land transport gilds, but was also carried to
the length of forbidding any company to confine itself to wholesale
dealings. The authorities further declared that in times of scarcity
wholesale transactions must be abandoned altogether and retail
business alone carried on, their purpose being to bring retail and
wholesale prices to the same level. The custom of advancing money
to fishermen or to producers in the provincial districts was inter-
dicted ; even the fuda-sashl might no longer ply their calling, and
neither bath-house keepers nor hairdressers were allowed to combine
for the purpose of adopting uniform rates of charges. But this ill-
judged interference produced evil* greater than those it was intended
to remedy. The gilds had not really been exacting. Their organi-
zation had reduced the cost of distribution, and they had provided
facilities of transport which brought produce within quick and cheap
reach of central markets.
Ten years' experience showed that a modified form of the old
ajatctQ would conduce to public interests. The gilds wese re-
the auspices
certain amount
tuse-name. Many
plexus of branches an
ing to extend its business and strengthen its credit, so that the
group held a commanding position in the business world. It will
be apparent from the above that conimercUl transactions on a large
scale in pre-Meiji days were practically limited to the two great
dties of Yedo and Osaka, the people in the provincial fiefs having
no direct association with the gild system, confining themselves, for
the most part, to domestic industries on a email scale, and not being
allowed to extend their business beyond the boundaries of the fid
to which they belonged.
Foreign Commerce during the Mciji Era.— If Japan's industrial
development in modern times has been remarkable, the same
may be said even more emphatically about the development
of her over-sea commerce. This was checked at first not
only by the unpopularity attaching to all intercourse with out-
side nations, but also by embarrassments resulting from the
difference between the sDver price of gold in Japan and its silver
price in Europe, the precious metals being connected in Japan by
a ratio of 1 to 8, and in Europe by a ratio of 1 to is. This
latter fact was the cause of a sudden and violent appreciation of
values; for the government, seeing the country threatened with
loss of all its gold, tried to avert the catastrophe by altering and
reducing the weights of the silver coins without altering their
denominations, and a corresponding difference exhibited ftsetf,
as a matter of course, In the silver quotations of commodities.
Another difficulty was the attitude of officialdom. During several
centuries Japan's over-sea trade had been under the control of
officialdom, to whose coffers it contributed a substantial revenue.
But when the foreign exporter entered the field under the con-
ditions created by the new system, he diverted to his own pocket
the handsome profit previously accruing to the government; and
since the latter could not easily become reconciled to tins loss of
revenue, or wean itself from its traditional habit of interference
in affairs of foreign commerce, and since the foreigner, on his
side, not only desired secrecy in order to prevent competition,
but was also tormented by inveterate suspicions of Oriental
espionage, not a little friction occurred from time to time.
Thus the scanty records of that early epoch suggest that trade
was beset with great difficulties, and that the foreigner had to
contend against most adverse circumstances, though in truth his
gains amounted to 40 or 50%.
The chief staples of the early trade were tea and silk. It
happened that just before Japan's raw silk became available for
export, the production of that article in France and T«*«av
Italy had been largely curtailed owing to a novel *■*
disease of the silkworm. Thus, when the first bales of Japanese
silk appeared in London, and when it was found to possess
qualities entitling it to the highest rank, a keen demand sprang
up. Japanese green tea also, differing radically in flavour and
bouquet from the black tea of China, appealed quickly to
American taste, so that by the year 1007 Japan found herself
selling to foreign countries tea to the extent of 1 J millions ster-
ling, and raw silk to the extent of 12 \ millions. This remarkable
development is typical of the general history of Japan's foreign
trade in modern times. Omitting the first decade and a half,
the statistics for which are imperfect, the volume of the trade
grew from 5 millions sterling in 1873—3 shillings per head of the
population— to 93 millions in 1007 — or 38 shillings per head. It
was not a uniform growth. The period of $5 years divides itself
conspicuously into two eras: the first, of 15 years (1873-1887),
during which the development was from 5 millions to 9*7 mil-
lions, a ratio of 1 to a, approximately; the second, of 20 yean
(1887-1007), during which the development was from 9-7
millions to 93 bullions, a ratio of 1 to 10.
200 r A
commodities waa thus prevented so etWh..ii t
recorded of one feudatory', subj « ?«**»»* Hurt cases „
S of «i adio>~ngfieI enjoyed, ^"f '*'"™'^,,!
conferee, on U« other hand, byl^*"**- Jnternat.V
™e?n?nen«:. which punished Jrith dS.h 7*'° °' ,he «'
S hold intercom** wuh foreign^, $£ W Wcm.
policy of mutual sedus.on at home, and Jtff b """
policy- of general seclusion abroad, v., ,, UnUed t0 n"m
Cem *htt the sr»st signal developn^VofXT 1 " ' ht
Place and since the processes of tUrf.7 apane * e ,r:
httorfc^l interest they invite di'X^J^ ha
A* the" foulfc of a feudal chiefs inmm.
mining its proceeds. This was effected^." t0 , marke '
in OsaTca stores (Aara^A.*,). undVr ^ e °"! ,na,, y by
received the rice, sold it to merchants in t h n,^ of
proceed* by official earners. B 7^"«wt city am*
century these stores were placed in thechU e r m,dd '
was given the name of kake-ya {ll^-vl^ 6
product* entrusted to them by a &/lJj\ E»«y '
PbJ monthly instalments to in apl^J 1 ^ the
account* a ncT receiving commission^^P'ace.
They had no special licence, but they £-£*,** c
often distinguished by an official StfcX -°V' - -
faihSS»s was. in effect, a banker rhfi?i he M »*
defer^r^d delivery developed the estabfi?
transactions am t u*°vu VO * uc - Th£
common enough in the West at one t
a^Ti^lt zhese transactions in marein,
?renhlr,« the price of rice. ffi£
and brought to trial; marginal deali,
I
J
^.jtasBsi
and a. *y» tem ite nccs Was »nau;
UccnsooT <***£% ^-"S**** t
The system of organized tradin
system
_<* dcalei
"The system -■ --o---— « craa.n
mh ccntury.whcrij the number
confines of X^^2«*ricter.
obtaining: that . P™ 1 ^ *> est
and there fesjilted he forma*
stationed in the feudal capit;
provinces- . The Ashikaga „;
seUine to the highest bidde
£rt"?ular trade, and the '
to the same practice. Bu
the Ashikaga had for sole
the
to the same f
the Ashikaga had for sob
the Tokugawa regarded I
representatives in each
issued in Yedo to keep*
issued in » *-~*v w «r™i
As the aty
► that pa i
Subsequr
century *** L" v Ml x
in value, so^ 1 "** J 5 **
- = *******
and tii
for loans.
out licences,
changers.
It was to the
commercial organ
greatest fish-marT
Yedo). It had
When Iycyasu
in 1590, his t
whom he grar
seas, on co*'
for the use
at Nihon-br
province (1
mhmongr
man's aT
historic?
in the •
sccurif '
alive
deal'
sale
sy
P f
- -*":-
7*
« They were cut,,
from the fact *ha» •
—
- ^^* . w*
-
—
~ "
~~ - ' Jt * : _*-*
**
~
-- ^ **'-■*
"
-"
— " ^^ *S
—
*" _
- " = * it «* "^
s ^
"^*
" *
. -- -• =v *!^
-
■ - ■ * *-* .^
— *
x br» ■
■i'
-a.s?*^
*■"*■
-.
* ..
ar* ■• B<«^ *
-w-»*
v--cr
^
t
— 1 «
-ft. >._ *
-,- —
- t *w^*f
t -^
"*
_ tJt _»
JAPAN
mber to 91s, namely, 15 princes,
iscounts and 382 barons.
Imperial household department fa
the administration of state affairs.
Jt forests, peerage and hunting, as
and chamberlains, officials of the
Us of the crown prince's household.
co the throne b £300,000, and the
me 12,000 acres of building land,
300,000 acres of miscellaneous lands,
» millions sterling, but probably not
than £200,000 yearly. Further, the
ms sterling (face value) of bonds and
of some £250,000 b derived, so that
► three-quarters of a million sterling.
le households of the crown prince and
>ported ; allowances are granted at the
bility : a long Ust of charities receive
siderable sums are paid to encourage
ror himself b probably one of the most
:upted a throne.
ere are nine departments of state
foreign affairs, home affairs, finance,
0, agriculture and commerce, com-
ters form the cabinet, which is
ter president of state, so that its
Ministers of state are appointed by
opvuoible to him alone. But between the
stand a small body of men, the survivors
us modern Japan was raised to her present
the nations. They are known as " elder
Their proved ability constitutes an invalu-
ne solution of serious problems their voice
final. At the end of 1909 four of these
n remained — Prince Yamagata, Marquises
ata and Count Okuma. There is also a privy
tsists of a variable number of distinguished
e were 39, the president being Field-Marshal
Their duty is to debate and advise upon all
? them by the emperor, who sometimes attends
person.
-The total number of dvfl officials was 137,819
jeen only 68,876 in 1898, from which time it grew
year. The salaries and allowances paid out of
y year on account of the civil service are 4 millions
nately, and the annual emoluments of the principal
-How: — Prime minister, £960; minister of a depart-
.nbassador, £500, with allowances varying from
, president of privy council, £500; resident-general
governor-general of Formosa. £600; vice-minister,
plenipotentiary, £400, with allowances from £xooo
-rnor of prefecture, £300 to £360; judge of the court
.200 to £500; other judges, £60 to £400; professor of
.rsity, from £80 to £160,' with allowances from £40 to
junctllor, £400; director of a bureau, £300; &c
..—The first Japanese Diet was convoked the 29th
er, 1890. There are two chambers, a house of
<u-in) and a house of representatives {shugi-in).
• ested with the same legislative power.
per chamber consists of four classes of members.
first, hereditary members, namely, princes and mar-
jo are entitled to sit when they reach the age of as;
counts, viscounts and barons, elected — after they have
their 25th year — by their respective orders in the maxi-
ito of one member to every five peers; thirdly, men of
>n or distinguished service who are nominated by the
r; and, fourthly, representatives of the highest tax-
. elected, one for each prefecture, by their own class.
rintmum age limit for non-titled members fa 30, and it is
.ed that their total number must not exceed that of the
members. The house was composed in 1909 of 14 princes
e blood, xs princes, 39 marquises, 17 counts, 69 viscounts,
irons, 1 34 Imperial nominees, and 45 representatives of the
est tax-payers—that fa to say, 3x0 titled members and 169
-titled.
Tie lower house consists of elected members only. Origin-
7 the property qualification was fixed at a minimum annual
•ynent of 30a, in direct taxes (».«. taxes imposed by the central
203
government), bat in xooo the law of election was amended, and
the property qualification for electors is now a payment of £1
in direct taxes, while for candidates no qualification is required
either as to property or as to locality. Members are of two
kinds, namely, those returned by incorporated cities and those
returned by prefectures. In each case the ratio fa one member
for every 130,000 electors, and the electoral district is the city
or prefecture.
Voting is by ballot, one man one vote, and a general election
must take place once in 4 years for the house of represen-
tatives, and once in 7 years for the house of peers. The house of
representatives, however, fa liable to be dissolved by order of
the sovereign as a disciplinary measure, in which event a general
election must be held within 5 months from the dale of disso-
lution, whereas the house of peers fa not liable to any such treat-
ment. Otherwise the two houses enjoy equal rights and privi-
leges, except that the budget must first be submitted to the
representatives. Each member receives a salary of £200; the
president receives £500, and the vice-president £300. The
presidents are nominated by the sovereign from three names
submitted by each house, but the appointment of a vice-presi-
dent is within the independent right of each chamber. The
lower house consists of 379 members, of whom 75 are returned by
the urban population and 304 by the rural. Under the original
property qualification the number of franchise-holders was only
453,474, or xi'5 to every xooo of the nation, but it fa now
1,676,007, or 15-77 to every xooo. By the constitution which
created the diet freedom of conscience, of speech and of public
meeting, inviolability of domicile and correspondence, security
from arrest or punishment except by due process of law, perma-
nence of judicial appointments and all the other essential ele-
ments of civil liberty were granted. In the diet full legislative
authority is vested: without its consent no tax can be imposed,
increased or remitted; nor can any public money be paid out
except the salaries of officials, which the sovereign reserves the
right to fix at will. In the emperor are vested the prerogatives
of declaring war and making peace, of concluding treaties, of
appointing and dismissing officials, of approving and promul-
gating laws, of issuing urgent ordinances to take the temporary
place of laws, and of conferring titles of nobility.
'Procedure of ike Diet. — It could scarcely have been expected
that neither tumult nor intemperance would disfigure the proceed-
ings of a diet whose members were entirely without parliamentary
experience, but not without grievances to ventilate, wrongs (real or
fancied) to avenge, and abuses to redress. On the whole, however,
there has been a remarkable absence of anything like disgraceful
licence. The politeness, the good temper, and the sense of dignity
which characterize the Japanese, generally saved the situation when
it threatened to degenerate into a " scene." Foreigners entering
the house of representatives in T0ky6 for the first time might easily
misinterpret some of its habits. A number distinguishes each
member. It is painted in white on a wooden indicator, the latter
be'" ' J L " 1 hinge to the face of the member's desk. When
or ! indicator standing upright, and lowers it when
1« Permission to speak is not obtained by catching
th but by calling out the aspirant's number, and as
m< ihasize their calls by hammering their desks with
th c are moments of decided din. But, for the rest,
or :orum habitually prevail. Speeches have to be
m; m. There are few displays of oratory oreloquence.
Tl ulates his views with remarkable facility. He is
ab n gauchetie or self-consciousness when speaking
in fiink on his feet. But his mind does not usually
bu bstract ideas and subtleties of philosophical or
rel Flights of fancy, impassioned bursts of sentiment,
ap rt rather than to the reason of an audience, are
de hb mental habit. He can be rhetorical, but not
eloquent. Among all the speeches hitherto delivered in the Japanese
diet it would be difficult to find a passage deserving the latter epithet.
From the first the debates were recorded verbatim. Years before
the date fixed for the promulgation of the constitution, a little band
of students elaborated a system of stenography and adapted it to
the Japanese syllabary. Their labours remained almost without
recognition or remuneration until the diet was on the eve of meeting,
when it was discovered that a competent staff of shortuand reporters
could be organized at an hour's notice. Japan can thus boast that,
alone among the countries of the world, she possesses an exact record
of the proceedings of her Diet from the moment when the first word
was spoken within its walls.
*o* JAPAN
ti TV Nohu
prised si
•*k>*. or
«swdcl
-* ***
(DIVISIONS
A special fcatun xiacd
oratorical displays.
to a committee, am
does serious debate R
every hundred the c *
house, and speeches [
result of this system ■
scarcely known in
of the house of repre
and the number of
Yet the result was ill be
measures of prime i ando,
budget and a statu rf the
although actual sitl lining
brief, the committee < four!
to evening throughc kbdea
Divisions of the
Japan into province a the
in whose time the s *m
than a line curving shiro,
main bland, to the This
on the north-west cc r-one.
occupied by barban \aiii,
in Veao) are prob rivaA
country was then c hima,
century the empress ihiro,
tion against Korea, \
and seven circuits, fe by
emperor Mommu (€ >ntier
so as to increase the osttd
then fixed by him r t u*
ShOmu (72^-756). LSf
1. The Co-ktnai o
diately around KyCi
tune,
inces
Yomashiro, also call Awa
Yamato „ ter of
eior
Kavachi
II. Th« seven cm
1. The Tdkax "•!"*£
fifteen pi
Ig* or min-
14 „ rural
Skimo „ loaa.
Overt •„ ving
MiUwa ,, very,
73<oroi „ Ions;,
Sunset „ iling
Jss „ aido
2. The Tdzan 2?
prisede f^Jl
r .t£ or aaber
?»-^r „ chief
i- „ of a
armyi JAPAN 205
Area in
Sub-
prefect!
Towns.
Urban
Dtstr
Prefecture
sq. m.
Population.
Iwate . .
Aoraori
5459-17
3.©»7*89
726,380
613,171
13 » 23
829
The above 7 prefectures form Northern Japan.
Kioto . .
Ottka . .
'«
931476*
I.31I.909 1
18 I 30
9 2 it
10 1 18
Nara . .
1,300-46
538.507
681,572
Wakayama
1,851 29
7 1 16
Hiflgo . .
3*31831
1,667,226
25 3 39
Okayama
2,509*04
1,133,000
19 1 29
16 3 37
11 1 10
Hiroshima .
Yaraaguchi
3.W384
".324-34
2.597-48
*■$#?
Shimane
731448
16 1 14
6 1 i
Tottori . .
1.33599
418,929
The above 10 prefectures form Southern Japan.
Tokushima .
1,616-87
699498
10 l 3
Kagawa
976-46
700463
7 2 13
Ehtme . -.
2,03357
997481
12 1 18
Kochi . .
3,730*13
616.549
6 1 14
The above 4 prefectures form the island of Shikoku,
Nagasaki
MOt-49
831,333
| 2 15
19 4 38
Saga . <
Fukuoka
984-07
1,89414
631,011
«462,743
Kumamoto
2,774-20
1,151.401
12 1 3*
13 — 28
Oita. . »
3,400-37
839^85
Miyazaki .
2,904-54
3.5897*
454.707
8—9
Kagoshtma .
1,104,631
13 I —
Okinawa »
935-18
469.203
5 2 —
The above 8 prefectures form KiQshiO.
Hokkaid6 .
36,33834
610,155
88 3 19
the system of 1<
administration full effect is given to the principle of popi
representation. Each prefecture (urban or rural), each a
prefecture, each town and each district (urban or rural) has
local assembly, the number of members being fixed in proport
to the population. There is no superior limit of number in
case of a prefectural assembly, but the inferior limit is
For a town assembly, however, the superior limit is 60 and
inferior 30; for a sub-prefect ural assembly the correspond
figures are 40 and 15, and for a district assembly, 30 anc
These bodies are all elective. The property qualification
the franchise ra the case of prefectural and sub-prefecti
assemblies is an annual payment of direct national taxes to
amount of 3 yen; and in the case of town and district ass<
Mies, 3 yen; while to be eligible for election to a prefect*
assembly a yearly payment of 10 yen of direct national ta
is necessary; to a sub-prefect ural assembly, 5 yen, and to a tc
or district assembly, 2 yen. Under these qualifications
electors aggregate 2,009,745, ^ those eligible for election t<
919,507. In towns and districts franchise-holders are furt
divided into classes with regard to their payment of local ta:
Thus for town electors there are three classes, differentiated
the following process: On the list of ratepayers the highest
checked off until their aggregate payments are equal to c
third of the total taxes. These persons form the first cl
Next below them the persons whose aggregate payments rej
sent one-third of the total amount are checked off to form
second das*, and all the remainder form the third cl
Each class elects one-third of the members of asseml
In the districts there are only two classes, namely, tl
whose payments, in order from the highest, aggregate c
half of the total, the remaining names on the list being pta
in the second class. Each class elects one-half of the memb
This is called the system of 6-jinuski (large landowners) an
found to work satisfactorily as a device for conferring repre
tative rights in proportion to property. The franchise is w
held from all salaried local officials, from judicial officials, fi
ministers of religion, from persons who, not being barristers
profession, assist the people in affairs connected with law coi
or official bureaux, and from every individual or member <
• This is not the population of the city proper, but that of
urban prefecture.
206
JAPAN
derived from tradition only, since the first written record goes
back no farther than 712. We are justified, however, in believing
that at the close of the 7th century of the Christian era, when the
empress Jito sat upon the throne, the social system of the Tang
dynasty of China commended itself for adoption; the distinc-
tion of civil and military is said to have been then established
for the first time, though it probably concerned officials only. Cer-
tain oaken received definitely military commissions, as generals,
brigadiers, captains and so on; a military office (kydbuskd) was
organized, and each important district throughout the empire
bad its military division (jundan). One-third— some say one-
fourth—of the nation's able-bodied males constituted the army.
Tactically there was a complete organization, from the squad of
5 men to the division of 600 horse and 400 foot. Service was for
a defined period, during which taxes were remitted, so that
military duties always found men ready to discharge them.
Thus the hereditary soldier— afterwards known as the samurai or
buski— did not yet exist, nor was there any such thing as an
exclusive right to carry arms. Weapons of war, the property
of the state, were served out when required for fighting or for
training purposes.
At the dose of the 8th century stubborn insurrections on the
part of the aborigines gave new importance to the soldier.
The conscription list had to be greatly increased, and it came to
be a recognized principle that every stalwart man should bear
anna, every weakling become a bread-winner. Thus, for the
■rat lime, the distinction between "soldier" and "working
man Ml received official recognition, and in consequence of the
circumstances attending the distinction a measure of contempt
attached to the latter. The next stage of development had its
origin in the assumption of high offices of state by great families,
who encroached upon the imperial prerogatives, and appropri-
ated as hereditary perquisites posts which should have remained
In the gift of the sovereign. The Fujiwara clan, taking all the
civit oftScts, resided in the capital, whereas the military posts fell
to the lot of the Taira and the Minamoto, who, settling in the
aamoces and being thus required to guard and police the out-
fe*Ht districts, found it expedient to surround themselves with
■ten who made soldiering a profession. These ratter, in their
turn, transmitted their functions to their sons, so that there
gcvw *t> i* the shadow of the great houses a number of military
u.Miiw* dewted to maintaining the power and promoting the
:i>,v*\^t* of their masters, from whom they derived their own
j*.s ..v$v* and emoluments.
Ins* iNc middle of the 10th century, therefore, the terms
► 4*i ««**» acquired a special significance, being applied
v<»*^\*9 and their followers by the local magnates, whose
N *v« .c«hV\! «hw and more to eclipse even that of the throne,
, . •*. > k * the 1 *ih century, when the Minamoto brought the
^.v>* *vs~*»y wider the sway of military organization, the
.s . \ .a,x* <*• ix*f tug arms was restricted to the samurai. Thencc-
^ >v t" my class entered upon a period of administrative
«n a! **>iK*rity which lasted, without serious interruption,
* " . W sntddW of the 19th century. But it is to be observed
v * W dwiictton between soldier and civilian, samurai and
Jvv*n» was not of undent existence, nor did it arise from any
° ssi v4 uce or caste, victor or vanquished, as is often
v " *\j 4-w j imcd. It was an outcome wholly of ambitious
* * v^v whkh, relying for success on force of arms, gave
"* * ^ V wfwunct to tho soldier, and invested his profession
^ nil %«• always the chief weapon of the fighting-man in
wTT' tad " bow-end-arrow were synonymous terms.
* % Jwukm* tells how Tametomo shot an arrow through
. ijt t Vr^«Zt of his brother's helmet, in order to recall
"■""» *\Uo£« without Injuring him; how Nasuno Michitaka
* >J « rSJat that severed the item of a fan swayed by the
^ %4 *«*»*». here translated " working man, means
* Smpn! in any of the various callings- - apart from
* J^JKbter ane a further distinction was established
W ^ivUrrv tha significati^ -* •■--■— 'man"
(ARMY
wi * to rescue a fish from the
tal r fish, cut off the osprey'a
fei the fish dropped into the
pa ght; and there are many
sir he weapon. Still better
au t the •* thirty-three-spaa
ha ler had to aboot an arrow
thi yards long and only 16 ft.
hij iry, succeeded in sending
81 *xa 2a consecutive hours*
be e ; and Masatoki. in 1 85a,
ras — w , — ►re than 4 a minute. The
lengths ofthe bow and arrow were determined with reference to the
capacity of the archer. In the case of the bow, the unit of measure-
m l- ji between the tips of the thumb and the little
fir lly stretched. Fifteen of these units gave the
lei ! maximum being about 7) ft. The unit for
th to 15 hand-breadths, or from 3 ft. to jJ ft.
Oi is of unvarnished boxwood or aelkowa; but
su alone came to be employed. Binding with
co to strengthen the bow, and for precision of
fli] three feathers, an eagle's wing being most
es Mse, and after it. in order, that of the copper
pfc e adjutant and the snipe.
to the bow came the sword, which is often
3p irai's chief weapon, though there can be no
g ages it ranked after the bow. it was a
sli markable for its three exactly similar curves —
cd k; its almost imperceptibly con vexed blade;
iti f — ing; its consummately skilled forging; its
razor-like sharpness; its cunning distribution of weight, giving a
maximum efficiency of stroke. The 10th century saw this weapon
carried to perfection, and it has been inferred that only from that
epoch did the samurai begin to esteem his sword as the greatest
treasure he possessed, and to rely on it as his best instrument of
attack and defence. But it is evident that the evolution of such
r ki- a . u-.~ 1 — - j..- » Tgent, long-existing demand, and
1 >f innumerable efforts on the part
< encouragement on that of the
1 annals and household traditions
1 ny age numbers of men devoted
l I skill in swordsmanship. Many
< own, differing from one another
i any save the master himself and
I c method of handling the weapon
1 1 sword-play was an art variously
I \tjuisu, names which imply the
< nanncr as to produce a maximum
< rt, by directing an adversary's
f o one's own. ft was an essential
< ly that he should be competent
1 fiat happened to be within reach.
1 weapon he should be capable of
i on an assailant. In the many
1 ces are related of men seizing a
I * a druggist's pestle as a weapon
< an umbrella, an iron fan or even
t r , _*he samurai had to be p r e p ared
for every emergency. Were he caught weaponless by a number of
assailants, his art of yawara was supposed to supply him with
expedients for emerging unscathed. Nothing counted save the
issue. The methods of gaining victory or the circumstances attend-
ing defeat were scarcely taken into consideration. The true samurai
had to rise superior to all contingencies. Out of this perpetual
effort on the part of hundreds of experts to discover and perfect
novel developments of swordsmanship, there grew a habit which
held its vogue down to modern times, namely, that when a man had
mastered one style of sword-play in the school of a teacher, he act
himself to stu ly all others, and for that purpose undertook a tour
throughout the provinces, challenging every expert, and, in the
of defeat, constituting himself the victor's pupil. The
exercised a potent influence on the life of the Japanese nation. The
distinction of wearing it, the rights that it conferred, the deeds
wrought with it, the Tame attaching to special skill in its use, the
superstitions connected with it, the incredible value set upon a fine
blade, the honours bestowed on an expert sword-smith, the tradi-
tions that had grown up around celebrated weapons, the profound
study needed to be a competent judge of a sword's qualities — all
these things conspired to give the katana an importance beyond the
limits of ordinary comprehension. A samurai carried at least two
swords, a long and a short. Their scabbards of lacquered wood
were thrust into his girdle, not slung from it, being fastened in their
place by cords of plaited silk. Sometimes he increased the number
of swords to three, four or even five, before going into battle, and
this array was supplemented by a dagger carried in the bosom. The
short sword was not employed in the actual combat. Its one was
to cut off an enemy's head after overthrowing him. and it also served
a defeated soldier in his. last resort— suicide. In general the Ions;
sword did not measure more than 3 ft., Including the hilt ; but some
were $ ft. long, and some 7. Considering that the scabbard, being
WEAPONS]
fattened i
very lon$
Spear a
form of a
6 ft. and I
of blade a
weapons
In the 14
greatly, a
as the aw
glaive. *
tome 3 ft
warlike t
century i
however,
priests,
for where
loose f on
Japan?
resemble 1
fa Japan*
in impron
differed fi
ftsessend
—helmet,
were not
easiest wi
Enropean
Japanese
Japanese
to, the pe
European
was made
materials,
number o
siderable
there. PI
decoratior
On the w
ornament
detracted
horo was ;
fine transi
horns of tl
and back,
arrow. A
regard evu
ofhis sok
whole wit
man of n
with a coi
Theja,
ton- shape
in vohimi
known of
historic til
quently «
wooden fi
fastened t
saddle: it
resembling
shoe-sole 1
often of b
lacquer, tl
the militai
head was
Flags*
Some wef
mmdTttia
a tiger ai
ribs were 1
or ret rest
lag conch
or a con tc
victim at I
or a cond
played a
general n
attack she
JAPAN 307
tlic assaulting army, takiag the word from its commander, raised
a about of "Eil Etl" to which the other aide replied, and the
formalities having been thus satisfied, the fight commenced.
In early medieval days tactics were of the crudest descrip-
tion. An army consisted of a congeries of little bands, each
under the order of a chief who considered himself independent,
and instead of subordinating his movements to a general plan,
struck a blow wherever he pleased. From time immemorial
a romantic value has attached in Japan to the first of anything:
the first snow of winter; the first water drawn from the well on
New Year's Day; the first blossom of the spring; the first note
of the nightingale. So in war the first to ride up to the foe or
the wiekter of the first spear was held in high honour, and a
samurai strove for that distinction as his principal duty. It
necessarily resulted, too, not only from the nature of the weapons
employed, but also from the immense labour devoted by the
true samurai to perfecting himself in their use, that displays of
individual prowess were deemed the chief object in a battle.
Some tactical formations borrowed from China were familiar in
Japan, but their intelligent use and their modification to suit the
circumstances of the time were inaugurated only by the great
captains of the 15th and 16th centuries. Prior to that epoch a
battle resembled a gigantic fencing match. Men fought as
individuals, not as units of a tactical formation, and the engage*
ment consisted of a number of personal duels, all in simultaneous
progress. It was the samurai's habit to proclaim his name and
titles in the presence of the enemy, sometimes adding from his
own record or bis father's any details that might tend to
dispirit Us hearers. Then some one advancing to cross weapons
with him would perform the same ceremony of self-introductioa,
and if either found anything to upbraid in the other's ante-
cedents or family history, he did not fail to make loud reference
to it, such a device being counted efficacious as a means of dis-
turbing an adversary's sang-froid^ though the principle under-
lying the mutual introduction was courtesy. The duellists
could reckon on finishing their fight undisturbed, but the victor
frequently had to endure the combined assault of a number of
the comrades or retainers of the vanquished. Of course a
skilled swordsman did not necessarily seek a single combat; he
was equally ready to ride into the thick of the fight- without dis-
crimination, and a group of common soldiers never hesitated
to make a united attack upon a mounted officer if they found him
disengaged. But the general feature of a battle was individual
contests, and when the fighting had ceased, each samurai pro-
ceeded to the tent 1 of the commanding officer and submitted
for inspection the heads of those whom he had killed.
The disadvantage of such a mode of fighting was demonstrated
for the first time when the Mongols invaded Japan in 1274.
The invaders moved in phalanx, guarding themselves Chma ^ ^
with pavises, and covering their advance with a jJSS.
host of archers shooting clouds of poisoned arrows.*
When a Japanese samurai advanced singly and challenged one
of them to combat, they opened their ranks, enclosed the chal-
lenger and cut him to pieces. Many Japanese were thus slain,
and it was not until they made a concerted movement of attack
that they produced any effect upon the enemy. But although
the advantage of massing strength seems to have been recognized,
the Japanese themselves did not adopt the formation which the
Mongols had shown to be so formidable. Individual prowess
continued to be the prominent factor in battles down to a com-
parativcly recent period. The great captains Takeda Shingen
and Uyesugi Kenshin are supposed to have been Japan's pioneer
tacticians. They certainly appreciated the value of a formation
in which the action of the individual should be subordinated to
the unity of the whole. But when it is remembered that fire-
arms had already been in the hands of the Japanese for several
years, and that they had means of acquainting themselves with
1 A tent was simply a space enclosed with strips of cloth or sSOc.
on which was emblazoned the crest of the commander. It had no
covering.
* The Japanese never at any time of their history used poisoned
arrows; they despised them as depraved and inhuman weapons.
208
MUBtMiy
the tactic* of Europe through their intercourse with the Dutch,
it is remarkable that the changes attributed to Takeda and
Uyesugi were not more drastic. Speaking broadly, what they
did was to organize a column with the musqfceteers and archers
in front; the spearmen and swordsmen in the second line; the
cavalry in the third line; the commanding officer in the rear,
and the drums and standards in the centre. At close quarters
the spear proved a highly effective weapon, and in the days of
Hideyoshi (1536-1508) combined flank .and front attacks by
bands of spearmen became a favourite device. The importance
of a strong reserve also received recognition, and in theory, at all
events, a tolerably intelligent system of tactics was adopted.
But not until the dose of the 17th century did the doctrine of
strictly disciplined action obtain practical vogue. Yamaga
Soko is said to have been the successful incukator of this prin-
ciple, and from his time the most approved tactical formation
was known as the YomogaryQ (Yamaga style), though it showed
no other innovation than strict subordination of each unit to the
general plan.
Although, tactically speaking, the samurai was everything and
the system nothing before the second half of the 17th century,
and although strategy was chiefly a matter of decep-
tion, surprises and ambushes, it must not be supposed
that there were no classical principles. The student
of European military history searches in vain for the rules and
mmimn of war so often invoked by glib critics, but the student
of Japanese history is more successful. Here, as in virtually
every field of things Japanese, retrospect discovers the ubi-
quitous Chinaman. The treatises of Sung and 'Ng (called in Japan
Son and Go) Chinese generals of the third century after Christ,
were the classics of Far-Eastern captains through all generations.
(See The Book of War, tr. E. F. Calthrop, xoo8.) YoshitsunS, in
the 1 2th century, deceived a loving girl to obtain a copy of
Sung's work which her father had in his possession, and Yamaga,
in the 17th century, when he set himself to compose a book on
tactics, derived his materials almost entirely from the two
Chinese monographs. These treatises came into the hands of
the Japanese in the 8th century, when the celebrated Kibi no
Mabi went to study civilisation in China, just as his successors
of the 10th century went to study a new civilization in Europe
and America. Thenceforth Son and Go became household
words among Japanese soldiers. Their volumes were to the
samurai what the Mahayana was to the Buddhist. They were
believed to have collected whatever of good had preceded them,
and to have forecast whatever of good the future might produce.
The character of their strategic methods, somewhat analogous
to those of 18th-century Europe, may be gathered from the
following: —
" An army undertaking an offensive campaign must be twice as
numerous as the enemy. A force investing a fortress should be
numerically ten times the garrison. When the adversary holds
high ground, turn his flank; do not deliver a frontal attack. When
he has a mountain or a river behind him, cut his lines of communica-
tion. If he deliberately assumes a position from which victory is
his only escape, hold him there, but do not molest htm. If you can
surround him, leave one route open for his escape, since desperate
men fight fiercely. When you have to cross a river, put your advance-
guard and your rear-guard at a distance from the banks. When
the enemy has to cross a river, let him get well engaged in the
operation before you strike at him. In a march, make celerity your
first object. Pass no copse, enter no ravine, nor approach any
thicket until your scouts have explored it fully."
Such precepts are multiplied; but when these ancient authors
discuss tactical formations, they do not seem to have contem-
plated anything like rapid, well-ordered changes of mobile,
highly trained masses of men from one formation to another,
or their quick transfer from point to point of a battlefield. The
basis of their tactics is The Book of Changes. Here again is
encountered the superstition that underlies nearly all Chinese
and Japanese institutions: the superstition that took captive
even the great mind of Confucius. The positive and the nega-
tive principles; the sympathetic and the antipathetic elements;
cosmos growing out of chaos; chaos re-absorbing cosmos — on
such fancies they founded their tactical system. The result was
JAPAN [SAMURAI
a phalanx of complicated organization, difficult to manoeuvre
and liable to be easily thrown into confusion. Yet when Yamaga
in the 17th century interpreted these ancient Chinese treatises,
he detected in them suggestions for a very shrewd use of
the principle of echelon, and applied it to devise formations
which combined much of the frontal expansion of the line with
the solidity of the column. More than that cannot be said for
Japanese tactical genius. The samurai was the best fighting
unit in the Orient— probably one of the best fighting units the
world ever produced. It was perhaps because of that excellence
that his captains remained indifferent tacticians.
In estimating the military capacity of the Japanese, it is
essential to know something of the ethical code of the samurai,
the bushido (way of the warrior) as it was called. A ahka
typical example of the rules of conduct prescribed •***»_.
by feudal chieftains is furnished in the code of Kato Smmr * L
Kiyomasa, a celebrated general of the xfith century:—
Regulations for Samurai of every Rank; the Highest and Lowest alike,
* 1. The routine of service must be strictly observed. From
6 a.m. military exercises shall be practised. Archery, gunnery and
horsemanship must not be neglected. If any man snows eacep-
tionalprofiaency he shall receive extra pay.
2. Those that desire recreation may engage in hawking, deer-
hunting or wrestling.
3. With regard to dress, garments of cotton or pongee shall be
worn. Any man incurring debts owing to extravagance of costume
or living shall be considered a law-breaker. If, however, being
zealous in the practice of military arts suitable to his rank, he desires
to hire instructors, an allowance may be granted to him for that
purpose.
4. The staple of diet shall be unhulled rice. At social entertain-
ments one guest for one host is the proper limit. Only when men
are assembled for military exercises shall many dine together.
5. It is the duty of every samurai to make himself acquainted
with the principles of his craft. Extravagant displays of adornment
are forbidden in battle.
6. Dancing or organizing dances is unlawful; it is likely to betray
sword-carrying men into acts of violence. Whatever a man does
should be done with his heart. Therefore for the soldier military
amusements alone are suitable. The penalty for violating this
provision is death by suicide.
7. Learning shall be encouraged. Military books must be read.
The spirit of loyalty and filial piety roust be educated before all
things. Poem-composing pastimes are not to be engaged in by
samurai. To be addicted to such amusements is to resemble a
woman. A roan born a samurai should live and die sword in hand.
Unless he is thus trained in time of peace, he will be useless in the
hour of stress. To be brave and warlike must be his invariable
condition.
8. Whosoever finds these rules too severe shall be relieved from
service. Should investigation show that any one is so unfortunate
as to lack manly qualities, he shall be singled out and dismissed
forthwith. The Imperative character of these instructions must
not be doubted.
The plainly paramount purpose of these rules was to draw a
sharp line of demarcation between the samurai and the courtiers
living in Kioto. The dancing, the couplet-composing, the sump-
tuous living and the fine costumes of the officials frequenting
the imperial capital were strictly interdicted by the feudatories.
Frugality, fealty and filial piety— these may be called the funda-
mental virtues of the samurai. Owing to the circumstances out
of which his caste had grown, he regarded all bread-winning
pursuits with contempt, and despised money. To be swayed in
the smallest degree by mercenary motives was despicable in his
eyes. Essentially a stoic, he made self-control the ideal of his
existence, and practised the courageous endurance of suffering
so thoroughly that he could without hesitation inflict on his own
body pain of the most horrible description. Nor can the courage
of the samurai justly be ascribed to bluntnessof moral sensibility
resulting from semi-savage conditions of life. From the 6th
century onwards the current of existence in Japan act with
general steadiness in the direction of artistic refinement and
voluptuous luxury, amidst which men could scarcely fail to
acquire habits and tastes inconsistent with acts of high courage
and great endurance. The samurai's mood was not a product
of semi-barbarism, but rather a protest against emasculating
civilization. He schooled himself to regard death by his own
hand as a normal eventuality. The story of other nations showi
SAMURAI]
epochs when death was welcomed as a relief aid deliberately
Invited as a refuge from the mere weariness of living. But
wherever there has been liberty to choose, and leisure to employ,
a painless mode of exit from the world, men have invariably
selected it. The samurai, however, adopted in harakbi (dis-
embowehnent) a mode of suicide so painful and so shocking
that to school the mind to regard it with indifference and
perform it without flinching was a feat not easy to conceive.
Assistance was often rendered by a friend who stood ready to
decapitate the victim immediately after the stomach had been
gashed; but there were innumerable examples of men who con-
summated the tragedy without aid, especially when the sacrifice
of life was by way of protest against the excesses of a feudal
chief or the crimes of a ruler, or when some motive for secrecy
existed. It must be observed that the suicide of the samurai
was never inspired by 'any doctrine like that of Hegesias.
Death did not present itself to him as a legitimate means of
escaping from the cares and disappointments of life. Self-
destruction had only one consolatory aspect, that It was the
soldier's privilege to expiate a crime with his own sword, not
under the hand of the executioner. It rested with his feudal
chief to determine his guilt, and his peremptory duty was. never
to question the justice of an order to commit suicide, but to
obey without murmur or protest. For the rest, the general
motives for suicide went to escape falling into the hands of a
victorious enemy, to remonstrate against some official abuse
which no ordinary complaint could reach, or, by means of a
dying protest, to turn a liege lord from pursuing courses injurious
to his reputation and his fortune. This last was the noblest
and by no means the most Infrequent reason for suicide. Scores
of examples are recorded of men who, with everything to make
existence desirable, deliberately laid down their lives at the
prompting of loyalty. Thus the samurai rose to a remarkable
height of moral nobility. He had no assurance that his death
might not be wholly fruitless, as indeed it often proved. If the
sacrifice achieved its purpose, if it turned a liege lord from evil
courses, the samurai could hope that his memory would be
honoured. But if the lord resented such a violent and con-
spicuous mode of reproving his excesses, then the faithful vassal's
retribution would be an execrated memory and, perhaps,
suffering for his family and relatives. Yet the deed was per-
formed again and again. It remains to be noted that the
samurai entertained a high respect for the obligations of truth;
" A bushi has no second word," was one of his favourite mottoes.
However, a reservation is necessary here. The samurai's
doctrine was not truth for truth's sake, but truth for the sake
of the spirit of uncompromising manliness on which he based all
his code of morality. A pledge or a promise must never be
broken, but the duty of veracity did not override the interests
or the welfare of others. Generosity to a defeated foe was also
one of the tenets of the samurai's ethics. History contains
many instances of the exercise of that quality.
Something more, however, than a profound conception of
duty was needed to nerve the samurai for sacrifices such as he
seems to have been always ready to make. It is true
that Japanese parents of the military class took pains
to familiarize their children of both sexes from very
tender years with the idea of self-destruction at any time.
But superadded to the force of education and the incentive of
tradition there was a transcendental influence. Buddhism
supplied it. The tenets of that creed divided themselves,
broadly speaking, into two doctrines, salvation by faith and
salvation by works, and the chief exponent of the latter prin-
ciple is the sect which prescribes meditation as the vehicle of
enlightenment. Whatever be the mental processes induced by
this rite, those who have practised it insist that it leads finally
to a state of absorption, in which the mind is flooded by an illu-
mination revealing the universe in a new aspect, absolutely free
from all traces of passion, interest or affection, and showing,
written across everything in flaming letters, the truth that for
him who has found Buddha there is neither birth nor death,
growth nor decay. Lifted high above his surroundings, he is
JAPAN 209
prepared to meet every fate whh indifference. The attainment
of that stale seems to have been a fact in the case both of the
samurai of the military epoch and of the Japanese soldier to-day.
The policy of seclusion adopted by the Tokugawa adminis-
tration after the Shimabara insurrection included an order that
no samurai should acquire foreign learning. AhoOtkwoi
Nevertheless some knowledge could not rail to tto$*mu*k
filter in through the Dutch factory at Deshima, and thus, a few
years before the advent of the American ships, Takashima
Shuhan, governor of Nagasaki, becoming persuaded of the fate
his country must invite if she remained oblivious of the world's
progress, memorialized the Yedo government in the sense that,
unless Japan improved her weapons of war and reformed her
military system, she could not escape humiliation such as had
just overtaken China. He obtained small arms and field-guns
of modern type from Holland, and, repairing to Yedo with a
company of men trained according to the new, tactics, he offered
an object lesson for the consideration of the conservative
officials. They answered by throwing him into prison. But
Egawa, one of his retainers, proved a still more zealous reformer,
and his foresight being vindicated by the appearance of the
American war-vessels in 1853, he won the government's confi-
dence and was entrusted with the work of planning and building
forts at Shinagawa and Shfmoda. At Egawa's instance rifles
and cannon were imported largely from Europe, and their manu-
facture was commenced in Japan, a powder-mill also being estab-
lished with machinery obtained from Holland. Finally, in
1862, the sbogun's government adopted the military system of
Use West, and organized three divisions of all arms, with a total
strength of 13,600 officers and men. Disbanded at the fall of
the shogunate in 1867, this force nevertheless served as a model
for a similar organization under the imperial government, and
in the meanwhile the principal fiefs had not been idle, some— as
Satsuma— adopting English tactics, others following France or
Germany, and a few choosing Dutch. There appeared upon the
stage at this juncture a great figure In the person of Oroura
Masujiro, a samurai of the Chdshu clan. He established Japan's
first military school at Kioto in 1868; he attempted to substitute
for the hereditary soldier conscripts taken from all classes of the
people, and he conceived the plan of dividing the whole empire
into six military districts. An assassin's dagger removed him
on the threshold of these great reforms, but his statue now
stands in Tokyo and his name h spoken with reverence by all
his countrymen. In 1870 Yaroagata Arilomo (afterwards
Field-Marshal Prince Yaroagata) and Saigo Tsugumichi (after-
wards Field-Marshal Marquis Saigo) returned from a tour of
military inspection in Europe, and m 1872 they organized a
corps of Imperial guards, taken from the three clans which had
been conspicuous in the work of restoring the administrative
power to the sovereign, namely, the clans of Satsuma, ChOshfl
and Tosa. They also established garrisons in TokyO, Sendai,
Osaka and Kumamoto, thus placing the military authority in
the hands of the central government. Reforms followed quickly.
In 1872, the hydbushd, an office which controlled all matters
relating to war, was replaced by two departments, one of war
and one of the navy, and, in 1873, an imperial decree substituted
universal conscription for the system of hereditary militarism.
Many persons viewed this experiment with deep misgiving.
They feared that it would not only alienate the samurai, but also
entrust the duty of defending the country to men unfitted by
tradition and custom for such a task, namely, the farmers,
artisans and tradespeople, who, after centuries of exclusion from
the military pale, might be expected to have lost all martial spirit.
The government, however, was not deterred by these appre-
hensions. It argued that since the distinction of samurai and
commoner had not originally existed, and since the former was
a product simply of accidental conditions, there was no valid
reason to doubt the military capacity of the people at large.
The justice of this reasoning was put to a conclusive test a few
years later. Originally the period of service with the colours
was fixed at 3 years, that of service with the first and second
reserves being 2 years each. One of the serious difficulties
2IO
encountered at the outset was that samurai conscripts were too
proud to stand in the ranks with common rustics or artisans,
and above all to obey the commands of plebeian officers. But
patriotism soon overcame this obstacle. The whole country —
with the exception of the northern island, Yezo-— was parcelled
out into six military districts (headquarters Tokyo, Osaka,
Nagoya, Sendai, Hiroshima and Kumamoto) each furnishing a
division of all arms and services. There was abo from 1876 a
guards division in Tokyd. The total strength on a peace footing
was 3 x ,680 of all arms, and on a war footing, 46,3 5a The defence
of Yezo was entrusted to a colonial militia. It may well be
supposed that to find competent officers for this army greatly
perplexed its organizers. The military school— now in Tokyo
but originally founded by Omura in Kioto— had to turn out
graduates at high pressure, and private soldiers who showed any
special aptitude were rapidly promoted to positions of command.
French military instructors were engaged, and the work of
translating manuals was carried out with all celerity. In 1877,
this new army of conscripts had to endure a crucial test: it had
to take the field against the Satsuma samurai, the very flower
of their class, who in that year openly rebelled against the T6ky6
government. The campaign lasted eight months; as there had
not yet been time to form the reserves, the Imperial forces were
soon seriously reduced in number by casualties in the field and
by disease, the latter claiming many victims owing to defective
commissariat. It thus became necessary to have recourse to
volunteers, but as these were for the most part samurai, the
expectation was that their hereditary instinct of fighting would
compensate for lack of training. That expectation was not
fulfilled. Serving side by side in the field, the samurai volun-
teer and the heimin 1 regular were found to differ by precisely
the degree of their respective training. The fact was thus
finally established that the fighting qualities of the farmer and
artisan reached as high a standard as those of the bushi.
Thenceforth the story of the Japanese army is one of steady pro-
gress and development. In 1878, the military duties of the empire
were divided among three offices: namely, the army department,
the general staff and the inspection department, while the six
divisions of troops were organized into three army corps.
In 1870, the total pcrioa of colour and reserve service became 10
years. In 1883 the period was extended to 12 years, the list of
exemption* was abbreviated, and above all substitution was no
longer allowed. Great care was devoted to the training of officers:
promotion went by merit, and at least ten of the most promising
Officers were sent abroad every year to study. A comprehensive
System of education for the rank and file was organized. Great
ifficulty was experienced in procuring horses suitable for cavalry,
and indeed the Japanese army long remained weak in this arm.
In 1886, the whole littoral of the empire was divided into five
districts, each with its admiralty and its naval port, and the army
being made responsible for coast defence, a battery construction
corps was formed. Moreover, an exhaustive scheme was elaborated
to secure full co-operation between the army and navy. In 1888
the seven divisions of the army first found themselves prepared to
take the field, and, in 1893, a revised system of mobilization was
sanctioned, to be put into operation the following year, for the Chlno-
Japanese War (tf.v.). At this period the division, mobilized for
service in the field, consisted of 12 Battalions of infantry, 3 troops of
cavalry, 4 batteries of field and 2 of mountain artillery, 2 companies
of sappers and train, totalling 18492 of all arms with 5633 Horses.
The guards had only 8 battalions and 4 batteries (field). The
field army aggregated over 120,000, with 108 field and 72 mountain
guns, and the total of all forces, field, garrison and depot, was 220,580
of all arms, with 47.320 horses and 294 guns. Owing, however, to
various modifications necessitated by circumstances, the numbers
actually on duty were over 240,000, with 6495 non-combatant
employees and about 100,000 coolies who acted as carriers. The
infantry were armed with the M urata single-loader rifle, but the
field artillery was inferior, and the only two divisions equipped with
magazine rifles and smokeless powder never came into action.
The experiences gained in this war bore large fruit. The total term
of service with the colours and the reserves was slightly increased ;
the colonial militia of Yezo (Hokkaido) was organized as a seventh
line division; 5 new divisions were added, bringing the whole number
of divisions to 13 (including the guards); a mixed brigade was
stationed in Formosa (then newly added to Japan's dominions);
a high military council composed of field-marshals was created;
the cavalry was brigaded; the g ar rison artillery was increased;
strenuous efforts were made to improve the education of officers and
JAPAN iarmy
mem and lastly, ttmtaryarrsngesnentsnnderwentnrnch modification.
An arsenal bad been established in Toky6, in 1868, for the manufac-
ture of small arms and small-arm ammunition; this was followed
by an arsenal in Osaka for the manufacture of guns and gun-ammuni-
tion, four powder factories were opened, and in later years big-gun
factories at Kure and Mororan. Japan waa able to make 12-tnch
guns in 1902. and her capacity for this kind of work was in 1909
second to none. She has her own patterns of rifle and field gun,
so that she is independent of foreign aid so far as armaments are
concerned. In 1900, she sent a force to North China to assist in
the campaign for the relief of the foreign legations in Peking, and
on that occasion her troops were able to observe at first hand the
qualities and methods of European soldiers. In 1904 took place
the great war with Russia (see Russo-Japanese War). After the
war Important changes were made in the direction of augmenting
and improving the armed forces. The number of divisions was
increased to 19 (including the guards), of which one division is for
service in Korea and one for service in Manchuria. Various technical
corps were organized, as well as horse artillery, heavy field artillery
and machine-gun units. The field-gun was replaced by a quick-
firer manufactured at Osaka, and much attention was given to the
auestionof remounts— for, both in the war with China and in that with
Russia, the horsing of the cavalry had been poor. Perhaps the most
far-reaching change in all armies of late years is the shortening
of the term of service with the colours to 2 years for the infantry,
f years remaining the rule for other arms. This was adopted by
apan after the war, the infantry period of service with the reserves
wing extended to 14} years, and of course has the effect of greatly
augmenting the potential war strength. As to this, figures are kept
secret, nor can any accurate approximation be attempted without
danger of error. Rough estimates of I span's war strength have, how-
ever, been made, giving 550,000 as the war strength of the first line
army, plus 34,000 Tor garrisons overseas and 150.000 special reserves
(hoju) ; 376,000 second line or kdbi, and 1 10,000 for the fully trained
portion of the territorial forces, or Kohumin-hei. All these branches
can further draw upon half-trained elements to the number of about
800,000 to replace losses. Japan's available strength in the last
resort for home defence was recently (1909) stated by the Russian
Novoye Vremya at 3.000,000. In 20 years, when the present system
has produced its full effect, the first line should be 740,000 strong,
the second line 780,000, and the third line about 3.850,000 (3,000,000
untrained and 850,000 partly trained). Details can be found in
Journal of the R. United Service Institution, Dec 1909-Jan. 191a
At 20 years of age every Japanese subject, of whatever status,
becomes liable for military service. But the difficulty of making
service universal in the case of a growing population t» rw^a-fa,
felt here as in Europe, and practically the system has "*———»
elements of the old-fashioned conscription. The minimum height is
* The general term for commoners as di sti ngu ishe d from samurai.
Is
bei
second reserves (k6bi), for 7 years; and service with the territorial
troops (ko kumin-hct) up to the age of 40. Special reserve (koju)
takes up men who, though liable for conscription and medically <)uau-
fied, have escaped the lot for service with the colours. It consists of
two classes, one of men remaining in the category of koj* (or 7k
years, the other for 1 J year, before passing into the territorial army.
Their purpose is similar to that of special or ersats reserves elsewhere.
The first class receives the usual short initial training. Men of the
second class, in ordinary circumstances, pass, after their 1 \ year's
inability, to the territorial army untrained. As for the first and
second general reserves (yofrt and kdbi), each is called out twice during
its full terra for short " refresher courses. After reaching the
territorial army a man is relieved from all further training. The
total number of youths eligible for conscription each year is about
435.000, but the annual contingent for full service is not much more
than 100,000. Conscripts in the active army may be discharged
before the expiration of two years if their conduct and aptitude are
exceptional.
A youth is exempted if it be clearly established a that his family
is dependent upon his earnings. Except for permanent deformities
men are put back for one year before being finally rejected on medical
grounds. Men who have been convicted of crime are disqualified,
but those who have been temporarily deprived of civil rights must
present themselves for conscription at the termination of their
sentence. Educated men may enrol themselves as one-year volun-
teers instead of drawing tots, this privilege of entry enduring up to
the age of 28, after which, service lor the full term without drawing
lots is imposed. Residence in a foreign country secures exemption
up to the age of 32 — provided that official permission to go abroad
has been obtained. A man returning after the age of 32 a drafted
into the territorial army, but if he returns before that age he ana*
volunteer to receive training, otherwise he is taken without lot for
service with the colours. The system of volunteering is largely
resorted to by persons of the better classes. Any youth trho
' The privilege at first led to great abuses. It became a common
thine to employ some aged and indigent person, set him up as the
head of a " branch family," and give him for adopted son a youth
" " * to conscription.
ARMY)
■ P O Mtti certain educational qualifications b entitled to volunteer
tor training. If accepted after medical inspection, he serves with
the colours for one year, during three months of which time he must
live in barracks — unless a special permit be granted by his com-
manding officer. A volunteer has to contribute to his maintenance
and equipment, although youths who cannot afford the full expense,
if otherwise qualified, are assisted by the state. At the conclusion of
a year's training the volunteer is drafted into the first reserve for
6} years, and then into the second reserve for 5 years, so that his
total period (iaj years) of service before passing into the territorial
army is the same as that of an ordinary conscript. The main purpose
of the one-year voluntariat, as in Germany, is to provide officers for
the reserves to territorial troops. Qualified teachers in the public
service are only liable to a very short initial training, after which they
pass at once into the territorial army. But if a teacher abandons
that calling before the age of 28, he becomes liable, without lot, 1 to
two years with the colours, unless he adopts the alternative of
volunteering. # ...
Officers are obtained in two ways. There are six local preparatory
cadet schools (yonen-gakko) in various parts of the empire, for
nrn , boys of from 13' to 15. After 3 years at one of
*— — - these schools* a graduate spends ai months at the
central preparatory school (ekuo-yonen-gekko), T6ky0, and if he
S-aduates with sufficient credit at the latter institution, he becomes
igible for admission to the officers' college (shikan-gakko) without
further test of proficiency. The second method of obtaining officers
is by competitive examination for direct admission to the officers'
college. In either case the cadet is sent to serve with the colours
for 6 to 12 months as a private and non-commissioned officer, before
commencing his course at the officers' college. The period of study
at the officers' college is one year, and after graduating successfully
the cadet serves with troops for 6 months on probation. If at the
end of that time he is favourably reported on, he is commissioned
as a sub-lieutenant. Young officers of engineers and artillery
receive a year's further training at a special college. Officers' ranks
are the same as in the British army, out the nomenclature is more
simple. The terms, with their English equivalents, are shdi (second
lieutenant), ck&i (first lieutenant), lei (captain), skdsa (major},
ckusa (lieut.-colonel), tatsa (colonel), shdshS (major-general), chujd
(licut.-general), taishd (general), gensui (field-marshal). All these
except the last apply to the same relative ranks in the navy. Pro-
motion of officers in the junior grades is by seniority or merit, but
after the rank of captain all promotion is by merit, and thus many
officers never rise higher than captain, in which case retirement is
compulsory at the age of 48. Except in the highest ranks, a certain
minimum period has to be spent in each rank before promotion to
the next.
There ate three grades of privates: upper soldiers (Jdld-hei), first-
class soldiers (iltd-sotsu), and second-class soldiers (niid-solsu). A
»..^. private on joining is a second-class soldier. For
proficiency and good conduct he is raised to the rank
of first-class soldier, and ultimately to that of upper soldier. Non-
commissioned officers are obtained from the ranks, or from those
who wish to make soldiering a profession, as in European armies.
The grades arc corporal {gochd), sergeant (gunsd), sergeant-major
(sdchd) and special sergeant-major (tokumu-sdehd).
The pay of the conscript is, as it is everywhere, a trifle (is. iod.-
3s. ojd. per moath). The professional non-commissioned officers
are better paid, the lowest grade receiving three times as much as
an upper soldier. Officers' pay is roughly at about three-quarters of
the rates prevailing in Germany, sub-ficutcnanrs receiving about
£34, captains £71, colonels £238 per annum, &c Pensions for officers
and non-commissioned officers, according to scale, can be claimed
alter 1 1 years' colour service.
The emperor is the commander-in-chief of the army, and theoreti-
cally the sole source of military authority, which he exercises through
a general staff and a war department, with the assistance of a board
oilfield-marshals (gensuifu). The general staff has for chief a field-
marshal, and for vice-chief a general or lieutenant-general. It
includes besides the usual general staff departments, various survey
and topographical officers, and the military college is under its direc-
tion. The war department is presided over by a general officer on the
active list, who is a member ol the cabinet without being necessarily
affected by ministerial changes. There are, further, artillery and
engineer committees, and a remount bureau. The headquarters of
coast defences under general officers are T0ky3, Yokohama. Shimono-
acki and Yura. The whole empire is divided into three military
districts — eastern, central and western — each under the command
of a general or lieutenant-general. The divisional headquarters are
as follows:— Guard T6ky8, I. TSkyfi, II. Sendai, 111. Nagoya,
IV. Wakayama, V. Hiroshima, VI. Kumamoto, VII Asahikawa.
VIII. Hirosaki, IX. Kasanava. X. Himeji, XI. Scnzui. XII. Kokura.
XIII. Takata. XJV. Utsonomia. XV. Fushtmi. XVI. Kioto. XVII.
Okayama.XVUI. Kurumc. Some of these di visionsare perma nently
JAPAN 211
on foreign service, but their recruiting areas in Japan are maintained.
There are also four cavalry brigades, and a number of unassigned
regiments of field and mountain artillery, as well as garrison artillery
and army technical troops. The organization of the active army by
regiments is 176 infantry regiments of 3 battalions; 27 cavalry
regiments; 30 field artillery regiments each of 6 and \ mountain
artillery regiments each of 3 batteries; 6 regiments and 6 battalions
of siege, heavy field and fortress artillery; 20 battalions engineers;
19 supply and transport battalions.
The medical service is exceptionally well organized. It received
unstinted praise from European and American experts who observed
it closely during the wars of 1900 and 1904-5. The ^ .
establishment 01 surgeons to each division is approxi- EEF
mately 100, and arrangements complete in every detail * MV * fc
are made for all lines of medical assistance. Much help is rendered
by the red cross society of Japan, which has an income of 2,000,000
yen annually, a fine hospital in Tokyo, a large nursing staff and two
.. ....... , MPPed hospital ships. During the early part
:hifi, in 1900, the French column entrusted its
>f the Japanese.
commissariat for a Japanese army in the field
F which three days' supply can easily be carried
r. When required for use the rice, Tunntr
, swells to its original bulk, and is ******
salted fish, dried sea-weed or pickled plums,
ing an army on these lines is comparatively
e soldier, though low in stature, is well set
dy. He has great powers of endurance, and
irkable celerity, doing everything at the run,
if necessary, and continuing to run without distress for a length of
time astonishing to European observers. He is greatly subject,
however, to attacks of kakke (bcri-bcri), and if he has recourse to
meat diet, which appears to be the best preventive, he will probably
lose something of his capacity for prolonged rapid movement. He
attacks with apparent indifference to danger, preserves his cheerful-
ness amid hardships, 1s splendidly patriotic and has always shown
himself thoroughly amenable to discipline.
Of the many educational and training establishments, the most
important is trie rikugun datgakkd, or army college, where officers,
(generally subalterns), are prepared for service in the Mtatmn
upper ranks and for staff appointments, the course of sdbaZ.
study extending over three years. The Toyama school oemQomt
stands next in importance. The courses pursued there are attended
chiefly by subaltern officers of dismounted branches, non-commis-
sioned officers also being allowed to take the musketry course. The
term of training is five months. Young officers or the scientific
branches are instruct d at the kdkdgakkS (school of artillery and
engineers). There are, further, two special schools of jgunnery — one
for field, the other for garrison artillery, attended chiefly by captains
and senior subalterns of the two branches. There is an inspection
department of military education, the inspector-general being a
lieutenant-general, under whom arc fifteen field and general officers,
who act as inspectors of the various schools and colleges and of
military educational matters in general.
The Japanese officer's pay is small and his mode of life frugal. He
lives out of barracks, frequently with his own family. His uniform
is plain and inexpensive,* and he has no desire to exchange it for
mufti. He has no mess expenses, contribution to a band, or luxuries
of any kind, and as he is nearly always without private means to
supplement his pay, his habits arc thoroughly economical. He
devotes himself absolutely to his profession, living for nothing else,
and since he is strongly imbued with an effective conception of the
honour of his cloth, instances of his incurring disgrace by debt or
dissipation are exceptional. The samurai may be said to have been
revived in the officers of the modern army, who preserve and act
up to all the old traditions. The system of promotion has evidently
much to do with this good result, for no Japanese officer can hope to
rise above the rank of captain unless, by showing himself really
zealous and capable, he obtains from his commanding officer the
recommendation without which all higher educational opportunities
are closed to him. Yet promotion by merit has not degenerated
into promotion by favour, and corruption appears to be virtually
absent. In the stormiest days of parliamentary warfare, when
charges of dishonesty were freely preferred by party politicians
against all departments of officialdom, no whisper ever impeached
the integrity of army officers.
The training of the troops is thorough and strictly progressive,
the responsibility of the company, squadron and battery commanders
for the training of their commands, and the latitude granted
them in choice of means being, as in Germany, the keystone of the
system.
Originally the g o v ernment engaged French officers to assist in
* Conscription without lot is thus the punishment for all failures
to comply with and attempts to evade the military laws.
• Sons of officers' widows, or of officers in reduced circumstances,
are educated at these schools either free or at reduced charges,
but are required to complete the course and to graduate.
• Uniform does not vary according to regiments or divisions.
There is only one type for the whole of the infantry, one for the
cavalry, and so on (see Uniforms, Naval and Military).
Officers largely obtain their uniforms and equipment, as well as
their books and technical literature through the Kai-ko-sha, which
is a combined officers' club, benefit society and co-operative trading
association to which nearly all belong.
2 I J _~ and elaborating its ayttem of tactics and
^ «-t*e **2«» several years a military mission of French
*„rartU**"*L *Ul au CSded in Tfiky6 and rendered valuable aid to the
or ™—- -^- ^p^^=* r ^_ir^ Afterward* German officers were employed,
tia^^^tkob Med* 1 at their head, and they left a
,r- i^S** -trd ffl*Mory. But ul^mately the services of
— rt ^7 aT**^^**^ with altogether, and Japan now adopts
.«»JJ> _ BM ^*» ^j^pfcfced men to complete their studies in
iuatc^y*
Xepl»~
*Kp iilal 1 TO * % -«<* SHOE incu, h«<iii( hi* tA|fl.«"-Hvv wi
?£«£*- ^ir**^i2k her.*** has, instead of modelling b
****^2|i £fee followed Germany in military matters
\o *\^ «aoe then, having the experience of her
* ,.._ : j _r — j_«! — herself
most
he
th
y.
I ha mentions of Japan suggest that the art of
v v 1|0 i v»«\UmiHar to the inhabitants of a country
* * * % ... ud i»f hundreds of islands and abounding in
* ° > » ^ mlcl*. Some interpreters of her cosmo-
- : ^ H\ a»»\W«r a great ship in the "floating bridge
'.',, ,\wi " (torn which the divine procreators of the
•» . * »a l heir work, and construe in a similar sense
* •> * . x uttiud vehicles of that remote age. But though
, , 1 *mlv traversed by the early invaders of Japan,
" \ V»< 1V w i«lenty of proof that in medieval times the
,k » ♦ \ s »* ° vcr merchantmen which voyaged as far as
' % '* * diul over piratical craft which harassed the
k • '•* * m * China, it is unquestionable that in the
^ %x .a aMhitecture Japan fell behind even her next-
,\.»> * *' nl,, i whcn a Mongol fleet came to KiushiQ in
aV '«\. l«»IN»n had no vessels capable of contending
• * * * lUS 4vlv»*. «nd when, at the close of the 16th century,
*M»t wtti ^Shting in Korea, repeated defeats of
\i »»U\»»»» by Korean war-junks decided the fate of the
\\n •«»»!*' «» we ^ M on sea * * l seems strange that an
a ' ,t*|Uut l»ke the Japanese should not have taken for
' k. *' **»* n«Ueort* which visited the Far East in the second
"\hv" »^ n » fn * ur y unde >' the flags of Spain, Portugal,
U , ! \ u»*l 1 uiilniul. With the exception, however, of two
*! ' "».» M t»> * »Mt«way English pilot to order of Iyeyasu, no
' iu tH*i dim tlon appears to have been made, and when
v ' Lv i w U'Uvg thr rontt ruction of sea-going vessels was issued
°' ,»\» ** ^»t »»J lne Tokugawa policy of isolation, it can
,u U !»*■ *'»l *° nftVC chcc ked tnc growth of Japan's navy,
' ' hv |w»»**»+<l nothing worthy of the name. It was to the
ivU * y fc**vuk luinl*hcd by the American ships which visited
xt W Wvv to »*vi » nt l "> lhc u r 8*nt counsels of the Dutch
^ i uia» %>*«[ the Inception of a naval policy. A seamen's
. ' % utlon *»» opened under Dutch instructors in 1855
'V wil • WKHng»» ! ~ ^ and an Iron factory
\. .***» •» * ht »" ^Urwwds a naval
JAPAN INAVY
school was organized at Tsukiji in Yedo, a war-ship the
" Kwanko Mam " l — presented by the Dutch to the shogun's
government — being used for exercising the cadets. To this
vessel two others, purchased from the Dutch, were added in
1857 and 1858, and these, with one given by Queen Victoria,
formed the nucleus of Japan's navy. In i860, we find the
Pacific crossed for the first time by a Japanese war-ship— the
" Kwanrin Mam " — and subsequently some young officers were
sent to Holland for instruction in naval science. In fact the
Tokugawa statesmen had now thoroughly appreciated the im-
perative need of a navy. Thus, in spite of domestic unrest
which menaced the very existence of the Yedo government, a
dock-yard was established and fully equipped, the place chosen
as its site being, by a strange coincidence, the village of Yoko-
suka where Japan's first foreign ship-builder, Will Adams, had
lived and died 250 years previously. This dockyard was planned
and its construction superintended by a Frenchman, M. Benin.
But although the Dutch had been the first to advise Japan's
acquisition of a navy, and although French aid was sought in the
case of the important and costly work at Yokosuka, the shogun's
government turned to England for teachers of the art of mari-
time warfare. Captain Tracey, R.N., and other British officers
and warrant-officers were engaged to organize and superintend
the school at Tsukiji. They arrived, however, on the eve of the
fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, and as the new administra-
tion was not prepared to utilize their services immediately, they
returned to England. It is not to be inferred that the Im-
perial government underrated the importance of organizing a
naval force. One of the earliest Imperial rescripts ranked a
navy among " the country's most urgent needs " and ordered
that it should be " at once placed on a firm foundation." Bnt
during the four years immediately subsequent to the restoration,
a semi-interregnum existed in military affairs, the power of the
sword being partly transferred to the hands of the sovereign and
partly retained by the feudal chiefs. Ultimately, not only the
vessels which had been in the possession of the shogunate but
also several obtained from Europe by the great feudatories had
to be taken over by the Imperial government, which, on reviewing
the situation, found itself owner of a motley squadron of 17 war-
ships aggregating 13,812 tons displacement, of which two were
armoured, one was a composite ship, and the rest were of wood.
Steps were now taken to establish and equip a suitable naval
college in Tsukiji, and application having been made to the
British government for instructors, a second naval mission was
sent from England in 1873, consisting of 30 officers and warrant-
officers under Commander (afterwards Vice-Admiral Sir) Archi-
bald Douglas. At the very outset occasions for active service
afloat presented themselves. In 1868, the year after the fall of
the shogunate, such ships as could be assembled had to be sent
to Yezo to attack the main part of the Tokugawa squadron
which had raised the flag of revolt and retired to Hakodate
under the command of the shogun's admiral, Enomoto. Then
in 1874 the duty of .convoying a fleet of transports to Formosa
had to be undertaken; and in 1877 sea power played its part in
crushing the formidable rebellion in Satsuma. Meanwhile the
work of increasing and organizing the navy went on steadiry.
The first steam war-ship constructed in Japan had been a gun-
boat (138 tons) launched in z866 from a building-yard estab-
lished at Ishikawajima, an island near the mouth of the Sumida
river on which TdkyO stands. At this yard and at Yokosuka
two vessels of 897 tons and 1450 tons, respectively, were
launched in 1875 and 1876, and Japan now found herself com-
petent not only to execute all repairs but also to build ships of
considerable size. An order was placed in England in 1875,
which produced, three years later, the " FusO," Japan's first
ironclad (3717 tons) and the "Kongo" and "Hiei," steel-
frame sister-cruisers of 2248 tons. Meanwhile •training, prac-
tical and theoretical, in seamanship, gunnery, torpedo-practice
and naval architecture went on vigorously, and in 1878 the
Japanese flag was for the first time seen in European waters,
1 The term maru subsequently became applicable to
only, war-ships being distinguished as lam
Jy
NAVYI
floating over the cruiser " Seiki " (1897 tooa) built in Japan and
navigated solely by Japanese. The government, constantly
solicitous of increasing the fleet, inaugurated, in 1882, a pro-
gramme .of 30 cruisers and 12 torpedo-boats, and in 1886 this
was extended, funds being obtained by an issue of naval loan-
bonds. But the fleet did not yet include a single battleship.
When the diet opened for the nrst time in 1890, a plan for the
construction of two battleships encountered stubborn opposition
in the lower house, where the majority attached much less im-
portance to voting money for war-ships than to reducing the
land tax. Not until 1892 was this opposition overcome in
deference to an order from the throne that thirty thousand
pounds sterling should be contributed yearly from the privy
purse and that a tithe of all official salaries should be devoted,
during the same interval to naval needs. Had the house been
more prescient, Japan's position at the outbreak of war with
China in 1804 would have been very different. She entered the
contest with 28 fighting craft, aggregating 57,600 tons, and 24
torpedo-boats, but among them the most powerful was a belted
cruiser of 4300 tons. Not one battleship was included, whereas
China had two ironclads of nearly 8000 tons each. Under these
conditions the result of the naval conflict was awaited with much
anxiety in Japan. But the Chinese suffered signal defeats (see
Chino-Japakese War) off the YaJu and at Wei-hai-wei,
and the victors took possession of 17 Chinese craft, including one
battleship. The resulting addition to Japan's fighting force
was, however, insignificant. But the naval strength of Japan
did not depend on prizes. Battleships and cruisers were ordered
and launched in Europe one after the other, and when the Russo-
Japanese War (9.9.) came, the fleet promptly asserted its physical
and moral superiority in the surprise of Port Arthur, the battle of
the 10th of August 1904, and the crowning victory of Tsushima.
As to the development of the navy from 1903 onwards, it is not
possible to detail with absolute accuracy the plans laid down by the
admiralty in TdkyO, but the actual state oi the fleet in the year
1909 will be apparent from the figures given below*
Japan's naval strength at the outbreak of the war with Russia
in 1904 was: —
Number. Displacement.
Battleships 6 . . . . 84,652
Armoured cruisers .... 8 . . . . 73.982
Other cruisers 44 ... . 111,470
Destroyers 19 6.519
Torpedo-boat* 80 . . . . * 7.119
JAPAN ai 3
To the foregoing must be added two armoured cruisers— the
Kurama (14,000) launched at Yokosuka in October 1907, and the
" Ibuki " (14.700) launched at Kure in November 1907, but no other
battleships or cruisers were laid down in Japan or ordered abroad up
to the dose of 1008.
There are four naval dockyards, namely, at Yokosuka. Kure,
Sasebo and Maizuru. Twenty-one vessels built at Yokosuka
since 1876 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and .,
an armoured cruiser (14,000 tons); seven built at KureSEfL^.
since 1898 included a battleship (19,000 tons) and an " mMjrmrwMm
armoured cruiser (14,000 tons). The yards at Sasebo and Maizuru
had not yet been used in 1909 for constructing large vessels. Two
private yards— the Mitsubishi at Nagasaki and Kobe, and the Kawa-
saki at the latter place— have built several cruisers, gunboats and
torpedo craft, and are competent to undertake more important work.
Nevertheless in 1909 Japan did not yet possess complete independ-
ence in this matter, for she was obliged to have recourse to foreign
countries for a part of the steel used m ship-building. Kure manu-
factures practically all the steel it requires, and there is a government
steel-foundry at Wakaraatsu on which more than 3 millions sterling
had been spent in 1909, but it did not yet keep pace with thecountry^
needs. When this independence has been attained, it is hoped to
effect an economy of about 18 % on the outlay for naval construc-
tion, owing to the cheapness of manual labour and the disappearance
both of the manufacturer's profit and of the expenses of transfer
from Europe to Japan.
There are five admiralties — Yokosuka, Kure, Sasebo, Maizuru and
Port Arthur; and four naval stations— Takeshiki (in Tsushima),
Mekong (in the Pescadores), Ominato and Chinhai (in southern
Korea).
The navy is manned partly by conscripts and partly by volunteers.
About 5500 are taken every year, and the ratio is, approximately,
55% of volunteers and 45% of conscripts. The period - fe ____ i ,,
of active service is 4 years and that of service with the ""——'•
reserve 7 years. On the average 200 cadets are admitted yearly, of
whom 50 are engineers, and in 1906 the personnel of the navy con-
sisted of the following: —
Totals 157
Losses during the war were: —
Battleships 2
Cruisers (second and smaller
classes) 8
Destroyers 2
Torpedo-boats 7
Totals
The captured vessels repaired and added to the fleet were
Battleships ....
Cruisers
Destroyers
'9
iddc
5
11
5
40»57i
63,524
71.276
1.740
Totals 21 ... . I35.5.30
The vessels built or purchased after the war and op to the close
of 1908 w er e ;
Battleships 4 . . . . 71.500
Armoured cruisers .... 4 . . . . 56,700
Other cruisers 5 . . . 7.000
Destroyers 33 . . , . 12.573
Torpedo-boats 5 . . . . 760
Totals ...... 51 ... • 148.533
Some of the above have been superannuated, and the serviceable
fleet in 1909 was: —
1909 WJ
Battleships 13 .
Armoured cruisers .... 12 .
Other cruisers, coast-defence
ships and gun-boats . . . 47 •
Des tr o y er s 55 •
Torpedo-boats 77 •
Totals ....'.- 204 .
191*380
130,683
165.253
20.508
7.*58
515*082
Admirals, combative and non-combative ^ . . 77
Officers, combative and non-combative, below the
rank of admiral 2,867
Warrant officers 9.075
Bluejackets 29,667
Cadets 721
Total 42,407
The highest educational institution for the navy is the naval staff
college, in which there are five courses for officers alone. The
gunnery and torpedo schools are attended by officers,
and also by selected warrant-officers and bluejackets, SlfL*^
who consent to extend their service. There is also " rTn ""
a mechanical school for junior engineers, warrant-officers and ordi-
nary artificers.
At the naval cadet acadernY-^origioally situated in TkoyS but
now at Etajima near Kure — aspirants for service as naval officers
receive a 3 years* academical course and I year's training at sea ;
and, finally, there is a naval engineering college collateral to the
naval cadet academy.
Since 1882. foreign instruction has been wholly dispensed with in
the Japanese navy; since 1886 she has manufactured her own
prismatic powder; since 1891 she has been able to make quick-firing
guns and Schwartzkopf torpedoes, and in 1892 one of ner officers
invented a particularly potent explosive, called (after its inventor)
Shunose powder.
Financt.— Under the feudal system of the Tokugawa (1603*
1871), all land in Japan was regarded as state property, and
parcelled out into 276 fiefs, great and small, which were
assigned to as many feudatories. These were em- J*^"** 1 *
powered to raise revenue for the support of their
households, for administrative purposes, and for the maintenance
of troops. The basis of, taxation varied greatly in different dis-
tricts, but, at the time of the Restoration in 1867, the general
principle was that four-tenths of the gross produce should go to
the feudatory, six-tenths to the farmer. In practice this rule
was applied to the rice crop only, the assessments for other
kinds of produce being levied partly in money and partly in
manufactured goods. Forced labour also was exacted, and arti-
sans *nd tradesmen were subjected to pecuniary levies. The
yield of rice in 1867 was about 154 million bushels, 1 of which
the market value at prices then ruling was £24,000,000, or
1 The reader should be warned that absolute accuracy cannot be
claimed for statistics compiled before the Meiji era.
214
J4o,ooo,ooo yen} Hence the grain tax represented, at the lowest
calculation, 96,000,000 yen. When the administration reverted
to the emperor in 1867 the central treasury was empty, and the
funds hitherto employed for governmental purposes in the fiefs
continued to be devoted to the support of the feudatories, to the
payment of the samurai, and to defraying the expenses of local
administration, the central treasury receiving only whatever
might remain after these various outlays.
The shOgun himself, whose income amounted to about
£3,500,000, did not, on abdicating, hand over to the sovereign
either the contents of his treasury or the lands from which he
derived his revenues. He contended that funds for the govern-
ment of the nation as a whole should be levied from the people
at large. Not until 187 1 did the feudal system cease to exist.
The fiefs being then converted into prefectures, their revenues
became an asset of the central treasury, less xo % allotted for
the support of the former feudatories.*
But during the interval between 1867 and 1871, the men on
whom had devolved the direction of national affairs saw no relief
from crippling impecuniosity except an issue of paper
money. This was not a novelty in Japan. Paper
money had been known to the people since the middle
of the 17th century, and in the era of which we are now writing
no less than 1694 varieties of notes were in circulation. There
were gold notes, silver notes, cash-notes, rice-notes, umbrella-
notes, ribbon-notes, lathe-article-noles, and so on through an
interminable list, the circulation of each kind being limited to
the issuing fief. Many of these notes had almost ceased to have
any purchasing power, and nearly all were regarded by the
people as evidences of official greed. The first duty of a
centralized progressive administration should have been
to reform the currency. The political leaders of the time
appreciated that duty, but saw themselves compelled by stress
of circumstances to adopt the very device which in the hands
of the feudal chiefs bad produced such deplorable results. The
ordinary revenue amounted to only 3,000,000 yen, while
the extraordinary aggregated 29,000,000, and was derived
wholly from issues of paper money or other equally unsound
sources.
Even on the abolition of feudalism in 1871 the situation was
not immediately relieved. The land tax, which constituted
nine-tenths of the feudal revenues, had been as-
^* a ' sessed by varying methods and at various rates by
l^e different feudatories, and re-assessment of all the land
became a preliminary essential to establishing a uniform system.
Such a task, on the basis of accurate surveys, would have involved
Lean of work, whereas the financial needs of the state had to be
Jet immediately. Under the pressure of this imperative
Zlcgsdxy a re-assessment was roughly made in two years, and
2j«i[ continued thereafter with greater accuracy, was completed
Tggi. This survey, eminently liberal to the agriculturists,
I'L-ga a value of 1,200,000,000 yen to the whole of the arable
J^J^nd the treasury fixed the tax at 3 % of the assessed value
*jL bsd, which was about one-half of the real market value.
<£ ***_ (J* government contemplated a gradual reduction
JAPAN
(FntAMCB
\
a
tr
at
est
JT&bAi low impost until it should ultimately fall to 1 %.
I £** . prevented the consummation of that purpose.
X only one reduction of | %, and thereafter
_ oa account of war expenditures. On the whole,
^Totos Veaefited more conspicuously from the change
tw« the peasants, since not only was their
ifdbt, hut also they were converted from mere
■ 0m£ ptfrietors. In brief, they acquired the
r te ^s t* consideration of paying an annual
9 yf, tbtysgjith of the market value of the
were effected, the ordinary
pW tts.:to 5 *»-*i.
£t feudatories were allowed to
taut many of the feudal
-1^^ ider.
revenue of the state rose from 24,500,000 yen to 70,500,000 yen.
But seven millions sterling is a small income for a country
confronted by such problems as Japan had to solve. _.
She had to build railways; to create an army and n, llimm
a navy; to organize posts, telegraphs, prisons,
police and education, to construct roads, improve harbours,
light and buoy the coasts; to create a mercantile marine; to
start under official auspices numerous industrial enterprises
which should serve as object lessons to the people, as well as
to lend to private persons large sums in aid of similar projects.
Thus, living of necessity beyond its income, the government
had recourse to further issues of fiduciary notes, and in propor-
tion as the volume of the latter exceeded actual currency
requirements their specie value depreciated.
This question of paper currency inaugurates the story of bank-
ing; a story on almost every page of which are to be found
inscribed the names of Prince I16, Marquis Inouye, »—». ,
Marquis Matsukata, Count Okuma and Baron
Shibusawa, the fathers of their country's economic and financial
progress in modern times. The only substitutes for banks in
feudal days were a few private firms — " households " would,
perhaps, be a more correct expression — which received local
taxes in kind, converted them into money, paid the proceeds to
the central government or to the feudatories, gave accommo-
dation to officials, did some exchange business, and occasionally
extended accommodation to private individuals. They were
not banks in the Occidental sense, for they neither collected
funds by receiving deposits nor distributed capital by making
loans. The various fiefs were so isolated that neither social
nor financial intercourse was possible, and moreover the mercan-
tile and manufacturing classes were regarded with some disdain
by the gentry. The people had never been familiarized with
combinations of capital for productive purposes, and such a
thing as a joint -stock company was unknown. In these circum-
stances, when the administration of state affairs fell into the hands
of the men who had made the restoration, they not only lacked
the first essential of rule, money, but were also without means
of obtaining any, for they could not collect taxes in the fiefs,
these being still under the control of the feudal barons; and in
the absence of widely organized commerce or finance, no access
to funds presented itself. Doubtless the minds of these men
were sharpened by the necessities confronting them, yet it speaks
eloquently for their discernment that, samurai as they were,
without any business training whatever, one of their first essays
was to establish organizations which should take charge of the
national revenue, encourage industry and promote trade and
production by lending money at comparatively low rates of
interest. The tentative character of these attempts is evidenced
by frequent changes. There was first a business bureau, then a
trade bureau, then commercial companies, and then exchange
companies, these last being established in the principal cities
and at the open ports, their personnel consisting of the three
great families — Mitsui, Shimada and Ono — houses of ancient
repute, as well as other wealthy merchants in Kioto, Osaka and
elsewhere. These exchange companies were partnerships,
though not strictly of the joint-stock kind. They formed the
nucleus of banks in Japan, and their functions included, for the
first time, the receiving of deposits and the lending of money to
merchants and manufacturers. They had power to issue notes,
and, at the same time, the government issued notes on its own
account. Indeed, in this latter fact is to be found one of the
motives for organizing the exchange companies, the idea being
that if the state's notes were lent to the companies, the people
would become familiarized with the use of such currency, and
the companies would find them convenient capital. But this
system was essentially unsound: the notes, alike of the treasury
and of the companies, though nominally convertible, were not
secured by any fixed stock of specie. Four years sufficed to
prove the unpracticality of such an arrangement, and in 187a the
exchange companies were swept away, to be succeeded in July
1873 by the establishment of national banks on a system which
combined some of the features of English banking with the general
FINANCE)
JAPAN
bases of American. Each bank had to pay Into the treasury
60 % of it* capital in government notes. It was credited in
return with interest-bearing bonds, which bonds were to be left
hi the treasury as security for the Issue of bank-notes to an equal
amount, the banks being required to keep in gold the remaining
40 % of their capital as a fund for converting the notes, which
conversion must always be effected on application. Tbeeiabora-
tors of this programme were I to, Inouye, Oku ma and Shibusawa.
They added a provision designed to prevent the establishment
of too small banks, namely, that the capital of each bank must
bear a fixed ratio to the population of its place of business.
Evidently the main object of the treasury was gradually to
replace its own fiat paper with convertible bank-notes. But
experience quickly proved that the scheme was unworkable.
The treasury notes had been issued in such large volume that
sharp depreciation had ensued; gold could not be procured
except at a heavy cost, and the balance of foreign trade being
against Japan, some 300,000,000 yen in specie flowed out oi the
country between 1872 and 1874.
It should be noted that at this time foreign trade was still invested
with a perilous character in Japanese eyes. In early days, while
the Dutch had free access to her ports, they sold her so much and
bought so little in return that an immense Quantity of the precious
metals flowed out of her coffers. Again, when over-sea trade was
renewed in modern times, Japan's exceptional financial condition
presented to foreigners an opportunity of which they did not fail
to take full advantage. For, during her long centuries of seclusion,
gold had come to hold to silver in tier coinage a ratio of I to 8, so
that gold cost, in terms of stiver, only one-half of what it cost in
the West. On the other hand, the treaty gave foreign traders the
right to exchange their own silver coins against Japanese, weight
for weight, and thus it fell out that the foreigner, going to Japan
with a supply of Mexican dollars, could buy with them twice as much
gold as they had cost in Mexico. Japan lost very heavily by this
system, and its effects accentuated the dread with which her medieval
experience had invested foreign commerce. Thus, when the
balance of trade swayed heavily in the wrong direction between
1872 and 1874, the fact created undue consternation, and moreover
there can be no doubt that the drafters of the bank regulations had
over-estimated the quantity of available gold in the country.
All these things made it impossible to keep the bank-notes long
in circulation. They were speedily returned for conversion; no
deposits came to the aid of the banks, nor did the public make any
use of them. Disaster became inevitable. The two great firms of
Ono and Shtmada. which had stood high in the nation s estimation
alike in feudal and in imperial days, closed their doors in 1874; a
panic ensued, and the circulation of money ceased almost entirely.
Evidently the banking system must b» changed. The government
bowed to necessity. They issued a revised code of banking regula-
Chmmmm tions which substituted treasury notes in the place of
JJ32i »P«cie. Each bank was thenceforth required to invest
80% of its capital in 6% state bonds, and these
being lodged with the treasury, the bank became
competent to issue an equal quantity of its own notes,
forming with the remainder of it* capital a reserve of treasury notes
for purposes of redemption. This was a complete subversion of the
government's original scheme. But no alternative offered. Besides,
the situation presented a new feature. The hereditary pensions
of the feudatories had been commuted with bonds aggregating
174.000x00 yen. Were this large volume of bonds issued at once,
their heavy depreciation would be likely to follow, and moreover
their holders, unaccustomed to dealing with financial problems,
might dispose of the bonds and invest the proceeds in hazardous
enterprises. To devise some opportunity for the safe and profitable
employment of these bonds seemed, therefore, a pressing necessity,
ana the newly organized national banks offered such an opportunity.
For bond-holders, combining to form a bank, continued to draw
from the treasury 6% on their bonds, while they acquired power to
issue a corresponding amount of notes which could be lent at profit-
able rates. The programme worked well. Whereas, up to 1876.
only five banks were established under the original regulations, the
number under the new rule was i«i in 1879, their aggregate capital
having grown in the same interval from 2,000,000 yrn to 40.000,000
yen, and their note issues from less than 1 ,000.000 to over t4.000.000.
Here. then, was a rapidly growing system resting wholly on state
credit. Something like a mama for bank-organizing declared itself,
and in 1878 the government deemed it necessary to legislate
against the establishment of any more national banks, and to
limit to 34,000,000 yen the aggregate note issues of those already in
existence. k
It is possible that the conditions which prevailed immediately
after the establishment of the national banks might have developed
some permanency had not the Satsuma rebellion broken out in 1877.
locreased taxation to meet military outlay being impossible in such
tire u instances, nothing offered except recourse to further note
215
issues. The result was that by 188L. fourteen years after the Restor-
ation, notes whose face value aggregated 164,000,000 yen had been
put into circulation: the treasury possessed specie amounting to
only 8400,000 yen, and 18 paper yen could be purchased with
10 silver ones.
Up to 1881 fitful efforts had been made to strengthen the specie
value of fiat paper by throwing quantities of gold and silver upon
the market from time to time, and 23,000*000 yen had ■»__ .. .
been devoted to the promotion of industries whose JJJ~jr
products, it was hoped, would go to swell the list of JJiJ
exports, and thus draw specie to the country. But 2™!-*.
these devices were now finally abandoned, and the ^*
government applied itself steadfastly to reducing the volume of the
fiduciary currency on the one hand, and accumulating a specie
reserve on the other. The steps of the programme were simple.
By cutting down administrative expenditure; by transferring
certain charges from the treasury to the local communes; by sus-
pending all grants in aid of provincial public works and private
enterprises, and by a moderate increase of the tax on alcohol, an
annual surplus of revenue, totalling 7,500,000 yrn, was secured.
This was applied to reducing the volume of the notes in circulation.
At the same time, it was resolved that all officially conducted
industrial and agricultural works should be sold — since thetrpurpose
of instruction and example seemed now to have been sufficiently
achieved— and the proceeds, together with various securities (aggre-
gating 26,000,000 yen in face value) held by the treasury, were
applied to the purchase of specie. Had the government entered the
market openly as a seller of its own fiduciary notes, its credit must
have suffered. There were also ample reasons to doubt whether any
available stores of precious raetaf remained in the country. In
obedience to elementary economical laws, the cheap money had
steadily driven out the dear, and although the government mint at
Osaka, founded in 1871, had struck gold and silver coins worth
80,000.000 yen between that date and 1881, the customs returns
showed that a great part of this metallic currency had flowed out
of the country. In these circumstances Japanese financiers decided
that only one course remained : the treasury must play the part of
national banker. Produce and manufactures destined for export
must be purchased by the state with fiduciary notes, and the
metallic proceeds of their sales abroad must be collected and stored
in the treasury. This programme required the establishment of
consulates in the chief marts of the Occident, and the organization
of a great central bank — the present Bank of Tapan — as well as of a
secondary bank — the present Specie Bank of Yokohama — the former
to conduct transactions with native producers and manufacturers,
the latter to finance the business of exportation. The outcome of
these various arrangements was that, by the middle of 1885, the
volume of fiduciary notes had been reduced to 119,000,000 yen,
their depreciation had fallen to 3%, and the metallic reserve 01 the
treasury had increased to 45,000.000 yen. The resumption of specie
payments was then announced, and became, in the autumn of that
year, an 'accomplished fact. From the time when this programme
began to be effective, Japan entered a period of favourable balance
of trade. According to accepted economic theories, the influence of
an appreciating currency should be to encourage imports: but the
converse was seen in Japan's case, for from 1882 her exports annually
exceeded her imports, the maximum excess being reached in 1880,
the very year after the resumption of specie payments.
The above facts deserve to figure largely in a retrospect of Japanese
finance, not merely because they set forth a fine economic feat,
indicating clear insight, good organizing capacity, and courageous
energy, but also because volumes of adverse foreign criticism were
written in the margin of the story during the course of the incidents
it embodies. Now Japan was charged with robbing her own people
because she bought their goods with paper money and sold them for
specie: again, she was accused of an official conspiracy to ruin the
foreign local bonks because she purchased exporters' bills on Europe
and America at rates that defied ordinary competition; and while
some declared that she was plainly without any understanding of
her own doings, others predicted that her heroic method of dealing
with the problem would paralyze industry, interrupt trade and
produce widespread suffering. Undoubtedly, to carry the currency
of a nation from a discount of 70 or 80% to par in the course of
four years, reducing its volume at the same time from 160 to 119
million yen, was a financial enterprise violent and daring almost to
rashness. The Rentier expedient of a foreign loan would have
commended itself to the majority of economists. But it may be
here stated, once for all, that until her final adoption of a gold
standard in 1897. the foreign money market was practically closed
to Japan. Had she borrowed abroad it must have been on a sterling
basis. Receiving a fixed sum in silver, she would have had to dis-
charge her debt in rapidly appreciating gold. Twice, indeed, she
bad recourse to London for small sums, but when she came to cast
up her accounts the cost of the accommodation stood out in deterrent
proportions. A 9% loan, placed in England in 1868 and paid off
in 1889, produced 3,750,000 yen, and cost altogether 1 1,750.000 yen
in round figures; and a 7 % loan, made in 1872 and paid off in 18971
produced 10,750,000 ye*, and cost 36,000,000 yen. These consider-
ations were supplemented by a strong aversion from incurring
pecuniary obligations to Western states before the latter had consented
2i6 JAPAN
to restore Japan's judicial and. tariff autonomy. The example of
Egypt snowed what kind of fate might overtake a semi- independent
state falling into the clutches of foreign bond-holders. Japan did
not wish to fetter herself with foreign debts while struggling to
emerge from the rank of Oriental powers.
After the revision of the national bank regulations, semi-official
banking enterprise won such favour in public eyes that the govern-
^_,, . ment found it necessary to impose limits. This
Itlt aSuimmt conservative policy proved an incentive to private
:f*7~^^ banks and banking companies, so that, by the year
"*■■*• 1883, no less than 1093 banking institutions were in
existence throughout Japan with an aggregate capital of 900,000,000
yen. But these were entirely lacking in arrangements for com-
bination or for equalizing rates of interest, and to correct such
defects, no less than ultimately to constitute the sole note-issuing
institution, a central bank (the Bank of Japan) was organized on
the model of the Bank of Belgium, with due regard to correspond-
ing institutions in other Western countries and to the conditions
existing in Japan. Established in 1882 with a capital of 4,000,000
yen, this bank has now a capital of 30 millions, a security reserve of
206 millions, a note-issue of 266 millions, a specie reserve of 160
millions, and loans of 525 millions.
The banking machinery of the country being now complete, in
a general sense, steps were taken in 1883 for converting the national
banks into ordinary joint-stock concerns and for the redemption of
all their note-issues. Each national bank was required to deposit
with the treasury the government paper kept in its strong room as
security for its own notes, and further to take from its annual
profits and hand to the treasury a sum equal t.o 2 J % of its notes
in circulation. With these funds the central bank was to purchase
state bonds, devoting the interest to redeeming the notes of the
national banks. Formed with the object of disturbing the money
market as little as possible, this programme encountered two
obstacles. The first was that, in view of the Bank of Japan's pur-
chases, the market price of state bonds rose rapidly, so that, whereas
official financiers had not expected them to reach par before 1897,
they were quoted at a considerable premium in 1886. The second
was that the treasury having in 1886 initiated the policy of con-
verting its 6 % bonds into 5 % consols, the former no longer produced
interest at the rate estimated for the purposes of the banking scheme.
The national banks thus found themselves in an embarrassing
situation and began to clamour for a revision of the programme.
But the government, seeing compensations for them tn other
directions, adhered firmly to its scheme. Few problems have
caused greater controversy in modern Japan than this question of
the ultimate fate of the national banks. Not until 1896 could the
diet be induced to pass a bill providing for their dissolution at the
close of their charter terms, or their conversion into ordinary joint-
stock concerns without any note-issuing power, and not until 1899
did their notes cease to be legal tender. Out of a total of 153 of
these banks, 132 continued business as private institutions, ana the
rest were absorbed or dissolved. Already (1890 and 1893) minute
regulations had been enacted bringing all the banks and banking
institutions — except the special banks to be presently described—
within one system of semi-annual balance-sheets and official auditing,
while in the case of savings banks the directors' responsibility was
declared unlimited and these banks were required to lodge security
with the treasury for the protection of their depositors.
Just as the ordinary banks were all centred on the Bank of Japan l
and more or less connected with it, so in 1895. a group of special
institutions, called agricultural and commercial banks,
were organized and centred on a hypothec bank, the
object of this system being to supply cheap capital
to farmers and manufacturers on the security of real estate. The
hypothec bank had its head office in Tdkyd and was authorized to
obtain funds by issuing premium-bearing bonds, while an agricul-
tural and industrial bank was established in each prefecture and
received assistance from the hypothec bank. Two years later
(1900), an industrial bank — sometimes spoken of as the credit
mobilier of Japan — was brought into existence under official auspices,
its purpose Dcing to lend money against bonds, debentures and snares,
as well as to public corporations. These various institutions,
together with clearing houses, bankers* associations, the Hokkaidd
colonial bank, the bank of Formosa, savings banks (including a
post-office savings bank), and a mint complete the financial machi-
nery of modern japan.
Reviewing this chapter of Japan's material development, we find
Rtvltwf that whereas, at the beginning of the Mciji era (1867),
Bsakiag the nation did not possess so much as one banking
Drvrfop- institution worthy of the name, forty years later it
total. had 2211 banks, with a paid-up capital of £40,000,000,
reserves of £12,000,000, and deposits of £147,000,000; and whereas
1 The Bank of Japan was established as a joint-stotk company in
1882. The capital in 1909 was 30,000,000 yen. In it alone is
vested note-issuing power. There is no limit to its issues against
fold or silver coins and bullion, but on other securities (state bonds,
treasury bilk and other negotiable bonds or commercial paper) its
issues are limited to 120 millions, any excess over that figure being
subject to a tax of 5 % per annum.
(FINANCE
there was not one savings bank in 1867, there were 487 in
1906 with deposits of over £50,000,000. The average yearly
dividends of these banks in the ten years ending 1906 varied between
91 and 9 9%.
Necessarily the movement of industrial expansion was accom-
panied by a development of insurance business. The beginnings
of this kind of enterprise did not become visible, how- .
ever, until 1881, and even at that comparatively wtmmmm '
recent date no Japanese bws had yet been enacted for the control
of such operations. The commercial code, published in March 1890,
was the earliest legislation which met the need, and from that time
the number of insurance companies and the volume of their trans-
actions grew rapidly. In 1897, there were 35 companies with a total
paid-up capital of 7,000,000 yen and policies aggregating 971 .000,000
yen, and in 1906 the corresponding figures were 65 companies,
22,000.000 yen paid up and policies of 4.149,000.000 yen. The
premium reserves grew in the same period from 7,000.000 to
108,000,000. The net profits of these companies in 1906 were (in
round numbers) 10,000,000 yen.
The origin of clearing houses preceded that of insurance companies
in Japan by only two years (1879). Osaka set the example, which
was quickly followed by TSkyo, Kobe, Yokohama,
Ki&to and Nagoya. In 1808 the bills handled at
these institutions amounted to 1,186,000,000 yen, and
in 1907 to 7.484,000,000 yen. Japanese clearing houses are modelled
after those of London and New York.
Exchanges existed in Japan as far back as the close of the 17th
century. At that time the income of the feudal chiefs consisted
almost entirely of rice, and as this was sold to brokers,
t f.~ !,.•„. t~..~,\ i t convenient to meet at fixed times
a :onducting their business. Originally their trans-
a< Tor cash, but afterwards they devised time bargains
w r developed into a definite form of exchange. The
r< rs incidental to this system attracted the early
a Mciji government, and in 1891 a law was promuf-
g; ontrol of exchanges, which then numbered 146.
tl the minimum share capital of a bourse consti*
ti stock company was fixed at 100,000 yen, and the
w pcrty became liable for failure on the part of its
b :ment their contracts. There were 51 bourses in
irkable than this economic development was the
la in it by officialdom. There were two reasons for
tl hat a majority of the men gifted with
01 orcsight were drawn into the ranks of Tn* Ornvmew
tl 3n by the great current of the re vol u- a»«f«W
ti that the feudal system had tended to ficMemfc
cl n to encourage material development, Devmh^anat
si _ of each fief were also the limits of
economical and industrial enterprise. Ideas for combination and
co-operation had been confined to a few families, and there was
nothing to suggest the organization of companies nor any law to
protect them iforganized. Thus the opening of the Meiji era found
the Japanese nation wholly unqualified for the commercial and
manufacturing competition in which it was thenceforth required
to engage, and therefore upon those who had brought the country
out of its isolation there devolved the responsibility of speedily
Ercparing their fellow countrymen for the new situation. To theat
radcrs banking facilities seemed to be the first need, and steps went
accordingly taken in the manner already described. But how to
educate men of affairs at a moment's notice? How to replace by a
spirit of intelligent progress the ignorance and conservatism of the
hitherto despised traders and artisans? When the first bank was
organized, its two founders — men who had been urged, nay almost
compelled, by officialdom to make the essay— were obliged to raise
four-fifths of the capital themselves, the general public not being
willing to subscribe more than one-fifth — a petty sum of 500,000
yen— and when its staff commenced their duties, they had not the
most shadowy conception of what to do. That was a faithful
reflection of the condition of the business world at large. If the
initiative of the people themselves had been awaited, Japan's career
must have been slow indeed.
Only one course offered, namely, that the government itself
should organize a number of productive enterprises on modern lines,
so that they might serve as schools and also as models. Such, as
already noted under Industries, was the programme adopted.
It provoked much hostile criticism from foreign onlookers, who had
learned to decry all official incursions into trade and industry, but
had not properly appreciated the special conditions existing in Japan.
The end justified the means. At the outset of its administration we
find the Mciji government not only forming plans for the circulation
of money, building railways and organizing posts and telegraphs,
but also establishing dockyards, spinning mills, printing-housts,
silk-reeling filatures, paper-making factories and so forth, thus by
example encouraging these kinds of enterprise and by legislation
providing for their safe prosecution. Yet progress was slow. One
by^ one and at long intervals joint-stock companies came into
existence, nor was it until the resumption of specie payments m
1886 that a really effective spirit of enterprise manifested itself
among the people. Railways, harbours, mines, spinning, weaving.
lo obtain a coroprenensive laea 01 japan* state nuance, tm
simplest method is to set down the annual revenue at quinquennia
__._ periods, commencing with the year 1878-1879, becausi
JJJJT. it was not until 1876 that the system of duly compile*
Revenue (omitting fractions)
v j Ordinary Revenue Extraordinary Revenue
■ Car. /wiiHinn* «f <mmiV /millions n? veith
l8r8-9
1888-9
(millions of yen).
133
3
(millions 01 yen).
Total Revenue
(millionsofyen).
9
rl
28
87
36
144
62
«3
9*
"4
220
260
620
The most striking feature of the above table is the rapid growth
of revenue during the last three periods. So signal was the growth
that the revenue may be said to have sextupled in the 13 years
ended 1909. This was the result of the two great wars in which
Japan was involved, that with China in 1804-95 and that with
Russia in 1904-3. The details will be presently shown.
Turning now to the expenditure and pursuing the same plan, we
have the following figures: —
Expenditure (omitting fractions)
FINANCE) JAPAN
paper-making, oil-refining, brick-malong, leather-tanning, glass-
making and other industries attracted eager attention, and whereas
the capital subscribed for such works aggregated only 50,000,000 yen
in 1886, it exceeded 1,000,000,000 yen tn 1906.
When specie payments were resumed in 1885, the notes issaed
by the Bank of Japan were convertible into silver on demand, the
.silver standard being thus definitely adopted, a com-
plete reversal of the system inaugurated at the
establishment of the national banks on Prince Ito's
return from the United States. Japanese financiers
believed from the outset in gold monometallism. But, in the first
place, the country's stock of gold was soon driven out by her depre-
ciated fiat currency; and, in the second, not only were all other
Oriental nations silver-using, but alio the Mexican silver dollar had
long been the unit of account in Far-Eastern trade. Thus Japan
ultimately drifted into silver m o nometallism, the silver yen becoming
her unit of currency. So soon, however, as the indemnity that she
received from China after the war of 1894-95 had placed her in
possession of a stock of gold, she determined to revert to the gold
standard. Mechanically speaking, the operation was very easy.
Gold having appreciated so that its value in terms of silver had
exactly doubled during the first 30 years of the Mciji era, nothing
was necessary except to double the denominations of the gold coins
in terms of yen, leaving the silver subsidiary coins unchanged.
Thus the old $-ytn gold piece, weighing 2*22221 momme of 900 fine-
ness, became a 10-yen piece in the new currency, and a new 5-ym
piece of half the weight was coined. No- change whatever waa
required in the reckonings of the people. The yen continued to be
their coin of account, with a fixed sterling value of a small fraction
over two shillings, and the denominations of the gold coins were
doubled. Gold, however, is little seen in Japan; the whole duty
of currency n done by notes.
It is not to be supposed that all this economic and financial
development was unchequered by periods of depression and severe
panic There were in fact six such seasons: in 1874, 1881, 1889,
1807, 1900 and 1907. But no year throughout the whole period
failed to witness an increase in the number of Japan's industrial
and commercial companies, and in the amount of capital thus
invested.
To obtain a comprehensive idea of Japan's state finance, the
-* • • - * * * - * qucnmal
ause
. i(y compiled
and published budgets came into existence.
Zl%
Year.
Ordinary
Expenditures
(millions of yen).
Extraordinary
Expenditures
(millions of yen).
Total
Expenditures
(millions of yen).
1878-9
1883-4
1888-9
1893-4
1898-9
1903-4
1908-9
6
66
64
119
170
4*7
5
15
15
20
toi
80
193
61
J 3
81
84
220
250
620
It may be here stated that, with three exceptions, the working of the
budget showed a surplus in every one of the 41 years between 1867
and 1908.
1 The Japanese fiscal year is from April 1 to March 31.
The sources from which revenue it obtained are as follow j—
Ordinary Revenue
Taxes
Receipts from stamps
and Public Under-
takings
Various Receipts.
1894-5.
millions
of yen.
7050
•231
1898-9.
millions
of yen.
96-20
3300
3-67
1903-4-
millions
of yen.
146*10
9687
815
1908-9.
millions
of yen.
29961
164-66
11-48
It appears from the above that during 15 years the weight of taxation
increased fourfold. But a correction has to be applied, first, on
account of the tax on alcoholic liquors and. secondly, on account of
customs dues, neither of which can properly be called general imposts.
The former grew from 16 millions in 1894-1895 to 72 millions in
1908-1909, and the latter from 5} millions to 41 } millions. If these
increases be deducted, it is found that taxes, properly so called,
grew from 70-5 millions in 1894-1895 to 207-86 millions in 1908-1909,
an increase of somewhat less than three-fold. Otherwise stated,
the burden per unit of population in 1894-1895 was 3s. 6d., whereas
in 1008-1909 it was 8s. 40!. To understand the principle of Japanese
taxation and the manner in which the above development took
place, it is necessary to glance briefly at the chief, taxes separately.
The land tax is the principal source of revenue. It was originally .
fixed at 3% of the assessed value of the land, but in 1877 this ratio
was reduced to 2^%, on which basis the tax yielded LmadTM .
from 37 to 38 million yen annually. After the war with ^^
China (1894-1895) the government proposed to increase this impost
in ordVr to obtain funds for an extensive programme of useful
public works and expanded armaments (known subsequently as the
'* first post bellum programme "). By that time the market value
of agricultural land had largely appreciated owing to improved
communications, and urban land commanded greatly enhanced
prices. But the lower house of the diet, considering itself guardian
of the farmers' interests, refused to endorse any increase ofthe tax.
Not until 1889 could this resistance be overcome, and then only on
condition that the change should not be operative for more than
5 years. The amended rates were 3-3% on rural lands and 5% on
urban building sites. Thus altered, the tax produced 46,000,000
yen, but at the end of the five-year period it would have reverted to
its old figure, had not war with Russia broken out. An increase
was then made so that the impost varied from 3 % to 17 J % accord-
ing to the class of land, and under this new system the tax yielded
85 millions. Thus the exigencies of two wars had augmented it
from 38 millions in 1889 to 85 millions in 1907.
The income tax was introduced in 1887. It was on a graduated
scale, varying from 1 % on incomes of not less than 300 yen, to 3%
on incomes of 30,000 yen and upwards. At these,^^^-. '
rates the tax yielded an insignificant revenue of abour^^^
2,000,000 yen. In 1899, a revision was effected for the purposes of
the first post bellum programme. This revision increased the number
of classes from five to ten, incomes of 300 yen standing at the bottom
and incomes of 100,000 yen or upwards at the top, the minimum and
maximum rates being 1% and $k%- The tax now produced
approximately 8,000,000 yen. Finally in 1904, when war broke
out with Russia, these rates were again revised, the minisaum now
becoming 2%, and the maximum 8*2%. Thus revised, the tax
yields a revenue of 27,000,000 yen.
The business tax was instituted in 1896, after the war with China*
and the rates have remained unchanged. For the purposes of the
tax all kinds of business are divided into nine classes, n*,*-,
and the tax is levied on the amounts of sales (wholesale jjjr^
and retail), on rental value of buildings, on number of
employees and on amount of capital. The yield from the tax grows
steadily. It was only 4.500,000 yen in 1897, but it figured at
22^000,000 yen in the budget for 1908-1909.
The above three imposts constitute the only direct taxes in Japan.
Among indirect taxes the most important is that upon alcoholic
liquors. It was inaugurated in 1871; doubled, roughly t mmam
speaking, in 1878; still further increased thenceforth at JJJJi
intervals of about 3 years, until it is now approximately Litm
twenty times as heavy as it was originally. The liquor /*
taxed is mainly sake; the rate is about 50 sen (one shilling) per
gallon, and the annual yield is 72,000,000 yen.
In 1859, when Japan re-opened her ports to foreign commerce,
the customs dues were fixed on a basis of 10% ad watorem, but this
was almost immediately changed to a nominal 5%
and a real 3%. The customs then yielded a very
petty return — not more than three or four million yen
— and the Japanese government had no discretionary power to
alter the rates. Strenuous efforts to change this system were at
length successful, and. in 1899, the tariff was divided into two
sections, conventional and statutory; the rates in the former being
governed by a treaty valid for 12 years; those in the latter being fixed
at Japan's will. Things remained thus until the war with Russia
___ -celled * revision of the statutory term*. Under this system
c ° , **ra't»o °* lne < * ut * es to tnc value of the dutiable goods was about
«*»«^^p o/ The customs yield a revenue of about 43,000,000 yen.
iSl^-ddition to the above there are eleven taxes, some in existence
•*• ** before the war of 1904-5, and some created for the purpose
_^^^^> of carrying on the war or to meet the expenses of a post
^j\a_t*m*- bellum programme.
in existence before 1 904-1 905.—
Yield
Name. (millions of yew).
fax on soy
l*^ on sugar
J^liningtax 2
1* a x on bourses . . , 3
Tax on issue of bank-notes 1
Tonnage dues j
«j-£*xcs created on account of the war (1904-5) or in its immediate
" Cl " M Yield
Name. (millions of yen).
CTonsumotion tax on textile fabrics 19)
fax ° n dealers In patent medicines '
fax on communications , . 2
Consumption tax on kerosene ....!!*. 1
Succession tax i
JAPAN
(FINANCE
.*»
_^ <€ ft _ r it appears that the burden swelled from 160,000,000 yen
*C*^\ Z* the war to 320,000.000 after it.
f^c ££?++ c government ol Japan carries on many manufacturing under-
- 1 -' rt for purpou* of military and naval equipment, for ship-
^ ( ^* c " * building, for the construction of railway rolling stock,
^*^t+ for the manufacture of telegraph and light-house
^Z ^^oP**** materials, for iron-founding and steel-making, for printing.
^•J^ d****" for paper-making and so forth. There are 48 of these
^^-*^***- institutions, giving employment to 108.000 male opcra-
—a ««ooo female, together with 63,000 labourers. But the
jar independently in the general budget,
lertakings, however, constitute important
e, the profits derived from the postal
.000,000 yen; secondly, from forests,
V from railways, 37,000,000 yen. The
s a monopoly of three important staples.
In each case the crude article is pro-
Is from whom it is taken over at a fair
nd, having been manufactured (if ncccs-
raent agents at fixed prices. The tobacco
wme 33,000.000 yen: the salt monopoly
and the camphor monopoly a profit of
>rdinary revenue of the state consisted
Yen.
fwxx^t* ol taxes ........ 320,000,000
jZSeeOs of state enterprises (posts and tele-
1 ^V*|>hs, forests and railways). . . . 89,000.000
^^^Is of monopolies 56.000.000
1 >*— * ...... * 1,000.000
Tot»l 476,000,000
^*>,*rc exqpemttturet of the nine departments of state aggre-
f* r v-, r . i«* »000--4J7,ooo,ooo yen, so that there was a surplus
«~ - ,*A*\w©yr*.
ry section,
terminable
nd pcrpctu-
this cxtra-
1 the years
nes mapped
with China
cpansion of
I resources,
on that she
to a career
>thcr inter-
rmany and
ch she had
r provision
rowth of a
roop-ships,
the burden
reparations
mod to the
ike efforts,
with China,
le arrange-
ments to double her army and navy and to develop her 1
resources. The government drafted for the year 1907-1908 a budget
with three salient features. First, instead of proceeding to deal in a
leisurely manner with the greatly increased national debt, Japan's
financiers made dispositions to pay it off completely in the space of
30 years. Secondly, a total outlay of 432,000,000 yen was set down
for improving and expanding the army and the navy. Thirdly,
expenditures aggregating 304,000,000 yen were estimated for produc-
tive purposes. All these outlays, included in the extraordinary
section of the budget, were spread over a series of years commencing
in 1907 and ending in 1913, so that the disbursements would reach
their maximum in the fiscal year 1908-1909 and would thenceforth
decline with growing rapidity. To finance this programme three
constant sources of annual revenue were provided, namely, increased
taxation, yielding some 30 millions yearly; domestic loans, varying
from 30 to 40 millions each year; and surpluses of ordinary revenue
amounting to from 45 to 75 millions. . There were also some excep-
tional and temporary assets: such as 100.000,000 yen remaining
over from the war fund ; 50 millions paid by Russia for the main-
tenance of her officers and soldiers during their imprisonment in
Japan; occasional sales of state properties and so forth. But the
backbone of the scheme was the continuing revenue detailed above.
The house of representatives unanimously approved this pro-
gramme. By the bulk of the nation, however, it was regarded with
something like consternation, and a very short time sufficed to
demonstrate its impracticability. From the beginning of 1907 a
cloud of commercial and industrial depression settled down upon
Japan, partly because of so colossal a programme of taxes and
expenditures, and partly owing to excessive speculation during the
year 1906 and to unfavourable financial conditions abroad. To
float domestic loans became a hopeless task, and thus one of the three
sources of extraordinary revenue ceased to be available. There
remained no alternative but to modify the programme, and this was
accomplished by extending the original period of years so as cor-
respondingly to reduce the annual outlays. The nation, however, as
represented by its leading men of affairs, clamoured for still more
drastic measures, an government
must study retrenchm >ve all things
any increase of the c i of ministry
took place, and the n< >n five bases:
first, that all expendi he margin of
actual visible revenue m; secondly,
that the estimates sh surpluses of
yearly revenue ; third! 0.000.000 yen
should be annually st the whole of
the foreign debt beii s; fourthly,
that the state railway ■ account, all
their profits being de and fifthly,
that the period for c© me should be
extended from 6 years * of restoring
confidence in the soui
National Debt.— Wl the soverciga
at the beginning of th* ...v.,. »..„, .» *.«.» « WU v U w K .ovidc for the
feudal nobles and the samurai by the payment of lump sums in
commutation, or by handing to them public bonds, the interest oa
which should constitute a source of income. The result of this trans*
action was that bonds having a total face value of 191.500.000 yen
were issued, and ready-money payments were made aggregating
21 ,250,000 yen. 1 This was the foundation of Japan's nattonafdebt.
Indeed, these public bonds may be said to have represented the
bulk of the state's liabilities during the first 2$ years of the
Mciii period. The government had also to take over the debts
of the fiefs, amounting to 41,000,000 yen, of which 21,500.000 yea
were paid with interest-bearing bonds, the remainder with ready
money. I f to t he above figures be added two foreign loans aggregating
16,500.000 yen (completely repaid by the year 1897); a loan 0?
15,000,000 yen incurred on account of the Satsuma revolt of 1877,
loans of 33,000,000 yen for public works, 13,000,000 yen for naval
const ruction, and 14,500,000 yen *in connexion with the fiat currency,
we have a total of 305,000.000 yen, being the whole national debt
of Japan during the first 28 years of her new era under Imperial
administration.
The second epoch dates from the war with China in 1894-95.
The direct expenditures on account of the war aggregated 200,000,000
1 The amounts include the payments made in connexion with what
may be called the disestablishment of the Church. There were
29.805 endowed temples and shrines throughout the empire, and their
estates aggregated 354<4&i acres, together with 1} million bushels
of rice (representing 2,500,000 yen). The government resumed
possession of all these lands and revenues at a total cost to the state
of a little less than 2,500,000 yen, paid out in pensions spread over a
period of fourteen years. The measure sounds like wholesale con-
fiscation. But some extenuation is found in the fact that the
temples and shrines held their lands and revenues under titles which,
being derived from the feudal chiefs, depended for their validity
on the maintenance of feudalism.
* This sum represents interest -bearing bonds issued in exchange
for fiat notes, with the idea of reducing the volume of the latter.
It was a tentative measure, and proved of no value.
FINANCE]
jms, of which I3&ood,ooo yen were added to the national debt, the
remainder being defrayed with accumulations of surplus revenue,
with a part of the indemnity received from China, and with voluntary
contributions from patriotic subjects. As the immediate sequel of
the war, the government elaborated a large programme of armaments
and public work*. The expenditure for these unproductive purposes.
as well as for coast fortifications, dockyards, and so on, came to
31.1,000.000 yen, and the total of the productive expenditures
included in the programme was 190,000,000 yen — namely, 120
milUons for railways, telegraphs and telephones; 20 millions for
riparian improvements; 30 millions in akf of industrial and agri-
cultural banks and so forth — the whole programme thus involving
an outlay of 304.000,000 yen. To meet this large figure, the Chinese
indemnity, surpluses of annual revenue and other assets, furnished
300 milltons; and it was decided that the remaining 304 millions
should be obtained by domestic loans, the programme to be carried
completely into operation — with trifling exceptions — by the year
1905. In practice, however, it was found impossible to obtain
money at home without paying a high rate of interest. The govern-
ment, therefore, had recourse to the London market in 1809, raising a
loan of £10.000.000 at 4%, and selling the £100 bonds at 90. In
1902, it was not expected that Japan would need any further
immediate recourse to foreign borrowing. According to her finan-
ciers' forecast at that time, her national indebtedness would reach
its maximum, namely, $75,000,000 yen, in the year 1903, and
would thenceforward diminish steadily. All Japan's domestic
loans were by that time placed on a uniform basis. They carried
5% interest, ran for a period of 5 years without redemption, and
were then to be redeemed within 50 years at latest. The treasury
had power to expedite the operation of redemption according to
financial convenience, but the sum expended on amortisation each
year must receive the previous consent of the diet. Within the limit
of that sum redemption was effected cither by purchasing the stock
of the loans in the open market or by drawing lots to determine
the bonds to be paia off. During the first two periods (1867 to
1897) of the Meiji era, owing to the processes of conversion. consolida-
tion, 4c., and to the various requirements of the state's progress,
twenty-two different kinds of national bonds were issued; they
aggregated 673.215.500 yen; 269,042,198 yen of that total had been
paid off at the close of 1897, and the remainder was to be redeemed
by 1946, according to these programmes.
But at this point the empire became involved in war with Russia,
and the enormous resulting outlays caused a signal change in the
financial situation. Before peace was restored in the autumn of
1905, Japan had been obliged to borrow 405,000,000 yen at home
and 1,054,000,000 abroad, so that she found herself in 1908 with a
total debt of 2,276,000,000 yen, of which aggregate her domestic
indebtedness stood for 1,110,000,000 and her foreign borrowings
amounted to 1,166,000,000. This meant that her debt had grown
from 561.000,000 yen in 1904 to 2.276,000,000 yen 1 in 1908; or from
11 <3 yen to 43*8 yen per head of the population. Further, out of
the grand total, the sum actually spent on account of war and arma-
ments represented 1.357,000,000 yen* The debt carried interest
varying from 4 to 5%.
It will be observed that the country's indebtedness grew by
ijTOO.ooo.ooo yen, in round numbers, owing to the war with Russia.
This added obligation the government resolved to discharge within
the space of 30 years, for which purpose the diet was asked to
approve the establishment of a national debt consolidation fund,
which should be kept distinct from the general accounts of revenue
and expenditure, and specially applied to payment of interest and
redemption of principal. The amount of this fund was never to fall
below 110,000,000 yen annually. Immediately after the war, the
diet approved a cabinet proposal for the nationalization of 17 private
railways, at a cost of 500,000,000 yen, and this brought the state's
debts to 2,776.000.000 yen in all. The people becoming impatient
of this large burden, a scheme was finally adopted in 1908 for
appropriating a sum of at least 50,000,000 yen annually to the
purpose of redemption.
Local Finance. — Between 1878 and 1888 a system of local auto-
nomy in matters of finance was fully established. Under this system
the total expenditures of the various corporations in the last year
of each quinquennial period commencing from the fiscal year 1889-
1890 were as follow.—-
Total Expenditure
Year. (millions of yen).
I889-189O , i : 33
1893-1804 ..... 52
1898-1899 97
1903-1904' 158
1907-1908 167
JAPAN
* In this is included a sum of 1 10,000,000 yen distributed in the form
of loan-bonds among the officers and men of the army and navy
by way of reward for their services during the war of 1904-5.
. * When war broke out in 1904 the local administrative districts
took steps to reduce their outlays, so that whereas thecxpenditures
totalled 158.000,000 yen in 1003-1904. they fell to I22,ooo,oooand
126,000,000 in 1904-1905 and 1905-1906 respectively. Thereafter
however, they expanded once more.
lathe
a 19
■me years the total indebtedness of the corporations was; —
Debts
Year. (millions of yen).
1890.
1894*
1899.
1904.
1907.
I
10
32
65
«9»
The chief purposes to which the proceeds of these loans wereappUed
are as follow: —
Millions of yen.
Education 5
Sanitation 12
Industries 13
Public works 52
Local corporations are not competent to incur unrestricted indebted-
ness. The endorsement of the local assembly must be secured;
redemption must commence within 3 years after the date of issue
and be completed within 30 years; and, except in tr-2 case of very
small loans, the sanction of the minister of nome affairs must be
obtained.
Wealth 0/ Japan.— With reference to the wealth of Japan, there
is no official census. So far as can be estimated from statistics
for the year 1904-1005, the # wealth of Japan proper, excluding
Formosa, Sakhalin and some rights in Manchuria, amounts to about
15,896,000,000 yen, the hems of which are as follow:—
Yen (10 yen" £l).
Lands 12,301,000,000
Buildings 2,331,000.000
" '*"'* .... 1,080,
Furniture and fittings
Live stock
Railways, telegraphs and telephones .
Shipping
Merchandise
Specie and bullion
Miscellaneous ...,.,.
0,000,000
109,000,000
707,000,000
§76,000,000
73,000,000
310,000,000
1,809,000,000
Grand total 19,896,000,000
Education. — There is no room to doubt that the literature and
learning of China and Korea were transported to Japan in very
ancient times, but tradition is the sole authority Bmrty
for current statements that in the 3rd century a Bdyentioo,
Korean immigrant was appointed historiographer to the Imperial
court of Japan and another learned man from the same country
introduced the Japanese to the treasures of Chinese literature.
About the end of the 6th century the Japanese court began to
send civilians and religionists direct to China, (here to study Con-
fucianism and Buddhism, and among these travellers there were
some who passed as much as 15 or 30 years beyond the sea.
The knowledge acquired by these students was crystallized into
a body of laws and ordinances based on the administrative and
legal systems of the Sui dynasty in China, and in the middle of
the 7th century the first Japanese school seems to have been-
established by the emperor Tench i, followed some 50 years later
by the first university. Kara was the site of the latter, and the
subjects of study were ethics, law, history and mathematics.
Not until 704, the date of the transfer of the capital to Kioto,
however, is there any evidence of educational organization on
a considerable scale. A university was then opened in the
capital, with affiliated colleges; and local schools were built and
endowed by noble families, to whose scions admittance was re-
stricted, but for general education one institution only appears
to have been provided. In this Kioto university the curriculum
included the Chinese classics, calligraphy, history, law, etiquette,
arithmetic and composition; while m the affiliated colleges
special subjects were taught, as medicine, herbalism, acupunc-
ture, shampooing, divination, the almanac and languages.
Admission was limited to youths of high social grade; the stu-
dents aggregated some 400, from 13 to 16 years of age; the faculty
included professors and teachers, who were known by the same
\n\ts (iakasc and ski) as those applied to their successors to-day;
and the government supplied food and clothing as well as books.
The family schools numbered five, and their patrons were the
Wage, the Fujiwara, the Tachibana (one school each) and the
Minamoto (two). At the one institution: — opened in 828 —
where youths in general might receive instruction, the course
• This includes 33} millions of loans raised abroad.
220
embraced only calligraphy and the precepts of Buddhism and
Confucianism.
The above retrospect suggests that Japan, in those early
days, borrowed her educational system and its subjects of
frml-frr- itu< b r entirely from China. But closer scrutiny shows
Uommt that the national factor was carefully preserved.
Nitnmad The ethics of administration required a combination
^2J*J* of two dements, vtakon, or the soul of Japan, and
kwansai, or the ability of China; so that, while adopt-
ing from Confucianism the doctrine of filial piety, the Japanese
grafted on it a spirit of unswerving loyalty and patriotism; and
while accepting Buddha's teaching as to three states of existence,
they supplemented it by a belief that in the life beyond the grave
the duty of guarding his country would devolve on every man.
Great academic importance attached to proficiency in literary
composition, which demanded close study of the ideographic
script, endlessly perplexing in form and infinitely delicate in
sense. To be able to compose and indite graceful couplets
constituted a passport to high office as well as to the favour of
great ladies, for women vied with men in this accomplishment.
The early years of the nth century saw, grouped about the
empress Aki, a galaxy of female authors whose writings are
•till accounted their country's classics — Murasaki no Shikibu,
Akazome Emon, Izumi Shikibu, Ise Taiyu and several lesser
lights. To the first two Japan owes the Genji monogatari and
the Eiga monogatari, respectively, and from the Imperial court
of those remote ages she inherited admirable models of paint-
ing, calligraphy, poetry, music, song and dance. But it is
to bo observed that all this refinement was limited virtually
to the noble families residing in Kioto, and that the first
object of education in that era was to fit men for office and for
society. .
Meanwhile, beyond the precincts of the capital there were
nptdlv growing to maturity numerous powerful military mag-
m^yg^^ nates who despised every form of learning that did
*<*• not contribute to martial excellence. An illiterate era
**n» ensued which reached its climax with the establish-
*** went of feudalism at the close of the 12th century.
>, s Tvcotdkd that, about that time, only one man out of a force
,t ?k« tfcottuiftd could decipher an Imperial mandate addressed
■j (m. BUinakura, then the seat of feudat government, was
l r* JbtuifuJUhed for absence of all intellectual training, but
.jiihumi 1 " *** courM °' pottle*! events brought thither from
«:» -wuttbet of court nobles whose erudition and refine-
^ *^j ^ * potent leaven. Buddhism, too, had been from
.. ^ ^ h *r«uf educating influence. Under its auspices
1, .*» -«. x»Uk library was established (1270) at the temple
•^ t , 4 SoMjawa, It is said to have contained practi-
j, _ :* ^M«* and Japanese books then existing, and they
.,_ ."^ . € -aMiftt by every class of reader. To Buddhist
mi ^ jV— 1 4 w«4 during many years all the machinery
- ^twh * *^uha education. They organized schools
.. ^^ *»«t«<«4 about In almost every part of the
I_ _ *** fr+JtoyCt as they were called, lessons
„ rt*Uinf and etiquette were given to the
1 iv youths of the mercantile and manu-
__<*t \M 17th century, administrative
T^n-fr g| the Tokugawa, the illustrious
u>a*sty of shdguns, Iyeyasu,
. o^rttMt promoter of erudition.
*f priests to make copies
a* patronized men of learning
iwfc appear to have occurred
u knowledge was hampered
on»MUy from the Imperial
"jj^-L, it* ranks of the Buddhist
0, To his fifth successor
„ iba honour of abobsbing
«« Uuitt. was profoundly
mn-i * picket edition of the
Ttw mag*!*** ^ *
acqu
for ti
merca.
and for
of these
The w.
had begui
onlooktng
On the cont
so she now
JAPAN [EDUCATION
In reading and expounding rare books to audiences of feudatories
and their vassals produced something like a mania for erudition,
so that feudal chiefs competed in engaging teachers and founding
schools. The eighth shdgun, Yoshimune ( 1 7 16-1 749), was an even
more enlightened ruler. He caused a geography to be compiled
and an astronomical observatory to be constructed; he revoked
the veto on the study of foreign books; he conceived and carried
out the idea of imparting moral education through the medium
of calligraphy by preparing ethical primers whose precepts were
embodied in the head-lines of copy-books, and he encouraged
private schools. Iyenari (1 787-1838), the eleventh shogun,
and his immediate successor, Iyeyoshi (1838-1853), patronized
learning no less ardently, and it was under the auspices of the
latter that Japan acquired her five classics, the primers of
True Words, of Great Learning, of Lesser Learning, of Female
Ethics and of Women's Filial Piety.
Thus it may be said that the system of education progressed
steadily throughout the Tokugawa era. From the days of
Tsunayoshi the number of fief schools steadily increased, and
as students were admitted free of all charges, a duty of grateful
fealty as well as the impulse of interfief competition drew thither
the sons of all samurai. Ultimately the number of such schools
rose to over 240, and being supported entirely at the expense
of the feudal chiefs, they did no little honour to the spirit of the
era. From 7 to 15 years of age lads attended as day scholars,
being thereafter admitted as boarders, and twice a year exami-
nations were held in the presence of high officials of the net
There were also several private schools where the curriculum
consisted chiefly of moral philosophy, and there were many
temple schools, where ethics, calligraphy, arithmetic, etiquette
and, sometimes, commercial matters were taught. A prominent
feature of the system was the bond of reverential affection
uniting teacher and student. Before entering school a boy
was conducted by his father or elder brother to the home of his
future teacher, and there the visitors, kneeling before the teacher,
pledged themselves to obey him in all things and to submit
unquestioningly to any discipline he might impose. Thus the
teacher came to be regarded as a parent, and the veneration paid
to him was embodied in a precept: " Let not a pupil tread within
three feet of his teacher's shadow." In the case of the temple
schools the priestly instructor had full cognisance of each
student's domestic circumstances and was guided by that know-
ledge in shaping the course of instruction. The universally
underlying principle was, " serve the country and be diligent
in your respective avocations." Sons of samuraf were trained
in military arts, and on attaining proficiency many of them
travelled about the country, inuring their bodies to every kind
of hardship and challenging all experts of local fame.
Unfortunately, however, the policy of national seclusion pre-
vented for a long time all access to the stores of European know*
ledge. Not until the beginning of the 18th century did any
authorized account of the great world of the West pass into the
bands of the people. A celebrated scholar (Arai Hakuseki)
then compiled two works — Saiyi kibun {Record of Occident*!
Hearsay), and Sairan igen (Renderings of Foreign Languages) —
which embodied much information, obtained from Dutch sources,
about Europe, its conditions and its customs. But of course
the light thus furnished had very restricted influence. It was
not extinguished, however. Thenceforth men's interest centred
more and more on the astronomical, geographical and medical
sciences of the West, though such subjects were not included in
academical studies until the .renewal .of foreign intercourse in
modern times. Then (1857), almost immediately, the nation
turned to Western learning, as it had turned to Chinese thirteen
centuries earlier. The Tokugawa government established in
Yedo an institution called Bansho-shirabe-dokoro (place for
studying foreign books) , where Occidental languages were learned
and Occidental works translated. Simultaneously a school for
acquiring foreign medical art (Seiyo igaku-sho) was opened, and,
a little later (1862), the Kaiseijo (place of liberal culture), a
college for studying European sciences, was added to the Kst of
~>4w institutions. Thus the eve of the Restoration saw the
BDUCATONI
JAPAN
Japanese people already appreciative of the stores of learning
rendered accessible to them by contact with the Occident.
Commercial education was comparatively neglected in the
schools. Sons of merchants occasionally attended the trta-kcya,
_ibut the instruction they received there had seldom
•te any bearing upon the conduct of trade. Mercan-
*"v"w» IB* knowledge had to be acquired by a system of
" M * > apprenticeship. A boy of 9 or xo was apprenticed
for a period of 8 or o Tears to a merchant, who undertook to
support him and teach him a trade. Generally this young
apprentice could not even read or write. He passed through all
the stages of shop menial, errand boy, petty clerk, salesman and
senior clerk, and in the evenings he received instruction from a
teacher, who used for textbooks the manual of letter-writing
(Skosoku orai) and the manual of commerce (Shdbai or at).
The latter contained much useful information, and a youth
thoroughly versed in its contents was competent to discharge
responsible duties. When an apprentice, having attained the
position of senior clerk, had given proof of practical ability, he
was often assisted by his master to start business independently,
but under the same firm-name, for which purpose a sum of
capital was given to him or a section of his master's customers
were assigned.
When the government of the Restoration came into power, the
emperor solemnly announced that the administration should be
fisuartia conducted on the principle of employing men of capa-
Ma Mo+rm city wherever they could be found. This amounted
Jm ^ mm - to a declaration that in choosing officials scholastic
acquirements would thenceforth take precedence of the claims
of birth, and thus unprecedented importance was seen to attach
to education. But so long as the feudal system survived, even in
part, no general scheme of education could be thoroughly enforced,
and thus it was not until the conversion of the fiefs into prefec-
tures in 1 87 1 that the government saw itself in a position to take
drastic steps. A commission of investigation was sent to Europe
and America, and on its return a very elaborate and extensive
plan was drawn up in accordance with French models, which the
commissioners bad found conspicuously complete and sym-
metrical. This plan subsequently underwent great modifica-
tions. It will be sufficient to say that in consideration of the
free education hitherto provided by the feudatories in their
various fiefs, the government of the restoration resolved not only
that the state should henceforth shoulder the main part of this
burden, but also that the benefits of the system should be
extended equally to all classes of the population, and that the
attendance at primary schools should be compulsory. At the
outset the sum to be paid by the treasury was fixed at a, 000,000
yen, that having been approximately the expenditure incurred by
the feudatories. But the financial arrangements suffered many
changes from time to time, and finally, in 1877, the cost of main-
taining the schools became a charge on the local taxes, the central
treasury granting only sums in aid.
Every child, on attaining the age of six, must attend a common
elementary school, where, during a six-years' course, instruction is
given in morals, reading, arithmetic, the rudiments of technical work,
gymnastics and poetry. Year by year the attendance at these
schools has increased. Thus, whereas in the year 1900, only 81-67 %
of the school-age children of both sexes received the prescribed
elementary instruction, the figure in 1905 was 94-93%. The desire
for instruction used to be keener among boys than among girls, as
was natural in view of the difference of inducement; but ultimately
this discrepancy disappeared almost completely. Thus, whereas
the percentage of girls attending school was 75-00 in 1900, it rose
to 91-46 in 1905, and the corresponding figures for boys were 90*55
and 97*10 respectively. The tuition fee paid at a common elemen-
tary school in the rural districts must not exceed *s. yearly, and in the
urban districts, 10s.: but in practice it is much smaller, for these
elementary schools form part of the communal system, and such
portion of their expenses as is not covered by tuition fees, income
from school property and miscellaneous sources, must be defrayed
out of the proceeds of local taxation. In 1909 there were 18,160
common elementary schools, and also 9105 schools classed as
elementary but having sections where, subsequently to the comple-
tion of the regular curriculum, a special supplementary course of
study might be pursued in agriculture, commerce or industry
(needle-work in the case of girls). The time devoted to these
special courses is two, three or four years, according to the degree
221
opiated, and the maximum fees are I5d. per
lets and one-half of that amount in rural dts-
. kindergartens, with an attendance of 36,000
ts pay 3d. per month on the average for each
c kindergartens are connected with elementary
al schools,
graduation at a common elementary school,
education, it passes into a common middle
• is given for practical pursuits or for admission
1 institutions. The ordinary curriculum at a
>1 includes moral philosophy, English language,
athematics, natural history, natural philosophy,
snd the Japanese language. Five years are
and from the fourth year the student may take
al course as well as the main course; or, in
al requirements, technical subjects may be
h the regular curriculum throughout the whole
ides that there must be at least one common
prefecture. The actual number in 1909 was 216.
s attract attendance at a common middle
es the graduation certificate carry considerable
lualincatton, but it also entitles a young man
year's service with the colours, thus escaping
te would have to serve as an ordinary conscript.
Common middle school can claim admittance,
, to a high school, where he spends three years
a university, or four years studying a special
fleering or medicine. By following the course
rath obtains exemption from conscription until
one year as a volunteer will free him from all
Hire. A high-school certificate of graduation
enter a university without examination, and
mblic posts,
schools arc provided, the object being to give
if higher standard. Candidates for admission
s of age, and roust have completed the second-
er elementary school. The regular course of
s, and supplementary courses as well as special
iken.
i schools alreadv enumerated, which may be
te machinery of general education, there aire
ally private, and technical schools (including a
instruction is given in medicine and surgery,
re, mechanics, applied chemistry, navigation,
, art (pictorial and applied), veterinary science,
us other branches of industry. There are also
classed under the heading of elementary,
t less than six months, and not more than four
n dyeing and weaving, embroidery, the making
tobacco manufacture, sericulture, reeling silk,
odwork, metal-work or brewing. There are
all supported by private enterprise — for the
maintained for the purpose of training teachers,
>t plentiful in Japan, doubtless because of an
le of emoluments, the yearly pay not exceeding
as low as £15.
pcrial universities, one in Tckyft and one in
ormer had about 220 professors and instructors
Its colleges number six: law, medicine,
e, science and agriculture. It has a university
luate courses are studied, and it publishes a
ving accounts of scientific researches, which
rge erudition, but also original talent. The
s a comparatively new institution and has not
reat vitality. In 1909 its colleges numbered
literature and science; its faculty consisted of
r/ith 70 assistants, and its students aggregated
1 specially indicated, all the figures givon above
private educational institutions. The system
does not tend to encourage private education,
school brings its curriculum into exact accord
for public institutions of corresponding grade,
ed the valuable privilege of partial exemption
s well as other advantages attaching to state
he quality of the instruction being nominally
fees must also be similar, and no margin offers
erprise.
1 Japan is strictly secular: no religious teaching
ed in the schools. There are about 100 libraries,
n this branch, the rate of growth having been
he five-year period ended 1905. The largest
rial, in T6kyo. It had about half a million
the daily average of visitors was about 430.
ni versifies, the public educational institutions
annual expenditure of 3} millions sterling, out
- -.. . T e more than half a million is met by students'
fees: 2} millions are paid by the communes, and the remainder is
***
T^x **** vxVw, U w *4««M*«t »h*t ym»W «ca*d
2^ VWW fc^uj^ *w*j\ V****** *v\« aggregates
•canal pton my
II
tTH* w****i\* <s>4^* «t Japan * know* by the name
. >»UKv\ *'V V 4 ^ - srt MW 4t\*»t wny, u but the Japanese
** ^ ^ »** ; *- ** ***** \W teem n of comparatively
a^n****^ »*niV"* v^vtivn. TW term Shinto being
*^*v*f«N ** V s **** A"^> cannot have been used in Japan
i/1*,^^ ** ^ev**** *»****wd **h 'the Chinese language.
^**^ ', m ^s-rN^v Vv** * v **t *v*vh JUpan until the 6th century, and
■^ ^1 ^v* iVv ^ ** *** * sv **w- **wg*age had preceded it by only a
** ^.i n n» \y* •* fc »> ;W*v<v>*v. reasonable to conclude that the
**".*,. ^* -v\*v* v* I v*» had no MM t and that it did not
«**- ' ^ ^ V v»'V>4 N*. *,>v vmmU Buddhism had entered the field.
^** *** * ^v »*<nv** -v»" ^t vh\*«H% though not implacably antago-
* **"* ^ , * + • ' , V Kf * *>* v** th* ^h century, when they were
• » - * ^» vavV* *,v « *>**♦«* v( doctrine to which the name
%»*•". ,1. >*■ w v^»v*i >aa*t$> w*» given. In this new creed the
,•». *•■'* ^ ,A*i v* %v«* v*"dvd aa aveurs ol Buddhist divinities,
*^i» \ ' "^ „ » •: *a> *>* xuu iSai Shinto w« absorbed into Buddhism.
„.>, ,iw %^d (Wkw btwt the (ate of the indigenous creed
m avuu^4.K^ lot a i«h«H>« mahout a theory as to a future
I \*tt«V*U Jktiy v;\k!p <* un>r*t duiws couki scarcely hope to
A
I . * I *^*Jou»»vl?*^ iv^tttoJw |h* B»b*f iw that both begw wuS
'- ^t, '**" ^toi»^. But»i«viMe« 1 4 «t»lhvf»xKa*pto|^ , Vthene*ly
tt * u *^" , ^ ll lj «uS iSKa y v*u otlv«u<£ u\»tcad of w»ih huaur.
llK "tt-J \. ti *.*♦!> «m^ *w th< ^«ts»«N IV axtu^l mv^t of
^ lfc * fc , » ** ^^a* diMK b* a »»^W sKr*U, tMHJi^v and a U
* K '*" *^*;fc/** fci t^" 4 1 ^ ' **ht ov* 04 tSc Kv «m,i «r jit born
JAPAN (REUGION
Shinto is thus & mixture of ancestor-worship and of nature-
worship without any explicit code of morals. It regards human
beings as virtuous by nature; assumes that each man's conscience
is his best guide; and while believing in a continued existence
beyond the grave, entertains no theory as to its pleasures or
pains. Those that pass away become disembodied spirits,
inhabiting the world of darkness (yomi-tio-jo) and possessing
power to bring sorrow or joy into the lives of their survivors, on
which account they are worshipped and propitiated. Parity
and simplicity being essential characteristics of the cult, its
shrines are built of white wood, absolutely without decorative
features of any kind, and fashioned as were the original hots of
the first Japanese settlers. There are no graven images— a fad
attributed by some critics to ignorance of the glyptic art on the
part of the original worshippers—but there is an emblem of the
deity, which generally takes the form of a sword, a mirror or a
so-called jewel these being the insignia handed by the sun god-
dess to her grandson, the first ruler of Japan. This emblem is
not exposed to public view: it is enveloped in silk and brocade
and enclosed in a box at the back of the shrine. The mirror
sometimes prominent is a Buddhist innovation and has nothing
to do with the true emblem of the creed.
From the oth century, when Buddhism absorbed Shinto* the
two grew together so intimately that their differentiatjon seemed
bopekss. But in the middle of the 17th century a strong nrwrval
of the indigenous faith was effected by the efforts of a group of
illustrious scholars and politicians, at whose bend stood alabodnV
Motoori and Hirata. These men apphed themselves with great
diligence and acumen to l epto duc e the pare Sfccnto of the KtpH
and to restore it to its old place in the nation's mwaut, their
political purpose being to educate a spnit of revolt against the
feudal system which d e p r i ved the cinp e tot of achnvnjstraene
power. The principles tbns revived became the basis of the
restoration of iSo;. Shinto rites and Shuio rxtnak wen? n>
adopted, and Bockihtsni fel for a season into fnanniiiT
, devour. Sfcir.io being regarded as the nit in— 1 Tt g nn Bat
I B»ia>.5ffi had twtaoi ks roots too deeply aroand the nentt «f
' tb-e people to be thus easily torn up. It gradunfty 1
^ fc- » *»■**" u «; goJUw ^ *hv *u»* ttv*u N-x ks\ e>e the g^vl of the 11$ old pi*ce. thoogn not its old
**** * !»*.*- •* j i ig m ha *>*t?i a H*N«G* ^ I ksi'Vf, 1 r< yrjadion ot esc^t a: the bands of the M6jt
■ afc/ > # fci **»JiJ**» *** l * K ' ^^ w^«tv*g» «>* J^PAn, *■** ha drscee- 1 par. of *«s metiaes,
•^^* J,» l ** , r7uTeU the lj »*^l 'ft uabivltM* xv^wtssjoo ever ss-oe. I BaidJLsas eatcsed China at the
-:'»
bcu-*;
^ vtw thivMK m ^gv>^ t>u"» vt is to Airaierx^-
v>*
Jjuuuiwa.u^ KV<JikW Vh*t the Japoa*»* pa>
^v« <»il «^hwi sku*0K and A * I* her shrine at Ise
^^ ch*cily ih*X
.*' ***** A ouuvu, a» NUt^d n tW Ka.H\ * ebvsocsN-
\ \ .*•**> bk.'jcl vlul lo*w * "ttdv^iuvi ^ *ad Out e*TT>
" ".* **■ * l A the uoiU** s^hiu thci* h*" 1 ** m '* ex : ste^ce il
^~r*** 7^^ ^ t^ lu^kc u^ vhtf w^v*-*' AOv* :Sse &e-r^
.,, ^ l^ *)ku *c *id ..he 4^flK\J *ho*t* ef ancestors.
S ".^* • i " a *" < ajt4 Hum the «yA a«d *bo«< n^-res are as*o~
'^«v^ A * Jk ^ »»wn;aiKvaor*ve^eoiega-iirdas
' ^ ****** . A .^^c»0*vklk'«tb<^*.V*^ ! ^^ SjOT ^
it". - cU * * £U « «WM«1 W ^h«m, TW «Kths>a ot worv> r
Z..*~ % lU ^T 7iW- '*«la ntie Nvi^xd J> ™f* ««d «•
V>* ^^fcHM*»^ 0>*n*4 * a^taiae
t ^^
v ^at UWtffia ■"*
^^4 |q« the *dK»tsott
^Wrtav
fcr
to
by
COUI
prier
Tsul
this -
attacl
Chine
k ^enatV ef «rt*
«A«cK by wosihtg
Wnnln-
robnedk^nS
oftheCkcBCna
bet not aciJ the a*h cemary did n obtain any sramng finn
I>ence. two centtjnes later {$2:*. it umni i i Japan t
ihrjvgh koren. The receptim cUcrnk d to it
not enccura^ag at aest. Its ntgii and its I
tenoaces av^nt w?3 deter a nation wkach had 1
aoc evtr wvrsJupped n a drcocated temple.
teac^^saad : imr pasttice dxir ae s at the xuxigz fcuta ,n ■ 1 irf
aa attract .^y cor irast ;o the < xjfc*t iess >hmt J> Afseras
aot without bioco^aed. B*iihrs» won ics way. It 4
:? the ac*. ^t pat-vfugr «t SbOtok« taasht. penoe-eenjenx .
tie w^rr of the e- i p t r ss SeAo • >cr-6it »- At his c
ttw tr^Wes were btt*!* 1 . the ewmrry was rfrwnnr
r*v5er B »c ^.st prwaiSw Frescs w«e eoceungevf -a ■
arts «t roaj-au.»Lag and hr^e^-binZinBg; and staiicms were
seat Nc v>iai t» nvesrigiite tnc mtiAUrm of tie ^nuit at a
wrrcscri •*'urrrrji-je*i. f it »n 11 'k miiftllr rfT*iti ti m m~i
ajc /-rat ct tie Sii ss sects wenr tsxsoauced from dnsn. nl
T?rerx*v-. ami il ia«C ca tie teacMags at tie EaayTra ^ses>
I > tv tats Mr*e the ^rticagaanxsts » tie creoi kaa ienn m t |
C^»»e ami Runnrt teaches. But Sam dht *i jum ■ aw-
wa.-'i k wfwn S.Ct-* becune the penmaenr capicai at •* =ss=r«.
Tjruitese prr^t^ 41 li: ^ xtttiajpnce and pituoomi pwa.-* >Tprw
to TMir » Cuba ami brtng tience mniliftiii *Linia n jk
AM"iie*- c*ir*e*»t *Wre. k was tins thnc aAng7#damnt »» fcnj
Vccxtw ■*■» ^jn-vier rf t!re Tem±xi " ~~
tad aUco za^ai "-i-i;-L tint tpasde at tie :
wori\ Ojher sects -ciluweri. nnta '
sect? -9 nl wit. 1 * ' Jut ' i^rwgn uih w-ik Ik
wroerea tut lasiiibism rfers as :
'asm. Tierr a not a J
RELIGION]
of such magnitude as the Chinese scriptures of the Mahayana.
" The caooa is seven hundred times the amount of the New
Testament. Hsiaan Tsang's translation of the Prajna paramiia
b twenty-five times as large as the whole Christian Bible."
It is natural that out of such a mass of doctrine different
systems should be elaborated. The Buddhism that came to
Japan prior to the days of Dengyo daishi was that of the Vai*
pulya school, whkb seems to have been accepted in its entirety.
But the Tendai doctrines, introduced by Dengyo, Iikaku and
other fellow-thinkers, though founded mainly on the Saddkarma
ptmdariha, were subjected to the process of eclecticism which
all foreign institutions undergo at Japanese hands. Dengyo
studied it in the monastery of Tientai which " had been founded
towards the close of the 6th century of our era on a lofty range
of mountains in the province of Chehkiang by the celebrated
preacher Chikai " (Lloyd, " Developments of Japanese Budd-
hism," Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, vol, xxii.),
and carrying it to Japan he fitted its disciplinary and meditative
methods to the foundations of the sects already existing there.
This eclecticism was even more marked in the case of the
Shingon (true word) doctrines, taught by Dengy6's illustrious
contemporary, Kobo daishi, who was regarded as the incarnation
of Vairocana. He led his countrymen, by a. path almost wholly
his own* from the comparatively low platform of Htnayana
Buddhism, whose sole aim is individual salvation, to the Maha-
yana doctrine, which teaches its devotee to strive after perfect
enlightenment, not for his own sake alone, but also that he may
help his fellows and intercede for them. Then followed the
Jodo (Pure Land) sect, introduced in x 153 by a priest, Scnku,
who is remembered by later generations as Honen shonin.
He taught salvation by faith ritualistically expressed. The
virtue that saves comes, not from imitation of and conformity to
the person and character of the saviour Amida, but from blind
trust in his efforts and ceaseless repetition of pious formulae. It
is really a religion of despair rather than of hope, and in that
respect it reflects the profound sympathy awakened in the bosom
of its teacher by the sorrows and sufferings of the troublous
times in which he lived. '
A favourite pupil of Hdnen shSnin was Shinran (1x73-1262).'
He founded the Jodo Shinshu (true sect of jodo), commonly
called simply Shinshu and sometimes Monto, which subse-
quently became the most influential of Japanese sects, with its
splendid monasteries, the two Hongwana-ji in Kioto. The
differences between the doctrines of this sect and those of its
predecessors were that the former " divested itself of all meta-
physics "; knew nothing of a philosophy of religion, dispensed
with a multiplicity of acts of devotion and the keeping of many
commandments; did not impose any vows of celibacy or any
renunciation of the world, and simply made faith in Amida the
all in all. In modern days the Shinshu sect has been the most
progressive of all Buddhist, sects and has freely sent forth its
promising priests to study in Europe and America. Its devotees
make no use of charms or spells, which are common among the
followers of other sects. •
Anterior by a few years to that introduction of the Shinshu
was the Zen sect, which has three main divisions, the Rinzai
(1 168), the Sdto (1 223) and the Obaku (1650). This is essentially
a contemplative sect. Truth is reached by pure contemplation,
and knowledge can be transmitted from heart to heart without
the use of words. In that simple form the doctrine, was accepted
by the Rinzai believers. But the founders of the S6t6 branch —
Shdyo tahhi and Butsuji zenshi— added scholarship and re-
search to contemplation, and taught that the " highest wisdom
and the most perfect enlightenment are attained when all the
elements of phenomenal existence are recognized as empty, vain
and unreal." This creed played an important part in the
development of BushidO, and its priests have always been dis-
tinguished for erudition and indifference to worldly possessions.
Last but not least important among Japanese sects of Buddhism
is the Nichiren or Hokke, called after its founder, Nichiren
(1222-1282). It was based on the Saddkarma pundarika, and
it taught that there was only one- true Buddha—the moon in the
JAPAN 323
heavens— the other Bnddhas being like the moon reflected in
the waters, transient, shadowy reflections of the Buddha of
truth. It is this being who is the source of all phenomenal
existence, and in whom all phenomenal existence has its being.
The imperfect Buddhism teaches a chain of cause and effect;
true Buddhism teaches that the first link in this chain of cause
and effect is the Buddha of original enlightenment. When this
point has been reached true wisdom has at length been attained.
Thus the monotheistic faith of Christianity was virtually reached
in one God in whom all creatures " live, move and have their
being." It will readily be conceived that these varied doctrines
caused dissension and strife among the sects professing them.
Sectarian controversies and squabbles were nearly as prominent
among Japanese Buddhists as they were among European
Christians, but to the credit of Buddhism it has to be recorded
that the stake and the rack never found a place among its instru-
ments of self-assertion. On the other hand, during the wars
that devastated Japan from the 12th to the end of the x6th
century, many of the monasteries became military camps, and
the monks, wearing armour and wielding glaives, fought in
secular as well as religious causes.
The story of the first Christian missionaries to Japan is told else-
where (see I VIII. Foreign Intercourse). Their work suffered an
interruption for more than 200 years until, in 1858, chH*timaH*
almost, simultaneously with the conclusion of the r, ?r "f""^
treaties, a small band of Catholic fathers entered Japan "^1-
from the RiGkiQ islands, where they had carried on 1 ^^
their ministrations since 1846. They found that, in the neighbour-
hood of Nagasaki, there were some small communities where
Christian worship was still carried on. It would seem that these
communities had not been subjected to any severe official scrutiny.
But the arrival of the fathers revived the old question, and the
native Christians, or such of them as refused to apostatire, were
removed from their homes and sent into banishment. This was the
last example of religious intolerance in Japan. At the instance of
the foreign representatives in TdkyO the exiles were set at liberty
in 1873, and from that time complete freedom of conscience existed
in fact, though it was not declared by law until the promulgation of
the Awoyama Caku-in. The Baptists represent 4 American
societies; nave 60 missionaries, a theological seminary, an academy
for boys, boarding schools for girls, day schools and 3500 converts.
The Salvation Army, which old not enter Japan until 1895, has
organized 15 corps, and publishes ten thousand copies of a fort-
nightly magazine, the War Cry (Tolri no Koe). Finally, the Society
ofTriends, the American and London Religious Tract Societies and
the Young Men's Christian Association have a number of missions.
It will be seen from the above that the missionaries in Japan, in the
space of half a century (1858 to 1008), had won 110,000 converts,
in round numbers. To these must be added the Orthodox Russian
Church, which has a fine cathedral in T6ky6, a staff of about 40
Japanese priests and deacons and 27,000 converts, the whole
presided over by a bishop. Thus the total number, of converts
"4 JAPAN
ft* ** "37vOOO. In spite of the numerous sects represented in
f'Jy" Ine « has been virtually no sectarian strife, and it may be
»aia 01 the Japanese converts that they concern themselves scarcely
at all about the subtleties of dogma which divide European Chris-
nanny. Their tendency is to consider only the practical aspects of
the lauh as a moral and ethical guide. They are disposed, also, to
Sxfu: crcea \ to their own requirements just as they adapted
Buddhism, and this is a disposition which promises to grow.
VIII.— Foreign Intercourse
Foreign Intercourse in Early and Medieval rimes.— There can
be no doubt that commerce was carried on by Japan with
China and Korea earlier that the 8th century of the Christian
era, It would appear that from the very outset over-sea
trade was regarded as a government monopoly. Foreigners
were allowed to travel freely in the interior of the country
provided that they submitted their baggage for official in-
spection and made no purchases of weapons of war, but all
imported goods were bought in the first place by official ap-
praisers who subsequently sold them to the people at arbitrarily
fixed prices. Greater importance attached to the trade with
China under the Ashikagashoguns (14th, 15th and 1 6th centuries),
who were in constant need of funds to defray the cost ol inter-
minable military operations caused by civil disturbances. In
this distress they turned to the neighbouring empire as a source
from which money might be obtained. This idea seems to have
been suggested to the shogun Takauji by a Buddhist priest,
when he undertook the construction of the temple Tenryu-ji.
Two ships laden with goods were fitted out, and it was decided
that the enterprise should be repeated annually. Within a few
years after this development of commercial relations between
the two empires, an interruption occurred owing partly to the
overthrow of the Yuen Mongols by the Chinese Ming, and partly
to the activity of Japanese pirates and adventurers who raided
the coasts of China. The shogun* Yoshimitsu (1368-X394),
however, succeeded in restoring commercial intercourse, though
in order to effect his object he consented that goods sent from
Japan should bear the character of tribute and that he himself
should receive investiture at the hands of the Chinese emperor's
ambassador. The Nanking government granted a certain
number of commercial passports, and these were given by the
shogun to Ouchi, feudal chief of Cho-shu, which had long been
the principal port for trade with the neighbouring empire.
Tribute goods formed only a small fraction of a vessel's cargo:
the bulk consisted of articles which were delivered into the govern-
ment's stores in China, payment being received in copper cash.
It was from this transaction that the shogun derived a consider-
able part of his profits, for the articles did not cost him anything
originally, being either presents from the great temples and pro-
vincial governors or compulsory contributions from the house of
Ouchi. As for the gifts by the Chinese government and the goods
shipped in China, they were arbitrarily distributed among the
noble families in Japan at prices fixed by the shGgun's assessor.
Thus, so far as the shogun was concerned, these enterprises
could not fail to be lucrative. They also brought large profits
to the Ouchi family, for, in the absence of competition, the pro-
ducts and manufactures of each country found ready sale in
the markets of the other. The articles found most suitable in
China were swords, fans, screens, lacquer wares, copper and
agate, and the goods brought back to Japan were brocade and
other silk fabrics, ceramic productions, jade and fragrant woods.
The Chinese seem to have had a just appreciation of the wonder-
ful swords of Japan. At first they were willing to pay the
equivalent of 1 2 guineas for a pair of blades, but by degrees, as
the Japanese began to increase the supply, the price fell, and at
the beginning of the 16th century all the diplomacy of the Japan-
ese envoys was needed to obtain good figures for the large and
constantly growing quantity of goods that they took over by
way of supplement to the tribute. Buddhist priests generally
enjoyed the distinction of being selected as envoys, ior experi-
ence showed that their subtle reasoning invariably overcame
the economical scruples of the Chinese authorities and secured
a fine profit for their master, the shdgun. In the middle of the
[FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
16th century these tribute-bearing missions came to an end
with the ruin of the Ouchi family and the overthrow of the
Ashikaga shOguns, and they were never renewed.
Japan's medieval commerce with Korea was less ceremonious
than that with .China. No passports had to be obtained from
the Korean government. A trader was sufficiently
equipped when he carried a permit from the So
family, which held the island of Tsushima in fief.
Fifty vessels were allowed to pass yearly from ports in
Japan to the three Japanese settlements in Korea, little it
recorded about the nature of this trade, but it was rudely inter-
rupted by the Japanese settlers, who, offended at some arbitrary
procedure on the part of the local Korean authorities,
took up arms (ajd. 1510) and at first signally routed the
Koreans. An army from Seoul turned the tables, and the
Japanese were compelled to abandon the three settlements.
Subsequently the shogun's government — which had not been
concerned in the struggle— approached Korea with amicable
proposals, and it was agreed that the ringleaders of the raiders
should be decapitated and their beads sent to Seoul, Japan's
compliance with this condition affording, perhaps, a measure of
the value she attached to neighbourly friendship. Thenceforth
the number of vessels was limited to 25 annually and the settle-
ments were abolished, Some years later, the Japanese again
resorted to violent acts of self-assertion, and on this occasion,
although the offenders were arrested by order of the shogun
Yoshiharu, and handed over to Korea for punishment, the
Seoul court persisted in declining to restore the system of
settlements or to allow the trade to be resumed on its former
basis. Fifty years afterwards the taikd's armies invaded Korea,
overrunning it for seven years, and leaving, when they retired
in 1508, a country so impoverished that it no longer offered
any attraction to commercial enterprise from beyond the sea.
The Portuguese discovered Japan by accident m 1542 or 1545
— the exact date is uncertain. On a voyage to Macao from Siam,
a junk carrying three Portuguese was blown from tvx*
her course and fetched Tanegashima, a small nttim rwl
island lying south of the province of Satsuma. *■*■»
The Japanese, always hospitable and inquisitive, welcomed the
newcomers and showed special curiosity about the arquebuses
carried by the Portuguese, fire-arms being then a novelty in
Japan and all weapons of war being in great request. Conversa-
tion was impossible, of course, but, by tracing ideographs upon
the sand, a Chinese member of the crew succeeded in explaining
the cause of the junk's arrival. She was then piloted to a more
commodious harbour, and the Portuguese sold two arque-
buses to the local feudatory, who immediately ordered bis
armourer to manufacture similar weapons. Very soon the news
of the discovery reached all the Portuguese settlements in the
East, and at least seven expeditions were fitted out during the
next few years to exploit this new market. Their objective
points were all in the island of KiushiO— the principal stage where
the drama— ultimately converted into a tragedy — of Christian
propagandism and European commercial intercourse was acted
in the interval between 1542 and 1637.
It does not appear that the Jesuits at Macao, Goa or other
centres of Portuguese influence in the East took imw^fr^
advantage of the discovery of Japan. The pioneer Arrtnlmf
propagandist was Frands Xavier, who landed at **»*•■*■
Kagoshima on the 15th of August 1549. During the interval
of six (or seven) years that separated this event from the drifting
of the junk to Tanegashima, the Portuguese had traded freely
in the ports of KiushiO, had visited Kioto, and had reported
the Japanese capital to be a dty of 96,000 houses, therefore
larger than Lisbon. Xavier would certainly have gone to Japan
even though he had not been specially encouraged, for the
reports of his countrymen depicted the Japanese as "very
desirous of being instructed," and he longed to find a field more
promising than that inhabited by " all these Indian nations,
barbarous, vicious and without inclination to virtue." There
were, however, two special determinants. One was a request
addressed by a feudatory, supposed to have been the chief of the
POREICM INTERCOURSE
Bungo fief, to the viceroy of the Indies at Goa; the other, an
appeal made in person by a Japanese named Yajiro, whom the
fathers spoke of as Anjiro, and who subsequently attained
celebrity under his baptismal name, Pan! of the holy faith. No
credible reason is historically assigned for the action of the
Japanese feudatory. Probably fas curiosity had been excited
by account* which the Portuguese traders gave of the noble
devotion of their country's missionaries, and being entirely
without bigotry, as nearly all Japanese were at that epoch, he
issued the invitation partly out of curiosity and partly from a
sincere desire for progress. Anjiro's case was very different.
Labouring mnder stress of repentant teal, and fearful that his
evil acts might entail murderous consequences, he sought an
asylum abroad, and was taken away in 1548 by a Portuguese
vessel whose master advised him to repair to Malacca for the
purpose of confessing to Xavier. This might weU have seemed
to the Jesuits a providential dispensation, for Anjiro, already
able to speak Portuguese, soon mastered it sufficiently to inter-
pret for Xavier and bis fellow-missionaries- (without which aid
they must have remained long helpless in the face of the immense
difficulty of the Japanese language), and to this linguistic skill he
added extraordinary gifts of intelligence and memory. Xavier,
with two Portuguese companions and Anjiro, were excellently
received by the feudal chiefs of Satsuma and obtained permission
to preach their doctrine in any part of the fief. This permit is
not to be construed as an evidence of official sympathy with the
foreign creed. Commercial considerations alone were in ques-
tion. A Japanese feudal chief in that era had sedulously to
foster every source of wealth or strength, and as the newly
opened trade with the outer world seemed full of golden promise,
each feudatory was not less anxious to secure a monopoly of it
Id the 1 6th century than the Ashikaga shoguns had been in the
1 5th. The Satsuma darmyd was led to believe that the presence
of the Jesuits in Kagoshima would certainly prelude the advent
of trading vessels. But within * few months one of the expected
merchantmen sailed to Hirado without touching at Kagoshima,
and her example was followed by two others in the following
year, so that the Satsuma chief saw himself flouted for the sake
of a petty rival, Matsudaira of Hirado. This fact could not fail
to provoke his resentment. But there was another influence at
work. Buddhism has always been a tolerant religion, eclectic
rather than exclusive. Xavier, however, bad all the bigoted
intolerance of his time. The Buddhist priests in Kagoshima
received bim with courtesy and listened respectfully to the doc-
trines he expounded through the mouth of Anjiro. Xavier
rejoined with a display of aggressive intolerance which shocked
and alienated the Buddhists. They represented to the Satsuma
chief that peace and good order were inconsistent with such a
display of militant propagandism, and he, already profoundly
chagrined by his commercial disappointment, issued m 1550 an
edict making it a capital offence for any of his vassals to embrace
Christianity. Xavier, or, more correctly speaking, Anjiro, had
won 150 converts, who remained without molestation, but
Xavier himself took ship for Hirado. There he was received
with salvoes of artillery by the Portuguese merchantmen lying
in the harbour and with marks of profound respect by the
Portuguese traders, a display which induced the focal chief
to issue orders that courteous attention should be paid to the
teaching of the foreign missionaries. In ten days a hundred
baptisms took place; another significant index of the mood of the
Japanese in the early era of Occidental intercourse: the men
in authority always showed a complaisant attitude towards
Christianity where trade could be fostered by w doing, and
wherever the men in authority showed such an attitude, con*
siderable numbers of the lower orders embraced the foreign
faith. Thus, in considering the commercial history of the era, the
element of religion constantly thrusts itself into the foreground.
Xavier next resolved to visit Kioto. The first town of impor-
t+*t vimM tance he reached on the way was Yamaguchi, capital
trAmMn of the ChoshQ fief, situated on the northern shore
*> kuoo. ^ tJ|e shimonoseki Strait. There the feudal chief,
Oucbt* though sufficiently courteous and inquisitive, showed
JAPAN 325
no special cordiality towards humble missionaries unconnected
with commerce, and the work of proselytizing made no progress,
so that Xavier and his companion, Fernandez, pushed
on to Kioto. The time was mid-winter; the two fathers
suffered terrible privations during their journey of two
months on foot, and on reaching Kioto they found a city which
had been almost wholly reduced to ruins by internecine war.
Necessarily they failed to obtain audience of either emperor or
shogun, at 'that time the most inaccessible potentates in the
world, the Chinese " son of heaven " excepted, and nothing
remained but street preaching, a strange resource, seeing that
Xavier, constitutionally a bad linguist, had only a most rudimen-
tary acquaintance with the profoundly difficult tongue in which
he attempted to expound the mysteries of a novel creed. A
fortnight sufficed to convince him that Kioto was unfruitful
soil. He therefore returned to Yamaguchi. But he had now
learned a lesson. He saw that propagandism without scrip or
staff and without the countenance of those sitting in the seats of
power would be futile in Japan. So he obtained from Hirado-
his canonicals, together with a clock and other novel products
of European skill, which, as well as credentials from the viceroy'
of India, the governor of Malacca and the bishop of Coa, he
presented to the ChoshQ chief. His prayer for permission to
preach Christianity was now readily granted, and Ouchi issued
a proclamation announcing his approval of the introduction of
the new religion and according perfect liberty to embrace it.
Xavier and Fernandex now made many converts. They also
gained the valuable knowledge that tbe road to success in Japan-
lay in associating themselves with over-sea commerce and its
directors, and in thus winning the co-operation of the feudal
chiefs.
Nearly ten years had now elapsed since the first Portuguese
landed in Kagoshima, and during that time trade bad gone on
steadily and prosperously. No attempt was made 2"****
to find markets in the main island: the Portuguese Awjajaad!**
confined themselves to Kiushiu for two reasons: one, that having
no knowledge of the coasts, they hesitated to risk their ships and
their lives in unsurveyed waters; the other, that whereas the
main island, almost from end to end, was seething with inter-
necine war, KlushiO remained beyond the pale of disturbance
and enjoyed comparative tranquillity. At the time of Xavier's
second sojourn fn Yamaguchi, a Portuguese ship happened to be
visiting Bungo, and at its master's suggestion the great mission-
ary proceeded thither, with the intention of returning tempo-
rarily to the Indies. At Bungo there was then ruling Otomo,
second in power to only the Satsuma chief among the feuda-
tories of KJOshiu. By htm the Jesuit father- was received with
afl honour. Xavier did not now neglect the lesson he had learned
in Yamaguchi. He repaired to the Bungo chieftain's court,
escorted by nearly the whole of the Portuguese crew, gorgeously
bedizened, carrying their arms and with banners flying. Otomo,
a young and ambitious ruler, was keenly anxious to attract
foreign traders with their rich cargoes and puissant weapons of
war. Witnessing the reverence paid to Xavier by the Portu-
guese traders, he appreciated the importance of gaining the
goodwill of the Jesuits, and accordingly not only granted them
full freedom to teach and preach, but also enjoined upon his
younger brother, who, in the sequel of a sudden rebellion, had
succeeded to the lordship of Yamaguchi, the advisability of
extending protection to Torres and Fernandex, then sojourning
there. After some four months' stay in Bungo, Xavier set sail
for Goa in February 1552. . Death overtook him in the last
month of the same year.
Xavier's departure from Japan- marked the conclusion of
the first epoch of Christian propagandism. His sojourn in
Japan extended to 17 months. In that time he and his
coadjutors won about 760 converts. In Satsuma more than a
year's labour produced 150 believers. There Xavier had the
assistance of Anjiro to expound his doctrines. No language
lends itself with greater difficulty than Japanese to the dis-
cussion of theological questions. The terms necessary for such
a purpose are not current among laymen, and only by special
«6
study, which, it need scarcely be Mid* must be preluded by
an accurate acquaintance with the tongue itself, can a man
hope to become duly equipped for the task of exposition
and dissertation. It is open to grave doubt whether any
foreigner has ever attained the requisite proficiency. Leaving
Anjiro in Kagoshima to care for the converts made there,
Xavier pushed on to Hirado, where he baptised a hundred
Japanese in a few days. Now we have it on the authority of
Xavier himself that in this Hirado campaign " none of us knew
Japanese/' How then did they proceed ? " By reciting a semi-
Japanese volume " (a translation made by Anjiro of a treatise
from Xavier's pen) " and by delivering sermons, we brought
several over to the Christian cult." Sermons preached in Por-
tuguese or Latin to a Japanese audience on the island of Hirado
in the year 1550 can scarcely have attracted intelligent interest.
On his first visit to Yamaguchi, Xavier's means of access to the
understanding of his hearers was confined t« the rudimentary
knowledge of Japanese which Fernandez had been able to
acquire in 14 months, a period of study which, in modern times,
with all the aids now procurable, would not suffice to carry a
student beyond the margin of the colloquial. No converts were
won. The people of Yamaguchi probably admired the splendid
faith and devotion of these over-sea philosophers, but as for their
doctrine, it was unintelligible. In Kioto the same experience
was repeated, with an addition of much physical hardship.
But when the Jesuits returned to Yamaguchi in the early
autumn of 1551, they baptized 500 persons, including several
members of the military class. Still Fernandez with his broken
Japanese was the only medium for communicating the profound
doctrines of Christianity. It must be concluded that the
teachings of the missionaries produced much less effect than
the attitude of the local chieftain.
Only two missionaries, Torres and Fernandez, remained in
Japan after the departure of Xavier, but they were soon joined
Steoorf by three others. These newcomers landed at Kago-
p»rioJ*f shima and found that, in spite of the official veto
Cbrtttimm against the adoption of Christianity, the feudal chief
JJJJJT had lost nothing of his desire to foster foreign trade.
aaaatta * j wo years later, all the Jesuits in Japan were
assembled in Bungo. Their only church stood there; and they
had also built two hospitals. Local disturbances had compelled
them to withdraw from Yamaguchi, not, however, before their
violent disputes with the Buddhist priests in that town had
induced the feudatory to proscribe the foreign religion, as had
previously been done in Kagoshima. From Funai, the chief
town of Bungo, the Jesuits began in 1570 to send yearly reports
to their Generals in Rome. These reports, known as the A nnual
Letters, comprise some of the most valuable information available
about the conditions then existing in Japan. They describe a
state of abject poverty among the lower orders; poverty so cruel
that the destruction of children by their famishing parents
was an everyday occurrence, and in some instances choice had
to be made between cannibalism and starvation. Such suffer-
ing becomes easily intelligible when the fact is recalled that
Japan had been racked by civil war during more than 300
years, each feudal chief fighting for his own hand, to save
or to extend his territorial possessions. From these Annual
Letters it is possible also to gather a tolerably dear idea of
the course of events during the years immediately subsequent
to Xavier's departure. There was no break in the continuity of
the newly inaugurated foreign trade. Portuguese ships visited
Hirado as well as Bungo, and in those days their masters and
crews not only attended scrupulously to their religious duties,
but also showed such profound respect for the missionaries that
the Japanese received constant object lessons in the influence
wielded over the traders by the Jesuits. Thirty years later,
this orderly and reverential demeanour was exchanged for riotous
excesses such as had already made the Portuguese sailor a by-
word in China. But in the early days of intercourse with Japan
the crews of the merchant vessels seem to have preached Chris-
tianity by their exemplary conduct. Just as Xavier had been
Induced to visit Bungo by the anxiety of a ship-captain for
JAPAN (FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
Christian ministrations, to in. 1 $57 two of the lathers repaired
to Hirado in obedience to the solicitations of Portuguese sailors.
There the fathers, under the guidance of Vilela, seat brothers to
parade the streets ringing bells and chaunting litanies; they
organized bands of boys for the same purpose; they caused the
converts, and even children, to flagellate themselves at a model
of Mount Calvary, and they worked miracles, healing tbe sick
by contact with scourges or with a booklet in which Xavier had
written litanies and prayers. It may weU be imagined that such
doings attracted surprised attention in Japan. They were
supplemented by even more striking practices. For a sub-
feudatory of the Hirado chief, having been converted, showed
his zeal by destroying Buddhist temples and throwing down the
idols, thus inaugurating a campaign of violence destined to
mark the progress of Christianity throughout the greater part
of its history in Japan. There followed the overthrowing of a
cross in the Christian cemetery, the burning of a temple in the
town of Hirado, and a street riot, the sequel being that the
Jesuit fathers were compelled to return once more to Bungo.
It is essential to follow all these events, for not otherwise can a
clear understanding be reached as to the aspect* under which
Christianity presented itself originally to the Japanese. Tbe
Portuguese traders, reverent as was their demeanour towards
Christianity, did not allow their commerce to be interrupted
by vicissitudes of propagandism. They still repaired to Hirado,
and rumours of the wealth-begetting effects of their presence
having reached the neighbouring fief of Omura, its chief, Sumi-
tada, made overtures to the Jesuits in Bungo, offering a port
free from all dues for ten years, a large tract of land, a residence
for the missionaries and other privileges. The Jesuits hastened
to take advantage of this proposal, and no sooner did tbe news
reach Hirado than the feudatory of that island repented of having
expelled the fathers and invited them to return. But while they
hesitated, a Portuguese vessel arrived at Hirado, and the feudal
chief declared publicly that no need existed to conciliate the
missionaries, since trade went on without them. When thts a
became known in Bungo, Torres hastened to Hirado, was re-'
ceived with extraordinary honours by the crew of the vessel,
and at his instance she left the port, her master declaring that
" he could not remain in a country where they maltreated those
who professed tbe same religion as himself." Hirado remained
a closed port for some years, but ultimately the advent of three
merchantmen, which intimated their determination not to put
in unless the anti-Christian ban was removed, induced the feudal
chief to receive the Jesuits once more. This incident was
paralleled a few years later in the bland of Amakusa, where a
petty feudatory, in order to attract foreign trade, as the mission-
aries themselves frankly explain, embraced Christianity and
ordered all his vassals to follow his example; but when no Portu-
guese ship appeared, he apostatized, required his subjects to
revert to Buddhism and made the missionaries withdraw. In
fact, the competition for the patronage of Portuguese traders
was so keen that the Hirado feudatory attempted to burn several
of their vessels because they frequented the territorial waters
of his neighbour and rival, Sumitada. The latter became
a most stalwart Christian when his wish was gratified. He set
himself to eradicate idolatry throughout his fief with the strong
arm, and his fierce intolerance provoked results which ended in
the destruction of the Christian town at the newly opened free
port. Sumitada, however, quickly reasserted his authority,
and five years later (1 567), he took a step which bad far-reaching
consequences, namely, the building of a church at Nagasaki, in
order that Portuguese commerce might have a centre and tbe
Christians an assured asylum. Nagasaki was then a little
fishing village. In five years it grew to be a town of thirty
thousand inhabitants, and Sumitada became one of the richest
of the KiQshia feudatories. When in 1573 successful conflicts
with the neighbouring fiefs brought htm an access of territory,
he declared that he owed these victories to the influence of the
Christian God, and shortly afterwards he publicly proclaimed
banishment for all who would not accept the foreign faith.
There were then no Jesuits by his side, but immediately two
FOREIGN INTBRCOCKSEJ
hastened to Join Mm, and H these, accompanied by a strong
guard, but yet not without danger of their lives, went round
causing the churches of the Gentiles, with their idols, to be thrown
to the ground, while three Japanese Christians went preaching
the law of God everywhere. Three of us who were in the neigh-
bouring kingdoms all withdrew therefrom to work in this abun-
dant harvest, and in the space of seven months twenty thousand
persons were baptized, including the bonzes of about sixty
monasteries, except a few who quitted the State." In fiungo,
however, where the Jesuits were originally so well received,
it is doubtful whether Christian propagandism would not
have ended in failure but for an event which occurred in 1576,
namely, the conversion of the chieftain's son, a youth of some
16 years. Two years later Otomo himself came over to the
Christian faith. He rendered inestimable aid, not merely
within bis own fief, but also by the influence he exercised on
others. His intervention, supported by recourse to arms,
obtained for the Jesuits a footing on the island of Amakusa,
where one of the feudatories gave his vassals the choice of con*
version or exile, and announced to the Buddhist priests that
unless they accepted Christianity their property would be
confiscated and they themselves banished. Nearly the whole
population of the, 6ef did violence to their conscience for the
sake of their homes. Christianity was then becoming estab-
lished in Khlshiu by methods similar to those of Islam and the
inquisition. Another notable illustration is furnished by the
story of the Arima fief, adjoining that ot Sumitada (Omura),
where such resolute means had been adopted to force Christianity
upon the vassals. Moreover, the heads of the two fiefs were
brothers. Accordingly, at the time of Sumitada's very dramatic
conversion, the Jesuits were invited to Arima and encouraged
to form settlements at the ports of Kuchinotsu and Shimabara,
which thenceforth began to be frequented by Portuguese mer-
chantmen. The fief naturally became involved in the turmoil
resulting from Sumitada's iconoclastic methodsof propagandism;
but, in 1576, the then ruling feudatory, influenced largely by the
object lesson of Sumitada's prosperity and puissance, which
that chieftain openly ascribed to the tutelary aid of the Christian
deity, accepted baptism and became the " Prince Andrew " of
missionary records. It is written in those records that " the first
thing Prince Andrew did after his baptism was to convert the
chief temple of bis capital into a church, its revenues being
assigned for the maintenance of the building and the support of
the missionaries. He then took measures to have the same thing
done in the other towns of his fief, and he seconded the preachers
of the gospel so well in everything else that he could flatter
himself that he soon would not have one single idolater in his
states." Thus in the two years that separated his baptism
from his death, twenty thousand converts were won in Arima.
But his successor was an enemy of the alien creed. He ordered
the Jesuits to quit his dominions, required the converts to return
to their ancestral faith, and caused " the holy places to be
destroyed and the crosses to be thrown down." Nearly one-half
of the converts apostatized under this pressure, but others had
recourse to a device of proved potency. They threatened to
leave Kuchinotsu en masse, and as that would have involved
the loss of foreign trade, the hostile edict was materially modified.
To this same weapon the Christians owed a still more signal
victory. For just at that time the great ship from Macao, now
an annual visitor, arrived in Japanese waters carrying the
visitor-general, Valegnani. She put into Kuchinotsu, and her
presence, with its suggested eventualities, gave such satisfaction
that the feudatory offered to accept baptism and to sanction
its acceptance by his vassals. This did not satisfy Valegnani,
a man of profound political sagacity. He saw that the fief was
menaced by serious dangers at the hands of its neighbours, and
seizing the psychological moment of its extreme peril, he used
the secular arm so adroitly that the fief's chance of survival
seemed to be limited to the unreserved adoption of Christianity.
Thus, in 1580, the chieftain and his wife were baptized; " all the
city was made Christian; they burned their idols and destroyed
40 temples, reserving some materials to build charches."
JAPAN 227
Christian propagandism had now made substantial progress.
The Annual Utter of 158a recorded that at the close of 1581,
thirty-two years after the landing of Xavier in Japan, there were
about 150,000 converts, of whom some 125,000 were in KiQshiQ
and the remainder in Yamaguchi, Kioto and the neighbourhood
of the latter city. The Jesuits In the empire then numbered 75,
but down to the year 1563 there bad never been more than 9,
and down to 1 577, not more than 18. The harvest was certainly
great in proportion to the number of sowers. But it was a har-
vest mainly of artificial growth; forced by the despotic insistence
of feudal chiefs who possessed the power of life and death over
their vassals, and were influenced by a desire to attract foreign
trade. To the Buddhist priests this movement of Christian
propagandism had brought an experience hitherto unknown to
them, persecution on account of creed. They had suffered for
interfering in politics, but the fierce cruelty of the Christian-
fanatic now became known for the first time to men themselves
conspicuous for tolerance of heresy and receptivity of instruc-
tion. They had had no previous experience of humanity
in the garb of an Otomo of Bungo, who, in the words of Crasset,
" went to the chase of the bonzes as to that of wild beasts, and
made it his singular pleasure to. exterminate them from his
states."
In 1582 the first Japanese envoys tailed from Nagasaki for
Europe. The embassy consisted of four youths, the oldest not
more than 16, representing the fiefs of Arima, Omura mm
and Bungo. They visited Lisbon, Madrid and Rome, Japtmtm
and m all these cities they were received with Bmkaaay 1
displays of magnificence such as 16th century t * Bur ^ 9 »
Europe delighted to make. That, indeed, had been the motive
of Valegnani m organizing the mission: be desired to let the
Japanese see with their own eyes bow great were the riches and
might of Western states.
In the above statistics of converts at the dose of 1581 mention
is made of Christians in Kioto, though we have already seen that
the visit by Xavier and Fernandez to that city was s«aad
wholly barren of results. A second visit, however, Hwcet
made by Vilcla in 1550, proved more successful. *"*■
He carried letters of recommendation from the * o1 ""**
Bungo chieftain, and the proximate cause of his journey was an
invitation from a Buddhist priest in the celebrated monastery
of Hiei-ean, who sought information about Christianity. This
was before the razing of temples and the overthrow of idols had
commenced in Kiushift. On arrival at Hiei-zan, Vilcla found
that the Buddhist prior who had invited him was dead and that
only a portion of the old man's authority had descended to his
successor. Nevertheless the Jesuit obtained an opportunity to
expound his doctrines to a party of bonzes at the monastery.
Subsequently, through the good offices of a priest, described as
" one of the most respected men in the city," and with the assist-
ance of the Bungo feudatory's letter, Vilcla enjoyed the rare
honour of being received by the sbogun in Kioto, who treated
him with all consideration and assigned a house for his residence*
It may be imagined that, owing such a debt of gratitude to
Buddhist priests, Vilcla would have behaved towards them and
their creed with courtesy. But the Jesuit fathers were proof
against alt influences calculated to impair their stern sense of
duty. Speaking through the mouth of a Japanese convert,
Vilela attacked the bonzes in unmeasured terms and denounced
their faith. Soon the bonzes, on their side, were seeking the
destruction of these uncompromising assailants with insistence
inferior only to that which the Jesuits themselves would have
shown in similar circumstances. Against these perils Vilela
was protected by the goodwill of the sbogun, who had already
issued a decree threatening with death any one who injured the
missionaries or obstructed their work. In spite of all difficulties
and dangers these wonderful missionaries, whose courage, zeal
and devotion are beyond all eulogy, toiled on resolutely and even
recklessly, and such success attended their efforts that by 1564
many converts had been won and churches had been established
in five walled towns within a distance of 50 miles from Kioto.
Among the converts were two Buddhist priests, notoriouJy
228
hostile at the outset, who had been nominated as official
commissioners to investigate and report upon the doctrine of
Christianity. The first conversion en mass* was due to pressure
from above. A petty feudatory, Takayarna, whose fief lay at
Takatsuki in the neighbourhood of the capital, challenged Vilela
to a public controversy, the result of which was that the Japanese
acknowledged himself vanquished, embraced Christianity and
invited his vassals as well as his family to follow his example.
This man's son— Takayarna Yusho — proved one of the stanch-
es! supporters of Christianity in all Japan, and has been immor-
talized by the Jesuits under the name of Don Justo Ucondono.
Incidentally this event furnishes an index to the character
of the Japanese samurai: he accepted the consequences of
defeat at frankly as he dared it. In the same year (1564) the
feudatory of Sawa, a brother of Takayarna, became a Christian
and imposed the faith on all his vassals, just as Sumitada and
other feudal chiefs had done in Kiushiu. But the Kioto record
differs from that of Kiushiu in one important respect— the former
is free from any intrusion of commercial motives.
Kioto was at that time the scene of sanguinary tumults, which
culminated in the murder of the shogun (1565), and led to
lYnhmja the issue of a decree by the emperor proscribing
Mrffft* Christianity. In Japanese medieval history this
«*■"**• is one of the only two instances of Imperial inter-
ference with Christian propagandism. There is evidence that the
edict was obtained at the instance of one of the shogun 's assassin*
and certain Buddhist priests. The Jesuits— their number had
been increased to three — were obliged to take refuge in Sakai,
now little more than a suburb of Osaka, but at that time a great
and wealthy mart, and the only town in Japan which did not
acknowledge the sway of any feudal chief. Three years later
they were summoned thence to be presented to Oda Nobunaga,
one of the greatest captains Japan has ever produced. In the
very year of Xavier's landing at Kagoshima, Nobunaga had
succeeded to his father's fief, a comparatively petty estate in
the province of Owari. In 1568 he was seated in Kioto*, a
maker of shOguns and acknowledged ruler of 30 among the
66 provinces of Japan. Had Nobunaga, wielding such immense
power, adopted a hostile attitude towards Christianity, the fires
lit by the Jesuits in Japan must soon have been extinguished.
Nobunaga, however, to great breadth and liberality of view
added strong animosity towards Buddhist priests. Many of the
great monasteries had become armed camps, their inmates
skilled equally in field-attacks and in the defence of ramparts.
One sect (the Nidnren), which was specially affected by the
samurai, had lent powerful aid to the murderers of the shogun
three years before Nobunaga's victories carried him to Kioto,
and the armed monasteries constituted impcria in imperio which
assorted ill with his ambition of complete supremacy. He
therefore welcomed Christianity for the sake of its opposition
to Buddhism, and when Takayarna conducted Froez from Sakai
to Nobunaga's presence, the reception accorded to the Jesuit
was of the most cordial character. Throughout the fourteen
years of life that remained to him, Nobunaga continued to be
the constant friend of the missionaries in particular and of
foreigners visiting Japan in general He stood between the
Jesuits and the Throne when, in reply to an appeal from the
Buddhist priests, the e mp er or , for the second time, issued an
anti-Christian decree (1568); he granted a site for a church and
residence at Azachi on Lake Brwa, where his new fortress stood;
he addressed to various powerful feudatories letters signifying
a desire for the spread of Christianity; be frequently made
handsome presents to the fathers, and whenever they visited
him he showed a degree of accessibility and gradoosness very
foreign to his usually haughty and imperious demeanour. The
Jesuits themselves said of him: " This man seems to have been
chosen by God to open and prepare the way for our faith."
Nevertheless they do not appear to have entertained much hope
at any time of converting Nobunaga. They most have under-
stood that their doctrines had not made any profound impression
on a man who could treat them as this potentate did In 1570,
when be plainly showed that political esiftndts might at anv
JAPAN
(FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
moment induce him to sacrifice them. 1 His last act, too, proved
that sacrilege was of no account in his eyes, for he took steps to
have himself apotheosized at Axuchi with the utmost pomp and
circumstance. Still nothing can obscure the benefits he heaped
upon the propagandists of Christianity.
The terrible tumult of domestic war through which Japan
passed in the 15th and x6th centuries brought to her ser-
vice three of the greatest men ever produced *" truy—a
Occident or Orient. They were Oda Nobunaga, «■* ia»
Toyotomi Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Iyeyasu. fs**'*"
Hideyoshi, as Nobunaga's lieutenant, contributed largely to the
building of the latter 's fortunes, and, succeeding him in 158s,
brought the whole 66 provinces of the empire under his
own administrative sway. For the Jesuits now the absorbing
question was, what attitude Hideyoshi would assume towards
their propagandism. His power was virtually limitless. With
a word he could have overthrown the whole edifice created by
them at the cost of so much splendid effort and noble devotion.
They were very quickly reassured. In this matter Hideyoshi
walked in Nobunaga's footsteps. He not only accorded a
friendly audience to Father Organtino, who waited on him as
representative of the Jesuits, but also he went in person to assign
to the company a site for a church and a residence in Osaka,
where there was presently to rise the most massive fortress
ever built in the East. At that lime many Christian converts
were serving in high positions, and in 1584 the Jesuits placed it
on record that " Hideyoshi was not only not opposed to the things
of God, but he even showed that he made much account of them
and preferred them to all the sects of the bonzes. ... He is
entrusting to Christians his treasures, his secrets and his for-
tresses of most importance, and shows himself well pleased that
the sons of the great lords about him should adopt our customs
and our law." Two years later in Osaka he received with every
mark of cordiality and favour a Jesuit mission which had come
from Nagasaki seeking audience, and on that occasion his
visitor recorded that he spoke of an intention of christianising
one half of Japan. Nor did Hideyoshi confine himself to words.
He actually signed a patent licensing the missionaries to preach
throughout all Japan, and exempting not only their houses and
churches from the billeting of soldiers but also the priests them-
selves from local burdens. This was in 1586, on the eve of
Hideyoshi's greatest military enterprise, the invasion of KfQshra
and its complete reduction. He carried that difficult campaign
to completion by the middle of 1587, and throughout its course
he maintained a uniformly friendly demeanour towards the
Jesuits. But suddenly, when on the return journey he reached
Hakata in the north of the island, his policy underwent a radical
metamorphosis. Five questions were by his order propounded
to the vice-provincial of the Jesuits: " Why and by what autho-
rity he and his fellow-propagandists had constrained Japanese
subjects to become Christians? Why they had induced their
disciples and their sectaries to overthrow temples? Why
they persecuted the bonzes? Why they and other Portuguese
ate animals useful to men, such as oxen and cows? Why the
vice-provincial allowed merchants of his nation to buy Japanese
to make slaves of them in the Indies?" To these queries
Cbelho, the vice-provincial, made answer that the missionaries
had never themselves resorted, or incited, to violence in their
propagandism or persecuted bonzes; that if their eating of beef
were considered inadvisable, they would give up the practice;
and that they were powerless to prevent or restrain the outrages
perpetrated by their countrymen.- Hideyoshi read the vice-
provincial's reply and, without comment, sent him word to
retire to Hirado, assemble all his followers there, and quit the
country within six months. On the next day (July 25, 1587)
the following edict was published: —
*The problem was to induce the co-operation of a feudatory
whose castle served for frontier guard to the fieJ of a powerful chief,
his suzerain. The feudatory was a Christian. Nobunaga seised
the Jesuits in Kioto, and threatened to suppress their religion
altogether unless they persuaded the feudatory to a b a n do n the
i cause of ms suzerain.
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE)
" Having learned from our faithful councillors that foreign priests
have come into our estates, where they preach a law contrary to
that of Japan, and that they even had the audacity to destroy
temples dedicated to our Kami and Hotolce; although the outrage
menu the most extreme punishment, wishing nevertheless to show
them mercy, we order tnem under pain of death to quit Japan
within twenty days. During that space no harm or hurt will be
done to them. But at the expiration of that term, we order that
if any of them be found in our states, they should be seized and
punished as the greatest criminals. As for the Portuguese mer-
chants, we permit them to enter our ports, there to continue their
accustomed trade, and to remain in our states provided oar affairs
need this. But we forbid them to bring any foreign priests into the
country, under the penalty of the confiscation of their ships and
goods/
How are we to account for this apparently rapid change of
mood on the part of Hideyoshi? Some historians insist that
from the very outset he conceived Lhe resolve of suppressing
Christianity and expelling its propagandists, but that he con-
cealed his design pending the subjugation of KiOshiQ, lest, by
premature action, he might weaken his hand for that enterprise.
This hypothesis rests mainly on conjecture. Its forroulators
found k easier to believe in a hidden purpose than to attribute to
a statesman so shrewd and far-seeing a sudden change of mind.
A more reasonable theory is that, shortly before leaving Osaka
for KiQshiu, Hideyoshi began to entertain doubts as to the
expediency of tolerating Christian propagandism, and that his
doubts were signally strengthened by direct observation of the
state of affairs in KiOshiQ. While still in Osaka, he one day
remarked publicly that " he feared much that all the virtue of
the European priests served only to conceal pernicious designs
against the empire. 1 ' There bad been no demolishing of temples
or overthrowing of images at Christian instance in the metro-
politan provinces. In KiOshiQ, however, very different condi-
tions prevailed. There Christianity may be said to have been
preached at the point of the sword. Temples and images had
been destroyed wholesale; vassals in thousands had been com-
pelled to embrace the foreign faith; and the missionaries them-
selves had come to be treated as demi-gods whose nod was
worth conciliating at any cost of self-abasement. Brought into
direct contact with these evidences of the growth of a new power,
temporal as well as spiritual, Hideyoshi may well have reached
the conclusion that a choice had to be finally made between his
own supremacy and that of the alien creed, if not between the
independence of Japan and the yoke of the great Christian
states of Europe.
Hideyoshi gauged the character of the medieval Christians
with sufficient accuracy to know that for the sake of their
St^mdot faith they would at any time defy the laws of
th* Edict the island. His estimate received immediate vert-
ofB*ahh- fication, for when the Jesuits, numbering 120,
mtoL assembled at Hirado and received his order to
embark at once they decided thai only those should sail whose
services were needed in China. The others remained and
went about their duties as usual, under the protection
of the converted feudatories. Hideyoshi, however, saw
reason to wink at this disregard of his authority. At first
he showed uncompromising resolution. All the churches in
Kioto, Osaka and Sakai were demolished, while troops were sent
to raze the Christian places of worship in KiQshiu and seize the
port of Nagasaki. These troops were munificently dissuaded
from their purpose by the Christian feudatories. But Hide*
yoahi did not protest, and in 1588 he allowed himself to be con-
vinced by a Portuguese envoy that in the absence of missionaries
foreign trade must cease, since without the intervention of the
fathers peace and good order could not be maintained among the
merchants. Rather than suffer the trade to be interrupted
Hideyoshi agreed to the coming of priests, and thenceforth,
during some years, Christianity not only continued to flourish
and grow in KiQshiu but also found a favourable field of opera-
tions in Kioto itself. Care was taken that Hideyoshi's attention
should not be attracted by any salient evidences of what he had
called a " diabolical religion," and thus for a time all went well.
ThettkevidencA that, like: thefcud^cmeisin KiQshiu, Hideyoshi
JAPAN 229
set great store by foreign trade and would even have sacri-
ficed to its main t enance and expansion something of the aversion
be had conceived for Christianity. He did indeed make one
very large concession. For on being assured that Portuguese
traders could not frequent Japan unless they found Christian
priests there to minister to them, he consented to sanction the
presence of a limited number of Jesuits. The statistics of 159s
show how Christianity fared under even this partial tolerance,
for there were then 137 Jesuits in Japan with 300,000 converts,
among whom were 17 feudal chiefs, to say nothing of many men
o{ lesser though still considerable note, and even not a few
bonzes.
For ten, years after his unlooked-for order of expulsion, Hide*
yoshi preserved a tolerant mien. But in 1597 his forbearance
gave place to a mood of uncompromising severity. ^ 9rrwWt
The reasons of this second change are very clear, nmrni
though diverse accounts have been transmitted. A*****
Up to 1593 the Portuguese had possessed a monopoly 2S3tai«r
of religious propagandism and over-sea commerce in
Japan. The privilege was secured to them by agreement
between Spain and Portugal and by a papal bull. But
the Spaniards in Manila had long looked with somewhat
jealous eyes on this Jesuit reservation, and when news of
the disaster of 1587 reached the Philippines, the Dominicans
and Franciscans residing there were fired with zeal to enter
an arena where the crown of martyrdom seemed to be
the least reward within reach. The papal bull, however,
demanded obedience, and to overcome that difficulty a ruse was
necessary: the governor of Manila agreed to send a party of
Franciscans as ambassadors to Hideyoshi. In that guise the
friars, being neither traders nor propagandists, considered that
they did not violate either the treaty or the bull. It was a
technical subterfuge very unworthy of the object contemplated,
and the friars supplemented it by swearing to Hideyoshi that
the Philippines would submit to his sway. Thus they obtained
permission to visit Kioto, Osaka and Fushimi, but with the
explicit proviso that they must not preach. Very soon they
had built a church in Kioto, consecrated it with the utmost
pomp, and were preaching sermons and chaunting litanies there
in flagrant defiance of Hideyoshi's veto. Presently their number
received an access of three friars who came bearing gifts from
the governor at Manila, and now they not only established a
convent in Osaka, but also seized a Jesuit church in Nagasaki
and converted the circumspect worship hitherto conducted
there by the fathers into services of the most public character.
Officially checked in Nagasaki, they charged the Jesuits in Kioto
with having intrigued to impede them, and they further vaunted
the courageous openness of their own ministrations as compared
with the clandestine timidity of the methods which wise pru-
dence had induced the Jesuits to adopt. Retribution would
have followed quickly had not Hideyoshi's attention been
engrossed by an attempt to invade China through Korea. At
this stage, however, a memorable incident occurred. Driven
out of her course by a storm, a great and richly laden Spanish
galleon, bound for, Acapulco from Manila, drifted to the coast
of Tosa province, and running — or being purposely run — on a
sand-bank as she was being towed into port by Japanese boats,
broke her back. She carried goods to the value of some 600,000
crowns, and certain officials urged Hideyoshi to confiscate her
as derelict, conveying to him at the same time a detailed account
of the doings of the Franciscans and their open flouting of his
orders. Hideyoshi, much incensed, commanded the arrest of
the Franciscans and despatched officers to Tosa to confiscate
the " San Felipe." The pilot of the galleon sought to intimidate
these officers by showing them on a map of the world the vast
extent of Spain's dominions, and being asked how one country
had acquired such extended sway, replied: " Our kings begin
by sending into the countries they wish to conquer missionaries
who induce the people to embrace our religion, and when they
have made considerable progress, troops arc sent who combine
with the new Christians, and then our kings have not much
trouble in accomplishing the rest."
330
On teaming of tMs speech Hideyoshi was overcome with fury.
He condemned the Franciscans to have their noses and ears
fatlww cut off, to be promenaded through Kioto, Osaka
0*mtfte>«/and Sakai, and to be crucified at Nagasaki. " I
Clifcitaai oavc ordered these foreigners to be treated thus,
because they have come from the Philippines to Japan, calling
themselves ambassadors, although they were not so; because
they have remained here far too long without my permission;
because, in defiance of my prohibition, they have built churches,
preached their religion and caused disorders." Twenty-six
suffered under this sentence — six Franciscans, three Japanese
Jesuits and seventeen native Christians, chiefly domestic ser-
vants of the Franciscans. 1 They met their fate with noble
fortitude. Hideyoshi further issued a special injunction against
the adoption of Christianity by a feudal chief, and look steps to
give practical effect to bis expulsion edict of 1 587. The governor
of Nagasaki received instructions to send away all the Jesuits,
? emitting only two or three to remain for the service of the
ortuguese merchants. But the Jesuits were not the kind of
men who, to escape personal peril, turn their back upon an
unaccomplished work of grace. There were 1 25 of them in Japan
tt that time. In October 1507 a junk sailed out of Nagasaki
harbour, her decks crowded with seeming Jesuits. In reality
the carried 11 of the company, the apparent Jesuits being dis-
guised sailors. It is not to be supposed that such a manoeuvre
could be hidden from the local authorities. They winked at it,
until rumour became insistent that Hideyoshi was about to visit
KiushiQ in person, and all Japanese in administrative posts
knew how Hideyoshi visited disobedience and how hopeless was
§ny attempt to deceive him. Therefore, early in 1508, really
drastic steps were taken. Churches to the number of 137 were
demolished in KiQshiQ, seminaries and residences fell, and the
governor of Nagasaki assembled there all the fathers of the
company for deportation to Macao by the great ship in the
following year. But while they waited, Hideyoshi died. It is
not on record that the Jesuits openly declared his removal from
the earth to have been a special dispensation in their favour.
But they pronounced him an execrable tyrant and consigned his
** soul to hell for all eternity." Yet no impartial reader of
history can pretend to think that a 16th-century Jesuit general
In Hideyoshi's place would have shown towards an alien creed
and its propagandists even a small measure of the tolerance
exercised by the Japanese statesman towards Christianity and
the Jesuits.
Hideyoshi's death occurred In 1598. Two years later, his
authority as administrative ruler of all Japan had passed into
ftfvfci the hands of Iyeyasu, the Tokugawa chief, and thirty-
Pm»cy •/!*• nine years later the Tokugawa potentates had not
JjAjf^wa only exterminated Christianity in Japan but had
"""i* «Uo condemned their country to a period of interna-
tional Isolation which continued unbroken until 1853, an inter-
val of 114 years. It has been shown that even when they were
most incensed against Christianity, Japanese administrators
sought to foster and preserve foreign trade. Why then did they
dose the country's doors to the outside world and suspend a
commerce once so much esteemed? To answer that question
some retrospect is needed. Certain historians allege that from
the outset Iyeyasu shared Hideyoshi's misgivings about the real
designs of Christian potentates and Christian propagandists.
But that verdict is not supported by facts. The first occasion
of the Tokugawa chiefs recorded contact with a Christian propa-
gandist was less than three months after Hideyoshi's death.
There was then led into his presence a Franciscan, by name
Jerome de Jesus, originally a member of the fictitious embassy
from Manila. This man's conduct constitutes an example of
the invincible xeal and courage inspiring a Christian priest in
those days. Barely escaping the doom of crucifixion which
overtook his companions, he had been deported from Japan to
1 The mutilation was confined to the lobe of one ear. Crucifixion,
according to the Japanese method, consisted in tying to a cross and
piercing the heart with two sharp spears driven from either side.
Death was always instantaneous.
JAPAN
(FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
Manila at a time when death seemed to be the certain penalty of
remaining . But no sooner had be been landed at Manila than he
took passage in a Chinese junk, and, returning to Nagasaki, made
his way secretly from the far south of Japan to the province of
Kii. There arrested, he was brought into the presence of
Iyeyasu, and his own record of what ensued is given in a letter
subsequently sent to Manila:—
" When the Prince saw me he asked how I had managed to escape
the previous persecution. I answered him that at that date God had
delivered roe in order that I might so to Manila and bring back new
colleagues from there— preachers of the divine law— and that I had
returned from Manila to encourage the Christians, cherishing the
desire to die on the cross in order to go to enjoy eternal glory like
my former colleagues. On hearing these words the Emperor began
to smile, whether in his quality of a pagan or the sect of Shaka,
which teaches that there is no future life, or whether from the thought
that I was frightened at having to be put to death. Then, looking
at me kindly, he said, * Be no longer afraid and no longer conceal
yourself, and no longer change your habit, for 1 wish you well; and
as for the Christians who every year pass within sight of the KwantO
where my domains arc, when they go to Mexico with their ships,
1 have a keen desire for them to visit the harbours of this island, to
refresh themselves there, and to take what they wish, to trade with
my vassals and to teach them how to develop silver mines; and that
my intentions may be accomplished before my death, 1 wish you to
indicate to me the means to take to realize them. I answered that
it was necessary that Spanish pilots should take the soundings of
his harbours, so that ships might not be lost in future as the 'San
Felipe ' had been, and that he should solicit this service from the
governor of the Philippines. The Prince approved of my advice,
and accordingly he has sent a Japanese gentleman, a native of Sakai,
the bearer oftnis message. ... It is essential to oppose no obstacle
to the complete liberty offered by the Emperor to the Spaniards and
to our holy order, for the preaching of the holy gospel. . . . The
same Prince (who is about to visit the K want 6) invites me to accom-
pany him to make choice of a house, and to visit the harbour whicb
he promises to open to us; his desires in this respect arc keener than
1 can express."
The above version of the Tokugawa chiefs mood is confirmed
by events, for not only did he allow the contumelious Franciscan
to build a church— the first— in Yedo and to celebrate Mass there,
but also he sent three embassies to the Philippines, proposing
reciprocal freedom of commerce, offering to open ports in
the Kwantd and asking for competent naval architects. He
never obtained the architects, and though the trade came, its
volume was small in comparison with the abundance of friars
that accompanied it. There is just a possibility that Iyeyasu
saw in these Spanish monks an instrument of counteracting
the influence of the Jesuits, for he must have known that the
Franciscans opened their mission in Ycdo by " declaiming with
violence against the fathers of the company of Jesus." In
short, the Spanish monks assumed towards the Jesuits in Japan
the same intolerant and abusive tone that the Jesuits, themselves
had previously assumed towards Buddhism.
At that time there appeared upon the scene another factor
destined greatly to complicate events. It was a Dutch merchant
ship, the "Liefde." Until the Netherlands revolted from
Spain, the Dutch had been the principal distributors of all goods
arriving at Lisbon from the Far East ; but in 1 504 Philip II. closed
the port of Lisbon to these rebels, and the Dutch met the situa-
tion by turning their prows to the Orient to invade the sources
of Portuguese commerce. One of the first expeditions despatched
for that purpose set out in 1 508, and of the five vessels composing
it one only was ever heard of again. This was the " Liefde."
She reached Japan during the spring of 1600, with only four-
and-twenty alive out of her original crew of no. Towed into
the harbour at Funai, the " Liefde " was visited by Jesuits, who,
on discovering her nationality, denounced her to the local
authorities as a pirate and endeavoured to incense the Japanese
against them. The M Liefde " had on board in the capacity of
" pilot major " an Englishman. Will Adams of Gillingham in
Kent, whom Iyeyasu summoned to Osaka, where there com-
menced between the rough British sailor and the Tokugawa chief
a curiously friendly intercourse which was not interrupted until
the death of Adams twenty years later. The Englishman became
master ship-builder to the Yedo government; was employed as
diplomatic agaot when other traders from his own country
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE)
and from Holland arrived in Japan, received in perpetual gift
a substantial estate, and from first to last possessed the implicit
confidence of the shogun. Iyeyasu quickly discerned the man's
honesty, perceived that whatever benefits foreign commerce
might confer would be increased by encouraging competition
among the foreigners, and realized that English and Dutch
trade presented the wholesome feature of complete dissociation
from religious propagandists. On the other hand, he showed
bo intolerance to either Spaniards or Portuguese. He issued
(1601) two official patents sanctioning the residence of the fathers
in Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki; he employed Father Rodriguez as
interpreter to the court at Yedo; and in 1603 he gave munificent
succour to the Jesuits who were reduced to dire straits owing to
the capture of the great ship from Macao by the Dutch and
the consequent loss of several years' supplies for the mission in
Japan.
It is thus seen that each of the great trio of Japan's 16th-cen-
tury statesmen — Nobunaga, Hidcyoshi and Iyeyasu— adopted
at the outset a most tolerant demeanour towards Christianity.
The reasons of Hideyoshi's change of mood have been set forth.
We nave now to examine the reasons that produced a similar
metamorphosis in the case of Iyeyasu. Two causes present
themselves immediately. The first is that, while tolerating
Christianity. Iyeyasu did not approve of it as a creed; the second,
thai he himself, whether from state policy or genuine piety,
strongly encouraged Buddhism. Proof of the former proposi-
tion is found in an order issued by him in 1602 to insure the
safety of foreign merchantmen entering Japanese ports: it
concluded with the reservation, " but wc rigorously forbid
them " (foreigners coming in such ships) " to promulgate their
faith " Proof of the latter is furnished by the facts that he
invariably carried about with him a miniature Buddhist image
which be regarded as his tutelary deity, and that he fostered
the creed of Shaka as zealously as Oda Nobunaga had suppressed
it. There b much difficulty in tracing the exact sequence of
events which gradually educated a strong antipathy to the
Christian faith in the mind of the Tokugawa chief. He must
have been influenced in some degree by the views of his great
predecessor, Hidcyoshi. But he did not accept those views
implicitly. At the end of the 161 h century he sent a trusted
emissary to Europe for the purpose of directly observing the
conditions in the borne of Christianity, and this man, the better
to achieve his aim, embraced the foreign faith, and studied it
from within as well as from without. The story ilia I he had to
tell on his return could not fail to shock the ruler of a country
where freedom of conscience had existed from time immemorial.
It was a story of the inquisition and of the slake, of unjimiicd
aggression in the name of the cross; of the pope's overlotdship
which entitled him to confiscate the realm of heretical sovereigns;
of religious wars and of wellnigh incredible fanaticism. Iyeyasu
must have received an evil impression while he listened to his
emissary's statements. Under his own eyes, too, were abundant
evidences of the spirit of strife that Christian dogma engendered
in those times. From the moment when the Franciscans and
Dominicans arrived in Japan, a fierce quarrel began between
them and the Jesuits; a quarrel which even community of
suffering could not compose. Not less repellent was an at tempt
on the part of the Spaniards to dictate to Iyeyasu the expulsion
of all Hollanders from Japan, and on the part of the Jesuits to
dictate the expulsion of the Spaniards. The former proposal,
couched almost in the form of a demand, was twice formulated,
and accompanied on the second occasion by a scarcely less
insulting offer, namely, that Spanish men-of-war would be sent
to Japan to burn all Dutch ships found in the ports of the empire.
If in the face of proposals so contumelious of his sovereign
authority Iyeyasu preserved a calm and dignified mien, merely
replying that his country was open to all comers, and that, if
other nations had quarrel* among themselves, they must not
take Japan for battle-giound, it is nevertheless unimaginable
that he did not strongly resent such interference with his own
independent foreign policy, and that he did not interpret
it aa foreshadowing a disturbance of the realm's peace by sco
JAPAN 231
tarian quarrels among Christians. These experiences, predis-
posing Iyeyasu to dislike Christianity as a creed and to distrust
it as a political influence, were soon supplemented by incidents
of an immediately determinative character. The first was an
act of fraud and forgery committed in the interests of a Christian
feudatory by a trusted official, himself a Christian. Thereupon
Iyeyasu, conceiving it unsafe that Christians should fill offices
at his court, dismissed'all those so employed, banished them from
Yedo and forbade any feudal chief to harbour them. The second
incident was an attempted survey of the coast of Japan by a
Spanish mariner and a Franciscan friar. Permission to take
this step had been obtained by an envoy from New Spain, but
no deep consideration of reasons seems to have preluded the per-
mission on Japan's side, and when the mariner (Sebastian) and
the friar (Sotelo) hastened to carry out the project, Iyeyasu
asked Will Adams to explain this display of industry. The
Englishman replied that such a proceeding would be regarded
in Europe as an act of hostility, especially on the part of the
Spaniards or Portuguese, whose aggressions were notorious. He
added, in reply to further questions, that " the Roman priest-
hood had been expelled from many parts of Germany, from
Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Holland and England, and that
although his own country preserved the pure form of the
Christian faith from which Spain and Portugal had deviated,
yet neither English nor Dutch considered that that fact afforded
them any reason to war with, or to annex, States which were
not Christian solely for the reason that they were non-Christian."
Iyeyasu reposed entire confidence in Adams. Hearing the
Englishman's testimony, he is said to have exclaimed, "If
the sovereigns of Europe do not tolerate these priests, I do
them no wrong if I refuse to tolerate them." Japanese
historians add that Iyeyasu discovered a conspiracy on the
part of some Japanese Christians to overthrow his government
by the aid of foreign troops. It was not a widely ramified
plot, but it lent additional importance to the fact that the
sympathy of the fathers and their converts was plainly with
the only magnate in the empire who continued to dispute the
Tokugawa supremacy, Hidcyori, the son of Hidcyoshi. Never*
thclcss Iyeyasu shrank from proceeding to extremities in the
case of any foreign priest, and this attitude he maintained until
his death (1616). Possibly he might have been not less tolerant
towards native Christians also had not the Tokugawa authority
been openly defied by a Franciscan father — the Sotelo mentioned
above — in Yedo Itself. Then ( 1613) the first execution of Japan*
ese converts took place, though the monk himself was released
after a abort incarceration. At that time, as is still the case
even in these more enlightened days, insignificant differences of
custom sometimes induced serious misconceptions, A Christian
who had violated the secular law was crucified in Nagasaki.
Many of his fellow-believers kneeled around hts cross and prayed
for the peace of his soul. A party of converts were afterwards
burned to death in the same place for refusing to apostatize,
and their Christian friends crowded to carry off portions of their
bodies aa holy relics. When these things were reported to
Iyeyasu, be said, " Without doubt that must be a diabolic faith
whkh persuades people not only to worship criminals condemned
to death for their crimes, but also to honour those who have
been burned or cut Id pieces by the order oi their lord " (feudal
chief).
The fateful edict ordering that all foreign priests should be
collected in Nagasaki preparatory to removal from Japan, that
all churches should be demolished, and that the Sappcenfta
converts should be compelled to abjure Christianity, 0/
was issued on the 17th of January 1614. There were G»-*tf»»Hr,
then in Japan xaa Jesuits, 14 Franciscans, 9 Dominicans,
4 Augustins and 7 secular priests. Had these men obeyed the
orders of the Japanese authorities by leaving the country finally,
not one foreigner would have suffered for his faith in Japan,
except the 6 Franciscans executed at Nagasaki by order of
Hidcyoshi in t 597. But suffering and death counted for nothing
with the missionaries as against the possibility of winning or
keeping even, one convert* Forty -seven of tbem evaded the
•3*
•diet, some by concealing themselves at the time of Its Issue, the
lest by leaving their ships when the latter had passed out of sight
of the shore of Japan, and returning by boats to the scene of
their former labours. Moreover, in a few months, those that
had actually crossed the sea re-crossed it in various disguises,
and soon the Japanese government had to consider whether it
would suffer its authority to be thus flouted or resort to extreme
During two years immediately following the issue of the anti-
Cbristiui decree, the attention of the Tokugawa chief and in-
deed of all Japan was concentrated on the closing episode of
the great struggle which assured to Iyeyasu final supremacy as
aAsuoistrative ruler of the empire. That episode was a terrible
battle usxkr the walls of Osaka castle between the adherents
at the T*koc»va and the supporters of Hideyori. In .this
straggle ftcsh fuel was added to the fire of anti-Christian resent-
tats*. for snany Christian converts threw in their lot with Hide-
von. ami ■* oae part of the field the Tokugawa troops found
tVrmseNes agbtfef against a foe whose banners were emblazoned
wit* the cross and with images of the Saviour and St James, the
patron sntfeft of Spam. But the Christians had protectors.
3d Any of tb* feudatories showed themselves strongly averse from
i»»<hvfttg the eatrense penalty on men and women whose adop-
tion <>t an .ilka rebgioo had been partly forced by the feudatories
ttatfcwKea* As tor the people at large, their liberal spirit is
•i'.'^cU ^v the fact that five fathers who were in Osaka castle
m t*« v>*c of its capture made their way to distant refuges
w u >nhm «*rouftteriag any risk of betrayal. During these events
i!k- .tvxitbt et lye>asu took place (June i, 1616), and pending the
oVttv.it km «f his mausoleum the anti-Christian crusade was
vmuAiN' suspended.
li Number 1616 a new anti-Christian edict was promulgated
by HKictada* son and successor of Iyeyasu. It pronounced
wotec*.* of exile against all Christian priests, including even
ttvn* whose presence had been sanctioned for ministering to the
Portuguese merchants: it forbade the Japanese, under the
penalty of being burned alive and of having all their property
wWdted* to have any connexion with the ministers of religion
or tv> give them hospitality. It was forbidden to any prince or
lord to keep Christians in his service or even on bis estates, and
the edict was promulgated with more than usual solemnity,
though its enforcement was deferred until the next year on
acvount of the obsequies of Iyeyasu. This edict of 1 616 differed
from that issued by Iyeyasu in 1614, since the latter did not
prescribe the death penalty for converts refusing to apostatize.
But both agreed in indicating expulsion as the sole manner of
dealing with the foreign priests. As for the shogun and his
ad\ bers, it is reasonable to assume that they did not anticipate
miK h necc&sity for recourse to violence. They must have known
that a great majority of the converts had joined the Christian
church at the instance or by the command of their local rulers,
aiul nothing can have seemed less likely than that a creed thus
fcghily embraced would be adhered to in defiance of torture and
death. It is moreover morally certain that had the foreign
|trop*f«ndists obeyed the Government's edict and left the
country* not one would have been put to death. They suffered
bevau* they defied the laws of the land. Some fifty mission-
aiiv* happened to be in Nagasaki when Hidetada's edict was
iMucd. A number of these were apprehended and deported,
but several of them returned almost immediately. This hap-
pened under the jurisdiction of Oraura, who had been specially
charged with the duty of sending away the baUren (padres). He
appears to have concluded that a striking example must be fur-
nwhed. and he therefore ordered the seizure and decapitation
«4 two fathers, De 1' Assumpcion and Machado. The. result
completely falsified his calculations, and presaged the cruel
at niggle now* destined to begin.
I he bodies, placed in different coffins, were interred in the same
mt,w< Guard* were placed over it, but the concourse was immense.
1 h* »k k were carried to the sepulchre to be restored to health. The
1 hi tMMii* found new strength in this martyrdom; the pagans them-
M'Kot wvre full of admiration for it. Numerous conversions and
ntm«rvM» returns of apostates took place everywhere.
JAPAN [FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
In the midst of all this, Navarette, the vice-provincial of the
Dominicans, and Ayala, the vice-provincial of the Augustins,
came out of their retreat, and in full priestly garb started upoo
an open propaganda. The two fanatics— for so even Charlevoix
considers them to have been — were secretly conveyed to the
island Takashima and there decapitated, while their coffins
were weighted with big stones and sunk in the sea. Even more
directly defiant was the attitude of the next martyred priest,
an old Franciscan monk, Juan de Santa Martha. He bad for
three years suffered all the horrors of a medieval Japanese
prison, when it was proposed to release him and deport him to
New Spain. His answer was that, if released, he would stay in
Japan and preach there. He laid his head on the block in
August 1618. But from that time until 1622 no other foreign
missionary suffered capital punishment in Japan, though many
of them arrived in the country and continued their props-
gandism there. During that interval, also, there occurred
another incident eminently calculated to fix upon the Christians
still deeper suspicion of political designs. In a Portuguese ship
captured by the Dutch a letter was found instigating the Japan-
ese converts to revolt, and promising that, when the number of
these disaffected Christians was sufficient, men-of-war would be
sent to aid them. .Not the least potent of the influences operat-
ing against the Christians was that pamphlets were written by
apostates attributing the zeal of the foreign propagandists
solely to political motives. Yet another indictment of Spanish
and Portuguese propagandists was contained in a despatch
addressed to Hidctada in 1620 by the admiral in command of
the British and Dutch fleet then cruising -in Far-Eastern waters.
In that document the friars were flatly accused of treacherous
practices, and the Japanese ruler was warned against the aggres-
sive designs of Philip of Spain. In the face of all this evidence
the Japanese ceased to hesitate, and a time of terror ensued for
the fathers and their converts. The measures adopted towards
the missionaries gradually increased in severity. In 1617 the
first two fathers put to death (De 1' Assumpcion and Machado)
were beheaded, " not by the common executioner, but by one
of the first officers of the prince." Subsequently Navarette and
Ayala were decapitated by the executioner. Then, in 1618,
Juan de Santa Martha was executed like a common criminal,
his body being dismembered and his head exposed. Finally,
in 1622, Zuniga and Flores were burnt alive. The same year
was marked by the "great martyrdom" at Nagasaki when
9 foreign priests went to the stake with 10 Japanese converts.
The shogun seems to have been now labouring under vivid fear
of a foreign invasion. An emissary sent by him to Europe bad
returned on the eve of the " great martyrdom " after seven years
abroad, and had made a report more than ever unfavourable to
Christianity. • Therefore Hidetada deemed it necessary to refuse
audience to a Philippine embassy in 1634 and to deport all
Spaniards from Japan. Further, it was decreed that no Japanese
Christian should thenceforth be suffered to go abroad for com-
merce, and that though non-Christians or men who had aposta-
tized might travel freely, they must not visit the Philippines.
Thus ended all intercourse between Japan and Spain. It had
continued for 32 years and had engendered a widespread
conviction that Christianity was an instrument of Spanish
aggression.
Iyemitsu, son of Hidetada, now ruled in Yedo, though Hide*
tada himself remained the power behind the throne. The year
(1623) of the former's accession to power had been marked by
the re-issue of anti-Christian decrees, and by the martyrdom of
some 500 Christians within the Tokugawa domains, whither the
tide of persecution now flowed for the first time. Thenceforth
the campaign was continuous. The men most active and most
relentless in carrying on the persecution were Mizuno and
Takenaka, governors of Nagasaki, and Matsukura, feudatory of
Shimabara. By the latter were invented the punishment of
throwing converts into the solfalaras at Unzen and the torture
of the fosse, which consisted in suspension by the feet, head
downwards, in a pit until blood oozed from the mouth, nose and
ears. Many endured this latter torture for days,, until death
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE!
JAPAN
233
came to their relief,, but a few— notably the Jesuit provincial
Ferreyxa— apostatised. Matsukura and Takenaka wele to
strongly obsessed by the Spanish menace that they contemplated
the conquest of the Philippines in order to deprive the Spaniards
of a Far-Eastern base. But timid counsels then prevailed in
Yedo, where the spirit of a Nobunaga, a Hideyoahi or an Iyeyasu
bo longer presided. Of course the measures of repression grew
in severity as the fortitude of the Christians became more ob-
durate. It is not possible to state the exact number of victims.
Some historians say that, down to 1655, no fewer than 280/300
were punished, but that figure is probably exaggerated, for the
most trustworthy records indicate that the converts never aggre-
gated more than 300,000, and many of these, if not a great
majority, having accepted the foreign faith very lightly, doubt-
less discarded it readily under menace of destruction. Every
opportunity was given for apostatising and for escaping death.
Immunity could be secured by pointing out a fellow-convert, and
when it is observed that among the seven or eight feudatories
who embraced Christianity only two or three died in that faith,
we must conclude that not a few cases of recanting occurred
among the commoners. Remarkable fortitude, however, is
said to have been displayed. If the converts were intrepid
their teachers showed no Jess courage. Again and again the
latter defied the Japanese authorities by coming to the country
or returning thither after having been deported. Ignoring the
orders of the governors of Macao and Manila and even of the
king of Spain himself, they arrived, year after year, to be cer-
tainly apprehended and sent to the stake after brief periods of
propagandism. In 1626 they actually baptised over 3000
converts. Large rewards were paid to anyone denouncing a
propagandist, and as for the people, they had to trample
upon a picture of Christ in order to prove that they were not
Christians.
Meanwhile the feuds between the Dutch, the Spaniards and
the Portuguese never ceased. In 1636, the Dutch found on a
captured Portuguese vessel a report of the governor of Macao
describing a two days' festival which had been held there in
honour of Vieyra, the vice-provincial whose martyrdom had
just taken place in Japan. This report the Dutch handed to the
Japanese authorities " in order that his majesty may see more
dearly what great honour the Portuguese pay to those he has
forbidden his realm as traitors to the state and to his crown."
Probably the accusation added little to the resentment and dis-
trust already harboured by the Japanese against the Portuguese.
At all events the Yedo government took no step distinctly hostile
to Portuguese laymen until 1637, when an edict was issued for-
bidding any foreigners to travel in the empire, lest Portuguese
with passports bearing Dutch names might enter it. This
was the beginning of the end. In the last month of 1637 a
rebellion broke out, commonly called the " Christian revolt of
Shimabara," which sealed the fate of Japan's foreign intercourse
for over 200 years.
The promontory of Shimabara and the island of Amakusa
endose the gulf of Nagasaki on the west. Among all the fiefs in
nmSMhmM. J a P*°' Shimabara and Amakusa had been the two
harmRertJt. mosl thoroughly christianized in the early years of
Jesuit propagandism. Hence in later days they were
naturally the scene of the severest persecutions. Still the people
would probably have suffered in silence had they not been taxed
beyond all endurance to supply funds for an extravagant chief
who employed savage methods of extortion. Japanese annals,
however, relegate the taxation grievance to an altogether
secondary place, and attribute the revolt solely to the instigation
of five samurai who led a roving life to avoid persecution for
their adherence to Christianity. Whichever version be correct,
it is certain that the outbreak ultimately attracted all the Chris-
tians from the surrounding regions, and was regarded by the
authorities as in effect a Christian rising. The Amakusa in-
surgents passed over to Shimabara, and on the 27th of January
1638 the whole body — numbering, according to some authorities,
20,000 fighting men with 1 7,000 women and children ; according to
others, little more than one-half of these figures— took possession
of the di m n icta ted castle of Kara, which stood on a plateau
with three sides descending perpendicularly to the sea, a hundred
feet beneath, and with a swamp on its fourth front. There the
insurgents, who fought under flags with red crosses and whose
battle cries were " Jesus," " Maria " and u St lago," successfully
maintained themselves against the repeated assaults of strong
forces until the 12th of April, when, their ammunition and their
provisions alike exhausted, they were overwhelmed and put to
the sword, with the exception of 105 prisoners. During the
siege the Dutch were enabled to furnish a vivid proof of enmity
to the Christianity of the Spaniards and the Portuguese* For
the guns in possession of the besiegers being too light to accom-
plish anything, Koeckebacker, the factor at Hirado, was invited
to send ships carrying heavier metaL Ue replied with the
" de Ryp " of 20 guns, which threw 426 shot into the castle
in is days. Probably the great bulk of the remaining Japanese
Christians perished at the massacre of Hara. ^ Thenceforth there
were few martyrs. 1
It has been clearly shown that Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and
Iyeyasu were all in favour of foreign intercourse and trade, and
that the Tokugawa chief, even more than his prede- Fonfr
cessor Hideyoshi, made strenuous efforts to differ- Trmd* to
entiate between Christianity and commerce, so that JjL^?
the latter might not be involved in the former's fate. ^*
In fact the three objects which Iyeyasu desired most earnestly to
compass were the development of foreign commerce, the acqui-
sition of a mercantile marine and the exploitation of Japan's
mines. He offered the Spaniards, Portuguese, English and Dutch
a site for a settlement in Yedo, and had they accepted the offer
the country might never have been closed. In his time Japan
was virtually a free-trade country. Importers had not to pay
any duties. It was expected, however, that they should make
presents to the feudatory into whose port they carried thdr
goods, and these presents were often very valuable. Naturally
the Tokugawa chief desired to attract such a source of wealth
to his own domains. He sent more than one envoy to Manila
to urge the opening of commerce direct with the regions about
Yedo, and to ask the Spaniards for competent naval architects.
Perhaps the truest exposition of his attitude is given in a law
enacted in 160a: —
" If any Foreign vessel by stress of weather is obliged to touch at
any principality or to put into any harbour of Japan, we order that,
whoever these foreigners may be, absolutely nothing whatever that
belongs to them or that they may have brought in their ship, shall
be taken from them. Likewise we rigorously prohibit the use of
any violence in the purchase or the safe of any of the commodities
brought by their ship, and if it is not convenient for the merchants
of the ship to remain in the port they have entered, they may pass
to any other port that may suit them, and therein buy and sell in
full freedom. Likewise we order in a general manner that foreigners
may freely reside in any part of Japan they choose, but we rigorously
forbid them to promulgate their faith."
It was in that mood that he granted (1605) a licence to the
Dutch to trade in Japan, his expectation doubtless being that
the ships which they promised to send every year would make
thdr depot at Uraga or in some other place near Yedo. But
things were ordered differently. The first Hollanders that set
foot in Japan were the survivors of the wrecked "Licfdc.V
Thrown into prison for a time, they were approached by emis-
saries from the feudatory of Hirado, who engaged some of them
to teach the art of casting guns and the science of gunnery to his
vassals, and when two of them were allowed to leave Japan, he
furnished them with the means of doing so, at the same time
making promises which invested Hirado with attractions as a
port of trade, though it was then and always remained an insig-
nificant fishing village. The Dutch possessed precisely the
qualifications suited to the situation then existing in Japan:
they had commercial potentialities without any religious asso-
ciations. Folly appreriating that fact, the shrewd feudatory pf
Hirado laid himself out to entice the Dutchmen to bis fief, and
he succeeded. Shortly afterwards, an incident occurred which
clearly betrayed the strength of the Tokugawa chid's desire to
. I See A History of Christianity, in Japan (1910), by Otis Cary.
23+ JAPAN
exploit Japan S mines. The governor-general of the Philippines
(Don Rodrigo Vivcro y Velasco), his ship being cast away on the
Japanese coast on a voyage to Acapulco, was received by lyeyasu,
and in response to the latter's request for fifty miners, the
Spaniard formulated terms to which lyeyasu actually agreed:
that half the produce of the mines should go to the miners; that
the other half should be divided between lyeyasu and the king
of Spain; that the latter might send commissioners to Japan to
look alter his mining interests, and that these commissioners
might be accompanied by priests who would be entitled to
have public churches for holding services. This was in 1600,
when the Tokugawa chief had again and again imposed the
strictest veto on Christian propagandism. There can be little
doubt that he understood the concession made to Don Rodrigo
in the sense of Hideyoshi's mandate to the Jesuits in Nagasaki,
namely, that a sufficient number might remain to minister to
the Portuguese traders frequenting the port, lyeyasu had
confidence in himself and in his countrymen. He knew that
emergencies could be dealt with when they arose and he sacrificed
nothing to timidity. But his courageous policy died with him
and the miners did not come. Neither did the Spaniards ever
devote any successful efforts to establishing trade with Japan.
Their vessels paid fitful visits to Uraga, but the Portuguese
continued to monopolize the commerce.
In 161 1 a Dutch merchantman (the " Brach ") reached Hirado
with a cargo of pepper, cloth, ivory, silk and lead. She carried
Ommmimgm* lwo * nvovs » Spex and Segcrszoon, and in the very
thitc* *m* face of a Spanish embassy which had just arrived
****** from Manila expressly for the purpose of "settling
7r«*fc tnc mallcr regarding the Hollanders," the Dutchmen
obtained a liberal patent from lyeyasu. Twelve years pre-
viously, the merchants of London, stimulated generally by the
success of the Dutch in trade with the East, and specially by the
fact that " these Hollanders had raised the price of pepper
against us from 3 shillings per pound to 6 shillings and 8 shillings,"
organised the East India Company which immediately began
to send ships eastward. Of course the news that the Dutch
were about to establish a trading station in Japan reached
London speedily, and the East India Company lost no time in
ordering one of their vessels, the " Clove," under Captain Saris,
to proceed to the Far-Eastern islands. She carried a quantity
of pepper, and on the voyage she endeavoured to procure some
spites at the Moluccas. But the Dutch would not suffer any
poaching on their valuable monopoly. The " Clove "entered
Hirado on the itth of June 1613. Saris seems to have been
a man self-opinionated, of shallow judgment and suspicious.
Though strongly urged by Will Adams to make Uraga the seat
of the new trade, though convinced of the excellence of the har-
bour there, and though instructed as to the great advantage of
proximity to the shogun's capital, he appears to have conceived
some distrust of Adams, for he chose Hirado. From lyeyasu
Captain Saris received a most liberal charter, which plainly dis-
played the mood of the Tokugawa shogun towards foreign
ttade:—
1 The ship that has now come for the first time from England
a\v* the tea to Japan may carry on trade of all kinds without
*»mlr,inee. With regard to future visits (of English ships) pcrmis-
wua will be given in regard to all matters.
* V*nh regard to the cargoes of ships, requisition will be made
tt U»t according to the requirements of the shogunate.
I KnglUh ships are free to visit any port in Japan. If disabled
ty *to*m« they may put into any harbour.
' 4 Ground tn Yedo in the place which they may desire shall be
Itv** to the English, and they may erect houses and reside and trade
?**»**. They shall be at liberty to return to their country whenever
v!kv «uh to do so, and to dispose as they like of the houses they
buw x-nxtcd. .... * ..
\ u an Englishman dies in Japan of disease, or any other cause,
*** wiK\«a shall be handed over without fail.
<* I <mrd tales of cargo, and violence, shall not take place.
* It on* of the English should commit an offence, he should be
m.uv.kvJ by the English General according to the gravity of his
vtKuw* (Translated by Professor Rtcss.)
TSc tct ws of the 4th article show that the shogun expected
in* fr-tf^V to make Yedo their headquarters. Had Saris done
{FOREIGN lNTCRCOtt*Sft
so, he weald have been free from all competition, would have had
an immense market at his very doors, would have economized
the expense of numerous overland journeys to the Tokugawa
court, and would have saved the payment of many " considera-
tions." The result of his mistaken choice and subsequent bad
management was that, ten years later (16*3), the English factory
at Hirado had to be closed, having incurred a total loss of about
£2000. In condonation of this failure it must be noted that a
few months after the death of lyeyasu, the charter he had granted
to Saris underwent serious modification. The original document
threw open to the English every port in Japan; the revised
document limited them to Hirado. But this restriction may be
indirectly traced to the blunder of not accepting a settlement in
Yedo and a port at Uraga. For the Tokugawa's foreign policy
was largely swayed by an apprehension lest the Kiushiu feuda-
tories, over whom the authority of Yedo had never been fully
established, might, by the presence of foreign traders, come into
possession of such a fleet and such an armament as would ulti-
matcly enable them to wrest the administration of the empire
from Tokugawa hands. Hence the precaution of confining the
English and the Dutch to Hirado, the fief of a daimyi too petty
to become formidable, and to Nagasaki which was an imperial
city. 1 But evidently an English factory in Yedo and English
ships at Uraga would have strengthened the Tokugawa ruler's
hand instead of supplying engines of war to his political foes. It
must also be noted that the question of locality had another
injurious outcome. It exposed the English— and the Dutch
also— to crippling competition at the hands of a company of rich
Osaka monopolists, who, as representing an Imperial city and
therefore being pledged to the Tokugawa interests, enjoyed
Ycdo's favour and took full advantage of it. These shrewd
traders not only drew a ring round Hirado, but also sent vessels
on their own account to Cochin China, Siam, Tonkin, Cambodia
and other places, where they obtained many of the staples in
which the English and the Dutch dealt. Still the closure of the
English factory at Hirado was purely voluntary. From first to
last there had been no serious friction between the English and
the Japanese. The company's houses and godowns were not
sold. These as well as the charter were left in the hands of the
daimy6 of Hirado, who promised to restore them should the
English re-open business in Japan. The company did think of
doing so on more than one occasion, but no practical step was
taken until the year 1673, wncn » merchantman, aptly named
the " Return," was sent to seek permission. The Japanese,
after mature reflection, made answer that as the king of England
was married to a Portuguese princess, British subjects could not
be permitted to visit Japan. That this reply was suggested by
the Dutch is very probable; that it truly reflected the feeling
of the Japanese government towards Roman Catholics is certain.
The Spaniards were expelled from Japan in 16x4, the Portu-
guese in 1638. Two years before the latter event, the Yedo
government took a signally retrogressive step. They nmLsst
ordained that no Japanese vessel should go abroad; Q*r»W«*e
that no Japanese subject should leave the country, C^JSZT*
and that, if detected attempting to do so, he M ""
should be put to death, the vessel that carried him and her
crew being seized "to await our pleasure"; that any Japanese
resident abroad should be executed if he returned; that the
children and descendants of Spaniards together with those who
had adopted such children should not be allowed to remain
on pain of death; and that no ship of ocean-going dimensions
should be built in Japan. Thus not only were the very children
of the Christian propagan d ists driven completely from the land*
but the Japanese people also were sentenced to imprisonment
within the limits of their islands, and the country was deprived
of all hope of acquiring a mercantile marine. The descendants
of the Spaniards, banished by the edict, were taken to Macao in
two Portuguese galleons. They numbered 287 and the property
'The Imperial cities were Yedo. Kioto, Osaka and Nagasaki.
To this last the English were subsequently admitted. They were
also invited to Kagoshima by the Shimazw chieftain, and, had not
their experience at Hirado proved to deterrent, they might hava
established a factory at Kagothima.
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE) JAPAN
they carried with them aggregated 6,607.500 florins. Bat if the
Portuguese derived any gratification from this sweeping out of
their much-abused rivals, the feeling was destined to be short-
lived. Already they were subjected to humiliating restrictions.
: " From 1623 the galleons and their cargoes were liable to be burnt
and their crews executed if any foreign priest was found on board
of them. An official of the Japanese government was stationed in
Macao for the purpose of inspecting all intending passengers, and of
preventing any one that looked at all suspicious from proceeding
to Japan. A complete list and personal description of every one
on board was drawn up by this officer, a copy of it was handed to
the captain and by him it had to be delivered to the authorities who
■set him at Nagasaki before he was allowed to anchor. If in the
subsequent inspection any discrepancy between the list and the
persons actually carried by the vessel appeared, it would prove very
awkward for the captain. Then in the inspection of the vessel
letters were opened, trunks and boxes ransacked, and all crosses,
posaries or objects of religion of any kind had to be thrown over-
board. In 1645 Portuguese were forbidden to employ Japanese
to carry their umbrella* or their shoes, and only their chief men
were allowed to bear arms, while they had to hire fresh servants
every year. It was in the following year (1636) thai the artificial
ialet of Deshima was constructed for their special reception, or rather
imprisonment. It lay in front of the former Portuguese factory,
with which it was connected by a bridge, and henceforth the Portu-
guese were to be allowed to cross this bridge only twice a year— at
their arrival and at their departure. Furthermore, all their cargoes
had to be sold at a fixed price during their ki ty^ days' stay to a ring
of licensed merchants from the imperial towns." *
The imposition of such irksome conditions did not deter the
Portuguese, who continued to send merchandise-laden gaHcons
to Nagasaki. But in 1638 the boh fell. The Shimabara rebellion
was directly responsible. Probably the fact of a revolt of
Christian converts, in such numbers and fighting with such
resolution, would alone have sufficed to induce the weak govern-
neat in Yedo to get rid of the Portuguese altogether. But the
Portuguese were suspected of having instigated the Shimabara
insurrection, and the Japanese authorities believed that they
had proof of the fact. Hence, in 1638, an edict was issued pro-
claiming that as, in defiance of the government's order, the
Portuguese had continued to bring missionaries to Japan; as
they had supplied these missionaries with provisions and other
necessaries, and as they had fomented the Shimabara rebellion,
thenceforth any Portuguese ship coming to Japan should be
burned, together with her cargo, and every one on board of her
thou Id be executed. Ample time was allowed before enforcing
this edict. Not only were the Portuguese ships then at Nagasaki
permitted to close up their commercial transact ions and leave the
port, but also in the following year when two galleons arrived
from Macao, they were merely sent away with a copy of the edict
and a stern warning. But the Portuguese could not easily
become reconciled to abandon a commerce from which they had
derived splendid profits prior to the intrusion of the Spaniards,
the Dutch and the English, and from which they might now hope
further gains, since, although the Dutch continued to be formid-
able rivals, the Spaniards had been encludcd, the English had
withdrawn, and the Japanese, by the suicidal policy of their own
rulers, were no longer able to send ships to China. Therefore
they took a step which resulted in one of the saddest episodes of
the whole story. Four aged men, the most respected citizens
of Macao, were despatched (1640) to Nagasaki as ambassadors in
a ship carrying no cargo but only rich presents. They bore a
petition declaring that for a long time no missionaries had
entered Japan from Macao, that the Portuguese had not been in
any way connected with the Shimabara revolt, and that inter-
ruption of trade would injure Japan as much as Portugal.
These envoys arrived at Nagasaki on the tst of July 1640, and
24 days sufficed to bring from Yedo, whither their petition had
been sent, peremptory orders for their execution as well as
executioners to carry out the orders. There was no possibility
of resistance. The Japanese had removed the ship's rudder,
tails, guns and ammunition, and had placed the envoys, their
suite and the crews under guard in Deshima. On the 2nd of
August they were all summoned to the governor's hall of audi-
ence, whereafter their protest had been heard that ambassadors
1 A History of Japan (Murdoch and Yamagata).
*35
should be under the protection of international law, the sentence
written in Yedo 13 days previously was read to them. The
following morning the Portuguese were offered their lives if they
would apostatize. Every one rejected the offer, and being then
led out to the martyrs* mount, the heads of the envoys and of 57
of their companions fell. Thirteen were saved to carry the news
to Macao. These thirteen, after witnessing the burning of the
galleon, were conducted to the governor's residence who gave
them this 1
" Do not fail to inform the inhabitants of Macao that the Japanese
wish to receive from them neither gold nor silver, nor any kind of
f>resents or merchandise; in a word, absolutely nothing which comes
rom them. You are witnesses that I have caused even the clothes
of those who were executed yesterday to be burned. Let them do
the same with respect to us if they And occasion to do so; we consent
to it without difficulty. Let them think no more of us, just as jf
we were no longer in the world:"
Finally the thirteen were taken to the martyrs' mount where,
set up above the heads of the victims, a tablet recounted the
story of the embassy and the reasons for the execution, and
concluded with the words: —
" So long as the sun warms the earth, let no Christian be so bold
as to come to Japan, and let all know that if King Philip himself, or
evert the very God of the Christians, or the great Shaka contravene
tins prohibition, they shall pay for it with their heads."
Had the ministers of the shogun in Yedo desired to make clear
to future ages that to Christianity alone was due the expulsion
of Spaniards and Portuguese from Japan and her adoption of
the policy of seclusion they could not have placed on record
more conclusive testimony. Macao received the news with
rejoicing in that its" earthly ambassadors had been made ambas-
sadors of heaven," but it did not abandon all hope of over-
coming Japan's obduracy. When Portugal recovered her
independence in 1640, the people of Macao requested Lisbon
to send an ambassador to Japan, and on the 16th of July 1647
Don Conzalo de Siqueira arrived in Nagasaki with two vessels.
He carried a letter from King John IV.. setting forth the
severance of all connexion between Portugal and Spain, which
countries were now actually at war, and urging that commercial
relations should be re-established. The Portuguese, having
refused to give up their rudders and arms, soon found themselves
menaced by a force of fifty thousand samurai, and were glad to
put out of port quietly on the 4th of September. This was the
last episode in the medieval history of Portugal's intercourse
with Japan.
When (1600) the Dutch contemplated forming a settlement
in Japan, lyeyasu gave them a written promise that "no man
should do them any wrong and that he would
maintain and defend them as his own subjects.*'
Moreover, the charter granted to them contained
a clause providing that, into whatever ports their ships put, they
were not to be molested or hindered in any way, but, " on the
contrary, must be shown all manner of help, favour and assist-
ancc." They might then have chosen any port in Japan for
their headquarters, but they bad the misfortune to choose
Hirado. For many years they had no cause to regret the choice.
Their exclusive possession of the Spice Islands and their own
enterprise and command of capital gave them the leading place
in Japan's over-sea trade. Even when things had changed
greatly for the worse and when the English closed their books
with a large loss, it is on record that the Dutch were reaping a
profit of 76% annually. Their doings at Hirado were not of a
purely commercial character. The Anglo- Dutch *' fleet of
defence ** made that port its basis of operations against the
Spaniards and the Portuguese. It brought its prizes into
Hirado. the profits to be equally divided between the fleet and
the factories. Dutch and English, which arrangement involved
a sum of a hundred thousand pounds in 1622. But after the
death of lyeyasu there grew up at the Tokugawa court a party
which advocated the expulsion of all foreigners on the ground
that, though some professed a different form of Christianity from
that of the Castilians and Portuguese, it was nevertheless one
and the same creed. This policy was not definitely adop*
2 3 6
tat i made itself feh in a discourteous reception accorded to
t*hr cmueacdant of Fort Zelandia when he visited Tdkyd in
■cr- He attempted to retaliate upon the Japanese vessels
witch pot into Zelandia in the following year, but the Japanese
3u:ia£cd to seize his person, exact reparation for loss of time and
oorcm 6vr hostages whom they carried to prison in Japan.
fV Japanese government of that time was wholly intolerant
jt aov -biutt done to its subjects by foreigners. When news
ji W Zdandi* affair reached Yedo, orders were immediately
sswi tor tV sequestration of certain Dutch vessels and for the
>^Vtna*ja of the Hirado factory, which veto was not removed
>.£ .\mr >«**$. Commercial arrangements, also, became less
■A^mf>«. TWe Dvtch. instead of selling their silk— which
p**<'\ !> toesned t^ principal staple of import—in the open
w . .* t were required to send it to the Osaka gild of licensed
w^ v v v^ « Nagasaki, by which means, Nagasaki and Osaka
"v. $, *- »|Va> o,«, the Yedo government derived advantage
,*.i *V v i.-*sostM*v An attempt to evade this onerous
J,^..- tv.vK^l a wy stern rebuke from Yedo, and shortly
4 . ^4 x» j 1 t-muwse subjects were forbidden to act as ser-
w v » ^ ;x.v\ o«tsde the latter's dwellings. The co-
^* 10 , « .v rkCanders in bombarding the castle of Hara
. s. nVim)*;* rebellion (x6j8) gave them some claim on
v r^v - $e.vt wsu, but in the same year the Dutch
* %x- *^-> «tr«u« that the severest penalties would
v v v> ; V >>v« carried priests or any religious objects
» vs^v vv sv^-*» was the dislike of everything relating
* >. • * . m: tW Dutch nearly caused the ruin of their
^ * v ■ \>>* n * t Wtr o* n destruction by inscribing on some
„ * > *s • »<\K>uk* the date according to the Christian
x s.\> V*ff*«*ed to be then presided over by Caron,
^ ^ ^v^Mry penetration. Without a moment's
^ ^ , V ^\ *^ "•** t° P^ down the warehouses, thus
, v t>- »v^ of all pretext for recourse to violence.
* » «-»n-w. K*«w, to promise that there should be no
^. ^ v S*>**th hereafter and that time should no
" " , v ,^^,h the Christian era. In a few months,
- ^.iv\ « \<vb's ill will was furnished. An edict
^Vt*'i* tV Dutch to dispose of all their imports
\ >v> ■ ,viW arrival, without any option of carrying
N . \ . ,Wm-I«- nrvc* *< low. They were thus placed at the
/ V »VU r«U- Further, lncv wcrc forbidden to
... ... i,\ vanv arms, and altogether it seemed as
v> 1 .v >: «* *->* *** to o* rendered impossible for them.
N '" x * ^^ vs* t?*»m Batavia to remonstrate could not
'\ K ,„ A ,H *W«un, and though he presented, by
r . v"^^ — sv »* <***** on« inall y granted by lyeyasu,
i •* to Inform you that it is of but slight
W Japan whether foreigners come or do
^-. M * i*»n»»deration of the charter granted to
, ' V. m ir*ia«cd to allow the Hollander* to continue
* *I%^ v **v* them their commercial and other
v ^ w* x *>• that they evacuate Hirado and establish
\ w \;,^ k* >ia«** * the port of Nagasaki."
^ v * k *sh a* *>** regard this as a calamity. During
S \y ^ . v**« at Hirado they had enjoyed full free-
* \lu ^» *\ve***t terms with the feudatory and his
* x K \*s %vn>md in their business. But the pettiness
¥ " K ^^ v, ^xmvenience of the anchorage having
S v ^ ^n*****. transfer to Nagasaki promised a splcn-
* ^" -lv ^ Utter custom. Bitter, therefore, was
* JV .***» mhen they found that they were to be
^ ^^V^w**. a quadrangular island whose longest
N * *»!*-*<* «w v*.. and lhal ' *° far from Iiving in
' KN Va ^^\^ would not be allowed even to enter
. MMMtwvted all communications with the dty
* Twii muhout weighty reasons and without
-^ % _ v , j, ift hve in a Dutchman • houae. A» if
*' K "** J *jl ^*«* **hi« Deriiima itseU our state prisoners
■ **■ V* Umnne might speak with them in his
' _tT* -*t *•"«■« o{ '~ : ' fwnentspy)
JAPAN
ffOREIGN INTERCOURSE
or visit them in their houses. The creatures of the governor had the
warehouses under key and the Dutch traders ceased to be master*
of their property."
There were worse indignities to be endured. No Dutchman
might be buried in Japanese soil: the dead bad to be committed
to the deep. Every Dutch ship, her rudder, guns and ammuni-
tion removed and her sails sealed, was subjected to the strictest
search. No religious service could be held. No one was suffered
to pass from one Dutch ship to another without the governor's
permit. Sometimes the officers and men were wantonly
cudgelled by petty Japanese officials. They led, in short, a
life of extreme abasement. Some relaxation of this extreme'
severity was afterwards obtained, but at no time of their sojourn
in Deshima, a period of 217 years, were the Dutch relieved from
irksome and humiliating restraints. Eleven years after their
removal thither, the expediency of consulting the national
honour by finally abandoning an enterprise so derogatory was
gravely discussed, but hopes of improvement supplementing
natural reluctance to surrender a monopoly which still brought
large gains, induced them to persevere. At that time this
Nagasaki over-sea trade was considerable. From 7 to 10
Dutch ships used to enter the port annually, carrying cargo
valued at some 80,000 lb of silver, the chief staples of import
being silk and piece-goods, and the government levying 5%
by way of customs dues. But this did not represent the whole
of the charges imposed. A rent of 450 lb of silver bad to be
paid each year for the little island of Deshima and the houses
standing on it; and, further, every spring, the Hollanders were
required to send to Yedo a mission bearing for the shogun, tha
heir-apparent and the court officials presents representing an
aggregate value of about 550 lb of silver. They found their
account, nevertheless, in buying gold and copper — especially
the latter— for exportation, until the Japanese authorities*
becoming alarmed at the great quantity of copper thus carried
away, adopted the policy of limiting the number of vessels, as
well as their inward and outward cargoes, so that, in 1700, only
one ship might enter annually, nor could she carry away mora
than 350 tons of copper. On the other hand, the formal visits
of the captain of the factory to Yedo were reduced to one every
fifth year, and the value of the presents carried by him was cut
down to one half.
Well-informed historians have contended that, by thus
segregating herself from contact wRh the West, Japan's direct
losses were small. Certainly it is true that she ^W^^^
not have learned much from European nations v^japamkr
the 17th century. They had little to teach her in **»«■*
the way of religious tolerance; in the way of inter- ** ** > ffe w
national morality; in the way of social amenities fi * ct- "*'
and etiquette; in the way of artistic conception and execution;
or in the way of that notable shibboleth of modern civilization,
the open door and equal opportunities. Yet when all this is
admitted, there remains the vital fact that Japan was thus shut
off from the atmosphere of competition, and that for nearly two
centuries and a half she never had an opportunity of warming her
intelligence at the fire of international rivalry or deriving in*
spiration from an exchange of ideas. She stood comparatively
still while the world went on, and the interval between her and
the leading peoples of the Occident in matters of material civili*
ration had become very wide before she awoke to a sense of
its existence. The sequel of this page of her history has been
faithfully summarised by a modern writer: —
" A more complete metamorphosis of a nation's policy could
scarcely be conceived. In 1541 we find the Japanese celebrated,
or notorious, throughout the whole of the Far East for exploits
abroad ; we find them known as the ' kings of the sea '; we find them
welcoming foreigners with cordiality and opposing no obstacles to
foreign commerce or even to the propagandism of foreign creeds'; we
find them so quick to recognize the benefits of foreign trade and so
apt to pursue them that, in the space of a few years, they establish
commercial relations with no less than twenty over-sea markets; we
find them authorizing the Portuguese, the Dutch and the English
to trade at every port in the empire; we find, in short, all the elements
requisite for a career of co m mercial enterprise, oceaft-gomg adven-
ture and industrial liberality. In 1641 everything is reversed.
Trade is interdicted to all Western peoples except the Dutch, and
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE)
tfcey are confined to a little udand aoo yard* in length by to in width;
the least symptom of predilection (or any alien creed „.,
Japa n ese subject to be punished with awful rigour; any attemi
leave the limits of the realm involves decapitation; not a ship large
pt to
enough to pass beyond the shadow of the coast may be built.
ever unwelcome the admission, it is apparent that
How-
for all these
The policy of
seclusion aaopeca oy japan in me eany part oi tne 17th century and
resolutely pursued until the middle of the 19th, was anti-Christian
not anti-foreign. The fact cannot be too clearly recognized. It ii
the chief lesson tanght by the events outlined above. Throughout
the whole of that period of isolation, Occidentals were- not known to
the Japanese by any of the terms now in common use, as gwaikoku-jin.
seiyt-jin, or i-jin, which embody the simple meanings ' foreigner,
* Westerner r or ' alien ' : thev were popularly called bateren (padres).
Thus completely had foreign intercourse and Christian propagandism
become identified in the eyes of the people. And when it is remem-
bered that foreign intercourse, associated with Christianity, had come
to be synonymous in Japanese ears with foreign aggression, with the
subversal of the mikado s ancient dynasty, and with the loss of the in-
dependence of the * country of the gods,' there is no difficulty in under*
standing the attitude of the nation's mind towards this question."
Foreign Intercourse in Modern Times. — From the middle of
the 17th century to the beginning of the 19th, Japan succeeded
Dutch and in rigorously 'enforcing her policy of seclusion. But
*■***■* in the concluding days of this epoch two influences
*■*■■'■ began to disturb her self-sufficiency. One was the
gradual infiltration of light from the outer world through
the narrow window of the Dutch prison at Deshima; the other,
frequent apparitions of Russian vessels on her northern coasts.
The former was a slow process. It materialized first in the study
of anatomy by a little group of youths who had acquired acci-
dental knowledge of the radical difference between Dutch and
Japanese conceptions as to the structure of the human body.
The work of these students reads like a page of romance. With-
out any appreciable knowledge of the Dutch language, they set
themselves to decipher a Dutch medical book, obtained at enor-
mous cost, and from this small beginning they passed to a vague
but firm conviction that their country had fallen far behind the
material and intellectual progress of the Occident. They
laboured in secret, for the study of foreign books was then a
criminal offence; yet the patriotism of one of their number out-
weighed his prudence, and he boldly published a brochure
advocating the construction of a navy and predicting a descent
by the Russians on the northern borders of the empire. Before
this prescient man had Iain five months in prison, his foresight
was verified by events. The Russians simulatecl at the outset
a desire to establish commercial relations by peaceful means.
Had the Japanese been better acquainted with the history of
nations, they would have known how to interpret the idea of a
Russian quest for commercial connexions in the Far East a
hundred years ago. But they dealt with the question on its
superficial merits, and, after imposing on the tsar's envoys a
wearisome delay of several months at Nagasaki, addressed to
them a peremptory refusal together with an order to leave that
port forthwith. Incensed by such treatment, and by the sub-
sequent imprisonment of a number of their fellow countrymen
who had landed on the island of Etorofu in the Kuriles, the
Russians resorted to armed reprisals. The Japanese settle-
ments m Sakhalin and Etorofu were raided and burned, other
places were menaced and several Japanese vessels were de-
stroyed. The lesson sank deep into the minds of the Yedo officials.
They withdrew their veto against the study of foreign books,
and they arrived in part at the reluctant conclusion that to offer
armed opposition to the coming of foreign ships was a task
somewhat beyond Japan's capacity. Japan ceased, however, to
attract European attention amid the absorbing interest of the
Napoleonic era, and the shogun's government, misinterpreting
this respite, reverted to their old policy of stalwart resistance to
foreign intercourse.
Meanwhile another power Was beginning to establish close
contact with Japan. The whaling industry in Russian waters off
the coast of Alaska and in the seas of China and Japan
had attracted large investments of American capital I
and was pursued yearly by thousands of American I
dtizens. In one season 86 of these whaling vessels passed within '
JAPAN 237
easy sight of Japan's northern island, Yezo, so that the aspect of
foreign ships became quite familiar. From time to time Ameri-
can schooners were cast away on Japan's shores. Generally the
survivors were treated with tolerable consideration and ulti-
mately sent to Deshima for shipment to Batavia. Japanese
sailors, too, driven out of their route by hurricanes and caught
in the stream of the " Black Current," were occasionally carried
to the Aleutian Islands, to Oregon or California, and in several
instances these shipwrecked mariners were taken back to Japan
with all kindness by American vessels. On such an errand of
mercy the " Morrison " entered Yedo Bay in 1837, proceeding
thence to Ragoshima, only to be driven away by cannon shot;
and on such an errand the n Manhattan " in 1845 lay for four
days at Uraga while her master (Mcrcater Cooper) collected
books and charts. It would seem that his experience induced
the Washington government to attempt the opening of Japan.
A ninety-gun ship and a sloop were sent on the errand. They
anchored off Uraga (July 1846) and Commodore Biddle made
due application for trade. But he received a positive refusal,
and having been instructed by his government to abstain from
any act calculated to excite hostility or distrust, he quietly
weighed anchor and sailed away.
In this same year (1846) a French ship touched at the Riukiti
(Luchu) archipelago and sought to persuade the islanders that
their only security against British aggression was to q^^
place themselves under the protection of France. In Britain
fact Great Britain was now beginning to interest herself nappean
in south China, and more than one warning reached 2JJL 1 **
Yedo from Deshima that English war-ships might at
any moment visit Japanese waters. The Dutch have been much
blamed for thus attempting to prejudice Japan against the Occi-
dent, but if the dictates of commercial rivalry, as it was then
practised, do not constitute an ample explanation, it should be
remembered that England and Holland had recently been
enemies, and that the last British vessel, 1 seen at Nagasaki had
gone there hoping to capture the annual Dutch trading-ship from
Batavia. Deshima's warnings, however, remained unfulfilled,
though they doubtless contributed to Japan's feeling of uneasi-
ness. Then, in 1847, the king of Holland himself intervened.
He sent to Yedo various books, together with a map of the world
and adespatch advising Japan to abandon her policy of isolation.
Within a few months (1849) of the receipt of his Dutch
majesty's recommendation, an American brig, the " Preble,"
under Commander J. Glynn, anchored in Nagasaki harbour and
threatened to bombard the town unless immediate delivery were
made of 18 seamen who, havings been wrecked in northern waters,
were held by the Japanese preparatory to shipment for Batavia.
In 1849 another despatch reached Yedo from the king of Holland
announcing that an American fleet might be expected in
Japanese waters a year later, and that, unless Japan agreed to
enter into friendly commercial relations, war must ensue.
Appended to this despatch was an approximate draft of the
treaty which would be presented for signature, together with a
copy of a memorandum addressed by the Washington govern-
ment to European nations, justifying the contemplated expedi-
tion on the ground that it would inure to the advantage of Japan
as well as to that of the Occident.
In 1853, Commodore Perry, with a squadron of four ships-of-
war and 560 men, entered Uraga Bay. So formidable a foreign
force had not been seen in Japanese waters since the
coming of the Mongol Armada. A panic ensued among k
the people— the same people who, in the days of
Hideyoshi or Iyeyasu, would have gone out to encounter these
ships with assured confidence of victory. The contrast did not
stop there. The shdgun, whose ancestors had administered the
country's affairs with absolutely autocratic authority, now sum-
moned a council of the feudatories to consider the situation; and
the Imperial court in Kioto, which never appealed for heaven's aid
except in a national emergency such as had never been witnessed
since the creation of the shGgunale, now directed that at
the seven principal shrines and at all the great temples special
»H.M.& " Phaeton." which entered that port in 1808.
238
JAPAN
(FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
prayers should be offered for the safety of the hind and for the
destruction of the aliens. Thus the appearance of the American
squadron awoke in the cause of the country as a whole a spirit of
patriotism hitherto confined to feudal interests. The shSgun
does not seem to have had any thought of invoking that spirit:
his part in raising it was involuntary and his ministers behaved
with perplexed vacillation. The infirmity of the Yedo Adminis-
tration's purpose presented such a strong contrast to the single-
minded resolution of the Imperial court that the prestige of the
one was largely impaired and that of the other correspondingly
enhanced. Perry, however, was without authority to support
his proposals by any recourse to violence. The United States
government had relied solely on the moral effect of his display of
force, and his countrymen had supplied him with a large collec-
tion of the products of peaceful progress, from sewing machines
to miniature railways. He did not unduly press for a treaty, but
after lying at anchor off Uraga during a period of ten days and
after transmitting the president's letter to the sovereign of Japan,
he steamed away on the 17th of July, announcing his return in
the ensuing spring. The conduct of the Japanese subsequently
to his departure showed how fully and rapidly they had acquired
the conviction that the appliances of their old civilization were
powerless to resist the resources of the new. Orders were
issued rescinding the long-enforced veto against the construction
of sea-going ships; the feudal chiefs were invited to build and arm
large vessels; the Dutch were commissioned to furnish a ship of
war and to procure from Europe all the best works on modern
military science; every one who had acquired any expert know-
ledge through the medium of Deshima was taken into official
favour; forts were built; cannon were cast and troops were
drilled. But from all this effort there resulted only fresh
evidence of the country's inability to defy foreign insistence, and
on the 2nd of December 1853, instructions were issued that if the
Americans returned, they were to be dealt with peacefully. The
sight of Perry's steam-propelled ships, their powerful guns and
all the specimens they carried of western wonders, had practically
broken down the barriers of Japan's isolation without any need
of treaties or conventions. Perry returned in the following
February, and after an interchange of courtesies and formalities
extending over six weeks, obtained a treaty pledging Japan to
accord kind treatment to shipwrecked sailors; to permit foreign
vessels to obtain stores and provisions within her territory, and
to allow American ships to anchor in the ports at Shimoda and
Hakodate. On this second occasion Perry had 10 ships with
crews numbering two thousand, and when he landed to sign the
treaty, he was escorted by a guard of honour mustering 500
strong in 27 boats. Much has been written about his judicious
display of force and bis sagacious tact in dealing with the
Japanese, but it may be doubted whether the consequences of his
exploit have not invested its methods with extravagant lustre.
Standing on the threshold of modern Japan's wonderful career,
his figure shines by the reflected light of its surroundings.
Russia, Holland and England speedily secured for themselves
treaties similar to that concluded by Commodore Perry in 1854.
Ftnt But Japan's doors still remained closed to foreign
Treaty of commerce, and it was reserved for another citizen
Cwamertm. Q f | ne g^^ republic to open them. This was Town-
send Harris (1803-1878), the first U.S. consul-general in Japan.
Arriving in August 1856, he concluded, in June of the following
year, a treaty securing to American citizens the privilege of per-
manent residence at Shimoda and Hakodate, the opening of
Nagasaki, the right of consular jurisdiction and certain minor
concessions. Still, however, permission for commercial inter-
course was withheld, and Harris, convinced that this great goal
could not be reached unless he made his way to Yedo and con-
ferred direct with the shSgun's ministers, pressed persistently
for leave to do so. Ten months elapsed before he succeeded, and
such a display of reluctance on the Japanese side was very
unfavourably criticized in the years immediately subsequent.
Ignorance of the country's domestic politics inspired the critics.
The Yedo administration, already weakened by the growth of a
Strong public sentiment in favour of abolishing the dual system
of government— that of the mikado in Kioto and that of the
sh&gun in Yedo— had been still further discredited by its own
timid policy as compared with the stalwart mien of the throne
towards the question of foreign intercourse. Openly to sanction
commercial relations at such a lime would have been little short
of reckless. The Perry convention and the first Harris conven-
tion could be construed, and were purposely construed, as mere
acts of benevolence towards strangers; but a commercial treaty
would not have lent itself to any such construction, and naturally
the shdgun's ministers hesitated to agree to an apparently
suicidal step. Harris carried his point, however. He was
received by the shdgun in Yedo in November 1857, and on
the 29th of July 1858 a treaty was signed in Yedo, engaging
that Yokohama should be opened on the 4th of July 1859 and
that commerce between the United States and Japan should
thereafter be freely carried on there. This treaty was actually
concluded by the shdgun's Ministers in defiance of their failure
to obtain the sanction of the sovereign in Kioto. Foreign
historians have found much to say about Japanese duplicity in
concealing the subordinate position occupied by the Yedo
administration towards the Kidto court.* Such condemnation is
not consistent with fuller knowledge. The Yedo authorities
had power to solve all problems of foreign intercourse without
reference to Kidto. lyeyasu had not seen any occasion to
seek imperial assent when he granted unrestricted liberty of
trade to the representatives of the East India Company, nor had
Iycmitsu asked for Kioto's sanction when he issued his decree for
the expulsion of all foreigners. If, in the 19th century, Yedo
shrank from a responsibility which it had unhesitatingly assumed
in the 17th, the cause was to be found, not in the shdgun's
simulation of autonomy, but in his desire to associate the throne
with a policy which, while recognizing it to be unavoidable, he
distrusted his own ability to make the nation accept. But his
ministers had promised Harris that the treaty should be
signed, and they kept their word, at a risk of which the United
Stales' consul-general had no conception. Throughout these
negotiations Harris spared no pains to create in the minds of
the Japanese an intelligent conviction that the world could no
longer be kept at arm's length, and though it is extremely prob-
lematical whether he would have succeeded had not the Japan-
ese themselves already arrived at that very conviction, his
patient and lucid expositions coupled with a winning personality
undoubtedly produced much impression. He was largely
assisted, loo, by recent events in China, where the PcihO forts
had been captured and the Chinese forced to sign a treaty at
Tientsin. Harris warned the Japanese that the British fleet
might be expected at any moment in Yedo Bay, and that the
best way to avert irksome demands at the hands of the English
was to establish a comparatively moderate precedent by yielding
to America's proposals.
This treaty could not be represented, as previous conventions
had been, in the light of a purely benevolent concession. It
definitely provided for the trade and residence of ^^^
foreign merchants, and thus finally terminated ^ fnatr.
Japan's traditional isolation. Moreover, it had been
concluded in defiance of the Throne's refusal to sanction anything
of the kind. Much excitement resulted. The nation ranged
itself into three parties. One comprised the advocates of free
intercourse and progressive liberality; another, while insisting
that only the most limited privileges should be accorded to
aliens, was of two minds as to the advisability of offering armed
resistance at once or temporizing so as to gain lime for prepara-
tion; the third advocated uncompromising seclusion. Once
again the shOgun convoked a meeting of the feudal barons,
hoping to secure their co-operation. But with hardly an excep-
tion they pronounced against yielding. Thus the shogunale
saw itself compelled to adopt a resolutely liberal policy: it
issued a decree in that sense, and thenceforth the administrative
court at Yedo and the Imperial court in Kioto stood in unequivor
cal opposition to each other, the Conservatives ranging them*
selves on the side of the latter, the Liberals on that of the former.
It was a situation full of perplexity to outsiders, and the foreign
FOREIGN INTERCOURSE]
representatives misinterpreted ft. They imagined that the
shogun's ministers sought only to evade their treaty obligations
and to render the situation intolerable for foreign residents,
whereas In truth the situation threatened to become intolerable
for the shdgunate itself. Nevertheless the Yedo officials can-
not be entirely acquitted of duplicity. Under pressure of the
necessity of self-preservation they effected with Kidfo a com-
promise which assigned to foreign intercourse a temporary
character. The threatened political crisis was thus averted,
but the enemies of the dual system of government gained
strength daily. One of their devices was to assassinate foreigners
in the hope of embroiling the shogunate with Western powers and
thus either forcing its hand or precipitating its downfall. It is
not wonderful, perhaps, that foreigners were deceived, especially
as they approached the solution of Japanese problems with
all the Occidental's habitual suspicion of everything Oriental.
Thus when the Yedo government, cognisant that serious dangers
menaced the Yokohama settlement, took precautions to guard
H, the foreign ministers convinced themselves that a deliberate
piece of chicanery was being practised at their expense; that
statecraft rather than truth had dictated the representations
made to them by the Japanese authorities; and that the alarm
of the latter was simulated for the purpose of finding a pretext
to curtail the liberty enjoyed by foreigners. Therefore a sugges-
tion that the inmates of the legations should show themselves as
little as possible in the streets of the capital, where at any
moment a desperado might cut them down, was treated almost as
an insult. Then the Japanese authorities saw no recourse except
to attach an armed escort to the person of every foreigner when
he moved about the city. But even this precaution, which
certainly was not adopted out of mere caprice or with any
sinister design, excited fresh suspicions. The British representa-
tive, in reporting the event to his government, said that the
Japanese had taken the opportunity to graft upon the establish-
ment of spies, watchmen and police-officers at the several
legations, a mounted escort to accompany the members whenever
they moved about.
Just at this time (1861) the Yedo statesmen, in order to
reconcile the divergent views of the two courts, negotiated a
Attmist marriage between the emperor's sister and the shdgun.
apoa But in order to bring the union about, they had to
Fontgmn placate the Kioto Conservatives by a promise to expel
\!!?* foreigners from the country within ten years. When
this became known, it strengthened the hands of the
reactionaries, and furnished a new weapon to Yedo's
enemies, who interpreted the marriage as the Beginning of a plot
to dethrone the mikado. Murderous attacks upon foreigners
became more frequent. Two of these assaults had momentous
consequences. Three British subjects attempted to force their
way through the corltge of the Satsuma feudal chief on the
highway between Yokohama and Yedo. One of them was
killed and the other two wounded. This outrage was not in-
spired by the " barbarian-expelling " sentiment: to any Japanese
subject violating the rules of etiquette as these Englishmen
had violated them, the same fate would have been meted
out. Nevertheless, as the Satsuma daimyo refused to surrender
his implicated vassals, and as the sh6gun's arm was not long
enough to reach the most powerful feudatory in Japan, the
British government sent a squadron to bombard his capital,
Kagoshima. It was not a brilliant exploit in any sense, but its
results were invaluable; for the operations of the British ships
finally convinced the Satsuma men of their impotence in the
face of Western armaments, and converted them into advocates
of liberal progress. Three months previously to this bombard-
ment of Kagoshima another puissant feudatory had thrown
down the gauntlet. The ChoshO chief, whose batteries com-
manded the entrance to the inland sea at Shimonoseki, opened
fire upon ships flying the flags of the United States, of France
and of Holland. In thus acting he obeyed an edict obtained by
the extremists from the mikado without the knowledge of the
shdgun, which edict fixed the nth of May 1863 as the date
for practically inaugurating the foreigners-expulsion policy.
JAPAN 839
Again the *hOgun*s administrative aWnpefenca proved isado*
qnate to exact reparation, and a squadron, composed chiefly
of British men-of-war, proceeding to Shimonoseki, demolished
ChoshQ's forts, destroyed his ships and scattered his samurai.
In the face of the Kagoshima bombardment and the Shimono-
seki expedition, no Japanese subject could retain any faith in
his country's ability to oppose Occidentals by force. Thus the
year 1863 was memorable in Japan's history. It taw the
H barbarian-expelling " agitation deprived of the emperor**
sanction; it saw the two principal dans, Satsuma and CboshQ,
convinced of their country's impotence to defy the Occident;
h saw the nation almost fully roused to the disintegrating and
weakening effects of the feudal system; and it saw the tradi-
tional antipathy to foreigners beginning to be exchanged for a
desire to study their Civilization and to adopt its best features.
The treaty concluded between the ahegun's government and
the United States In 1858 was of course followed by similar
compacts with the principal European powers, ftannemttoo
From the outset these states agreed to co-operate •*<*•
for the assertion of their conventional privileges, T *"* 1 —'
and they naturally took Great Britain for leader, though such
a relation was never openly announced. Toe treaties, however,
continued during several years to lack imperial ratification,
and, as time went by, that defect obtruded itself more and
more upon the attention of their foreign signatories. The year
1865 saw British interests entrusted to the charge of Sir Harry
Parkes, a man of keen insight, indomitable courage and some-
what peremptory methods, learned during a long period of
service in China. It happened that the post of Japanese secre-
tary at the British legation in Yedo was then held by a remark-
ably gifted young Englishman, who, in a comparatively brief
interval, had acquired a good working knowledge of the Japanese
language, and it happened also that the British legation in
Yedo was already — as it has always been ever since— the best
equipped institution of its class in Japan. Aided by these
facilities and by the researches of Mr Satow (afterwards Sir
Ernest Satow) Parkes arrived at the conclusions that the
Yedo government was tottering to its fall; that the resumption
of administrative authority by the Kioto court would make for
the interests not only of the West but also of Japan; and thai
the ratification of the treaties by the mikado would elucidate
the situation for foreigners while being, at the same time,
essential to the validity of the documents. Two other objects
also presented themselves, namely, that the import duties
fixed by the conventions should be reduced from 15 to 5%
ad valorem, and that the ports of Hiogd and Osaka should be
opened at once, instead of at the expiration of two years as
originally fixed. It was not proposed that these concessions
should be entirely gratuitous. When the four-power flotilla
destroyed the Shimonoseki batteries and sank the vessels
lying there, a fine of .three million dollars (some £750,000) had
been imposed upon the daimyo of ChoshO by way of ransom for
his capital, which lay at the mercy of the invaders. The daimyo'
of ChoshA, however, was in open rebellion against the shdgun;
and as the latter could not collect the debt from the recalcitrant
clansmen, while the four powers insisted on being paid by
some one, the Yedo treasury was finally compelled to shoulder
the obligation. Two out of the three millions were still due,
and Parkes conceived the idea of remitting this debt in exchange
for the ratification of the treaties, the reduction of the customs
tariff from 15 to 5% ad valorem and the immediate opening of
HiogO and Osaka. He took with him to the place of negotia-
tion (Hi5gd) a fleet of British, French and Dutch war-ships,
for, while announcing peaceful intentions, he had accustomed
himself to think that a display of force should occupy the fore-
ground in all negotiations with Oriental states. This coup
may be said to have sealed the fate of the shdgunate. For
here again was produced in a highly aggravated form the drama
which had so greatly startled the nation eight years previously.
Perry had come with his war-ships to the portals of Yedo, and
now a foreign fleet, twice as strong as Perry's, had anchored
at the vestibule of the Imperial city itself. No rational Japanese
JAPAN
(FOREIGN INTERCOURSE
j^t %fc* parade «f forot was for portly peaceful
iir" * . ^ H x>ti«Aof the amicable bargain proposed by
'~\r* * ^"U^w-f****^* **>»***» be followed by the quiet
' * » - ^ w w*mki»« Awt, whose terrible potentialities
--> * *2 »;** at Kmpabima and Shimonoaeki. The
' "* ~^"""t— # v*** *** * wn ****ly silenced, raised them
• " ^ "» ^*»*«*» ** the shogun's incompetence to
-■^'T v*i %*V «t Kioto against such trespasses,
■ " " w ^ ***** *** J* 0110 ^^f the influence of the
~ ^.-°* % *«»s**A ft heavy disgrace on the sbogun
-~\ ."•* \j fc H***fc*« tW officials to whom the latter
•*" -* * w ******* t «* «*e»tifttlons at Hiogo. Such
*■■..,- J\ ogai * *V lh J°V w amounted to withdrawing
~ .w* v 'r^^^!,^ h y lhe Tokugawa family
~ - -*** ^ t>v x ***v *«• *h&gun resigned. But his
' .-O * * .,* ^ «^lx to wplace him, he was induced
- . -- *»**. Wv»vv«r, fatally damaged prestige. As
^"o •***!>*** *4»* lrw V ** "earned away successfuL
°» thc indemnity in exchange
ncd two oi the concessions
lebt.
xrvive the humiliation thus
e following year (1866), and
a, destined to be the last of
Nine years previously this
it forward by the seclusionists
>ogunate. y et no sooner did
than he remodelled the army
\\ officers to organize a navy,
hibition, and altered many of
court so as to bring them into
. The contrast between the
indidate for office in 1857 and
thng to power in 1866 furnished
that had come over the spirit
of the exdusionists were now
»f expelling foreigners and to
H elements of their civilisation,
i decision but very quick to act
x866 onwards the new spirit
Uon; progress became the aim
ntercd upon a career of intelli-
y years, won for Japan a uni-
.....*•..- v . uuw ... .... ranks of the great Occidental
igunate and the resumption of
5 Throne, one of the first acts
icd government was to invite
iatives to Kioto, where they
ho mikado. Subsequently a
, announcing the emperor's
elations with foreign countries,
tcse subject thereafter guilty of
wigner would not only act in
mand, but would also be guilty
xl faith of the nation in the tycs
majesty had pledged himself to
hat time the relations between
•early more amicable; the nation
ttern civilisation with notable
ns of the treaties were carefully
»wevcr, presented one feature
Urvgly irksome to Japan. They
within her borders from the
uvd secured to them the privilege
re tribunals of their own nation-
ays been considered necessary
A states visited or sojourned in
M the purpose of giving effect to
tbluhcd. This necessitated the
* t* settlements in the ncighbour-
<- - ^^ ^^v %i would have been imprudent
to allow foreigners to have free access to districts remote from
the only tribunals competent to control them. The Japanese
raised no objection to the embodiment of this system in the
treaties. They recognized its necessity and even its expediency,
for if , on the one hand, it infringed their country's sovereign
rights, on the other, it prevented complications which must
have ensued had they been entrusted with jurisdiction which
they were not prepared to discharge satisfactorily. But the
consular courts were not free from defects. A few of the
powers organized competent tribunals presided over by judicial
experts, but a majority of the treaty states, not having suffi-
ciently large interests at stake, were content to delegate consular
duties to merchants, not only deficient in legal training, but also
themselves engaged in the very commercial transactions upon
which they might at any moment be required to adjudicate in
a magisterial capacity. In any circumstances the dual functions
of consul and judge could not be discharged without anomaly by
the same official, for he was obliged to act as advocate in the
preliminary stages of complications about which, in his position
as judge, he might ultimately have to deliver an impartial
verdict. In practice, however, the system worked with tolerable
smoothness, and might have remained long in force had not the
patriotism of the Japanese rebelled bitterly against the implica-
tion that their country was unfit to exercise one of the funda-
mental attributes of every sovereign state, judicial autonomy.
From the very outset they spared no effort to qualify for the
recovery of this attribute. Revision of the country's laws and
re-organization of its law courts would necessarily have been
an essential feature of the general reforms suggested by contact
with the Occident, but the question of consular jurisdiction
certainly constituted a special incentive. Expert assistance
was obtained from France and Germany; the best features of
European jurisprudence were adapted to the conditions and
usages of Japan; the law courts were remodelled, and steps
were taken to educate a competent judiciary. In criminal law
the example of France was chiefly followed; in commercial law
that of Germany; and in civil law that of the Occident generally,
with due regard to the customs of the country. The jury
system was not adopted, collegiate courts being regarded as
more conducive to justice, and the order of procedure went
from tribunals of first, instance to appeal courts and finally to*
the court of cassation. Schools of law were quickly opened, and
a well-equipped bar soon came into existence. Twelve years
after the inception of these great works, Japan made formal
application for revision of the treaties on the basis of abolishing
consular jurisdiction. She had asked for revision in 1871,
sending to Europe and America an important embassy to raise
the question. But at that time the conditions originally calling
for consular jurisdiction had not undergone any change such
as would have justified its abolition, and the Japanese govern-
ment, though very anxious to recover tariff autonomy as well
as judicial, shrank from separating the two questions, lest by
prematurely solving one the solution of the other might be
unduly deferred. Thus the embassy failed, and though the
problem attracted great academical interest from the first, it
did not re-enter the field of practical politics until 1883. The
negotiations were long protracted. .Never previously had an
Oriental state received at the hands of the Occident recognition
such as that now demanded by Japan, and the West naturally
felt deep reluctance to try a wholly novel experiment. The
United States had set a generous example by concluding a new
treaty (1878) on the lines desired by Japan. But its operation
was conditional on a similar act of compliance by the other
treaty powers. Ill-informed European publicists ridiculed the
Washington statesmen's altitude on this occasion, claiming that
what had been given with one hand was taken back with the
other. The truth b that the conditional provision was inserted
at the request of Japan herself, who appreciated her own unpre-.
paredness foe the concession. From 1883, however, she was
ready to accept full responsibility, and she therefore asked that,
all foreigners within her borders should thenceforth be subject to
her laws and judiciable by her law-courts, supplementing her
ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE)
application by promising tint its favourable reception should
be followed by the complete opening of the country and the
removal of all restrictions hitherto imposed on foreign trade,
travel antf residence in her realm. " From the first it had been
the habit of Occidental peoples to upbraid Japan on account of
the barriers opposed by her to full and free foreign intercourse,
and she was now able to daim that these barriers were no longer
maintained by her desire, but that they existed .because of a
system which theoretically proclaimed her unfitness for free
association with Western nations, and practically' made it
impossible for her to throw open her territories completely
for the ingress of foreigners." She had a strong case, but on
the side of the European powers extreme reluctance was mani-
fested to try the unprecedented experiment of placing their
people under the jurisdiction of an Oriental country. Still
greater was the reluctance of those upon whom the experiment
would be tried. Foreigners residing in Japan naturally clung
to consular jurisdiction as a privilege of inestimable value.
They saw, indeed, that such a system could not be permanently
imposed on a country where the conditions justifying it had
nominally disappeared. But they saw, also, that the. legal and
judicial reforms effected by Japan had been crowded into an
extraordinarily brief period, and that, as tyros experimenting
with alien systems, the Japanese might be betrayed into many
The negotiations lasted for eleven years. They were begun in
1883 and a solution was not reached until 1804. finally European
atagflttteffgovernments conceded the justice of Japan's case,
*£<*• and it was agreed that from July 1809 Japanese
****** tribunals should assume jurisdiction over every
person, of whatever nationality, within the confines of Japan,
and the whole country should be thrown open to foreigners, all
limitations upon trade, travel and residence being removed.
Great Britain took the lead in thus releasing Japan from
the fetters of the old system. The initiative came from
her with spedal grace, for the system and all its irksome
consequences had been originally imposed on Japan by a
combination of powers with Great Britain in the van. As a
matter of historical sequence the United States dictated the
terms of the first treaty providing for consular jurisdiction. But
from a very early period the Washington government showed
its willingness to remove all limitations of Japan's sovereignty,
whereas Europe, headed by Great Britain, whose preponderating
interests entitled her to lead, resolutely refused to make any
s ubstant i al concession. In Japanese eyes, therefore, British
conservatism seemed to be the one serious obstacle, and since
the British residents in the settlements far outnumbered all other
nationalities, and since they alone had newspaper organs to
ventilate their grievances— it was certainly fortunate for the
popularity of her people in the Far East that Great Britain saw
her way finally to set a liberal example. Nearly five years were
required to bring the other Occidental powers into line with Great
Britain and America. It should be- stated, however, that neither
reluctance to make the necessary concessions nor want of sym-
pathy with Japan caused the delay. The explanation is, first,
that each set of negotiators sought to improve either the terms
or the terminology of the treaties already concluded, and,
secondly, that the tariff arrangements for the different countries
required elaborate discussion.
Until the last of the revised treaties was ratified, voices of
protest against revision continued to be vehemently raised by a
fraptto* large section of the foreign community in the settle-
fAeafettoments. Some were honestly apprehensive as to the
*"*** issue of the experiment. Others were swayed by
"*•"•* racial prejudice. A few had fallen into an insuper-
able habit of grumbling, or found their account in advocating
conservatism under pretence of championing foreign interests;
and all were naturally reluctant to forfeit the immunity from
taxation hitherto enjoyed. It seemed as though the inaugura-
tion of the new system would find the foreign community
in a mood which must greatly diminish the chances of a
happy result, for where a captious and aggrieved disposition
XV 5
JAPAN 241
exists, opportunities to discover causes of complaint cannot
be wanting. But at the eleventh hour this unfavourable
demeanour underwent a marked change. So soon as it became
evident that the old system was hopelessly doomed, the sound
common sense of the European and American business man
asserted itself. The foreign residents let it be seen that they
intended to bow cheerfully to the inevitable, and that no obstacles
would be willingly placed by them in the path of Japanese juris-
diction. The Japanese, on then* side, took some promising steps.
An Imperial rescript declared in unequivocal terms that it was
the sovereign's policy and desire to abolish all distinctions
between natives and foreigners, and that by fully carrying out
the friendly purpose of the treaties his people would best consult
his wishes, maintain the character of the nation, and promote
its prestige. The premier and other ministers of state issued
instructions to the effect that the responsibility now devolved
on the government, and the duty on the people, of enabling
foreigners to reside confidently and contentedly in every part of
the country. Even the chief Buddhist prelates addressed to the
priests and parishioners in their dioceses injunctions pointing
out that, freedom of conscience being now guaranteed by the
constitution, men professing alien creeds must be treated as*
courteously as the followers of Buddhism, and must enjoy the
same rights and privileges.
Thus the great change was effected in circumstances of happy
augury. Its results were successful on the whole. Foreigners
residing in Japan now enjoy immunity of domicile, personal
and religious liberty, freedom from official interference, and
security of life and property as fully as though they were living 1
in their own countries, and they have gradually learned to look
with greatly increased respect upon Japanese law and its
administrators.
Next to the revision of the treaties and to the result of the
great wan waged by Japan since the resumption of foreign inter*
course, the most memorable incident in her modern Aagto-
career was the conclusion, first, of an entente, and, Jam**—
secondly, of an offensive and defensive alliance *«■**
with Great Britain in January 1002 and September 1005,
respectively. The entente set out by disavowing on the part of
each of the contracting parties any aggressive tendency in either
China or Korea, the independence of which two countries was
explicitly recognised; and went on to declare that Great Britain
in China and Japan in China and Korea might take indispensable
means to safeguard their interests; while, if such measures
involved one of the signatories in war with a third power, the
other signatory would not only remain neutral but would also
endeavour to prevent other powers from joining in hostilities
against its airy, and would come to the assistance of the latter in
the event of its being faced by two or more powers. The entente
further recognized that Japan possessed, in a peculiar degree,
political, commercial and industrial interests in Korea. This
agreement, equally novel for each of the contracting parties,
evidently tended to the benefit of Japan more than to that of
Great Britain, inasmuch as the interests in question were vital
from the former power's point of view but merely local from the
tatter's. The inequality was corrected by an offensive and
defensive alliance in 1005. For the scope of the agreement was
then extended to India and eastern Asia generally, and while the
signatories pledged themselves, on the one hand, to preserve the
common interests of all powers in China by insuring her integrity
and independence as well as the principle of equal opportunities
for the commerce and industry of all nations within her borders,
they agreed, on the other, to maintain their own territorial rights
in eastern Asia and India, and to come to each other's armed
assistance in the event of those rights being assailed by any othee
power or powers. These agreements have, of course, a close
relation to the events which accompanied or immediately
preceded them, but they also present a vivid and radical con-
trast between a country which, less than, half a century previ-
ously, had struggled vehemently to remain seduded from the 1
world, and a country which now allied itself with one of the
most liberal and progressive nations for the purposes of a policy
2a
2+6
JAPAN
the two orient should unite their effort* for the suppression of
disturbance! in Korea, and for Che subsequent improvement of
that kingdom's administration, the latter purpose to be pursued
by the despatch of a joint commission of investigation. But
China- refused everything. Ready at all times to interfere by
force of arms between the Korean people and the dominant
political faction, she declined to interfere in any way for the
promotion of reform. She even expressed supercilious surprise
that Japan, while asserting Korea's independence, should suggest
the idea of peremptorily reforming its administration. In short,
for Chinese purposes the Peking statesmen openly declared
Korea a tributary state; but for Japanese purposes they Insisted
that it must be held independent. They believed that their
island neighbour aimed at the absorption of Korea into the
Japanese empire. Viewed in the light of that suspicion,
China's attitude became comprehensible, but her procedure was
Inconsistent, illogical and unpractical. The Tokyo cabinet now
declared its resolve not to withdraw the Japanese troops without
" some understanding that would guarantee the future peace,
order, and good government of Korea," and since China still
declined to come to such an understanding, Japan undertook
the work of reform single-handed.
The Chinese representative hi Seoul threw his whole weight
into the scale against the success of these reforms. But the de-
oeftaM* termining cause of rupture was in itself a belligerent
efMstil f operation. China's troops had been sent originally for
***• the purpose of quelling the Tonghak rebellion. But
the rebellion having died of inanition before the landing of the
troops, their services were not required. Nevertheless China
kept them in, Korea, her declared reason for doing so being the
presence of a Japanese military force. Throughout the subse-
quent negotiations the Chinese forces lay in an entrenched camp
at Asan, while the Japanese occupied Seoul. An attempt on
China's part to send reinforcements could be construed only as an
taequi vocal declaration of resolve to oppose Japan's proceedings
by force of arms. Nevertheless China not only despatched
troop* by sea to strengthen the camp at Asan, but also sent an
grmy overland across Korea's northern frontier. At this stage
at act of war occurred. ' Three Chinese men-of-war, convoying
a transport with 1200 men encountered and fired on three
Japanese cruisers. One of the Chinese ships was taken;
soother was so shattered that she had to be beached and
abandoned; the third escaped in a dilapidated condition; and
the transport, refusing to surrender, was sunk. This happened
«a the a$th of July 1804, and an open declaration of war was
oafe by each empire six days later.
From the moment when Japan applied herself to break away
bom Oriental traditions, and to remove from her limbs the
^™ fetters of Eastern conservatism, it was inevitable
52? that a widening gulf should gradually grow between
«*5» herself and China. The war of 1804 was really
cmr^ £ contest between Japanese progress and Chinese
tfifMtJoe, To secure Korean immunity from foreign— espe-
S7*i«sian-aK«ssion *** •* capital importance to both
cany imw-— ^j l . maamA t h„t mwh KTfuritr ton\A h« attained
• id con-
■ strength
1 mtee it
I by the
signally
he issue
act as
Lher her
Chinese
1. Four
column
ehed at
icape to
offering
gas the
I icounter
[FOREIGN WARS
with Chinese troop* in 1 59*. There the Chinese assembled a force
of 17,000 men, and made leisurely preparations for a decisive
contest. Forty days elapsed before the Japanese columns con-
verged upon Phyong-yang, and that interval was utilized by the
Chinese to throw up parapets, mount Krupp guns and otherwise
strengthen their position. Moreover, they were armed with
repeating rifles, whereas the Japanese had only single-loaders,
and the ground offered little cover for an attacking force. In
such circumstances, the advantages possessed by the defence
ought to have been wellnigh insuperable; yet a day's fighting
sufficed to cany ail the positions, the assailants' casualties
amounting to less than 700 and the defenders losing 6000 in
killed and wounded. This brilliant victory was the prelude to
an equally conspicuous success at sea. For on the 17th of
September, the very day after the battle at Phyong-yang, a great
naval fight took place near the mouth of the Ynlu River, which
forms the northern boundary of Korea, Fourteen Chinese war-
ships and six torpedo-boats were returning to home ports after
convoying a fleet of transports to the Yalu, when they
encountered eleven Japanese men-of-war cruising in the
Yellow Sea, Hitherto the Chinese had sedulously avoided a
contest at sea, Their fleet included two armoured battleships
of over 7000 tons displacement, whereas the biggest vessels
on the Japanese side were belted cruisers of only 4000
tons. In the hands of an admiral appreciating the value of
sea power, China's naval force would certainly have been
led against Japan's maritime communications, for a suc-
cessful blow struck there must have put an end to the Korean
campaign. The Chinese, however, failed to read history.
They employed their war-vessels as convoys only, and, when not
using them for that purpose, hid them in port. Everything goes
to show that they would have avoided the battle off the Yalu
had choice been possible, though when forced to fight they fought
bravely. Four of their ships were sunk, and the remainder
escaped to Wei-hai-wei, the vigour of the Japanese pursuit
being greatly impaired by the presence of torpedo-boats in the
retreating squadron.
The Yalu victory opened the over-sea route to China. Japan
could now strike at Talien, Port Arthur, and Wei-hai-wei, naval
stations on the Liaotung and Shantung peninsulas, where power-
ful permanent fortifications, built after plans prepared by
European experts and armed with the best modern weapons, were
regarded as almost impregnable. They fell before the assaults
of the Japanese troops as easily as the comparatively rude forti-
fications at Phyong-yang had fallen. The only resistance of
a stubborn character was made by the Chinese fleet at Wei-hai-
wei; but after the whole squadron of torpedo-craft had been
destroyed or captured as they attempted to escape, and after
three of the largest vessels had been sunk at their moorings by
Japanese torpedoes, and one by gun-fire, the remaining ships
surrendered, and their brave commander, Admiral Ting, com-
mitted suicide. This ended the war. It had lasted seven and a
half months, during which time Japan put into the field five
columns, aggregating about 120,000 of all arms. One of these
columns marched northward from Seoul, won the battle of
Phyong-yang, advanced to the Yalu, forced its way into Man-
churia, and moved towards Mukden by Feng-hwang, fighting
several minor engagements, and conducting the greater part of
its operations amid deep snow in midwinter. The second
column diverged westwards from the Yalu, and, marching
through southern Manchuria, reached Hai-cheng, whence it
advanced to the capture of Niuchwang and Ying-tse-kow. The
third landed on the Liaotung peninsula, and, turning southwards,
carried Talien and Port Arthur by assault. The fourth moved
up the Liaotung peninsula, and, having seized Kaiping, advanced
against Ying-tse-kow, where it joined hands with the second
column. The fifth crossed from Port Arthur to Wei-hai-wei,
and captured the latter. In all these operations the total
Japanese casualties were 1005 killed and 4922 wounded —
figures which sufficiently indicate the inefficiency of the Chinese
fighting. The deaths from disease totalled 16,866, and the
total monetary expenditure was £20,000,000 sterling.
FOREIGN WARS)
Tfce Chinese government sent Li Hung-chang, viceroy of
Pechili and senior grand secretary of state, and Li Ching-fong, to
. discuss terms of peace with Japan, the latter being
rtPrZcr** ^presented by Marquis (afterwards Prince) It$ and
Count Mutsu, prime minister and minister for foreign
affairs, respectively. A treaty was signed at Shimonoseki on
the 17th of April 1805, and subsequently ratified by the sove-
reigns of the two empires. It declared the absolute independence
of Korea; ceded to Japan the part of Manchuria lying south of
a line drawn from the mouth of the river Anping to the mouth
of the Liao, through Fcng-hwang, Hai-cbeng and Ying-tse-kow,
as well as the islands of Formosa and the Pescadores; pledged
China to pay an indemnity of 200,000,000 taels; provided for
the occupation of Wei-hai-wci by Japan pending payment of
the indemnity; secured some additional commercial privileges,
such as the opening of four new places to foreign trade and the
right of foreigners to engage in manufacturing enterprises in
China, and provided for the conclusion of a treaty of commerce
and amity between the two empires, based on the lines of China's
treaties with Occidental powers.
No sooner was this agreement ratified than Russia, Germany
and France presented a joint note to the Tokyo government,
Ponifa recommending that the territories ceded to Japan on
later- the mainland of China should not be permanently
*"**•• occupied, as such a proceeding would be detrimental
to peace. The recommendation was couched in the usual terms of
diplomatic courtesy, but everything indicated that its signatories
were prepared to enforce their advice by an appeal to arms.
Japan found herself compelled to comply. ' Exhausted by the
Chinese campaign, which had drained her treasury, consumed
her supplies of warlike material, and kept her squadrons con-
stantly at sea for eight months, she had no residue of strength
to oppose such a coalition. Her resolve was quickly taken.
The day that saw the publication of the ratified treaty saw also
the issue of an Imperial rescript in which the mikado, avowing
his unalterable devotion to the cause of peace, and recognizing
that the counsel offered by the European states was prompted
by the same sentiment, "yielded to the dictates of magnanimity,
and accepted. the advice of the three Powers." The Japanese
people were shocked by this incident. They could understand
the motives influencing Russia and France, for it was evidently
natural that the former should desire to exclude warlike and
progressive people like the Japanese from territories contiguous
to her borders, and it was also natural that France should remain
true to her alliance with Russia. But Germany, wholly unin-
terested in the ownership of Manchuria, and by profession a
warm friend of Japan, seemed to have joined in robbing the
latter of the fruits of her victory simply for the sake of estab-
lishing some shadowy title to Russia's goodwill. It was not
known until a later period that the German emperor enter-
tained profound apprehensions about the "yellow peril," an
irruption of Oriental hordes into the Occident, and held it a
sacred duty to prevent Japan from gaining a position which
might enable her to construct an immense military machine
out of the countless millions of China.
Japan's third expedition over-sea in the Meiji era had its
origin in causes which belong to the history of China (?.».).
CftJoeM- In the second half of 1000 an anti-foreign and anti-
CHsiaot dynastic rebellion, breaking out in Shantung, spread
t900 ' to the metropolitan province of Pechili, and resulted
in a situation of extreme peril for the foreign communities of
Tientsin and Peking. It was impossible for any European
power, or for the United States, to. organize sufficiently prompt
measures of relief. Thus the eyes of the world turned to Japan;
whose proximity to the scene of disturbance rendered interven-
tion comparatively easy for her. But Japan hesitated. Know-
ing now with what suspicion and distrust the development of her
resources and the growth of her military strength were regarded
by some European peoples, and aware that she had been
admitted to the comity of Western nations on sufferance, she
shrank, on the one hand, from seeming to grasp at an opportunity
for armed display, and, on the other, from the solecism of obtni-
JAPAN: a+7
srveness in the society of strangers. Not until Europe and America
made it quite plain that they needed and desired her aid did she
send a division (a 1,000) men to Pechili. Her troops played a
fine part in the subsequent expedition for the relief of Peking,
which had to be approached in midsummer under very trying
conditions. Fighting side by side with European and American
soldiers, and under the eyes of competent military critics, the
Japanese acquitted themselves in such a manner as to establish
a high military reputation. Further, after the relief of Peking
they withdrew a moiety of their forces, and that step, as well as
their unequivocal co-operation with Western powers in the sub-
sequent negotiations, helped to show the injustice of the
suspicions with which they had been regarded.
From the time (1895) when Russia, with the co-operation of
Germany and France, dictated to Japan a cardinal alteration
of the Shimonoseki treaty, Japanese statesmen seem
to have concluded that their country must one day #££,
cross swords with the great northern power. Not a
few European and American publicists shared that view. But
the vast majority, arguing that the little Eastern empire would
never invite annihilation by such an encounter, believed that
sufficient forbearance to avert serious trouble would always be
forthcoming on Japan's side. Yet when the geographical and
historical situation was carefully considered, little hope of an
ultimately peaceful settlement presented itself. ,
Japan along its western shore, Korea along its southern and
eastern, and Russia along (he eastern coast of its maritime
province, are washed by the Sea of Japan. The communica-
tions between the sea and the Pacific Ocean are practically two
only. One is on the north-cast, namely, Tsugaru Strait; the
other is on the south, namely, the channel between the extremity
of the Korean peninsula and the Japanese island of the nine
provinces. Tsugaru Strait is entirely under Japan's control.
It is between her main island and her island of Yezo, and in case
of need she can dose it with mines. The channel between the
southern extremity of Korea and Japan has a width of 103 m.
and would therefore be a fine open sea-way were it free from
islands. But almost mid-way in this channel lie the twin
islands of Tsushima, and the space of 56 m. that separates them
from Japan is narrowed by another island, Uu. Tsushima and
Iki belong to the Japanese empire. The former has some ex-
ceptionally good harbours, constituting a naval base from which
the channel on either side could easily be sealed. Thus the
avenues from the Pacific Ocean to the Sea of Japan are con-
trolled by the Japanese empire. In other words, access to the
Pacific from Korea's eastern and southern coasts and access
to the Pacific from Russia's maritime province depend upon
Japan's goodwill. So far as Korea was concerned this ques-
tion mattered little, it being her fate to depend upon the good-
will of Japan in affairs of much greater importance. But
with Russia the case was different. Vladivostok, which until
recent times was her principal port in the Far East, lies at the
southern extremity of the maritime province; that is to say, on
the north-western shore of the Japan Sea. It was therefore
necessary for Russia that freedom of passage by the Tsushima
channel should be secured, and to secure it one of two things
was essential, namely, either that she herself should possess a
fortified port on the Korean side, or that Japan should be bound
neither to acquire such a port nor to impose any restriction upon
the navigation of the strait. To put the matter briefly, Russia
must either acquire a strong foothold for herself in southern
Korea, or contrive that Japan should not acquire one. There
was here a strong inducement for Russian aggression in Korea.
Russia's eastward movement through Asia has been strikingly
illustrative of her strong craving for free access to southern seas
and of the impediments she had experienced in gratifying that
wish. An irresistible impulse had driven her oceanward.
Checked again and again in her attempts to reach the Mediter-
ranean, she set out on a five-thousand-miles march of conquest
right across the vast Asiatic continent towards the Pacific.
Eastward of Lake Baikal she found her line of least resistance
along the Amur, and when, owing to the restless perseverance
248
JAPAN
(FOREIGN WARS
of Muravief, she reached the month of that great river, the
acquisition of Nikolayevsk for a naval basil was her immediate
reward. But Nikolayevsk could not possibly satisfy her.
Situated in an inhospitable region far away from all the main
routes of the world's commerce, it offered itself only as a stepping-
stone to further acquisitions. To push southward from this
new port became an immediate object to Russia. There lay an
obstacle in the way, however; the long strip of sea-coast from the
mouth of the Amur to the Korean frontier— an area then called,
the Usuri region because the Usuri forms its western boundary-
belonged to China, and she,, having -conceded much to Russia'
in the matter of the Amur, showed no disposition to make fur-
ther concessions in the matter of the Usuri In the presence of
menaces, however, she agreed that the region should be regarded
as common property pending a convenient opportunity for dear
delimitation. That opportunity came very soon. Seizing the
moment (i860) when China had been beaten to her knees by
England and France, Russia secured final cession of the Usuri
region, which now became the maritime province of Siberia.
Then Russia shifted her naval base on the Pacific from Nikola-
yevsk to Vladivostok. She gained ten degrees in a southerly
direction.
• From the month of the Amur, where Nikolayevsk is situated,
to the southern shore of Korea there rests on the coast of
eastern Asia an arch of islands having at its northern point
Sakhalin and at its southern Tsushima, the keystone of the arch
being the main island of Japan. This arch embraces the Sea
of Japan and is washed on its convex side by the Pacific Ocean.
Immediately after the transfer of Russia's naval base from
Nikolayevsk to Vladivostok, an attempt was made to obtain
possession of the southern point of the arch, namely, Tsushima.
A Russian man-of-war proceeded thither and quietly began to
establish a settlement, which would soon have constituted a
title of ownership had not Great Britain interfered. The
Russians saw that Vladivostok, acquired at the cost of so much
toil, would be comparatively useless unless from the sea on whose
shore it' was situated an avenue to the Pacific could be opened,
and they therefore tried to obtain command of the Tsushima
channel. Immediately after reaching the mouth of the Amur
the same instinct had led them to begin the colonization of
Sakhalin. . .The axis of this long narrow island is inclined at a
very acute angle to the Usuri region, which its northern extre-
mity almost touches, while its southern is separated from Yezo
by the. strait of La Perouse, But in Sakhalin the Russians
found Japanese subjects. In fact the island was a part of the
Japanese empire. Resorting, however, to the Usuri fiction of
joint occupation, they succeeded by 1875 in transferring the whole
of Sakhalin to Russia's dominion. Further encroachments upon
Japanese territory could not be lightly essayed, and the Russians
held their hands. They had been trebly checked: checked in
trying to push southward along the coast of the mainland;
checked in trying to secure an avenue from Vladivostok to the
Pacific; and checked in their search for an ice-free port, which
definition Vladivostok did not fulfil. Enterprise in the direction
of Korea seemed to be the only hope of saving the maritime
results of the great Trans-Asian march.
Was Korea within safe range of such enterprises ? Everything
seemed to answer in the affirmative. Korea had all the quali-
fications desired by an aggressor. Her people were unprogrcs-
sive, her resources undeveloped, her self-defensive capacities
insignificant, her government corrupt. But she was a tributary
of China, and China had begun to show some tenacity in pro-
tecting the integrity of her buffer state*. Besides, Japan was
understood to have pretensions with regard to Korea. On the
whole, therefore, the problem of carrying to full fruition the
work of Muravief and his lieutenants demanded strength greater
than Russia could exercise without some line of communications
supplementing the Amur waterway and the long ocean route.
Therefore she set about the construction of a. railway across
Asia.
The. Amur being the boundary of Russia's east Asian terri
tory, this railway had to be carried along its northern bank where
many engineering and economic obstacles presented themselves.
Besides, the river, from an early stage in its course, makes a
huge semicircular sweep northward, and a railway following its
bank to Vladivostok must make the same detour. If, on the con-
trary, the road could be carried over the diameter of the semi-
circle, it would be a straight and therefore shorter line, technically
easier and economically better. The diameter, however, passed
through Chinese territory, and an excuse for extorting China's
permission was not in sight. Russia therefore proceeded to
build each end of the road, deferring the construction of the
Amur section for the moment. She had not waited long when,
In 1804, war broke out between China and Japan, and the latter,
completely victorious, demanded as the price of peace the
southern littoral of Manchuria from the Korean boundary to the
Liaotung peninsula at the entrance to the Gulf of PechilL This
was a crisis in Russia's career. She saw that her maritime
extension could never get nearer to the Pacific than Vladivostok
were this claim of Japan's established. For the proposed
arrangement would place the littoral of Manchuria in Japan's
direct occupation and the littoral of Korea in her constructive
control, since not only had she fought to rescue Korea from
Chinese suzerainty, but also her object in demanding a slice of
the Mancfaurian coast-line was to protect Korea against aggres-
sion from the north; that is to say, against aggression from
Russia. Muravief 's enterprise had carried his country first to the
mouth of the Amur and thence southward along the coast
to Vladivostok and to Possiet Bay at the north-eastern extremity
of Korea* But it had not given to Russia free access to the
Pacific, and now she was menaced with a perpetual barrier to
that access, since the whole remaining coast of east Asia as far ,
as the Gulf of Pcchili was about to pass into Japan's possession
or under her domination.
Then Russia took an extraordinary step. She persuaded
Germany and France to force Japan out of Manchuria. It is
not to be supposed that she frankly exposed her own aggressive
designs and asked for assistance to prosecute them. Neither
is it to be supposed that France and Germany were so curiously
deficient in perspicacity as to overlook those designs. At all
events these three great powers served on Japan a notice to quit,
and Japan, exhausted by her struggle with China, had no choice
but to obey.
The notice was accompanied by an exposi of reasons. Its
signatories said that Japan's tenure of the Mancburian littoral
would menace the security of the Chinese capital, would render
the independence of Korea illusory, and would constitute an
obstacle to the peace of the Orient.
By way of saving the situation in some slight degree Japan
sought from China a guarantee that no portion of Manchuria
should thereafter be leased or ceded to a foreign state. But
France warned Japan that to press such a demand would offend
Russia, and Russia declared that, for her part, she had no inten-
tion of trespassing in Manchuria. Japan, had she been in a
position to insist on the guarantee, would also have been in a
position to disobey the mandate of the three powers. Unable
to do cither the one or the other, she quietly stepped out of
Manchuria, and proceeded to double her *xmy and treble her
navy.
As a reward for the assistance nominally rendered to China in
this matter, Russia obtained permission in Peking to divert her
Trans-Asian railway from the huge bend of the Amur to the
straight line through Manchuria. Neither Germany nor France
received any immediate •recompense. Three years later, by
way of indemnity for the murder of two missionaries by a mob,
Germany seized a portion of the province of Shantung. Imme-
diately, on the principle that two wrongs make a right, Russia
obtained a lease of the Liaotung peninsula, from which she
had driven Japan in 1895. This act she followed by extorting
from China permission to construct a branch of the Trans-Asian
railway through Manchuria from north to south.
Russia's maritime aspirations had now assumed a radically
altered phase. Instead of pushing southward from Vladivostok
and Possiet Bay along the coast of Korta, she had suddenly
FOREIGN WARS)
leaped the Korean peninsula and found access to the Pacific
in Liaotung. Nothing was wanting to establish her as practical
mistress of Manchuria except a plausible excuse for garrisoning
the place. Such an excuse was furnished by the. Boxer rising in
iooo. Its Conclusion saw her in military occupation of the
whole region, and she might easily have made her occupation
permanent by prolonging it until peace and order should have
been fully restored. But here she fell into an error of judgment
Imagining that the Chinese could be persuaded or intimidated to
any concession, she proposed a convention virtually recognizing
her title to Manchuria.
Japan watched all these things with profound anxiety. If
there were any reality in the dangers which Russia, Germany
and France had declared to be incidental to Japanese occupation
of a part of "Manchuria, the same dangers must be doubly inci-
dental to Russian occupation of the whole of Manchuria — the
security of the Chinese capital would be threatened, and an
obstacle would be created to the permanent peace of the East.
The independence of Korea was an object of supreme solicitude
to Japan. Historically she held towards the little state a
relation closely resembling that of suzerain, and though of
her ancient conquests nothing remained except a settlement
at Fusan on the southern coast, her national sentiment would
have been deeply wounded by any foreign aggression in the
peninsula. It was to establish Korean independence that she
waged war with China in 1894; and her annexation of the Man-
churian littoral adjacent to the Korean frontier, after the war,
was designed to secure that independence, not to menace it as
the triple alliance professed to think. But if Russia came into
possession of all Manchuria, her subsequent absorption of Korea
would be almost inevitable. For the consideration set forth
above as to Vladivostok's maritime avenues would then acquire
absolute cogency. Manchuria is larger than France and the
United Kingdom lumped together. The addition of such an
immense area to Russia's east Asiatic dominions, together with
its littoral on the Gulf of Pechili and the Yellow Sea, would neces-
sitate a corresponding expansion of her naval forces in the Far
East. With the one exception of Port Arthur, however, the
Manchurian coast does not offer any convenient naval base. It
is only in the splendid harbours of southern Korea that such
basescan be found. Moreover, there would be an even stronger
motive impelling Russia towards Korea. Neither the Usuri
region nor the Manchurian littoral possesses so much as one
port qualified to satisfy her perennial longing for free access to
the ocean in a temperate zone. Without Korea, then, Russia's
east Asian expansion, though it added huge blocks of territory
to her dominions, would have been commercially incomplete and
strategically defective.
If it be asked why, apart from history and national sentiment,
Japan should object to a Russian Korea, the answer is, first,
-because there would thus be planted almost within cannon-
shot of her shores a power of enormous strength and insatiable
ambition; secondly, because, whatever voice in Manchuria's
destroy Russia derived from her railway, the same voice in
-Korea's destiny was possessed by Japan as the sole owner of
railways in the peninsula; thirdly, that whereas Russia had an
altogether insignificant share in the foreign commerce of Korea
and scarcely ten bona-fide settlers, Japan did the greater part of
the over-sea trade and had tens of thousands of settlers; fourthly,
that if Russia's dominions stretched uninterruptedly from the
Sea of Okhotsk to the Gulf of Pechili, her ultimate absorption of
north China would be as certain as sunrise; and fifthly, that
such domination and such absorption would involve the practical
closure of all that immense region to Japanese commerce and
industry as well as to the commerce and Industry of every
Western nation except Russia. This last proposition did not
rest solely on the fact that to oppose artificial barriers to free
competition is Russia's sole hope of utilising to her own benefit
any commercial opportunities brought within her reach. It
jested also on the fact that Russia had objected to foreign
settlements at the marts recently opened by treaty with China
to American and Japanese subjects. Without settlements,
JAPAN 249
trade at those marts would be Impossible, and thus Russia had
constructively announced that there should be no trade but
Russian, if she could prevent it.
Against such dangers Japan would have been justified in
adopting any measure of self-protection. She had foreseen them
for six years, and had been strengthening herself to avert them.
But she wanted peace. She wanted to develop her material
resources and to accumulate some measure of wealth, without
which she must remain insignificant among the nations. • Two
pacific devices offered, and she adopted them both.. Russia,
instead of trusting time to consolidate her tenure of Manchuria,
had made the mistake of pragmatically importuning China for a
conventional title. If then Peking could be strengthened to
resist this demand, some arrangement of a distinctly terminable
nature might be made. The United States, Great Britain and
Japan, joining hands for that purpose, did succeed 'in so far
stiffening China's backbone that her show of resolution finally
induced Russia to sign a treaty pledging herself to withdraw
her troops from Manchuria in three instalments, each step of
evacuation to be accomplished by a fixed date. - That was one
of the pacific devices. The other suggested itself in connexion
with the new commercial treaties which China had promised to
negotiate in the sequel of the Boxer troubles. In these docu-
ments clauses provided for the opening of three places in Man-
churia to foreign trade. It seemed a reasonable hope that,
having secured commercial access to Manchuria by covenant
with its sovereign, China, the powers would not allow Russia
arbitrarily to restrict their privileges. It seemed also a reason-
able hope that Russia, having solemnly promised to evacuate
Manchuria at fixed dates, would fulfil her engagement.'
The latter hope was signally disappointed. When the time
came for evacuation, Russia behaved as though no promise
had ever been given. She proposed wholly new conditions,
Which would have strengthened her grasp of Manchuria instead
of loosening it. China being powerless to offer any practical
protest, and Japan's interests ranking next in order of impor-
tance, the TokyS government approached Russia direct. '* They
did not ask for anything that could hurt her pride or injure
her position. Appreciating fully the economical status she had
acquired in Manchuria by large outlays of capital, they offered
to recognise that status, provided that Russia would extend
similar recognition to Japan's status in Korea, would promise,
in common with Japan, to respect the sovereignty and the
territorial integrity of China and Korea, and would be a party
to a mutual engagement that all nations should have equal
industrial and commercial opportunities in Manchuria and the
Korean peninsula. In a word, they invited Russia to subscribe
the policy enunciated by the United States and Great Britain,
the policy of the open door and of the integrity of the Chinese
and Korean empires.
Thus commenced a negotiation which lasted five and a half
months. Japan gradually reduced her demands to a minimum.
Russia never made the smallest appreciable concession. She
refused to listen to Japan for one moment about Manchuria.
Eight years previously Japan had been in military possession of
Manchuria, and Russia with the assistance of Germany and
France had expelled her for reasons which concerned Japan
incomparably more than they concerned any of the three
powers— the security of the Chinese capital, the independence of
Korea, the peace of the East. Now, Russia had the splendid
assurance to declare by implication that none of these things
concerned Japan at all. The utmost she would admit was
Japan's partial right to be heard about Korea. And St the same
time she herself commenced in northern Korea a series of aggres-
_ sions, partly perhaps to show her potentialities, partly by way
of counter-irritant. That was not all. Whilst she studiously
deferred her answers to Japan's proposals and protracted the
negotiations to an extent which was actually contumelious,
she hastened to send eastward a big fleet of war-ships and a new
army of soldiers. It was impossible for the dullest politician
to mistake her purpose. She intended to yield nothing, but
to prepare such a parade of force that her obduracy would
JAPAN (FOREIGN WARS
rut by the contracting parties; transferred to Japan
[ the Liaotung peninsula held by Russia from China
ith the Russian railways south* of Kwang-Cheng-tsze
[lateral mining or other privileges; ceded to Japan
rn half of Sakhalin, the 50th parallel of latitude
boundary between the two parts; secured fishing
Japanese subjects along the coasts of the seas of
hotsk and Bering; laid down that the expenses
r the Japanese for the maintenance of the Russian
luring the war should be reimbursed by Russia,
itlays made by the latter on account of Japanese
by which arrangement Japan obtained a payment
millions sterling—and provided that the contracting
He withdrawing their military forces from Manchuria,
ntain guards to protect their respective railways,
r of such guards not to exceed 15 per kilometre of
e were other important restrictions: first, the con-
irties were to abstain from taking, on the Russo-
•ntier, any military measures which might menace
f of Russian or Korean territory; secondly, the two
dged themselves not to exploit the Manchurian
or strategic purposes; and thirdly, they promised
I on Sakhalin or its adjacent islands any fortifications
nilar military works, or to take any military measures
it impede the free navigation of the straits of La
d the Gulf .of Tartary.- The above provisions con-
two contracting parties only. But China's interests
onsidered. Thus it was agreed to " restore entirely
tcly to her exclusive administration " all portions of
then in the occupation, or under the control, of
r Russian troops, except the leased territory; that her
st be obtained for the transfer to Japan of the leases
siohs held by the Russians in Manchuria; that the
>vernment would disavow the possession of "any
idvantages or preferential or exclusive concessions
cnt of Chinese sovereignty or inconsistent with the
' equal opportunity in Manchuria "; and that Japan
"engaged reciprocally not to obstruct any general
:ommon to all countries which China might take
relopment of the commerce and industry of Man-
This* distinction between the special interests of the
parties and the interests of China herself as well
i nations generally is essential to clear understanding
ion which subsequently attracted much attention,
me of the opium war (1857) to the Boxer rising (1900)
great Western powers struggled for its own band in
each sought to gain for itself exclusive concessions
;cs with comparatively little regard for the interests
md with no regard whatever for China's sovereign
e fruits of this period were: permanently ceded tcrri-
g-Kong and Macao); leases temporarily establishing
crcignty in various districts (Kiaochow, Wei-hai-wei
j -chow); railway and mining concessions; and the
nt of settlements at open ports where foreign
was supreme. But when, in 1000, the Boxer rising
he powers into a common camp, they awoke to full
1 of a principle which had been growing current
t two or three years, namely, that concerted action
1 of maintaining China's integrity and securing to
quality of opportunity and a similarly open door,
iy feasible method of preventing the partition of
>, Empire and averting a clash of rival interests which
1 disastrous results. This, of course, did not mean
was to be any abandonment of special privileges
quired or any surrender of existing concessions,
ement was not to be retrospective in any sense.
;rests were to be strictly guarded until, the lapse
Mis for which they had been granted, or until the
[ China's competence to be really autonomous. A
at ion was thus created. International professions of
China's sovereignty, for the integrity of her empire
enforcement of the open door and equal opportunity.
FOREIGN WARS]
coexisted with legacies from an entirely different past. Russia
endorsed this new policy, but not unnaturally declined to
abate any of the advantages previously enjoyed by her
in Manchuria. Those advantages were very substantial.
They included a twenty-five years' lease— with provision for
renewal— of the Liaotung peninsula, within which area of
1720 sq. m. Chinese troops might not penetrate, whereas
Russia would not only exercise full administrative authority,
but also take military and naval action of any kind; they
included the creation of a neutral territory in the immediate
north of the former and still more extensive, which should remain
under Chinese administration, but where neither Chinese nor
Russian troops might enter, nor might China, without Russia's
consent, cede land, open trading marts or grant concessions to
any third nationality; and they included the right to build
some 1600 m. of railway (which China would have the oppor-
tunity of purchasing at cost price in the year 1938 and would be
entitled to receive gratis in 1082), as well as the right to hold
extensive zones on either side of the railway, to administer these
zones in the fullest sense, and to work all mines lying along the
lines. Under the Portsmouth treaty these advantages were
transferred to Japan by Russia, the railway, however, being
divided so that only the portion (521 J m.) to the south of
Kwang-Cheng-taze fell to Japan's share, while the portion
(1077 m.) to the north of that place remained in Russia's
bands. China's consent to the above transfers and assignments
was obtained in a treaty signed at Peking on the 2.2nd of
December 1905. Thus Japan came to hold in Manchuria a
position somewhat contradictory. On the one hand, she figured
as the champion of the Chinese Empire's integrity and as an
exponent of the new principle of equal opportunity and the
open door. On the other, she appeared as the legatee of many
privileges more or leas inconsistent with that principle. But,
at the same time, nearly all the great powers of Europe were
similarly circumstanced. In their cases also the same in-
congruity was observable between the newly professed policy
and the aftermath of the old practice. It was scarcely to be
expected that Japan alone should make a large sacrifice on the
altar of a theory to which no other state thought of yielding
any retrospective obedience whatever. She did, indeed,
furnish a dear proof of deference to the open-door doctrine,
for instead of reserving the railway zones to her own exclusive
use, as she was fully entitled to do, she sought and obtained
from China a pledge to open to foreign trade 16 places within
those zones. For the' rest, however, the inconsistency between
the past and the present, though existing throughout the
whole of China, was nowhere so conspicuous as in the three
eastern provinces (Manchuria); not because there was any real
difference of degree, but because Manchuria had been the scene
of the greatest war of modern times; because that war had been
fought by Japan in the cause of the new policy, and because
the principles of the equally open door and of China's integrity
had been the main bases of the Portsmouth treaty, of the Anglo-
Japanese alliance,, and of the subsequently concluded ententes
with France and Russia. In short, the world's eyes were fixed
on Manchuria and diverted from China proper, so that every act
of Japan was subjected to an exceptionally rigorous scrutiny,
and the, nations behaved as though they expected her to live up
to a standard of almost ideal altitude; China's mood, too,
greatly complicated the situation. She had the choice between
two moderate and natural courses: either to wait quietly until
the various concessions granted by her to foreign powers in
the evil past should lapse by maturity, or to qualify herself by
earnest reforms and industrious, development for their earlier
recovery. Nominally she adopted the latter course, but in
reality she fell into a mood of much impatience. Under the name
of a " rights-recovery campaign " her people began to protest
vehemently against the continuance of any conditions which
impaired her sovereignty, and as this temper coloured her
attitude towards the various questions which inevitably grew
out of the situation in Manchuria, her relations with Japan
became somewhat strained in the early part of 1900.
JAPAN 251
Having waged two wars on account of Korea, Japan emerged
from the second conflict with the conviction that the policy of
maintaining the independence of Korea must bej^,^
modified, and that since the identity of Korean and Kowii*
Japanese, interests in the Far East and the paramount **» Wmr
character of Japanese interests in Korea would not g* *
permit Japan to leave Korea to the care of any third
power, she must assume the charge herself. Europe and
America also recognized that view of the situation, and consented
to withdraw their legations from Seoul, thus leaving the control
of Korean foreign affairs entirely in the hands of Japan, who
further undertook to assume military direction in the event of
aggression from without or disturbance from within. But in
the matter of internal administration she continued to limit
herself to advisory supervision. Thus, though a Japanese
resident-general in Seoul, with subordinate residents throughout
the provinces, assumed the functions hitherto discharged by
foreign representatives and consuls, the Korean government was
merely asked to employ Japanese experts in the position of
counsellors, the right to accept or reject their counsels being left
to their employers. Once again, however, the futility of looking
for any real reforms under this optional system was demon-
strated. Japan sent her most renowned statesman, Prince Ito,
to discharge the duties of resident-general; hut even he, in spite
of profound patience and tact, found that some less optional
methods must be resorted to. Hence on the 24th of July 1907
a new agreement was signed, by which the resident-general
acquired initiative as well as consultative competence to enact
and enforce laws and ordinances, to appoint and remove Korean
officials, and to place capable Japanese subjects in the ranks of
the administration. That this constituted a heavy blow to
Korea's independence could not be gainsaid. That it was in-
evitable seemed to be equally obvious. For there existed in
Korea nearly all the worst abuses of medieval systems. The
administration of justice depended solely on favour or interest.
The police contributed by corruption and incompetence to the
insecurity of life and property. The troops were a body of use-
less mercenaries. Offices being allotted by sale, thousands of
incapable* thronged the ranks of the executive. The emperor's
court was crowded by diviners and plotters of all kinds, male
and female. The finances of the throne and those of the state
were hopelessly confused. There was nothing like an organized
judiciary. A witness was in many cases considered pariiccps
criminis', torture was commonly employed to obtain evidence,
and defendants in civil cases were placed under arrest. Im-
prisonment meant death or permanent disablement for a man of
small means. Flogging so severe as to cripple,' if not to kill,
was a common punishment; every major offence from robbery
upward was capital, and female criminals were frequently exe-
cuted by administering shockingly painful poisons. The currency
was in a state of the utmost confusion. Extreme corruption
and extortion were practised in connexion with taxation.
Finally, while nothing showed that the average Korean lacked
the elementary virtue of patriotism, there had Wn repeated
proofs that the safely and independence of the empire counted
{or little in the estimates of political intriguers. Japan must
cither step out of Korea altogether or effect drastic reforms
there. She necessarily chose the latter alternative, and the
things which she accomplished between the beginning of 1906
and the close of 1008 may be briefly described as the elaboration
of a proper system of taxation; the organization of a staff to
administer annual budgets; the re-assessment of taxable pro-
perty; the floating of public loans for productive enterprises;
the reform of the currency; the establishment of banks of
various kinds, including agricultural and commercial; the
creation of associations for putting bank-notes into circulation;
the introduction of a warehousing system to supply capital to
farmers; the lighting and buoying of the coasts; the provision
of posts, telegraphs, roads and railways ; the erection of public
buildings; the starting of various industrial enterprises (such as
printing, brick-making, forestry and coal-mining); the laying
out of model farms; the beginning of cotton cultivation; the
2 5 a JAPAN
building and equipping of an Industrial training school; the
inauguration of sanitary works; the opening of hospitals and
medical schools; the organization of an excellent educational
system; the construction of waterworks in several towns; the
complete remodelling of the central government; the differentia-
tion of the court and the executive, as well as of the administra-
tion and the judiciary; the formation of an efficient body of
police; the organization of law courts with a majority of Japan-
esc jurists on the bench; the enactment of a new penal code;
drastic reforms in the taxation system. In the summer of 1007
the resident-general advised the Throne to disband the standing
army as an unserviceable and expensive force. The measure was
doubtless desirable, but the docility of the troops had been over-
rated. Some of them resisted vehemently, and many became
the nucleus of an insurrection which lasted in a desultory manner
for nearly two years; cost the lives of 21, coo insurgents and
1300 Japanese; and entailed upon Japan an outlay of nearly a
million sterling. Altogether Japan was 15 millions sterling out
of pocket on Korea's account by the end of 1909. She had
also lost the veteran statesman Prince Ito, who was assassinated
at Harbin by a Korean fanatic on the 26th of October xooo.
Finally an end was put to an anomalous situation by the an-
nexation of Korea to Japan on the 29th of August 19x0. (See
further Koiea.)
DC— Domestic . History.
Cosmography.— Japanese annals represent the first inhabitant
of earth as a direct descendant of the gods. Two books describe
the events of the " Divine age." One, compiled in 7x2, is called
the Kojihi (Records of Ancient Matters); the other, compiled
in 720, is called the Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan). Both
describe the processes of creation, but the author of the Chronicles
drew largely upon Chinese traditions, whereas the compilers of
the Records appear to have limited themselves to materials
which they believed to be native. The Records, therefore, have
always been regarded as the more trustworthy guide to pure
Japanese conceptions. They deal with the creation of Japan
only, other countries having been apparently judged unworthy of
attention. At the beginning of all things a primordial trinity
Is represented as existing on the " plain of high heaven." There-
after, during an indefinite time and by an indefinite process,
other deities come into existence, their titles indicating a vague
connexion with constructive and fertilizing forces. They are
not immortal: it is explicitly stated that they ultimately pass
away, and the idea of the cosmographers seems to be that each
deity marks a gradual approach to human methods of pro-
creation. Meanwhile the earth is "young and, like floating
oil, drifts about after the manner of a jelly-fish." At last there
are born two deities, the creator and the creatress, and these
receive the mandate of all the heavenly beings to "make,
consolidate and give birth to the drifting land." For use in
that work a jewelled spear is given to them, and, standing upon
the bridge that connects heaven and earth, they thrust down-
wards with the weapon, stir the brine below and draw up the
spear, when from its point fall drops which, accumulating, form
the first dry land. Upon this land the two deities descend, and,
by ordinary processes, beget the islands of Japan as well as
numerous gods representing the forces of nature. But in giving
birth to the god of fire the creatxess(Izanami) perishes, and the
creator (Izanagi) makes his way to the under-world in search of
her— an obvious parallel to the tales of Ishtar and Orpheus.
With difficulty he returns to earth, and, as he washes himself
from the pollution of Hades, there are born from the turbid water
a number of evil deities succeeded by a number of good, just
as in the Babylonian cosmogony the primordial ocean, Tiamat,
brings forth simultaneously gods and imps. Finally, as Izanagi
washes his left eye the Goddess of the Sun comes into existence;
as he washes his right, the God of the Moon; and as he washes
his nose, the God of Force. To these three he assigns, respec-
tively, the dominion of the sun, the dominion of the moon, and
the dominion of the ocean. But the god of force (Sosanoo), like
Lucifer, rebels against this decree, creates a commotion in
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
heaven, and after having been the cause of the temporary
seclusion of the sun goddess and the consequent wrapping of the
world in darkness, kills the goddess of food and is permanently
banished from heaven by the host of deities. He descends to
Izumo on the west of the main island of Japan, and there saves
a maiden from an eight-headed serpent. Sosanoo himself passes
to the under-world and becomes the deity of Hades, but he
invests one of his descendants with the sovereignty of Japan,
and the title is established after many curious adventures. To
the sun goddess also, whose feud with her fierce brother sur-
vives the tatter's banishment from heaven, the idea of making
her grandson ruler of Japan presents itself. She despatches three
embassies to impose her will upon the descendants of Sosanoo,
and finally her grandson descends, not, however, in Izumo,
where the demi-gods of Sosanoo's race hold sway, but in HiQga
in the southern island of KiQshiu. This grandson of Amaterasu
(the goddess of the sun) is called Ninigi, whose great-grandson
figures in Japanese history as the first human sovereign of the
country, known during life as Kamu-Yamato-Iware-Biko, and
given the name of Jimmu tcnnO (Jimmu, son of heaven)
fourteen centuries after his death. Japanese annalists attribute
the accession of Jimmu to the year 600 B.C. Why that date was
chosen must remain a matter of conjecture. The Records of
Ancient Matters has no chronology, but the more pretentious
writers of the Chronicles of Japan, doubtless in imitation of their
Chinese models, considered it necessary to assign a year, a
month, and even a day for each event of importance. There
is abundant reason, however, to question the accuracy of all
Japanese chronology prior to the 5th century. The first date
corroborated by external evidence is 461, and Aston, who has
made a special study of the subject, concludes that the year
500 may be taken as the tune when the chronology of the.
Chronicles begins to be trustworthy. Many Japanese, however,
are firm believers in the Chronicles, and when assigning the
year of the empire they invariably take 660 B.C. for starting-
point, so that 1909 of the Gregorian calendar becomes for
them 2569.
Prehistoric Period.— -Thus, if the most rigid estimate be
accepted, the space of 11 60 years, from 600 B.C. to aj>. 500, may
be called the prehistoric period. During that long interval
the annals include 24 sovereigns, the first 17 of whom lived for
over a hundred years on the average. It seems reasonable to
conclude that the so-called assignment of the sovereignty of
Japan to Sosanoo's descendants and the establishment of
their kingdom in Izumo represent an invasion of Mongolian
immigrants coming from the direction of the Korean peninsula —
indeed one of the Nihongi' s versions of the event actually
indicates Korea as the point of departure — and that the subse-
quent descent of Ninigi on Mount Takachiho in HiQga indicates
the advent of a body of Malayan settlers from the south sea.
Jimmu, according to the Chronicles, set out from HiQga in
667 B.C. and was not crowned at his new palace in Yamato until
660. This campaign of seven years is described in some detail,
but no satisfactory information is given as to the nature of the
craft in which the invader and his troops voyaged, or as to
the number of men under his command. The weapons said
to have been carried were bows, spears and swords. A super-
natural element is imported into the narrative in the form of the
three-legged crow of the sun, which Amaterasu sends down to
act as guide and messenger for her descendants. Jimmu died
at his palace of Kashiwa-bara in 585 B.C., his age being x>7
according to the Chronicles, and 137 according to the Records,
He was buried in a kind of tomb called misasagi, which seems to
have been in use in Japan for some centuries before the Christian
era— "a highly specialized form of tumulus, consisting of
two mounds, one having a circular, the other a triangular base,
which merged into each other, the whole being surrounded by a
moat, or sometimes by two concentric moats with a narrow
strip of land between. In some, perhaps in most, cases the
misasagi contains a large vault of great unhewn stones without
mortar. The walls of this vault converge gradually towards the
top, which is roofed in by enormous slabs of stone weighing
DOMESTIC HISTORY)
many tons each. The entrance h by mean* of a gallery
roofed with similar stones." Several of these ancient sepulchral
mounds have been examined during recent yean, and their
contents have furnished information of much antiquarian
interest, though there is a complete absence of inscriptions.
The reigns of the eight sovereigns who succeeded Jiramu were
absolutely uneventful. Nothing is set down except the genea-
logy of each ruler, the place of his residence and his burial,
his age and the date of his death. It was then the custom —
and it remained so until the 8th century of the Christian era —
to change the capital on the accession of each emperor; a habit
which effectually prevented the growth of any great metropolis.
The reign of the 10th emperor, Sfljin, lasted from 08 to 30 B.C.
During his era the land was troubled by pestilence and the
people broke out in rebellion; calamities which were supposed
to be caused by the spirit of the ancient ruler of Izumo to avenge
a want of consideration shown to his descendants by their
supplanters. Divination — by a Chinese process — and visions
revealed the source of trouble; rites of worship were performed
in honour of the ancient ruler, his descendant being entrusted
with the duty, and the pestilence ceased. We now hear for the
first time of vigorous measures to quell the aboriginal savages,
doubtless the Ainu. Four generals are sent out against them irf
different directions. But the expedition is interrupted by an
armed attempt on the part of the emperor's half-brother, who,
utilizing the opportunity of the troops' absence from Yamato,
marches from Yamashtro at the bead of a powerful army to
win the crown for himself. In connexion with these incidents,
curious evidence is furnished of the- place then assigned to
woman by the writers of the Chronicles. It is a girl who^arns
one of the emperor's generals of the plot; it is the sovereign's
aunt who interprets the warning; and it b Ata, the wife of the
rebellious prince, who leads the left wing of his army. Four
other noteworthy facts are recorded of this reign: the taking
of a census; the imposition of a tax on animals' skins and game
to be paid by men, and on textile fabrics by women; the
building of boats for coastwise transport, and the digging of
dikes and reservoirs for agricultural purposes. All these
things rest solely on the testimony of annalists writing eight
centuries later than the era they discuss and compiling their
narrative mostly from tradition. Careful investigations have
been made to ascertain whether the histories of China and Korea
corroborate or contradict those of Japan. Without entering
into detailed evidence, the inference may be at once stated that
the dates given in Japanese early history are just 120 years too
remote; an error very likely to occur when using the sexagenary
cycle, which constituted the first method of reckoning time in
Japan. But although this correction suffices to reconcile some
contradictory features of Far-Eastern history, it does not consti-
tute any explanation of the incredible longevity assigned by the
Chronicles to several Japanese sovereigns, and the conclusion is
that when a consecutive record of reigns came to be compiled
in the 8th century, many lacunae were found which had to be
filled up from the imagination of the compilers. With this
parenthesis we may pass rapidly over the events of the next
two centuries (ao B.C. to a.d. 200). They are remarkable for
vigorous measures to subdue the aboriginal Ainu, who in the
southern island of KioshiQ are called Kuma-so (the names of two
tribes) and sometimes earth-spiders (i.e. cave-dwellers), while
in the north-eastern regions of the main island they are design
sated Yemishi. Expeditions are led against them in both
regions by Prince Yamato-dake, a hero revered by all succeeding
generations of Japanese as the type of valour and loyalty.
Dying from the effects of hardship and exposure, but declaring
with his last breath that loss of life was as nothing compared
with the sorrow of seeing his father's face no more, his spirit
ascends to heaven as a white bird, and when his son, Chuai,
comes to the throne, he causes cranes to be placed in the moat
surrounding his palace in memory of his illustrious sire.
The sovereign had partly ceased to follow the example of
Jimmu, who led his armies in person. The emperors did not,
however, pass a sedentary, life. They frequently made pro-
JAPAN 253
greases throughout their dominions, and on these occasions &
not uncommon incident was the addition of some local beauty to
the Imperial harem. This licence had a far-reaching effect,
since to provide for the sovereign's numerous offspring — the
emperor KeikO (71-130) had 80 children— no better way offered
than to make grants of land, and thus were laid the foundations
of a territorial nobility destined profoundly to influence the course
of Japanese history. Woman continues to figure conspicuously
in the story. The image of the sun goddess, enshrined in Ise
(5 B.C.), is entrusted to the keeping of a princess, as are the
mirror, sword and jewel inherited from the sun goddess; a woman
(Tachibana) accompanies Prince Yamato-dake in bis campaign
Sgainst the Yemishi, and sacrifices her life to queil a tempest at
sea; Saho, consort of Suinin, is the heroine of a most tragic tale
in which the conflict between filial piety and conjugal loyalty
leads to her self-destruction; and a woman is found ruling over*
a large district in Kiushiu when the Emperor KeikO is engaged
in his campaign against the aborigines. The reign of Suinin
saw the beginning of an art destined to assume extraordinary
importance in Japan— the art of wrestKng— and the first cham-
pion, Nomi no Sukune, is honoured for having suggested that
clay figures should take the place of the human sacrifices hitherto
offered at the sepulture of Imperial personages. The irrigation
works commenced in the time of SOjin were zealously continued
under his two immediate successors, Suinin and Keik6. More
than 800 ponds and channels are described as having been con-
structed under the former's rule. We find evidence also that
the sway of the throne had been by this time widely extended,
for in x 25 a governor-general of 15 provinces is nominated, and
two years later, governors (tniyakko) are appointed in every
province and mayors (inaki) in every village. The number or
names of these local divisions arc not given, but H is explained
that mountains and rivers were taken as boundaries of provinces,
the limits of towns and villages being marked by roads running
respectively east and west, north and south.
An incident is now reached which the Japanese count a land-
mark in their history, though foreign critics are disposed to regard
it as apocryphal It is the invasion of Korea by a vmaiam
Japanese army under the command of the empress V/JJJJl,
Jingo, in 200. The emperor Chuai, having proceeded to
KioshiQ for the purpose of conducting a campaign against the
Kuma-so, is there joined by the empress, who, at the inspiration
of a deity, seeks to divert the Imperial arms against Korea.
But the emperor refuses to believe in the existence of any such
country, and heaven punishes his incredulity with death at the
hands of the Kuma-so, according to one account; from the effects
of disease, according to another. The calamity is concealed;
the Kuma-so are subdued, and the empress, having collected a
fleet and raised an army, crosses to the state of Silla (in Korea),
where, at the spectacle of her overwhelming strength, the
Korean monarch submits without fighting, and swears that until
the sun rises in the west, until rivers run towards their sources,
and until pebbles ascend to the sky and become stars, he
will do homage and send tribute to Japan. His example is
followed by the kings of the two other states constituting the
Korean peninsula, and the warlike empress returns triumphant.
Many supernatural elements embellish the tale, but the featured
which chiefly discredit it are that it abounds in anachronisms,
and that the event, despite its signal importance, is not mentioned
in either Chinese or Korean history. It is certain that China
then possessed in Korea territory administered by Chinese
governors. She must therefore have had cognisance of such an
invasion, had it occurred. Moreover, Korean history mentions
twenty-five raids made by the Japanese against Silla during the
first five centuries of the Christian era, but not one of them can
be indentified with Jingo's alleged expedition. There can be no
doubt that the early Japanese were an aggressive, enterprising
people, and that their nearest over-sea neighbour suffered much
from their activity. Nor can there be any reasonable doubt that
the Jingo tale contains a large germ of truth, and is at least an
echo of the relations that existed between Japan and Korea in the
3rd and 4th centuries. The records of Jhe 69 years comprising
254 JAPAN
Jingo's reign are in the main an account of intercourse, some-
times peaceful, sometimes stormy, between the neighbouring
countries. Only one other episode occupies a prominent
place: it is an attempt on the part of Jingo's step-brothers to
oppose her return to Yamato and to prevent the accession of
her son to the throne. It should be noted here that all such
names as Jimmu, Sujin, ChQai, &c, are posthumous, and were
invented in the reign of Kwammu (782-606), the fashion being
taken from China and the names themselves being purely Chinese
translations of the qualities assigned to the respective monarchs.
Thus Jimmu signifies " divine valour "; Sujin, " deity-honour-
ing "; and ChQai, " sad middle son." The names of these
rulers during life were wholly different from their posthumous
appellations.
Chinese history, which is incomparably older and more precise
than Korean, is by no means silent about Japan. Long notices
BMt kBt occur in the later Han and Wei records (25 to 265).
Notkatlm The Japanese are spoken of as dwarfs (Wo), and
Chiaeac their islands, frequently called the queen country, are
Nf"*' said to be mountainous, with soil suitable for growing
grain, hemp, and the silk-worm mulberry. The climate is so mild
that vegetables can be grown in winter and summer; there are
neither oxen, horses, tigers, nor leopards; the people understand
the art of weaving; the men tattoo their faces and bodies in pat-
terns indicating differences of rank; male at tire consists of a single
piece of cloth; females wear a gown passed over the head, and tie
their hair in a bow; soldiers are armed with spears and shields,
and also with bows, from which they discharge arrows tipped with
bone or iron; the sovereign resides in Yamato; there are stockaded
forts and houses; food is taken with the fingers but is served on
bamboo trays and wooden trenchers; foot-gear is not worn; when
men of the lower classes meet a man of rank, they leave the road
and retire to the grass, squatting or kneeling with both hands on
the ground when they address him; intoxicating liquor is much
used; the people are long-lived, many reaching the age of 100;
women are more numerous than men; there is no theft, and liti-
gation is infrequent; the women are faithful and not jealous;
all men of high rank have four or five wives, others two or three;
wives and children of Liw-breakers are confiscated, and for grave
crimes the offender's family is extirpated; divination is practised
by burning bones; mourning lasts for some ten days and the
rites are performed by a " mourning-keeper "; after a funeral
the whole family perform ablutions; fishing is much practised,
and the fishermen are skilled divers; there are distinctions of
rank and some are vassals to others; each province has a market
where goods are exchanged; the country is divided into more
than xoo provinces, and among its products are white pearls,
green jade and cinnabar. These annals go on to say that
between 147 and xoo civil war prevailed for several years, and
order was finally restored by a female sovereign, who is described
as having been old and unmarried; much addicted to magic arts;
attended by a thousand females; dwelling in a palace with lofty
pavilions surrounded by a stockade and guarded by soldiers;
but leading such a secluded life that few saw her face except one
man who served her meals and acted as a.medium of communica-
tion. There can be little question that this queen was the
empress Jingo who, according to Japanese annals, came to the
throne in the year a.d. aoo, and whose every public act had its
inception or promotion in some alleged divine interposition.
In one point, however, the Chinese historians are certainly
Incorrect. They represent tattooing as universal in ancient
Japan, whereas it was confined to criminals, in whose case it
played the part that branding does elsewhere. Centuries later,
In feudal days, the habit came to be practised by men of the
lower orders whose avocations involved baring the body, but
It never acquired vogue among educated people. In other
rr»|ir<U these ancient Chinese annals must be credited with
rniMikiiblw nc<ura<y In their description of Japan and the
jiiiimii .e. Tlulr account may be advantageously compared
v.Hli IWttKir Chamberlain's analysis of the manners and
t Mihiiit* ill I lie early Japanese, In the preface to his translation
tiliUA'MJMI
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
" The Japanese of the mythical period, as pictured in the legends
preserved by the Compiler of the Records of Ancient Matters, were a
race who had lone emerged from the savage stage and had attained
to a high level of barbaric skill. The Stone Age was forgotten by
them — or nearly so — and the evidence points to their never having
' through a genuine Bronze Age, though the knowledge of
bronze was at a later period introduced from the neighbouring
continent. They used iron for manufacturing spears, swords and
knives of various shapes, and likewise for the more peaceful purpose
of making hooks wherewith to angle or to fasten the doors of their
huts. Their other warlike and hunting implements (besides traps
and gins, which appear to have been used equally for catching
beasts and birds and for destroying human enemies) were bows and
arrows, spears and elbow-pads — the latter seemingly of skin, while
special allusion is made " '^ ' ' " '* ' feathered.
Perhaps clubs should be nd arrows,
swords and knives, the ijere do we
hear of the tools with 1 nd there is
the same remarkable si i domestic
implements as the saw s f the pestle
and mortar, of the fire- and of the
shuttle used in weaving 1 in a very
elementary state. IncT e practised
in Japan even so late a o( our era,
subsequent to the gene >n, though
rowing and. punting ar poets. To
what we should can to ce is made
anywhere in the Record, which con-
tain the account of the n what we
learn incidentally it w lation was
chiefly distributed in sn » along the
coast and up the cours se-building.
there is frequent mentio... . ^..^a ™«..v ... u ^. nu K9 w r skins and
rush-matting were occasionally brought in to sit on, and we even
hear once or twice of silk rugs being used for the same purpose by
the noble and wealthy. The habits of personal cleanliness which so
pleasantly distinguish the modern Japanese from their neighbours,
in continental Asia, though less fully developed than at present
would seem to have existed in the germ in early times, as we read
more than once of bathing in rivers, and are told of bathing women
being specially attached to the person of a certain Imperial infant.
Lustrations, too, formed part oi the religious practices of the race.
Latrines are mentioned several times. They would appear to have
been situated away from the houses and to have been generally
placed over a running stream, whence doubtless the name for latrine
in the archaic dialect — kawaya (river-house). A peculiar sort of
dwelling-place which the two old histories bring prominently under
our notice is the so-called parturition house — a one-roomed hut
without windows, which a woman was expected to build and retire
into for the purpose of being delivered unseen. Castles are not
distinctly spoken of until a time which coincides, according to the
received chronology, with the first century B.C. We then first meet
with the curious term rice-castle, whose precise signification is a
matter of dispute among the native commentators, but which, on
cc • .-.._ /■M.;_ )ege descriptions of the early Japanese, should
pi xl to mean a kind of palisade serving the pur-
pc lind which the warriors could ensconce them-
sc he early Japanese consisted of fish and of the
flc urcs which fell by the hunter's arrow or were
ta snare. Rice is the only cereal of which there
is as to place it beyond a doubt that its cultiva-
te ic immemorial. Beans, millet and barley are
in 5gethcr with silkworms, in the account of the
D i passage has every aspect of an interpolation
in b not dating back long before the time of the
eij er. A few unimportant vegetables and fruits,
of re is but a single mention, are found. The
in led sake was known in Japan during the mythi-
ca re chopsticks for eating food with. Cooking
pt she»— the latter both of earthenware and 01
lei jo mentioned ; but of the use of fire for warming
purposes we hear nothing. Tables are named several times, but
never in connexion with food: they would seem to have been used
exclusively for the purpose of presenting offerings on, and were
probably quite small and low — in fact, rather trays than tables,
according to European ideas. In the use of clothing and the
specialization of garments the early Japanese had reached a high
level. We read in the most ancient legends of upper garments,
skirts, trowsers, girdles, veils and hats, while both sexes adorned
themselves with necklaces, bracelets and head ornaments of stones
considered precious — in this respect offering a striking contrast to
their descendants in modern times, of whose attire jewelry forms
no part. The material of their clothes was hempen cloth and paper
— mulberry bark, coloured by being rubbed with madder, and prob-
ably with woad and other tinctorial plants. All the garments, so
far as we may judge, were woven, sewing being nowhere mentioned.
From the great place' which the chase occupied in daily life, we are
led to suppose that skins also were used to make garments of. There
is in the Records at least one passage which favours this supposition*
DOMESTIC HISTORY)
and the Chronicles in one place mention the straw raincoat and
broad-brimmed hat, which still form the Japanese peasant's effectual
protection against the inclemencies of the weather. The tendrils
of creeping plants served the purposes of strings, and bound the
w arri o r s sword round his waist. Combs are mentioned, and it is
evident that much attention was devoted to the dressing of the hair.
The men seem to have bound up their hair in two bunches, one on
each side of the head, while the young boys tied theirs in a top-knot,
the unmarried girls let their locks hang down over their necks, and
the married women dressed theirs after a fashion which apparently
combined the two last-named methods. There is no mention in
any of the old books of cutting the hair or beard except in token of
disgrace: neither do we gather that the sexes, but for the matter of
the head-dress, were distinguished by a diversity of apparel and
ornamentation. With regard to the precious stones mentioned
above as having been used as ornaments for the head, neck and arms,
we know from the specimens which have rewarded the labours of
archaeological research in Japan that agate, crystal, glass, jade,
serpentine and steatite were the most used materials, and carved
ana pierced cylindrical shapes the commonest forms. The horse —
which was ridden, but not driven — the barn-door fowl and the cor-
morant used for fishing, are the only domesticated creatures men-
tioned in the earlier traditions, with the doubtful exception of the
silkworm. In the later portions of the Records ana Chronicles
dogs and cattle are alluded to, but sheep, swine and even cats were
apparently not yet introduced."
As the prehistoric era draws to its end the above analyses of
Japanese civilization have to be modified. Thus, towards the
dose of the 3rd century, ship-building made great progress, and
instead of the small boats hitherto in use, a vessel 100 ft. long
was constructed. Notable above all is the fact that Japan's
turbulent relations with Korea were replaced by friendly inter-
course, so that she began to receive from her neighbour instruc-
tion in the art of writing. The date assigned by the Chronicles
for this important event is a.d. 285, but it has been proved
almost conclusively that Japanese annals relating to this period
are in error to the extent of lao years. Hence the introduction
of calligraphy must be placed in 405. Chinese history shows
that between 57 and 247 Japan sent four embassies to the courts
of the Han and the Wei, and this intercourse cannot have failed
to disclose the ideograph. But the knowledge appears to have
been confined to a few interpreters, and not until the year 405
were steps taken to extend it, with the aid of a learned Korean,
Wang-in. Korea herself began to study Chinese learning only'
a few years before she undertook to impart it to Japan. We now
find a numerous colony of Koreans passing to Japan and settling
there; a large number are also carried over as prisoners of war,
and the Japanese obtain seamstresses from both of their conti-
nental neighbours. One fact, related with much precision,
shows that the refinements of life were in an advanced condition:
an ice-bouse is described, and we read that from 374 (? 494) it
became the fashion to store ice in this manner for use in the hot
months by placing it in water or sake. The emperor, Nintoku,
to whose time this innovation is attributed, is one of the romantic
figures of Japanese history . He commenced his career by refus-
ing to accept the sovereignty from his younger brother, who
pressed him earnestly to do so on the ground that the proper
order of succession had been disturbed by their father's par-
tiality—though the rights attaching to primogeniture did not
receive imperative recognition in early Japan. After three
years of this mutual self-effacement, during which the throne
remained vacant, the younger brother committed suicide, and
Nintoku reluctantly became sovereign. He chose Naniwa (the
modern Osaka) for his capital, but he would not take the farmers
from their work to finish the building of a palace, and subse-
quently, inferring from the absence of smoke over the houses of
the people that the country was impoverished, he remitted all
taxes and suspended forced labour for a term of three years, during
which his palace fell into a state of ruin and he himself fared in
the coarsest manner. Digging canals, damming rivers, construct-
ing roads and bridges, and establishing granaries occupied his
attention when love did not distract it. But in affairs of the
heart he was most unhappy. He figures as the sole wearer of
the Japanese crown who was defied by his consort; for when he
took a concubine in despite of the empress, her Jealousy was so
bitter that, refusing to be placated by any of his majesty's
verses or other overtures, she left the palace altogether; and
JAPAN 2S5
when he sought to Introduce another beauty into the Inner
chamber, his own half-brother, who carried his proposals, won
the girl for himself. One other fact deserves to be remembered
in connexion with Nintoku's reign: Ki-no-tsuno, representative
of a great family which had filled the highest administrative
and military posts under several sovereigns, is mentioned as
" the first lo commit to writing in detail the productions of the
soil in each locality." This was in 353 (probably 473). We
shall err little if we date the commencement of Japanese written
annals from this time, though no compilation earlier than the
Kojiki has survived.
'* Early Historical Period.— With the emperor Richu, who came'
to the throne A.D.400, the historical period may be said to
commence; for though the chronology of the records is still
questionable, the facts are generally accepted as credible.
Conspicuous loyalty towards the sovereign was not an attribute
of the Japanese Imperial family in early times. Attempts
to usurp the throne were not uncommon, though there are very
few instances of such essays on the part of a subject. Love or
hist played no insignificant part in the drama, and a common
method of placating an irate sovereign was to present a beautiful
damsel for his delectation. The veto of consanguinity did not
receive very strict respect in these matters. Children of the
same father might intermarry, but not those of the same mother;
a canon which becomes explicable on observing that as wives
usually lived apart from their husbands and had the sole custody
of their offspring, two or more families often remained to
the end unconscious of the fact that they had a common sire.
There was a remarkable tendency to organize the nation into
groups of persons following the same pursuit or charged with
the same functions. A group thus composed was called be.
The heads of the great families had titles— as omi, muraji,
miahho, wake, &c. — and affairs of state were administered
by the most renowned of these nobles, wholly subject to the
sovereign's ultimate will. The provincial districts were ruled
by scions of the Imperial family, who appear to have been, on
the whole, entirely subservient to the Throne. There were no
tribunals of justice: the ordeal of boiling water or heated metal
was the sole test of guilt or innocence, apart, of course, from
confession, which was often exacted under menace of torture.
A celebrated instance of the ordeal of boiling water is recorded
in 415, when this device was employed to correct the genealogies
of families suspected of falsely claiming descent from emperors
or divine beings. The test proved efficacious, for men conscious
of forgery refused to undergo the ordeal. Deprivation of rank
was the lightest form of punishment; death the commonest,
and occasionally the whole family of an offender became serfs
of the house against which the offence had been committed or
which had been instrumental in disclosing a crime. There are,
however, frequent examples of wrong-doing expiated by the
voluntary surrender of lands or other property. We find several
instances of that extreme type of loyalty which became habitual
in later ages — suicide in preference to surviving a deceased lord.
On the whole the successive sovereigns of these early times
appear to have ruled with clemency and consideration for the
people's welfare. But there were two notable exceptions—
Yuriaku (457^470) and Murctsu (400-506). The former slew
men ruthlessly in fits of passion or resentment, and the latter
was the Nero of Japanese history, a man who loved to witness
the agony of has fellows and knew no sentiment of mercy or
remorse. Yet even Yuriaku did not fail to promote industrial
pursuits. Skilled artisans were obtained from Korea, and it is
related that, in 461, this monarch induced the empress and the
ladies of the palace to plant mulberry trees with their own hands
in order to encourage sericulture* Throughout the 5th and 6th
centuries many instances are recorded of the acquisition of
landed estates by the Throne, and their occasional bestowal
upon princes or Imperial consorts, such gifts being frequently
accompanied by the assignment of bodies of agriculturists who
seem to have accepted the position of serfs. Meanwhile Chinese
civilization was gradually becoming known, either by direct
contact or through Korea. Several immigrations of Chinese
2$6
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
or Korean settlers are on record. No less thin 7053 householders
of Chinese subjects came, through Korea, in 540, and one of
their number received high rank together with the post of director
of the Imperial treasury. From these facts, and from a national
register showing the derivation of all the principal families
in Japan, it is clearly established that a considerable strain of
Chinese and Korean blood runs in the veins of many Japanese
subjects.
The most signal and far-reaching event of this epoch was the
importation of the Buddhist creed, which took place in 552.
frt,,^ A Korean monarch acted as propagandist, sending a
ttom •/ special envoy with a bronze image of the Buddha and
AiMAiiM ^j, several volumes of the Sutras. Unfortunately
the coming of the foreign faith happened to synchronize with an
epidemic of plague, and conservatives at the Imperial court were
easily able to attribute this visitation to resentment on the part
of the ancestral deities against the invasion of Japan by an alien
creed. Thus the spread of Buddhism was checked; but only for
a time. Thirty-five years after the coming of the Sutras, the
lit^t temple was erected to enshrine a wooden image of the Buddha
10 ft. high. It has often been alleged that the question between
the imported and the indigenous cults had to be decided by the
svtord. The statement is misleading. That the final adoption
of Buddhism resulted from a war is true, but its adoption or
rejection did not constitute the motive of the combat. A con-
test for the succession to the throne at the opening of Sujun's
reign ($$S-$Q») found the partisans of the Indian faith ranged
on one side, its opponents on the other, and in a moment of
stress the leaders of the former, Soma and Prince Umayado,
vowed to erect Buddhist temples should victory rest on their
arms, From that time the future of Buddhism was assured.
In $S3 Korea tent Buddhist relics, Buddhist priests, Buddhist
ascetics, architects of Buddhist temples, and casters of Buddhist
images. She had already sent men learned in divination, in
medicine, and in the calendar. The building of temples began
to be fashionable in the dosing years of the 6th century, as did
also abdication of the world by people of both sexes; and a
census taken in 6*3. during the reign of the empress Suiko
( s$3-6a8). showed that there were then 46 temples, 816 priests
ami 560. nuns in the empire. This rapid growth of the alien
Uuh was due mainly to two causes: first, that the empress
Suiko being of the Soga family, naturally favoured a creed
»hkh had found its earliest Japanese patron in the great states-
man and general, Soga no Umako; secondly, that one of the most
wu %trtous scholars and philosophers ever possessed by Japan,
i\ wc Shotoku, devoted all his energies to fostering Buddhism.
1 t* adoption of Buddhism meant to the Japanese much more
* the acquisition of a practical religion with a code of dearly
!lm*J morality m place of the amorphous and jejune cult of
*£ nt* U mea» l the introduction of Chinese dvilization.
r. ltd scholars crossed in numbers from China, and men
^ l*r from Japan to study the Sutras at what was then
\T1I the fountain-head of Buddhism. There was also
W ' kfci rfream of immigrants from China and Korea, and the
* - M« to gathered from the fact that a census taken of the
*** »oWny in 8l * in dXcated * 8 * Korean and Chinese
' * rT-ninst only 796 of pure Japanese origin. The records
' B ^aume and customs a signal advance was made
'*" ** ««* Hair-ornaments of gold or silver chiselled
fevrn caps of sarcenet in twdve special tints,
» *«ercnt grade; garments of brocade and
k , te«i*4 thin silks of various colours— all these
*tT*MM) occasions; the art of painting was
.**%«> oftce was established; perfumes were
* ~,*%t ticnics to gather medicinal herbs were
'"* * « ..-amain attending in brilliant raiment ;
'"* * *4x-.tg were introduced; crossbows and
" y. k weapons of war; domestic architec
* ** * ^ s»»bt*Bt to the examples of Buddhist
i*m U* a*st, showed magnificence of
•Kttft* unconceived in Japan; the
~ ^wpttre us*krwent great improve-
ment; Prince Shotoku compiled a code, commonly spoken of as
the first written laws of Japan, but in reality a collection of
maxims evincing a moral spirit of the highest type. In some
respects, however, there was no improvement. The succession
to the throne still tended to provoke disputes among the Imperial
princes; the sword constituted the principal weapon of punish-
ment, and torture the chief judicial device. Now, too, for the
first time, a noble family is found seeking to usurp the Imperial
authority. The head of the Soga house, Umako, having com-
passed the murder of the emperor Sujun and placed on the throne
his own niece (Suiko), swept away all opposition to the latter'*
successor, Jomei, and controlled the administration of state
affairs throughout two reigns. In all this he was strongly
seconded by his son, Iruka, who even surpassed him in contu-
melious assumption of power and parade of dignity. Iruka was
slain in the presence of the empress Kdgyoku by Prince Naka
with the assistance of the minister of the interior, Kamako, and
it is not surprising to find the empress (Kogyoku) abdicating
immediatdy afterwards in favour of Karnako's protegt, Prince
Karu, who is known in history as Kotoku. This Kamako,
planner and leader of the conspiracy which overthrew the Soga,
is remembered by posterity under the name of Kamatari and
as the founder of the most illustrious of Japan's noble houses,
the Fujiwara. At this time (645), a habit which afterwards
contributed materially to theeffacementof the Throne's practical
authority was inaugurated. Prince Furubito, pressed by his
brother, Prince Karu, to assume the sceptre in accordance with
his right of primogeniture, made his refusal peremptory by aban-
doning the world and taking the tonsure. This retirement to a
monastery was afterwards dictated to several sovereigns by
ministers who found that an active occupant of the throne
impeded their own exercise of administrative autocracy. Furu-
bito's recourse to the tonsure proved, however, to be merely a
doak for ambitious designs. Before a year had passed he con-
spired to usurp the throne and was put to death with his chil-
dren, his consorts strangling themselves. Suicide to escape the
disgrace of defeat had now become a common practice. Another
prominent feature of this epoch was the prevalence of supersti-
tion. The smallest incidents — the growing of two lotus flowers
on one stem; a popular ballad; the reputed song of a sleeping
monkey; the condition of the water in a pond; rain without
clouds—all these and cognate trifles were regarded as omens;
wizards and witches deluded the common people; a strange form
of caterpillar was worshipped as the god of the everlasting
world, and the peasants impoverished themselves by making
sacrifices to it.
An interesting epoch is now reached, the first legislative era
of early Japanese history. It commenced with the reign of the
emperor Kotoku (645), of whom the Chronicles say ptm
that he " honoured the religion of Buddha and de- L t»MMh n
spised Shinto "; that " he was of gentle disposition; *■■*
loved men of learning; made no distinction of noble and mean,
and continually dispensed beneficent edicts." The customs
calling most loudly for reform in his time were abuse of the
system of forced labour; corrupt administration of justice;
spoliation of the peasant class; assumption of spurious titles to
justify oppression; indiscriminate distribution of the families
of slaves and serfs; diversion of taxes to the pockets of collectors;
formation of great estates, and a general lack of administrative
centralization. The first step of reform consisted in ordering
the governors of provinces to prepare registers showing the
numbers of freemen and serfs within their jurisdiction as well as
the area of cultivated land. It was further ordained that the
advantages of irrigation should be shared equally with the common
people; that no local governor might try and dedde criminal
cases while in his province; that any one convicted of accepting
bribes should be liable to a fine of doable the amount as well as
to other punishment; that in the Imperial court a box should
be placed for receiving petitions and a bell hung to be sounded in
the event of delay in answering them or unfairness in dealing
with them; that all absorption of land into great estates should
cease: that barriers, outposts, guards and post-horses should be
DOMESTIC HISTORY)
provided; that high officials should 'be dowered with hereditary
estates by way of emolument, the largest of such grants being
3000 homesteads; that men of unblemished character and
proved capacity should be appointed aldermen for adjudicating
criminal matters, that there should be chosen as clerks for gover-
nors and vice-governors of provinces men of solid competence
" skilled in writing and arithmetic "; that the land should be
parcelled out in fixed proportions to every adult unit of the popu-
lation with right of tenure for a term of six years, that forced
labour should be commuted for taxes of silk and cloth, and that
for fiscal and administrative purposes households should be
organised in groups of five, each group under an elder, and ten
groups forming a township, which, again, should be governed
by an elder. Incidentally to these reforms many of the evil
customs of the time are exposed. Thus provincial governors
when they visited the capital were accustomed to travel with
great retinues who appear to have constituted a charge on the
regions through which they passed. The law now limited the
number of a chief governor's attendants to nine, and forbade
him to use official bouses or to fare at public cost unless journey-
ing on public business. Again, men who had acquired some local
distinction, though they did not belong to noble families, took
advantage of the absence of historical records or official registers,
and, representing themselves as descendants of magnates' to
whom the charge of public granaries had been entrusted, suc-
ceeded in usurping valuable privileges. The office of provincial
governor had in many cases become hereditary, and not only
were governors largely independent of Imperial control, but also,
since every free man carried arms, there had grown up about
these officials a population relying largely on the law of force.
Kdtoku's reforms sought to institute a system of temporary
governors, and directed that all arms and armour should be
stored in arsenals built in waste places, except in the case of
provinces adjoining lands where unsubdued aborigines (Yemishi)
dwelt. Punishments were drastic, and in the case of a man con-
victed of treason, all his children were executed with him, his
wives and consorts committing suicide. From a much earlier
age suicide had been freely resorted to as the most honourable
exit from pending disgrace, but as yet the samurai's method of
disembowelmenl was not employed, strangulation or cutting
the throat being the regular practice. Torture was freely
employed and men often died under it Signal abases prevailed
in regions beyond the immediate range of the central govern-
ment's observation. It has been shown that from early days
the numerous scions of the Imperial family had generally been
provided for by grants of provincial estates. Gradually the
descendants of these men, and the representatives of great
families who held hereditary rank, extended their domains
unscrupulously, employing forced labour to reclaim lands,
which they let to the peasants, not hesitating to appropriate
large slices of public property, and remitting to the central
treasury only such fractions of the taxes as they found con-
venient. So prevalent had the exaction of forced labour become
that country-folk, repairing to the capital to seek redress of
grievances, were often compelled to remain there for the purpose
of carrying out some work in which dignitaries of state were
interested. The removal of the capital to a new site on each
change of sovereign involved a vast quantity of unproductive
tofl. It is recorded that in 656, when the empress Saimei occu-
pied the throne, a canal was dug which required the work of
30,000 men and a wall was built which had employed 70,000 men
before Hs completion. The construction of tombs for grandees
was another heavy drain on the people's labour. Some of these
sepulchres attained enormous dimensions— that of the e m peror
Ojin (270-310) measures 2312 yds. round the outer moat and
is some 60 ft. high, the emperor Nintoku's (313-399) is still
larger, and there is a tumulus in Rawachi on the flank of which a
good-sized village has been built. Kdtoku's laws provided that
the tomb of a prince should not be so large as to require the work
Of more than 1000 men for seven days, and that the grave of a
potty official must be completed by 50 men in one day. More-
over, it was forbidden to bury with the body gold, silver,
JAPAN 257
copper, iron, jewelled shirts, jade armour of sflk brocade. It
appears that the custom of suidde or sacrifice at the tomb of
grandees still survived, and that people sometimes cut off their
hair or stabbed their thighs preparatory to declaiming a threnody.
All these practices were vetoed. Abuses had grown up even in
connexion with the Shinto rite of purgation. This rite required
not only the reading of rituals but also the offering of food and
fruits. For the sake of these edibles the rite was often harshly
enforced, especially in connexion with pollution from contact
with corpses; and thus it fell out that when of two brothers,
returning from a scene of forced labour, one lay down upon the
road and died, the other, dreading the cost of compulsory purga^
tion, refused to take up the body. Many other evil customs
came into existence in connexion with this rite, and all were
dealt with in the new laws. Not the least important of the
reforms then introduced was the organisation of the ministry
after the model of the Tang dynasty of China. Eight depart-
ments of state were created, and several of them received names
which are similarly used to this day. Not only the institutions
of China were borrowed but also her official costumes. During
Kotoku's reign 19 grades of head-gear were instituted, and in
the time of Tenchi (668-671) the number was increased to 26,
with corresponding robes. Throughout this era intercourse was
frequent with China, and the spread of Buddhism continued
steadily. The empress Saimei (655-061), who succeeded Kotoku,
was an earnest patron of the faith. By her command several
public expositions of the Sutras were given, and the building of
temples went on in many districts, estates being liberally granted
for the maintenance of these places of worship.
The Fujiwara Era.— In the CkranieUs of Japan the year
672 is treated as a kind of interregnum. It was in truth a
year of something like anarchy, a great part of it being occupied
by a conflict of unparalleled magnitude between Prince Otomo
(called in history Emperor Kobun) and Prince Oama, who
emerged victorious and is historically entitled Temmu(673-686).
The four centuries that followed are conveniently designated
the Fujiwara era, because throughout that long interval affairs
of state were controlled by the Fujiwara family, whose daughters
were given as consorts to successive sovereigns and whose sons
filled all the high administrative posts. It has been related
above that Kamako, chief of the Shinto officials, inspired the
assassination of the Soga chief, Iruka, and thus defeated the
tatter's designs upon the throne in the days of the empress
KogyokiL Kamako, better known to subsequent generations
as Kamatari, was thenceforth regarded with unlimited favour by
successive sovereigns, and just before his death in 670, the
family name of Fujiwara was bestowed on him by the emperor
Tenchi. Kamatari himself deserved all the honour be received,
but his descendants abused the high trust reposed in them,
reduced the sovereign to a mere puppet, and exercised Imperial
authority without openly usurping it. Much of this was due to
the adoption of Chinese administrative systems, a process which
may be said to have commenced during the reign of Kdtoku
(645-654) and to have continued almost uninterruptedly until the
1 ith century. Under these systems the emperor ceased directly
to exercise supreme civil or military power: he became merely
the source of authority, not its wielder, the civil functions being
delegated to a bureaucracy and the military to a soldier class.
Possibly had the custom held of transferring the capital to a new
site on each change of sovereign, and had the growth of luxuri-
ous habits been thus checked, the comparatively simple life of
early times might have held the throne and the people in closer
contact. But from the beginning of the 8th century a strong
tendency to avoid these costly migrations developed itself. In
709 the court took up its residence at Nara, remaining there until
784; ten years after the latter date Kioto became the permanent
metropolis. The capital at Nara— established during the reign
of the empress GemmyO (708-715) — was built on the plan of the
Chinese metropolis. It had nine gates and nine avenues, the
palace being situated in the northern section and approached by
a broad, straight avenue, which divided the city into two perfectly
equal halves, all the other streets running parallel to this main
-j»5 8 JAPAN
^.oue or «t right angles to it. Seven sovereign* reigned at
^TcH° ***?** cl **•«>» •» Nar * ** historically called, and,
*. .riP* tni * P««od of 75 years, seven of the grandest temples
(DOMESTIC HISTORY
<**^ r see* in japan were erected; a multitude of idols were cast,
y^_7^ r g them a colossal bronze Daibutsu si\ ft. high; large
^*^pte-belb were founded, and all the best artists and artisans
*% the- em devole<1 lacijr services to these works. This religious
*>* ^ rtU reached iu acme "» toe reign of the emperor Shdmu (7*4-
*** B)» * mAn equaUv «»P«rstitious and addicted to display. In
1 ^^j'iiju'j time the custom had been introduced of compelling
^**Zc flU jnbers of persons, to enter the Buddhist priesthood with
****** object of propitiating heaven's aid to heal the illness of an
t-J :, ^ dtr ious personage. In Sbomu's day every natural calamity
i* Ju f boormal phenomenon was regarded as calling for religious
4>*'-j c e» on a large scale, and the great expense involved in all
s^^f builds and ceremonials, supplemented by lavish outlays
***^ourt pageants, was severely felt by the nation. The con-
*>^ ion oi thc *« ricultural <***** who were the chief tax-payers,
*** 1 i urtbe* aggravated by the operation of the emperor Kotoku's
•^**l s ystem, which rendered tenure so uncertain as to deter
t^ f *f r0 ven lcnU - 1 .. Thcrefore » to the Nara epoch, the principle of
****%*& ownership of 4and began to be recognized. Attention
P * also P*" 1 lo . rowl " lna, "ngi bridge-building, river control and
"«**%- construction, a special feature of this last being the use
^^Oc* ioS rpofing P ur P° scs «» place of the shingles or thatch
. Heft* employed. In all these steps of progress Buddhist
**¥*- is took an acuve part. Costumes were now governed by
pf»^ y Chinese fashions. This change had been gradually intro-
P U cd (* om thc tunc of Kotoku '» legislative measures— generally
aU iled the Taikwa reforms after the name of the era (645-650) of
C *ir adoption— and was rendered more thorough by supplcmen-
w ct&c 1 *** 1 ** m ^ Period 701-703 while Mommu occupied
tf^^ron*- Ladics seem *>y this time to have abandoned the
i* 1 *. gs of beads worn in early eras round the neck, wrists and
* tr Xes. I*** used ^"aments of gold, silver or jade in their
*°7r but in other respects their habiliments closely resembled
**t«ae oi ***** *""* lo "■**• d>e difference still less conspicuous
*? v straddled their horses when riding. Attempts were made
^facilitate travel by establishing stores of grain along the
^•ncip* 1 highways, but as yet there were no hostclries, and if
P^yfarer did not find shelter in the bouse of a friend, he had to
f : voiac as best he could. Such a state of affairs in the provinces
"{tired » marked contrast to thc luxurious indulgence which had
w begun to prevail in the capital. There festivals of various
t!?ncl*» dancing, verse-composing, flower picnics, archery, polo,
1 itbiU— <* a vcrv refined nature— hawking, hunting and gam-
1 fin* absorbed the attention of the aristocracy. Nothing dis-
rbf d the tcnt ^ t y oi the c P 0Cn except a revolt of the northern
v'-rnUhli which was temporarily subdued by a Fujiwara general,
I r th« Fujiwara had not yet laid aside the martial habits of
[VL| r ancestors. In 704 the Imperial capital was transferred
I ,,n Nara to Kioto by order of thc emperor Kwammu, one of
■ I* greatest of Japanese sovereigns. Education, the organiza-
! 1 111 ot tne civil service, riparian works, irrigation improvements,
V .....*llnn of rtliffion from nnlitir-* iK« akrtliti/in of unmiro
1! r •« , l>* rtl * on °* 'eiigion from politics, the abolition of sinecure
lines, devices for encouraging and assisting agriculture, all
,.|vcd attention from him. But a twenty-two years' campaign
'ma I"* 1 tne DOrtoem Yemishi; the building of numerous temples;
f I * Indulgence of such a passionate love of the chase that he
' ' oUtd 140 hunting excursions during his reign of 25 years;
**lr»l»iM» eitravagance on the part of the aristocracy in Kioto
iut the exactions of provincial nobles, conspired to sink the
, M Mng ibises into greater depths of hardship than ever.
T* (t M< i» had to borrow money and seed-rice from local officials
." |tu«lilhUl temples, hypothecating their land as security; thus
J7 4t . iniiiilra and the nobles extended their already great estates,
tiiUt Mm* agricultural population gradually fell into a position
*\ !«»<•! II* *%l nrrfdora.
1 fcMtmhllc the Fujiwara famfly were steadfly developing their
MM , »f m Influence in Kioto. Their methods were simple but
J****** thoroughly e0cctivc "By progressive exercises of
| t |li4*liUM I bey gradually contrived that the choice of a
for the sovereign should be legally limited Co
a daughter of their family, five branches of which were
specially designated to that honour through all ages. When a
son was born to an emperor, the Fujiwara took the child into
one of their palaces, and on his accession to ibe throne, the
particular Fujiwara noble that happened to be his maternal
grandfather became regent of the empire. This office of regent,
created towards the close of the oth century, was part oi the
scheme; for the Fujiwara did not allow the purple to be worn by
a sovereign after he had attained his majority, or, if they suffered
him to wield the sceptre during a few years of manhood, they
compelled him to abdicate so soon as any independent aspira-
tions began to impair his docility; and since for the purposes of
administration in these constantly recurring minorities an office
more powerful than that of prime minister (da jo daijin) was
needed, they created that of regent (kwambaku), making ft
hereditary in their own family. In fact the hbtcry of Japan
from the oth to the 10th century may be described as the history
of four families, the Fujiwara, the Taira, the Minamoto and the
Tokugawa. The Fujiwara governed through the emperor; the
Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa governed in spite of the
emperor The Fujiwara based their power on matrimonial alii-
ances with the Throne , the Taira, the Minamoto and the Tokugawa
based theirs on the possession of armed strength which the throne
had no competence to control. There another broad line of cleav-
age is seen. Throughout the Fujiwara era the centre of political
gravity remained always in the court Throughout the era of
the Taira, the Muiamoto and the Tokugawa the centre 0/ political
gravity was transferred to a point outside the court, the head-
quarters of a military feudalism " The process of transfer was
of course gradual It commenced with the granting of large
tracts of tax-free lands to noblemen who had wrested them fronr
the aborigines ( Ycmishi) or had reclaimed them by means of serf*
labour. These tracts lay for the most part in the northern and
eastern parts of the main island, at such a distance from the
capital that the writ of the central government did not run there,
and since such lands could be rented at rates considerably lea
than thc tax levied on farms belonging to the slate, the peasant*
by degrees abandoned the latter and settled on the former,
with the result that the revenues of the Throne steadily dimin-
ished, while those of the provincial magnates correspondingly
increased. Moreover, in the 7th century, at the time of the
adoption of Chinese models of administration and organization,
the court began to rely for military protection on the services of
guards temporarily drafted from the provincial troops, and,
during the protracted struggle against the Yemishi in the north
and east in the 8th century, the fact that the power of the sword
lay with the provinces begin to be noted.
Kioto remained the source of authority But with the growth
of luxury and effeminacy in the capital the Fujiwara becanM
more and more averse from thc hardships of campaign- rim Tmkm
ing, and in the oth and 10th centuries, respectively, ««***•
the Taira and the Minamoto 1 families came into promi- Mlammof.
nence as military leaders, the field of the Taira operations being
the south and west, that of the Minamoto the north and east
Had the court reserved to itself and munificently exercised the
privilege of rewarding these services, it might still have retained
power and wealth. But by a niggardly and contemptuous policy
on the part of Kid to not only were the Minamoto leaders estranged
but also they assumed the right of recompensing their followers
with tax-free estates, an example which the Taira leaders quickly
followed. By the early years of the 12th century these estates
had attracted the great majority of the farming class, whereas the
public land was left wild and uncultivated. In a word, the court
and the Fujiwara found themselves without revenue, while the
coffers of the Taira and the Minamoto were full, the power of
the purse and the power of the sword had passed effectually to the
two military families. Prominent features of the moral condi-
tion of the capital at this era (1 2th century) were superstition, re-
finement and effeminacy. A belief was widely held that calamity
1 The Taira and the Minamoto both traced their descent from
imperial princes; the Tokugawa ware a branch of the Minamoto.
DOMESTIC HISTORY)
could not be averted or success insured without recourse to
Buddhist priests. Thus, during a reign of only 13 years at the
dose of the nth century, the emperor Sbirakawa caused 5420
religious pictures to be painted, ordered the casting of 127 statues
of Buddha, each xi ft. high, of 3x50 Hfe-s&ed images and of
9930 smaller idols, and constructed at large temples as well as
446,650 religious edifices of various kinds. Side by side with this
faith in the supernatural, sexual immorality prevailed widely,
never accompanied, however; by immodesty. Literary profr-
deacy ranked as the be-«ll and end-all of existence. " A man
estimated the conjugal qualities of a young lady by her skill
in finding scholarly similes and by her perception of the
cadence of words. If a woman was so fortunate as to acquire a
reputation for learning, she possessed a certificate of universal
virtue and amiability." All the pastimes of the Nara epoch
were pursued with increased fervour and elaboration m the Heian
(Kioto) era. The building of fine dwelling-houses and the laying
out of l andsca p e gardens took place on a considerable scale,
though in these respects the ideals of later ages were not yet
reached. As to costume, the close-fitting, business-like and
comparatively simple dress of the 8th century was exchanged
for a much more elaborate style. During the Nara epoch the
many-faued hats of China had been abandoned for a sober head-
gear of silk gauze covered with black lacquer, but in the Heian
em this was replaced by ah imposing structure glistening with
jewels: the sleeves of the tunic grew so long that they bung to the
knees when a man's arms were crossed, and the trowsers»were
made so full and baggy that they resembled a divided skirt*
From this era may be said to have commenced the manufacture
of the tasteful and gorgeous textile fabrics tor which Japan after-
wards became famous. " A fop's ideal was to wear several suits,
one above the other, disposing them so that their various colours
showed in harmoniously contrasting lines at the folds on the
bosom and at the edges of the long sleeves. A successful costume
created a sensation in court circles. Its wearer became the hero
of the hour, and under the pernicious influence of such ambition
men began even to powder their faces and rouge their checks like
women. As for the fair sex, their costume reached the acme of
unpractically and extravagance in this epoch. Long flowing
hair was essential, and what with developing the volume and
multiplying the number of her robes, and wearing above her
trowsers a many- plied train, a grand lady of the time always
seemed to be struggling to emerge from a cataract of habiliments."
It was fortunate for Japan that circumstances favoured the
growth of a military class in this age of her career, for bad the
conditions existing in Kioto during the Heian epoch spread
throughout the whole country, the penalty never escaped by a
demoralized nation must have overtaken her. But by the
middle of the 12th century the pernicious influence of the Fuji-
wara had paled before that of the Taira and the Mtoarnoto, and
a question of succession to the throne marshalled the latter two
families in opposite camps, thus inaugurating an era of civil war
which held the country in the throes of almost continuous battle
for 450 years, placed it under the administration of a military
feudalism, and educated a nation of warriors. At first the Mina-
tnoto were vanquished and driven from the capital, Kiyomon,
the Taira chief, being left complete master of the situation. He
established his headquarters at Rokuharo, in Kioto, appropriated
the revenues of 30 out of the 66 provinces forming the empire,
and filled all the high offices of state with his own relatives
or connexions. But he made no radical change in the adminis-
trative system, preferring to follow the example of the Fujiwara
by keeping the throne in the hands of minors^ And he com-
mitted the blunder of sparing the lives of two youthful sons of
bis defeated rival, the Minamoto chief. They were Yoritomo
and Yoshfesune; the latter the greatest strategist Japan ever pro-
duced, with perhaps one exception; the former, one of her three
greatest statesmen, the founder of military feudalism. By these
two men the Taira were so completely overthrown that they
never raised their heads again, a sea-fight at Dan-no-ura (1x5s)
giving them the coup de grdet. Their supremacy had lasted
92
JAPAN 259
The Teudd Era.— Yoritomo, acting largely under the advice
of an astute counsellor, Oye no Hiflomoto, established bis seat
of power at Kainakura, 300 m. from Kioto. He saw that,
effectively to utilise the strength of the military class, propin-
quity to the military centres in the provinces was essential. At
Kamakunvhe organised an administrative body similar in mechan-
ism to that of the metropolitan government but studiously dif-
ferentiated in the matter of nomenclature. As to the country
at huge, he brought ft effectually under the sway of Kamakura
by placing the provinces under the direct control of military
governors, chosen and appointed by himself. No attempt was
made, however, to interfere in any way with the polity in Kioto:
k was left intact, and the noblesabout the Throne— A*^ (courtly
houses), as they came to be called in •contradistinction to the
kuke (military houses)— were placated by renewal of their
property titles. The Buddhist priests, also, who' had been
treated most harshly during the Taira tenure of power, found
their fortunes restored under Kamakura's sway. Subsequently
Yoritomo obtained for himself the title of sd-iiai-shdgun
(barbarian-subduing generalissimo), and just as the office of
regent (kwambaku) had long been hereditary in the Fujiwara
family, so the office of shogun became thenceforth hereditary
in that of the Minamoto. These changes were radical. They
signified a complete shifting of the centre of power. During
eighteen centuries from the time of JimmU's invasion — as
Japanese historians reckon — the country had been ruled from
the south; now the north became supreme, and for a civilian
administration a purely military was substituted. But there
was no contumely towards the court in Kioto. Kamakura made
a show of seeking Imperial sanction for every one of its acts, and
the whole of the military administration was carried on in the
name of the emperor by a shogun who called himself the Imperial
deputy. In this respect things changed materially after the
death of Yoritomo (1x98). Kamakura then became the scene
of a drama analogous to that acted in Kioto from the xotb
century.
The Hojd family, to which belonged Mass, Yoritomo's consort,
assumed towards the Kamakura shogun an attitude similar to
that previously assumed by the Fujiwara family _.
towards the emperor in Kioto. A child, who on STi^i.
state occasions was carried to the council chamber in
Masa's arms, served as the nominal repository of the shogun's
power, the functions of administration being discharged in reality
by the Hojd family, whose successive heads took the name of
skiHm (constable). At first care was taken to have the shogun's
office filled by a near relative of Yoritomo, but after the death
of that great statesman's two sons and his nephew, the puppet
sboguns were taken from the ranks of the Fujiwara or of the
Imperial princes, and were deposed so soon as they attempted
to assert themselves. What this meant becomes apparent when
we note that in the interval of 83 years between 1220 and 1308,
there were six sboguns whose ages at the time of appointment
ranged from 3 to to. Whether, if events had not forced their
hands, tbe Hojd constables would have maintained towards the
Throne the reverent demeanour adopted by Yoritomo must
reman a matter of conjecture. What actually happened was
that the ex*emperor, Go-Toba, made an ill-judged attempt
(i2tt) to break the power of Kamakura. He issued a call to
arms which was responded to by some thousands of ceoobites
and as many soldiers of Taira extraction. In the brief struggle
that ensued the Imperial partisans were wholly shattered, and
the direct consequences were the dethronement and exile of the
reigning emperor, the banishment of his predecessor together
with two princes of the blood, and the compulsory adoption of
the tonsure by Go-Toba; while the indirect consequence was that
tbe succession to the throne and the tenure of Imperial power
fell wider the dictation of the H6j6 as they bad formerly fallen
under tbe direction of the Fujiwara. Yoshitoki, then head of
the Hojd family, installed his brother, Tokifusa, as military
governor of Kioto, and confiscating about 3000 estates, tbe
property of those' who had espoused the Imperial cause, distri-
buted these lands among the adherent* of bis own family, thus
2 tO
JAPAN
(DOMESTIC HISTORY
greatly strengthening the basil of the feudal system. " It fared
with the HOjO as it had fared with all the great families that
preceded them; their own misrule ultimately wrought their
ruin. Their first eight representatives were talented and up-
right administrators. They took justice, simplicity and truth
for guiding principles; they despised luxury and pomp; they
never aspired to high official rank, they were content with two
provinces for estates, and they sternly repelled the effeminate,
depraved customs of Kioto." Thus the greater part of the 13th
century was, on the whole, a golden era for Japan, and the lower
orders learned to welcome feudalism. Nevertheless no century
furnished more conspicuous illustrations of the peculiarly
Japanese system of vicarious government. Children occupied
the position of shogun in Kamakura under authority emanating
from children on the throne in Kioto, and members of the H6j6
family as shikken administered affairs at the mandate of the
child shoguns. Through all three stages in the dignities of
mikado, shogun and shikken, the strictly regulated principle of
heredity was maintained, according to which no HOjO shikken
could ever become shogun; no Minamoto or Fujiwara could
occupy the throne. At the beginning of the 14th century, how-
ever, several causes combined to shake the supremacy of the
HO jo. Under the sway of the ninth shikken (Takatoki), the
austere simplicity of life and earnest discharge of executive duties
which had distinguished the early chiefs of the family were
exchanged for luxury, debauchery and perfunctory government
Thus the management of fiscal affairs fell into the hands of
Takasuke, a man of usurious instincts. It had been the wise
custom of the HOjO constables to store grain in seasons of plenty,
and distribute it at low prices in limes of dearth. There occurred
at this epoch a succession of bad harvests, but instead of opening
the state granaries with benevolent liberality, Takasuke sold
their contents at the highest obtainable rates; and, by way of
contrast to the prevailing indigence, the people saw the constable
In Kamakura affecting the pomp and extravagance of a sovereign
waited upon by 37 mistresses, supporting a band of 2000 dancers,
and keeping a pack of 5000 fighting dogs. The throne happened
to be then occupied (1310-1338) by an emperor, Go-Daigo, who
had reached full maturity before his accession, and was cor-
respondingly averse from acting the puppet part assigned to
the sovereigns of his time. Female influence contributed to his
impatience. One of his concubines bore a son for whom he
sought to obtain nomination as prince imperial, in defiance of an
arrangement made by the H6jo that the succession should pass
alternately to the senior and junior branches of the Imperial
family Kamakura refused to entertain Go-Daigo's project,
and thenceforth the child's mother importuned her sovereign
and lover to overthrow the HOjO. The entourage of the throne
in Kioto at this time was a counterpart of former eras. The
Fujiwara, indeed, wielded nothing of their ancient influence.
They had been divided by the HOjO into five branches, each
endowed with an equal right to the office of regent, and then-
strength was thus dissipated in struggling among themselves
for the possession of the prize. But what the Fujiwara had done
in their days of greatness, what the Taira had done during their
brief tenure of power, the Saionji were now doing, namely,
aspiring to furnish prime ministers and empresses from their own
family solely. They had already given consorts to five emperors
in succession, and jealous rivals were watching keenly to attack
this dan which threatened to usurp the place long held by the
most illustrious family in the land. A petty incident disturbed
this state of very tender equilibrium before the plan of the HOjO's
enemies had fully matured, and the emperor presently found
himself an exile on the island of Old. But there now appeared
upon the scene three men of great prowess: Kusunoki Masashige,
Nitta Yoshtsada and Ashikaga Takauji. The first espoused
from the outset the cause of the Throne and, though commanding
only a small force, held the HOjO troops in check, The last two
wcit both of Minamoto descent. Their common ancestor was
Miiuuaoto Yoshiiye, whose exploits against the northern Yemishi
ui it* second half of the nth century had so impressed his
wuuu> omu that they gave him the title of Hachiman Tard (first-
born of the god of war). Both men took the field originally in
the cause of the Hojd, but at bean they desired to be avenged
upon the latter for disloyalty to the Minamoto. Nitta Yoahisada
marched suddenly against Kamakura, carried it by storm and
committed the city to the flames. Ashikaga Takauji occupied
Kioto, and with the suicide of Takatoki the Hojd fell finally from
rule after 115 years of supremacy (iaio-M334). The emperor
now returned from exile, and his son, Prince Moriyoshi, having
been appointed to the office of shogun at Kamakura, the
restoration of the administrative power to the Throne seemed
an accomplished fact.
Go-Daigo, however, was not in any sense a wise sovereign.
The extermination of the HOjO placed wide estates at his disposal,
but instead of rewarding those who had deserved 71*
well of him, he used a great part of them to enrich *******
his favourites, the compambos of his dissipation. ***■■*»
Ashikaga Takauji sought just such an opportunity. The follow-
ing year (1335) saw him proclaiming himself sh6gun at Kama*
kura, and after a complicated pageant of incidents, the emperor
Go-Daigo was obliged once more to fly from Kioto. He carried
the regalia with him, refused to submit to Takauji, and declined
to recognise his usurped title of shogun. The Ashikaga chief
solved the situation by deposing Go-Daigo and placing upon
the throne another scion of the imperial family who is known in
history as KOmyO (1330-1348), and who, of course, confirmed
Takauji in the office of shogun. Thus-commenced the Ashikaga
line of shoguns, and thus commenced also a fifty-six-year period
of divided sovereignty, the emperor Go-Daigo and his descen-
dants reigning in Yoshino as the southern court (nanckdY, and the
emperor KOmyO and bis descendants reigning in Kioto as the
northern court (hokudtd). It was by the efforts of the shogun
Yoshimitsu, one of the greatest of the Ashikaga potentates, that
this quarrel was finally composed, but during its progress the
country had fallen into a deplorable condition. " The constitu-
tional powers had become completely disorganised, especially in
regions at a distance from the chief towns.. The peasant was
impoverished, his spirit broken, bis hope of better things com*
pletely gone. He dreamed away his miserable existence and
left the fields untitled. Bands of robbers followed the armies
through the interior of the country, and increased the feeling of
lawlessness and insecurity. The coast population, especially
that of the island of Kifishiu, had given itself up in a great
measure to piracy. Even on the shores of Korea and China
these enterprising Japanese corsairs made their appearance."
The shOgun Yoshimitsu checked piracy, and there ensued
between Japan and China a renewal of cordial intercourse
which, upon the part of the shogun, developed phases plainly
suggesting an admission of Chinese' suzerainty.
For a brief moment during the sway of Yoshimitsu the country
had rest from internecine war, but immediately after his death
(1394) the struggle began afresh. Many of the great territorial
lords had now grown too puissant to concern themselves about
either mikado or shogun. Each fought for his own band, think-
ing only of extending his sway and his territories. By the middle
of the z6th century Kioto was in ruins, and little vitality re-
mained in any trade or industry except those that ministered
to the wants of the warrior. Again in the case of the Ashikaga
shoguns the political tendency to exercise power vicariously
was shown, as it had been shown in the case of the mikados in
Kioto and in the case of the Minamoto in Kamakura. What
the regents had been to the emperors and the constables to the
Minamoto shOguns, that the wardens (hueasyd) were to the
Ashikaga shoguns. Therefore, for possession of this office of
kwanryO vehement conflicts were waged, and at one time five
rival shoguns were used as figure-beads by contending factions.
Yoshimitsu had apportioned an ample allowance for the support
of the Imperial court, but in the continuous warfare following
his death the estates charged with the duty of paying this
allowance ceased to return any revenue; the court nobles had
to seek shelter and sustenance with one or other of the feudal
chiefs in the provinces, and the court itself was reduced to such a
state of indigence that when the emperor Go-Tsuchi died (1500),
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
bis corpse lay for forty days awaiting burial, bo funds being
available for purposes of sepulture.
Alone among the vicissitudes of these troublous times the
strength and influence of Buddhism grew steadily. The great
monasteries were military strongholds as well as places of worship.
When the emperor Kwammu chose Kioto for his capital, he
established on the hill of Hiyei-zan, which lay north-east of the
city, a magnificent temple to ward off the evil influences supposed
to emanate from that quarter. Twenty years later, K&b6, the
most famous of all Japanese Buddhist saints, founded on Koya-
san in Yamato a monastery not less important than that of
Hiyei-zan. These and many other temples had large tax-free
estates, and for the protection of their property they found it
expedient to train and arm the cenobites as soldiers. From that
to taking active part in the political struggles of the time was but
a short step, especially as the great temples often became refuges
of sovereigns and princes who, though nominally forsaking the
world, retained all their interest, and even continued to take an
active part, in its vicissitudes. It is recorded of the emperor
Shirakawa (1073-1086) that the three things which he declared
bis total inability to control were the waters of the river Karoo,
the fall of the dice, and the monks of Buddha. His successors
might have confessed equal inability. Kiyotnori, the puissant
chief of the Taira family, had fruitlessly essayed to defy the
Buddhists; Yoritomo, in the hour of his most signal triumph,
thought it wise to placate them. Where these representatives
of centralised power found themselves impotent, it may well be
supposed that the comparatively petty chief tans who fought
each for his own hand in the 15th and 16th centuries were in-
capable of accomplishing anything. In fact, the task of central-
izing the administrative power, and thus restoring peace and
order to the distracted empire, seemed, at the middle of the 16th
century, a task beyond achievement by human capacity.
' But if ever events create the men to deal with them, such was
the case in the second half of that century. Three of* the
Nobtiaatm, greatest captains and statesmen in Japanese history
muyosAf appeared upon the stage simultaneously, and more-
«•* over worked in union, an event altogether incon-
* w ** sistent with the nature of the age. They were
Oda Nobunaga, Hideyoshi (the toikti) and Tokugawa Iyeyasu.
Nobunaga belonged to the Taira family and was originally
ruler of a small fief in the province of OwarL Iyeyasu, a
sub-feudatory of Nobunaga's enemy, the powerful daimyo* of
Mikawa and two other provinces, was a scion of the Minamoto
and therefore eligible for the shOgunate. Hideyoshi was' a
peasant's son, equally lacking in patrons and in personal attrac-
tions. No chance seemed more remote than that such men,
above all Hideyoshi, could possibly rise to supreme power. On
the other hand, one outcome of the commotion with which the
country had seethed for more than four centuries was to give
special effect to the principle of natural selection. The fittest
alone surviving, the qualities that made for fitness came to take
precedence of rank or station, and those qualities were prowess
in the battle-field and wisdom in the statesman's closet. " Any
plebeian that would prove himself a first-class fighting man was
willingly received into the armed comitaius which every feudal
potentate was eager to attach to himself and his flag." It was
thus that Hideyoshi was originally enrolled in the ranks of
Nobunaga's retainers.
Nobunaga, succeeding to his small fief in Owari in 1542, added
to it six whole provinces within 25 years of continuous endeavour.
Being finally invited by the emperor to undertake the pacifica-
tion of the country, and appealed to by Yoshiaki, the last of the
Ashikaga chiefs, to secure for him the shOgunate, he marched into
Kioto at the head of a powerful army (1 568), and, having accom-
plished the latter purpose, was preparing to complete the former
when he fell under the sword of a traitor. Throughout his
brilliant career he had the invaluable assistance of Hideyoshi,
who would have attained immortal fame on any stage in any era.
Hideyoshi entered Nobunaga's service as a groom and ended
by administering the whole empire. When he accompanied
* Dainty*; f fiaat name") wis tfcs tide given toa feudal chief.
JAPAN 26,
Nobunaga to Kioto In obedience to the invitation of themikadb,
Okimachi, order and tranquillity were quickly restored in the
capital and its vicinity. But to extend this blessing to the whole
country, four powerful daimyos as well as the militant monks had
still to be dealt with. The monks had from the outset sheltered
and succoured Nobunaga's enemies, and one great prelate,
Kenryo, hterarch of the Monto sect, whose headquarters were
at Osaka, was believed to aspire to the throne itself. In 1571
Nobunaga attacked and gave to the flames the celebrated
monastery of Hiyei-zan, established nearly eight centuries pre-
viously; and in 1580 he would have similarly served the splendid
temple Hongwan-ji in Osaka, had not the mikado sought and
obtained grace for it. The task then remained of subduing four
powerful daimyos, three in the south and one in the north-east,
who continued to follow the bent of their own warlike ambitions
without paying the least attention to either sovereign or shogun.
The task was commenced by sending an array under Hideyoshi
against Mori of Choshu, whose fief lay on the northern shore of
the Shimonoseki strait. This proved to be the last enterprise
planned by Nobunaga. On a morning in June 158s one of the
corps intended to reinforce Hideyoshi's army marched out of
Kameyama under the command of Akechi Mitsuhide, who either
harboured a personal grudge against Nobunaga or was swayed
by blind ambition. Mitsuhide suddenly changed the route of
his troops, led them to Kioto, and attacked the temple Honn6rji
where Nobunaga was sojourning all unsuspicious of treachery.
Rescue and resistance being alike hopeless, the great soldier
committed suicide. Thirteen days later, Hideyoshi, having
concluded peace with Mori of Choshft, fell upon Mitsuhide's
forces and shattered them, Mitsuhide himself being killed by a
peasant as he fled from the field.
Nobunaga's removal at once made Hideyoshi the most con-
spicuous figure in the empire, the only man with any claim to
dispute that title being Tokugawa Iyeyasu. These
two had hitherto worked in concert. But the ques- au w° 8U '
don of the succession to Nobunaga's estates threw the country
once more into tumult. He left two grown-up sons and a baby
grandson, whose father, Nobunaga's first-born, had perished
in the holocaust at Bonn6-ji. Hideyoshi, not unmindful.it may
be assumed, of the privileges of a guardian, espoused the cause
of the infant, and wrested from Nobunaga's three other great
captains a reluctant endorsement of his choice. Nobutaka, third
son of Nobunaga, at once drew the sword, which he presently bad
to turn against his own person; two years later (1584), his elder
brother, Nobuo, took the field under the aegis of Tokugawa
Iyeyasu. Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, now pitted against each other
for the first time, were found to be of equal prowess, and being
too wise to prolong a useless war, they reverted to their old
alliance, subsequently confirming it by a family union, the son
of Iyeyasu being adopted by Hideyoshi and the latter's daughter
being given in marriage to Iyeyasu. Hideyoshi had now been
invested by the mikado with the post of regent, and his position
in the capital was omnipotent. He organized in Kioto a mag-
nificent pageant, in whicji the principal figures were himself,
Iyeyasu^ Nobuo and twenty-seven daimyos. The emperor was
present. Hideyoshi sat on the right of the throne, and all the
nobles did obeisance to the sovereign. Prior to this event
Hideyoshi had. conducted against the still defiant daimyos of
KiQshiu, especially Shimaxu of Satsuma, the greatest army ever
massed by any Japanese general, and had reduced the island
of the nine provinces, not by weight of armament only, but also
by a signal exercise of the wise clemency which distinguished
him from all the statesmen of his era.
The whole of Japan was now under Hideyoshi's sway except
the fiefs in the extreme north and those in the region' known as
the Kwanttiv namely, the eight provinces forming the eastern
elbow of the main island. Seven of these provinces were virtu-
ally under the sway of Hojo Ujimasa, fourth representative of a
family established in 1476 by a brilliant adventurer of Ise, not
related in any way to the great but then extinct bouse of Kama-
kura Hojos. The daimyos in the north were comparatively
powerless to resist Hideyoshi, but to reach them the Kwanto had
262
JAPAN
{DOMESTIC HISTORY
to be reduced, and not only was its chief, Ujimasa, a formidable
toe, but also the topographical features of the district represented
fortifications of immense strength. After various u n s u ccessful
overtures, having for their purpose to induce Ujimasa to visit
the capital and pay homage to the emperor, Hideyoshi marched
from Kioto in the spring of 1590 at the head of 170,000 men, his
colleagues Nobuo and Iyeyasu having under their orders. 80,000
more. The campaign ended as did all Hidcyoshi's enterprises,
except that he treated his vanquished enemies with unusual
severity. During the three months spent investing Odawara,
the northern daimyos surrendered, and thus the autumn of
1500 saw Hideyoshi master of Japan from end to end, and saw
Tokugawa Iyeyasu established at Yedo as recognized ruler of
the eight provinces of the Kwanto. These two facts should be
bracketed together, because Japan's emergence from the deep
gloom of long-continued civil strife was due not more to the
brilliant qualities of Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu individually than to
the fortunate synchronism of their careers, so that the one was
able to carry the other's work to completion and permanence.
The last eight years of Hideyoshi's life—he died in 1 598 — were
chiefly remarkable for his attempt to invade China through
Korea, and for his attitude towards Christianity (see § VIII.:
Foreign Intercourse).
Tkt Tokugawa £ro.— When Hideyoshi died he left a son,
Hidcyori, then only six years of age, and the problem of this
child's future had naturally caused supreme solicitude to the
peasant statesman. He finally entrusted the care of the boy
and the management of state affairs to five regents, five ministers,
aad three intermediary councillors. But he placed chief reliance
spon iyeyasu, whom he appointed president of the board of
Kgents. Among the latter was one, Ishida Mitsunari, who to
^satiable ambition added an extraordinary faculty for intrigue
aoJ great personal magnetism. These qualities he utilized with
*tvfc success that the dissensions among the cbunyds, which had
Seca temporarily composed by Hideyoshi, broke out again, and
4hr year 1600 saw Japan divided into two camps, one composed
,* l^kugawa Iyeyasu and his allies, the other of Ishida Mitsunari
.gpi his partisans.
t\e situation of Iyeyasu was eminently perilous. From his
*a£i«a in the east of the country, he found himself menaced
Mmtk by two powerful enemies on the north and on the
** 1 ^^ south, respectively, the former barely contained by
,n«4iy weaker force of his friends, and the latter moving up
Y <v«itt*ty overwhelming strength from Kioto. He decided
^1 himself upon the jsouthern army without awaiting the
^^ * Use conflict in the north. The encounter took place
*j£*A**a m lhe Province of Mino on the a 1st of October
rf ?* araay of Iyeyasu had to move to the Attack in such a
* * >y
it
r-
is
re
is
le
Hideyoshi and another Iyeyasu to stem it. Sekigahara, there-
fore, may be truly described as a turning-point in Japan's
career and as one of the decisive battles of the world. As for
the fact that the Tokugawa leader did not at once proceed to
extremities in the case of the boy Hideyori, though the events
of the Sekigahara campaign had made it quite plain that such a
course would ultimately be inevitable, we have to remember
that only two years had elapsed since Hideyoshi was laid in his
grave. His memory was still green and the glory of his achieve-
ments still enveloped his family. Iyeyasu foresaw that to carry
the tragedy to its bitter end at once must have forced? into Hide-
yori's camp many puissant daimyos whose sense of allegiance
would grow less cogent with the lapse of time. When he did lay
siege to the Osaka castle in 161 5, the power of the Tokugawa was
weUnigh shattered against its ramparts; had not the onset been
aided by treachery, the stronghold would probably have proved
impregnable.
But signal as were the triumphs of the Tokugawa chieftain in
the field, what distinguishes him from all his predecessors is the
ability he displayed in consolidating his -conquests. The im-
mense estates that fell into bis hands he parcelled out in such a
manner that all important strategical positions were held by
daimyos whose fidelity could be confidently trusted, and every
feudatory of doubtful loyalty found his fief within touch of a
Tokugawa partisan. This arrangement, supplemented by a
system which required all the great daimyos to have mansions in
the sh6gun's capital. Yedo, to keep their families there always
and to reside there themselves in alternate years, proved so
potent a check to disaffection that from 1615, when the castle of
Osaka fell, until 1864, when the ChoshQ renin attacked Ki6to,
Japan remained entirely free from civil war.
It is possible to form a clear idea of the ethical and adminis-
trative principles by which Iyeyasu and the early Tokugawa
chiefs were guided in elaborating the system which gave to
Japan an unprecedented era of peace and prosperity. Evidence
is furnished not only by the system itself but also by the con-
tents of a document generally called the Testament of Iyeyasu,
though probably it was not fully compiled until the time of his
grandson, Iyemitsu (1623-1650). The great Tokugawa chief,
though he munificently patronized Buddhism and though he
carried constantly in his bosom a miniature Buddhist image to
which he ascribed all his success in the field and his safety in
battle, took his ethical code from Confucius. He held that the
basis of all legislation and administration should be the five
relations of sovereign and subject, parent and child, husband
and wife, brother and sister, friend and friend. The family
was, in his eyes, the essential foundation of society, to be main-
tained at all sacrifices. Beyond these broad outlines of moral
duty it was not deemed necessary to instruct the people. There-
fore out of the hundred chapters forming the Testament only
as contain what can be called legal enactments, while 55 relate
to administration and politics; 16 set forth moral maxims and
reflections, and the remainder record illustrative episodes in the
career of the author. "No distinct line is drawn between law
and morals, between the duty of a citizen and the virtues of a
member of a family. Substantive law is entirely wanting, just
as it was wanting in the so-called constitution ofPrince Shdtoku.
Custom, as sanctioned by public observance, must be complied
with in the civil affairs of life. What required minute exposition
was criminal law, the relations of social classes, etiquette, rank,
precedence, administration and government.
Society under feudalism had been moulded into three sharply
defined groups, namely, first, the Throne and the court nobles
iku$e); secondly, the military class (buke or samurai); Sodat ^
and thirdly, the common people (heimin). These lines itacUom* tm
of cleavage were emphasized as much as possible **• *"•*"*
by the Tokugawa rulers. The divine origin of the* , "" £rfc
mikado was held to separate him from contact with mundane
affairs, and he was therefore strictly secluded in the palace at
Kioto, bis main function being to mediate between his heavenly
ancestors and his subjects, entrusting to the ahOgun and the
samurai the duty of transacting all worldly business on behalf
DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN
of the state* la obedience to Uiis principle the mikado became
a kind of sacrosanct abstraction. No one except his consort*
and his chief ministers ever saw his face. In the rare cases
when he gave audience to a privileged subject, he sat behind a
curtain, and when he went abroad, he rode in a closely shut car
drawn by oxen* A revenue of ten thousand foA* of rice — the
equivalent of about as many guineas— was apportioned for his
support, and the right was reserved to him of conferring empty
titles upon the living and rank upon the dead. His majesty had
one wife, the empress (ktg6), necessarily taken from one of the
five chosen families (phstkke) of the Fujiwara, but he might also
have twelve consorts, and if direct issue failed, the succession
passed to one of the two princely families of Arisugawa and
FusHmi, adoption, however, being possible in the last resort.
The huge constituted the court nobility, consisting of 155 families
ail of whom traced their lineage to ancient mikados; they ranked
far above the feudal chiefs, not excepting even the shogun;
filled by right of heredity nearly all the offices at the court, the
emoluments attached being, however, a mere pittance; were
entirely without the great estates which had belonged to them
in ante-feudal times, and lived lives of proud poverty, occupying
themselves with the study of literature and the practice of music
and art. After the kugt and at a long distance below them in
theoretical rank came the military families, who, as a class,
were called bnke or samurai. They had hereditary revenues,
and they filled the administrative posts, these, too, being often
hereditary. The third, and by far the most numerous, section
of the nation were the commoners (hrimtn). They had nd
social status; were hot allowed to carry swords, and possessed
no income except what they could earn with their hands*
About 55 in every 1000 units of .the nation were samurai, the
latter's wives and children being included in this estimate.
Under the Hojd and the Ashikaga shoguns the holders of
the great estates changed frequently according to the vitisst*
^^ tudes of those troublesome times, but under the
b****** Tokugawa no change took place, and there thus
grew up a landed nobility of the most permanent character.
Every one ef these estates was a feudal kingdom, large or small,
with its own usages and its own laws, based on the general
principles above indicated and liable to be judged according to
those principles by the shogun 1 * government (baku-fu) inYedoj
A daimyo or feudal chief drew from the peasants en his estate
the means of subsistence for himself and his retainers. For tins
purpose the produce of his estate was assessed by the shogun's
officials in kok* (one koku » 18C30 litres, worth about £1), and
about one-half of the assessed amount went to the feudatory,
the other half to the tillers of the soiL The richest daimyft was
Mayeda of Kaga, whose fief was assessed at a little over a million
koku, his revenue thus being about half a million sterling. Just
as an empress had to be taken from one of five families designated
to that distinction for all time, so a successor to the shogunate,
failing direcf heir, had to be selected from three families
{sanke), namely, those of the daimyos of Owari, Kii and Mito,
whose first representatives were three sons of Iyeyasu. Out
of the tout body of 255 daimyos existing in the year 1863,
141 were specially distinguished as fudai, or hereditary vassals
of the Tokugawa house, and to 18 of these was strictly
limited the perpetual privilege of filling all the high offices
in the Yedo administration, while to 4 of them was reserved
the special honour of supplying a regent (go-taird) during the
minority of the shogun. Moreover, a fudai daimyO was of
necessity appointed to the command of the- fortress of
NijO in Kifito as well as of the great castles of Osaka and
Fushimi, which Iyeyasu designated the keys of the country.
No intermarriage might take place between members of the
court nobility and the feudal houses without the consent of
Yedo; no daimyO might apply direct to the emperor for an
official title, or might put foot within the imperial district of
Kioto without the shogun's permit, and at all entrances to the
region known as the RwantO there were established guard-
houses, where every one, of whatever rank, must submit to be
examined, in order to prevent the wives and children ef the
363
daimyos from secretly leaving Yedo for thefr own provinces.
In their journeys to and from Yedo every second year the feudal
chiefs had to travel by one of two great highways, the Tdkaid6
or the NakasendA, and as they moved with great retinues,
these roads were provided with a number of inns and tea-houses
equipped in a sumptuous manner, and having an abundance of
female servants. A puissant daimyd's procession often num-
bered as many as 1000 retainers, and nothing illustrates more
forcibly the wide interval that separated the soldier and the
plebeian than the fact that at the appearance of the heralds who
preceded these progresses all commoners who happened to be
abroad had to kneel on the ground with bowed and uncovered
beads; all wayside houses had to dose the shutters of windows
giving on the road, and none might venture to look down from a
height on the passing magnate. Any violation of these rules of
etiquette exposed the violator to instant death at the hands of
the daimyft's retinue. Moreover, the samurai and the heimin
lived strictly apart. A feudal chief had a castle which generally*
occupied a commanding position. It was surrounded by from
one to three bread moats, the innermost crowned with a high
wal of huge cut stones, its trace arranged so as to give flank
defence, which was further provided by pagoda-like towers
placed at the salient angles. Inside this wall stood the houses
of the high officials en the outskirts of a park surrounding the
residence of the daimyo himself, and from the scarps of the moats
or in the intervals between them rose houses for the military
retainers, barrack-h'ke structures, provided, whenever possible,
with small but artistically arranged and carefully tended gardens.
All this domain of the military was called yaskiki in distinction
to the madri (streets) where the despised commoners had their
habitat.
The general body of the samurai received stipends and lived
frugally. Their pay was not reckoned in money: it took the
form of so many rations of rice delivered from SamurmL
their chiefs granaries. A few had landed estates, 5-JB4W * fc
usually bestowed in recognition of conspicuous merit. They
were probably the finest type of hereditary soldiers the world
ever produced. Money and all devices' for earning it they pro-
foundry despised. The right of wearing a sword was to them
the highest conceivable privilege. They counted themselves
the guardians of their fiefs 1 honour and of their country's welfare.
At any moment they were prepared cheerfully to sacrifice their
lives on the altar of loyalty. Their word, once given, must never
be violated. The slightest insult to their honour might not be
condoned. Stoicism was a quality which they esteemed next
to courage: all outward display* of emotion must be suppressed.
The sword might never be drawn for a petty cause, but, if once
drawn, must never be returned to its scabbard until it had done
its duty. Martial exercises occupied much of their attention,
but book learning also they esteemed highly. They were pro-
foundly courteous towards each other, profoundly contemptuous
towards the commoner, whatever his wealth. Filial piety ranked
next to loyalty in their code of ethics. Thus the Confucian
maxim, endorsed explicitly in the Testament of Iyeyasu, that a
man must not live under the same sky with his father's mur-
derer or his brother's slayer, received most literal obedience,
and many Instances occurred of vendettas pursued in the face of
apparently insuperable difficulties and consummated after years
of effort. By the standard of modern morality the Japanese
samurai would be counted cruel Holding that death was the
natural sequel of defeat and the only certain way of avoiding
disgrace, he did not seek quarter himself or think of extending it
to an enemy. Yet in his treatment of the latter he loved to dis-
play courtesy until the supreme moment when all considerations
of mercy were laid aside. It cannot be doubted that the prac-
tice of employing torture judicially tended to educate a mood
of callousness towards suffering, or that the many idle hours of a
military man's fife in time of peace encouraged a measure of
dissipation. But there does not seem to be any valid ground for
concluding (hat either of these defects was conspicuous in
the character of the Japanese samurai. Faithlessness towards
women was the greatest fault that can be laid to his door. The
2&+
as ti«<
JAPAN
^^^^ to ak in the cwm ol Iwftwir jou » rewlily
^^JESrt ker Hthtr or her brother died, and conjugal
fidcOitX ^ d # ^ But her husbsad held mtriul faith in small
simpl* a *^ y ^uiked W» ^^ f " he ^ w •» « wo «*- U has to be
e»tee«» *^i^h*t when we speak of 4 samurai's suicide, there is
remc«*» 1> * I V«i noison, the bullet, drowning or any comparatively
no<li*^^^!zJjl^ttT<mtewotU. The invariable method
p*ial*»* ?!!*opeJi the abetomen (WAsV* or uppnku) and after-
na to c u I* «2ngtb remained, the sword was turned against the
■- ** *^uch endurance had the samurai trained himself
through this cruel ordeal without flinching in the
(DOMESTIC HISTORY
Tls«
**4^!?^r commoners were divided into three classes—
**^?n artisans and traders. The fanner, as the nation
^^i by his labour, was counted the most respect-
able among the bread-winners, and a cultivator
~JZ esUte might even carry one sword but never two,
* *** ^C£e*ebeing strictly reserved to a samurai. Theartisan,
*■* !**T?£^ much considersuon, as is easily understood when
****££& that included in his ranks were artists, sword-
w ^L OUI tn t sculptors of sacred images or sword-furniture,
:Jr and lacO""* 18 - Manvartlsan8W e« in the permanent
^2 feudal chiefs from whom they received fixed salaries.
^Ln however, were regarded with disdain and stood
**2rail i» d* sodal or 8*nuation. Too much despised to
<■ * f included in that organization were the da (defiled
be -='*™^ i Use kim* (outcasts). The exact origin of these latter
stt»<
^ uncertain, but the ancestors of the eta would seem to
prismicnofwarortheeiisUvcdfariuTiesofcriininals.
J#*b were assigned the defiling duties of tending tombs,
^ the bodies of the dead, slaughtering animals or
JxVea- The Wnin were mendicants. On them devolved
.^resnoving and burying the corpses of executed crimi-
vintj in segregated hamlets, forbidden to marry with
^tfl less with samurai, not allowed to cat, drink or
^U, pemoas above their own class, the eta remained
to of ostracism from generation to generation,
oi them contrived to amass much wealth. They
_& by. their own headmen, and they had three
v** * * ?? "L^t MeM of Ye *>. 0»ka and
^ tiaar ■embers of the submerged classes were
pmsopuon and admitted to the ranks of the
_ *r tfceenhghtened system of Meiji. Toe sztb
^Hl ,2 rf^jfcwement, and at that date
rf 3»7^xi eu and 695,680 hinin.
r -= ^s^ ily ' ".^^JS!?.?!* 4 * ? C **• Tokugawa regime
wirf^^UwI. ** ?"* <*}** "*Uon underwent a change.
T3* samtaai, no longer required to lead the frugal
m Bicrfcaav^barrtcks, began to live beyond their
They found difficulty in meeting the
- of everyday existence, so that money
- in their eyes, and they gradually
their traditional disinterestedness
the past. At the same time the
„_ * ^fy* 11 "*° increased salience. A
■wmasry soldiers become an anomaly when
"^^ *^ •* of memory. On the other
«*»ercial classes acquired new
T**» disbursed every year in
<t the great establishments
each other in keeping there,
so greatly that their
Buddhism waft a
its were weakened by
often yielded to the
adhered to its refined
«sa reunions; poem
a sjdbery; fencing and
eactuded from all this
ftg rapidly from his old
position of penury and degradation, began to develop luxurious
proclivities and to demand corresponding amusements. Thus
the theatre came into existence; the dancing girl and the
jester found lucrative employment; a popular school of art
was founded and quickly carried to perfection; the lupanar
assumed unprecedented dimensions; rich and costly costumes
acquired wide vogue in despite of sumptuary laws enacted
from time to time; wrestling became an important institution,
and plutocracy asserted itself in the face of caste distinctions.
Simultaneously with the change of sodal conditions thus
taking place, history repeated itself at the shogun's court. The
substance of administrative power passed into the hands of a
minister, its shadow alone remaining to the shogun. During
only two generations were the successors of Iyeyasu able to resist
this traditional tendency. The representative of the third—
Iyetsuna (1661-1680)— succumbed to the machinations of an
ambitious minister, Sakai Takakiyo, and it may be said that from
that time the nominal repository of administrative authority in
Yedo was generally a species of magnificent recluse, secluded
from contact with the outer world and seeing and hearing only
through the eyes and ears of the ladies of his household. In
this respect the descendants of the great Tokugawa statesman
found themselves reduced to a position precisely analogous to
that of the emperor in Kioto. Sovereign and shogun were
alike mere abstractions so far as the practical work of
government was concerned. With the great mass of the feudal
chiefs things fared similarly. These men who, in the days of
Nobunaga, Hideyoshi and Iyeyasu, had directed the policies of
their fiefs and led their armies in the field, were gradually trans-
formed, during the long peace of the Tokugawa era, into volup-
tuous fainiants or, at best, thoughtless dilettanti, willing to
abandon the direction of their affairs to seneschals and mayors,
who, while on the whole their administration was able and
loyal, found their account in contriving and perpetuating the
effacement of their chiefs. Thus, in effect, the government
of the country, taken out of the hands of the shogun and the
feudatories, fell into those of their vassals. There were excep-
tions, of course, but so rare as to be merely accidental.
Another important factor has to be noted. It has been
shown above that Iyeyasu bestowed upon his three sons the rich
fiefs of Owari, Kii (KishO) and Mito, and that these three
families exclusively enjoyed the privilege of furnishing an heir
to the shogun should the latter be without direct issue. Mito
ought therefore to have been a most unlikely place for the
conception and propagation of principles subversive of the
shdgun's administrative autocracy. Nevertheless, in the days
of the second of the Mito chiefs at the dose of the 17th century,
there arose in that province a school of thinkers who, revolting
against the ascendancy of Chinese literature and of Buddhism,
devoted themselves to compiling a history such as should recall
the attention of the nation to its own annals and revive its
allegiance to Shinto. It would seem that in patronising the
compilation of this great work the Mito chief was swayed by
the spirit of pure patriotism and studentship, and that he
discerned nothing of the goaito which the new researches must
lead the litterati of his fief. " He and they, for the sake of
history and without any thought of politics, undertook a retro-
spect of their country's annals, and their frank analysis furnished
conclusive proof that the emperor was the prime source of
administrative authority and that its independent exercise
by a shogun must be regarded as a usurpation. They did not
attempt to give practical effect to their discoveries; the era was
essentially academical. But this galaxy of scholars projected
into the future a light which burned with growing force in each
succeeding generation and ultimately burst into a flame which
consumed feudalism and the shogunate," fused the nation into
one, and restored the governing authority to the emperor.
Of course the Mito men were not alone in this matter: many
students subsequently trod in their footsteps and many others
sought to stem the tendency; but the net result was fatal to
faith in the dual system of government. Possibly had nothing
occurred to furnish signal proof of the system's practical defecta,
DOMESTIC HISTORY)
JAPAN
265
it might have long survived this theoretical disapproval
But the crisis caused by the advent of foreign ships and by the
forceful renewal of foreign intercourse in the 10th century
afforded convincing evidence of the shogunate's incapacity to
protect the state's supposed interests and to enforce the tradi-
tional policy of isolation which the nation had learned to con-
sider essential to the empire's integrity.
Another important factor made for the fall of the shogunate.
That factor was the traditional disaffection of the two great
southern fiefs, Satsuma and ChoshQ. When Iyeyasu parcelled
out the empire, he deemed it the wisest policy to leave these
chieftains in full possession of 'their large estates. But this
measure, construed as an evidence of weakness rather than
a token of liberality, neither won. the allegiance of the big
feudatories nor cooled, their ambition. Thus no sooner did
the nation divide into two camps over the question of renewed
foreign intercourse than men of the above dans, in concert
with representatives of certain of the old court nobles, placed
themselves at the head of a movement animated by two loodly
proclaimed purposes: restoration of the administration to the
emperor, and expulsion of aliens. This latter aspiration under-
went a radical change when the bombardment of the Satsuma
capital, Kagoshima, and the destruction of the ChoshQ forts
and. ships at Shimonoseki proved conclusively to the Satsuma
and ChoshQ dans that Japan in her unequipped and backward
condition. could not hope to stand for a moment against the
Occident in arms. But the unwelcome discovery was accom-
panied by a. conviction that only a thoroughly united nation
might aspire to preserve its independence, and thus the abolition
of the dual form of government became more than ever an
article of public faith. It is unnecessary to recount the suc-
cessive incidents which conspired to undermine the shdgun's
authority, and to destroy the prestige of the Yedo administration.
Both had been reduced to vanishing quantities by the year 1866
when Keikl succeeded to the shogunate.
Kdki, known historically as Yoshinobu, the last of the
shoguns, was a man of matured intellect and hfgh capacities.
He had been put forward by the anti-foreign Conservatives
Tor the succession to the shtJgunatc in 1S57 when the complica-
tions of foreign intercourse were in thdr first stage of acuteness.
But, like many other intelligent Japanese, he had learned,
in the interval between 1857 and 1866, that to keep her doors
closed was an impossible task for Japan, and very quickly
after taking the reins of office he recognized that national
onion could never be achieved while power was divided between
Kidto and Yedo. At this juncture there was addressed to
him by YOdO, chief of the great Tosa fief, a memorial setting
forth the hopelessness of the position in which the Yedo court
now found itself, and urging that, In the interests of good
government and in order that the nation's united strength
might be available to meet the exigendes of its new career,
the administration should be restored to the emperor. Reiki
received this memorial in Kioto. He immediately summoned
a council of all the feudatories and high officials then in the
Imperial city, announced to them his intention to lay down bis
office, and, the next day, presented bis resignation to the
sovereign. This happened on the 14th of October 1867.
It must be ranked among the signal events of the world's
history, for it signified the voluntary surrender of kingly
authority wielded uninterruptedly for nearly three centuries.
That the shogun's resignation was tendered in good faith
there can be no doubt, and had it been accepted fn the same
spirit, the great danger it involved might have been consum-
mated without bloodshed or disorder. But the clansmen of
Satsuma and Choshu were distrustful. - One of the shdgun's
first acts after assuming office had been to obtain from the throne
an edict for imposing penalties on ChoshQ, and there was a
precedent for suspecting that the renundation of power by
the shoguu might merely prelude its resumption on a firmer
basis. Therefore Steps were taken to induce the emperor,
then a youth of fifteen, to issue a secret rescript to Satsuma
and ChoshO, denouncing the sfaogun at the nation's enemy and
enjoining his destruction. At the same time all officials con-
nected with the Tokugawa or suspected of sympathy with
them were expelled from office in Kidto, and the shogun's
troops were deprived of the custody of the palace gates by
methods which verged upon the use of armed force. In the
face of such provocation Keiki's earnest efforts to restrain
the indignation of his vassals and adherents failed. They
marched against Kioto and were defeated, whereupon Keiki left
his castle at Osaka and retired to Yedo, where he subsequently
made unconditional surrender to the Imperial army. There is
little more to be set down on this page of the history. The
Yedo court consented to lay aside its dignities and be stripped
of ks administrative authority, but all the Tokugawa vassals
and adherents did not prove equally placable. There was resist-
ance in the northern provinces, where the Aizu feudatory
refused to abandon the Tokugawa cause; there was an attempt
to set up a rival candidate for the throne in the person of aa
Imperial prince who presided over the Uyeno Monastery ia
Yedo; and there was a wild essay on the part of the admiral
of the shOgun's fleet to establish a republic in the island of
Yczo. But these were mere ripples on the Surface of the broad
stream which set towards the peaceful overthrow of the dual
system of government and ultimately towards the fall of
feudalism itself. That this system, the outcome of five centuries
of nearly continuous warfare, was swept away in almost as many
weeks with little loss of life or destruction of property consti-
tutes; perhaps, the most striking inddent, certainly the most
momentous, in the history of the Japanese nation.
The Meiji JEr».— It must be remembered that when refer-
ence fs made to the Japanese nation in connexion with these
radical changes, only the nobles and the samurai are indicated
—in other words, a section of the population representing about
one-sixteenth of the whole. The bulk of the people — the
agricultural, the industrial and the mercantile classes— remained
outside the sphere of politics, not sharing the anti-foreign preju-
dice, or taking any serious interest in the great questions of the
time. Foreigners often noted with surprise the contrast be-
tween the fierce antipathy displayed towards them by certain
samurai on the one hand, and the genial, hospitable reception
given to them by the common people on the other. History
teaches that the latter was the natural disposition of the Japanese,
the former a mood educated by special experiences. Further,
even the comparatively narrow statement that the restoration
of the administrative power to the emperor was the work of the
nobles and the samurai must be taken with limitations. A
majority of the nobles entertained no idea of any necessity for
change. They were either' hdd fast in the vice of Tokugawa
authority, or paralysed by the sensuous seductions of the lives
provided for them by the machinations of their retainers, who
transferred the administrative authority of the fiefs to their
own hands, leaving its shadow only to their lords. It was among
the retainers that longings for a new order of things were gene-
rated. Some of these men were sincere disciples of progress— a
small band of students and deep thinkers who, looking through
the narrow Dutch window at Deshima, had caught a glimmering
perception of the realities that lay beyond the horizon of thdr
country's prejudices. But the influence of such Liberals was com-
paratively insignificant Though they showed remarkable moral
courage and tenacity of purpose, the age did not furnish any
Strong object lesson to enforce thdr propaganda of progress.
The factors chiefly making for change were, first, the ambition
of the southern clans to oust the Tokugawa, and, secondly, the
samurai's loyal instinct, reinforced by the teachings of his
country's history, by the revival of the Shinto cult, by the
promptings of national enterprise, and by the object-lessons of
foreign intercourse.
But though essentially imperialistic in its prime purposes,
the revolution which involved the fall of the shogunate, and
ultimately of feudalism, may be called democratic with Chmnetar
regard to the personnel of those who planned andJ^JJ*^
directed it. They were, tor the most part, men with- *~"~^
out dther official rank or social standing. That is a point essential
*66
lw * vim uiktt4tta*xo« of ta# Ibm. Fifty-five Individuals may
fcv mk| t* k*v« pUuand aad carried out the overthrow of the
\vs*s* 4vluu\u>auWH^ and only five of them were territorial
tvUv* t^ht, Mw^utt to the court nobility, laboured under
thv tu*^tw*Ml s tk**vK\utiages of their class, poverty and political
vu*^u*u<.4»w. a>kI the remaining Corty-two, the hearts and hands
vJ ^v iwvvwwlt may be described as ambitious youths, who
*H<iM to uwk# a career (or themselves in the first place, and
4vm V*v« wuutry ^ the second. The average age of the whole
M mH weed thirty. There was another element for which
*uv «tv*tont of Japanese history might have been prepared: the
VAUvtuMk samurai aimed originally not merely at overthrowing
»h* t vaugAwa but also at obtaining the shogunate for their own
vhwt (Visibly it would be unjust to say that all the leaders
*A the gwat southern clan harboured that idea. But some of
thorn certainly did, and not until they had consented to abandon
the project did their union with ChoshQ, the other great southern
tUn, become possible— a union without which the revolution
tttuM scarcely have been accomplished. This ambition of the
S,u»um* clansmen deserves special mention, because it bore
tvuuiWable fruit; it may be said to have laid the foundation of
c\u\«iuuiion&l government in Japan. For, in consequence of
the <U»truit engendered by such aspirations, the authors of the
Ki^toration agreed that when the emperor assumed the reins of
|uiwor, he should solemnly pledge himself to convene a deliber-
hUvo assembly, to appoint to administrative posts men of
Intellect and erudition wherever they might be found, and to
tlaulc all measures in accordance with public opinion. This
promise, referred to frequently in later times as the Imperial
tMlh at the Restoration, came to be accounted the basis of repre-
sentative institutions, though in reality it was intended solely
a* a guarantee against the political ascendancy of any one clan.
At the outset the necessity of abolishing feudalism did not
present itself clearly to the leaders of the revolution. Their
sole idea was the unification of the nation. But
ItwjjttitM, wnCP they •came to consider closely the practical
side of the problem, they understood bow far it
ttuuld lead them* Evidently that one homogeneous system
v4 Uw should replace the more or less heterogeneous systems
vv^utlve in the various fiefs was essential, and such a
•ututiiuiion meant that the feudatories must be deprived
sit their lotal autonomy and, incidentally, of their control of
U a! mum ca. That was a stupendous change. Hitherto each
i« .ul.il thivf had collected the revenues of bis fief and had em-
^ . > vU l turn At will» subject to the sole condition of maintaining
4 K i*l i uh^i* proportionate to his income. He had been, and
v v , *uil. 4U autocrat within the limits of his territory. On the
o k> t tuiud, the active authors of the revolution were a small
U I vit tin u mainly without prestige or territoriaj influence. It
v i, ui.^.iMo that they should dictate any measure sensibly
,,vii ^ ttu UkuI and fiscal autonomy of the feudatories. No
^ «» t A^a'ils. U enforcing such a measure existed at the time.
V Si wu*u polilual changes in Japan had formerly been
• .v^vvAv w»u. vuuninating in the accession of some strong
,. ,v , vw authority, whereas in this case there had been a
>.< w.u mahout a substitution— the Tokugawa had been
,, .»u v<U m» uvw administrators had been set up in their
i v w a N uh<4 vovcr, certain that an attempt on the port of
».* o> w^t«utut« Itself executor of the sovereign's
. v V .U V.w Atired the other clans to vehement resist-
» \.„ -Av kaUvrs of the revolution found themselves
* v «x .Kv^u sA government without any machinery
^ : ..^ >ua, vm any means of abolishing the old
. . fcV * c** vmI trom this curious dilemma was
„ „ v<wuki» They induced the feudal chiefs
*. x „ >,^ hkI lluen, the four most powerful
, n ,\k;> ^o surrender their fiefs to the
. . ,v..> W reorganise them and to bring
. .w^M^iUw. Inthecaseof Shimazu,
. * ^sis^Tosa, this act must stand to
.v*. U iheat the exercise of power
. . ..w.v 41 tttfteodering It must have
JAPAN
IDOMESTIC HISTORY
been correspondingly costly. But the chiefs of ChoshQ and Hixen
obeyed the suggestions of their principal vassals with little, if
any, sense of the probable cost of obedience. The same remark
applies to all the other feudatories, with exceptions so rare as to
emphasize the rule. They had long been accustomed to abandon
the management of their affairs to their leading clansmen, and
they allowed themselves to follow the same guidance at this
crisis. Out of more than 250 feudatories, only 17 hesitated to
imitate the example of the four southern fiefs.
An explanation of this remarkable incident has been sought by
supposing that the samurai of the various clans, when they
advised a course so inconsistent with fidelity to m»»vu
the interests of their feudal chiefs, were influenced •"£_
by motives of personal' ambition, imagining that r *^
they themselves might find great opportunities under the new
regime. Some hope of that kind may fairly be assumed, and was
certainly realized, in the case of the leading samurai of the four
southern clans which beaded the. movement. But it is plain
that no such expectations can have been generally entertained.
The simplest explanation seems to be the true one: a certain
course, indicated by the action of the four southern clans, was
conceived to be in accord with the spirit of the Restoration, and
not to adopt It would have been to shrink publicly from a sacrifice
dictated by the principle of loyalty to the Throne— a principle
which had acquired supreme sanctity in the eyes of the men of
that era^ There might have been some uncertainty about the
initial step; but so soon as that was taken by the southern clans
their example acquired compelling force. History shows that
in political crises the Japanese samurai is generally ready to pay
deference to certain canons of almost romantic morality. There
was a fever of loyalty and of patriotism in the air of the year
1869. Any one hesitating, for obviously selfish reasons, to adopt
a. precedent such as that offered by the procedure of the great
southern dans, would have seemed to forfeit the right of calling
himself a samurai. But although the leaders of this remarkable
movement now understood that they must contrive the total
abolition of feudalism and build up a new administrative edifice
on foundations of constitutional monarchy, they appreciated
the necessity of advancing slowly towards a goal which still lay
beyond the range of their followers' vision. Thus the first steps
taken after the surrender of the fiefs were to appoint the feuda-
tories to the position of governors in the districts over which they
bad previously ruled; to confirm the samurai in the p o s ses si o n
of their incomes and official positions; to put an end to the dis-
tinction between court nobles and territorial nobles, and to
organize in Kioto a cabinet consisting of the leaders of the
restoration. Each new governor received one-tenth of the
income of the fief by way of emoluments; the pay of the officials
and the samurai, as well as the administrative expenses of the
district, was defrayed from the same source, and the residue, if
any, was to pass into the treasury of the central government. '
The defects of this system from a monarchical point of view
soon became evident. It did not give the power of either
the purse or the sword to the sovereign. The rntut* •(
revenues of the administrative districts continued <a»jw
to be collected and disbursed by the former *******
feudatories, who also retained the control of the troops, the
right of appointing and dismissing officials, and almost com-
plete local autonomy. A further radical step bad to be
taken, and the leaders of reform, seeing nothing better than
to continue the method of procedure which had thus far proved
so successful, contrived, first, that several of the administrative
districts should send in petitions offering to surrender their local
autonomy and be brought under the direct rule of the central
government; secondly, that a number of samurai should apply
for permission to lay aside their swords. While the nation was
digesting the principles embodied in these petitions, the govern-
ment made preparations for further measures of reform. The
ex-chief of Satsuma, who showed some umbrage because the
services of his clan in promoting the restoration had not been
more fully recognised, was induced to take high ministerial office,
as were also the ex-chiefs of ChoshQ and Tosa. Each of the four
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
JAPAN
267
great cUns had now time repreBentativt* is tbe ministry.
These dans were further persuaded to send to Tdkyo— whither
the emperor had Moved his court — contingents of troops to
form the nucleus of a national army. Importance attaches to
these details because tbe principle of dan representation,
ilhistratcd in the organization of the cabinet of 1871, continued
in be approximately observed for many years in forming
ministries, and ultimately became a target for tbe attacks of
party politicians. ,
On the aoth of August 1871 an Imperial decree announced
the abolition of the system of local autonomy, and the removal
4So*i—oiol tbe territorial nobles from the posts of governor.
Qsdkai Tbe taxes of the former fiefs were to be paid thence*
^k*"*"** forth into the central treasury; all officials were to
be appointed by the Imperial government, and the feudatories,
retaining permanently an income of one-tenth of their original
revenues, were to make T&kyo their place of residence. As for
tbe samurai, they remained for the moment in possession of
their hereditary pensions. Radical as these changes seem, the
disturbance caused by them was not great, since they left the
incomes of the military class untouched. Some of the incomes
were for life only, but the majority were hereditary, and all had
been granted in consideration of their holders devoting them-
selves to military service. Four hundred thousand men approxi-
mately were in receipt of such emoluments, and tbe total amount
annually taken from the taxpayers for this purpose was about
£1,000,000. Plainly the nation would have to be relieved of
this burden sooner or later. The samurai were essentially an
element of the feudal system, and that they should survive the
tatter's fall would have been incongruous. On the other hand,
suddenly and wholly to deprive these men and their families— a
total of some two million persons— of the means of subsistence on
which they had hitherto relied with absolute confidence, and in
return for which they and their forefathers had rendered faithful
service, would have been an act of inhumanity. It may easily
be conceived that this problem caused extreme perplexity to the
administrators of the new Japan. They left it unsolved for the
moment, trusting that time and tbe loyalty of the samurai them-
selves would suggest some solution. As for the feudal chiefs,
who had now been deprived of all ofrtdalstatus and reduced to tbe
position of private gentlemen, without even a patent of nobility
to distinguish them from ordinary individuals, they did not find
anything specially irksome or regrettable in their altered
position. No scrutiny had been made into the contents of their
treasuries. They were allowed to retain unquestioned possession
of all tbe accumulated funds of their former fiefs, and they also
became public creditors for annual allowances equal to one-tenth
of their feudal revenues. They had never previously been so
pleasantly circumstanced. It is true that they were entirely
stripped of all administrative and military authority, but since
their possession of such authority had been in most cases merely
nominal, they only felt the change as a relief from responsibility.
By degrees public opinion began to declare itself with regard
to the samurai If they were to be absorbed into the bulk of
AMfeuflf tbe people and to lose their fixed revenues, some
•"*» capital must be placed at their disposal to begin
*—""** the world again. The samurai themselves showed a
noble faculty of resignation. They had been a privileged class,
but they had purchased their privileges with their blood and
ty serving as patterns of all the qualities most prized among
Japanese national characteristics. The record of their acts and
the recognition of the people entitled them to look for munificent
treatment at the hands of the government which they had been
the means of setting up. Yet none of these considerations
blinded them to the painful fact that tbe time had passed them
by; that no place existed for them in the new polity. Many of
them voluntarily stepped down into the company of the peasant
or the tradesman, and many others signified their willingness to
join the ranks of common bread-winners if some aid was given
to equip them (or such a career. After two years' consideration
the government took action. A decree announced, in 1873,
that the treasury was prepared to commute the pensions of the
samurai at the rate of wx years* purchase for hereditary pensions
and four years for life pensions— one-half of tbe commutation to
be paid' in cash, and one-half in bonds bearing interest at. the
rate of 8%. It will be seen that a perpetual pension of £10
would be exchanged for a payment of £30 in cash, together
with securities giving an income of £2, 8s.; and that s £10 life
pensioner received £20 in cash and securities yielding £1, ias.
annually. It is scarcely credible that tbe samurai should have
accepted such an arrangement. Something, perhaps, must *bc
ascribed to their want of business knowledge, but the general
explanation .is that they made a large sacrifice in the interests
of their country. Nothing in all their career as soldiers became
them better than their manner of abandoning it. Tbey were
told that they might lay aside their swords, and many of them
did so, though from time immemorial they had cherished the
sword as the mark of a gentleman, the most precious possession
of a warrior, and the one outward evidence that distinguished
men of their order from common toilers after gain. They saw
themselves deprived of their military employment, were invited
to surrender more than one-half of the income it brought, and
knew that tbey were unprepared alike by education and by
tradition to earn bread in any calling save that of arms. Yet,
at the invitation of a government which they had helped to
establish, many of them bowed their heads quietly to this sharp
reverse of fortune. U was certainly a striking instance of the
fortitude and resignation which the creed of the samurai required
him to display in the presence of adversity. As yet, however,
the government's measures with regard to the samurai were not
compulsory. Men laid aside their swords and commuted their
pensions at their own option.
Meanwhile differences of opinion began to occur among the
leaders of progress themselves. Coalitions formed for destruc-
tive purposes are often found unable to endure the
strain of constructive efforts. Such lack of cohesion TsZapn.
might easily have been foreseen in the case of the
Japanese reformers. Young men without experience of public
affairs, or special education to fit them for responsible posts,
found the duty suddenly imposed on them not only of devising
administrative and fiscal systems universally applicable to a
nation hitherto divided into a congeries of semi-independent prin-
cipalities, but also of shaping the country's demeanour towards
novel problems of foreign intercourse and alien civilization. So
rang as the heat of their assault upon the shogunate fused them
into a homogeneous party they worked together successfully.
But when they had to build a brand-new edifice on the ruins of
a still vivid past, it was inevitable that their opinions should
vary as to the nature of the materials to be employed. In this
divergence of views many of the capital incidents of Japan's
modern history had their origin. Of the fifty-five men- whose
united efforts had compassed the fall of the shogunate, five
stood conspicuous above their colleagues. They were Iwakura
and Sanjo, court nobles; SaigO and'Okubo, samurai of Salsuma,
and Kido, a samurai of ChoshuV In the second rank came many
men of great gifts, whose youth alone disqualified them for
prominence— Ito, the constructive statesman of the Meiji era,
who inspired nearly all the important measures of the time,
though he did not openly figure as their originator; Inouye,
who never lacked a resource or swerved from the dictates of
loyalty; Okuma, a politician of subtle, versatile and vigorous
intellect; Itagaki, the Rousseau of his era; and a score of others
created by the extraordinary circumstances with which they had
to deal. But the five first mentioned were the captains, the rest
only lieutenants. Among the five, four were sincere reformers
—not free, of course, from selfish motives, but truthfully bent
upon promoting the interests of their country before all other
aims. The fifth, SaigS Takamori, was a man in whom bound-
less ambition lay concealed under qualities of the noblest and
most enduring type. His absolute freedom from every trace
of sordidness gave currency to a belief that his aims were of the
simplest; the story of his career satisfied the highest canons
of the samurai; his massive physique, commanding presence and
sunny aspect impressed and attracted even those who bad no
JAPAN
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POMESTIC HISTORY
e the writ of the Yedo government had never
ms. institutions and customs which bis former
the administration were ruthlessly rejecting,
centre of conservative influences,
Sa%6 and his constantly augmenting band of
a rongrniil environment. During, four yean
the central government and the southern
(1S76) two extreme measures were adopted
x a veto on the wearing of swords, and an
obory commutation of the ffa-/
received by the nobles and Atomttm §i
Thsve yean previously the discarding S worf.
hecn 4edared optional,and a scheme of JJfJJ*!"*
had been announced. Many^"^^
the spirit of these enactments. But
van^s&JI stcaiaed their swords and drew their pensions as of
jia. ulniimihu. hi the farmer respect, the government's pro-
^evtxaTiha niwgasinrion of society, and imposing, in the latter,
ja\ jnih.iiWfrfc harden on the i c awui e s of the treasury. The
ihsnthf that the time had come, and that its
to substitute compulsion for persuasion,
—which was contrived so as to affect the
ri>H r««'in» hoirkn least injurionsf y cwA ed no complaint.
rw aami umiiwd faithful to the creed which forbade thea>
a» he ■ L — c c mcd about money. But the veto against sword-
wearing overtaxed the patience of the eztieme Conservatives,
It seemed to them that all the most honoured traditions of their
country were being ruthlessly sacrificed on the ahar of alien
innovations. Armed protests ensued. A few score of samurai,
equipping themselves with the hauberks and w ea po ns of old
times, fefl upon the garrison of a castle, killed or wounded some
joo, and then, retiring to an adjacent mountain, died by their
own hands. Their example found imitators in two other places,
and finally the Satsuma samurai rose in arms under Saiga.
This was an insurrection very different in dime nsions and
motives from the outbreaks that bad preceded K. During four
years the preparations of the Satsuma men had been jaimm§
unremitting. They were equipped with rifles and *rt*
cannon; they numbered some 30,000; they were all of *"*
the military class, and in addition to high training in western
tactics and in the use of modern arms of precision, they knew
how to wield that formidable weapon, the Japanese sword,
of which their opponents were for the most part ignorant.
Ostensibly their object was to restore the samurai to their old
supremacy, and to secure for them all the posts in the army, the
navy and the administration. But although they doubtless
entertained that intention, it was put forward mainly with the
hope of winning the co-operation of the military class throughout
the empire. The real purpose of the revolt was to secure the
governing power for Satsuma. A bitter struggle ensued.
Beginning on the 39th of January 1877, it was brought to a dost
on the Mth of September by the death, voluntary or in battle,
of all the rebel leaders. During that period the number of men
engaged on the government's side had been 66,000 and the
number on the side of the rebels 40,000, out of which total the
killed and wounded aggregated 35.000, or 33% of the whole.
Had the government's troops been finally defeated, there can be
no doubt that the samurai's exclusive title to man and direct
the army and navy would have been re-established, and Japan
would have found herself permanently saddled with a military
class, heavily burdening her fin a n ces, seriously impeding her
progress towards constitutional government, and perpetuating
all the abuses incidental to a policy in which the power of the
sword rests entirely in the hands of one section of the people.
The nation scarcely appreciated the great issues that were at
stake. It found more interest in the struggle as furnishing a
conclusive test of the efficiency of the new military system com-
pared with the old. The army sent to quell the insurrection
consisted of recruits drawn indiscriminately from every dass of
the people. Viewed in the light of history, it was an army of
commoners, deficient in the fighting instinct, and traditionally
DOMESTIC HISTORY]
demoralised lor aH purposes of resistance to the military class.
The Satsuma insurgents, od the contrary, represented the Bower
of the semwrai, long trained for this very struggle, and led by
men whom the nation regarded as its bravest captains. The
resalt dispelled all doubts about the fighting quality of the people
at large.
Con cu rr e ntly with these events the government diligently
endeavoured to equip the country with all the paraphernalia o!
__. Oc ci d ent al civilisation. It is easy to understand that
JJ5JJ££, *"* master-minds of the era, who had planned and
carried out the Restoration, continued to take the lead
in aH paths of progress. Their intellect ual superiority entitled
them to act as guides; they had enjoyed exceptional opportunities
of acquiring enlightenment by visits to Europe and America,
and the Japanese people had not yet lost the habit of looking to
officialdom for every initiative. But the spectacle thus pre-
sented to foreign onlookers was not altogether without dis-
quieting suggestions. The government's reforms seemed to
outstrip the nation's readiness for them, and the results wore
an air of some artificiality and confusion. Englishmen were
employed to superintend die building of railways, the erection
of telegraphs, the construction of lighthouses and the organiza-
tion of a navy. To Frenchmen was entrusted the work of re-
* casting the laws and training the army in strategy and tactics.
Educational affairs, the organisation of a postal service, the
improvetrtent of agriculture and the work of colonisation were
supervised by Americans. The teaching of medical science, the
compilation of a commercial code, the elaboration of a system
of local government, and ultimately the training of military
officers were assigned to Germans. For instruction in sculpture
and painting Italians were engaged. Was it possible that so
many novelties should be successfully assimilated, or that the
nation should adapt itself to systems planned by a motley band
of aliens who knew nothing of its character and customs?
These questions did not trouble the Japanese nearly so much as
they troubled strangers. The truth is that conservatism was
not really required to make the great sacrifices suggested by
appearances. Among all the innovations of the era the only
one that a Japanese could not lay aside at will was the new
fashion of dressing the hair. He abandoned the que** irrevo-
cably. But for the rest he lived a dual life. During hours of
duty he wore a fine uniform, shaped and decorated in foreign
style. But so soon as he stepped out of office or off parade,
he reverted to his own comfortable and picturesque costume.
Handsome houses were built and furnished according to Western
models. But each had an annex where alcoves, verandas,
matted floors and paper sliding doors contmned to do traditional
duty. Beefsteaks, beer, " grape-wine/' knrves and forks came
into use on occasion. But rice-bowls and chopsticks held their
everyday, place as of old. In a word, though the Japanese
adopted every convenient and serviceable attribute of foreign
civilization, such as railways, steamships, telegraphs, post-
offices, banks and machinery of all kinds; though they accepted
Occidental sciences, and, to a large extent* Occidental philo-
sophies; though they recognised the superiority of European
Jurisprudence and set themselves to bring their laws into accord
with it, they nevertheless preserved the essentials of their own
mode of life and never lost their individuality. A remarkable
spirit of liberalism and a fine eclectic instinct were needed for
the part they acted, but they did no radical violence to their own,
traditions, creeds and conventions. There was indeed a certain
element of incongruity and even grotesqueness in the nation's
doings. Old people cannot fit their feet to new roads without
some clumsiness. The Japanese had grown very old in their
special paths, and their novel departure was occasionally dis-
figured by solecisms. The refined taste that guided them un-
erringly in all the affairs of life as they bad been accustomed to
five it. seemed to fail them signally when they emerged into an
alien atmosphere. They have given their proofs, however. It
is now seen that the apparently excessive rapidity of their pro-
gress did not overtax their capacities; that they have emerged
safely from their destructive era and carried their constructive
JAPAN
269
mtmtot
tmtmtif
Oov*iw
career within reach of certain success, and that while they have
still to develop some of the traits of their new civilization, there
is no prospect whatever of its proving ultimately unsuited to
them.
After toe Satsuma rebellion, nothing disturbed the even tenor
of Japan's domestic politics except an attempt on the part of
some of her people to force the growth of parlia- omhm-
mentary government. It is evident that the united
effort made by the fiefs to overthrow the system
of dual government and wrest the administrative
power from the shogun could have only one logical
outcome: the combined exercise of the recovered
power by those who had been instrumental in recovering it.'
That was the meaning of the oath taken by the emperor at the
Restoration, when the youthful sovereign was made to say
that wise counsels should be widely sought, and all things
determined by public discussion. But the framers of the
oath had the samurai alone in view. Into their considera-
tion the common people— farmers, mechanics, tradesmen
—did not enter at all, nor had the common people them-
selves any idea of advancing a claim to be considered. A
voice in the administration would have been to them an embar-
rassing rather than a pleasing privilege. Thus the first delibera-
tive assembly was composed of nobles and samurai only. A
mere debating club without any legislative authority, it was
permanently dissolved after two sessions. Possibly the problem
of a parliament might have been long postponed after that
fiasco, had it not found an ardent advocate in Iiagaki Taisuke
(afterwards Count Itagaki). A Tosa samurai conspicuous as a
leader of the restoration movement, Itagaki was among the advo*
cates of recourse to strong measures against Korea in 1873, * nd
his failure to carry his point, supplemented by a belief that a
large section of public opinion would have supported him had
there been any machinery for appealing to it, gave fresh impetus
to his faith in constitutional government. Resigning office on
account of the Korean question, he became the nucleus of
agitation in favour of a parliamentary system, and under his
banner were enrolled not only discontented samurai but also
many of the young men who, returning from direct observation
of the working of constitutional systems in Europe or America,
and failing to obtain official posts in Japan, attributed their
failure to the oligarchical form of their country's polity. Thus
in the interval betweeen 1873 and 1877 there were two centres of
disturbance in Japan: one in Satsuma, where Saigo figured
as leader; the other in Tosa, under Itagaki's guidance. When
the Satsuma men appealed to arms in 1877, a widespread appre-
hension prevailed lest the Tosa politicians should throw in their
lot with the insurgents. Such a fear had its origin in failure to
understand the object of the one side or to appreciate the sin*
ccrity of the other. SaigO and his adherents fought to sub-
stitute a Satsuma clique for the oligarchy already in power.
Itagaki and his followers struggled for constitutional institutions.
The two could not have anything in common. There was con-
sequently no coalition. But the Tosa agitators did not neglect
to make capital out of the embarrassment caused by the Satsuma
rebellion. While the struggle was at Its height, they addressed
to the government a memorial, charging the administration with
oppressive measures to restrain the voice of public opinion,
with usurpation of power to the exclusion of the nation at large,
and with levelling downwards instead of upwards, since the
samurai had been reduced to the rank of commoners, whereas
the commoners should have been educated up to the standard
of the samurai. This memorial asked for a representative
assembly and talked of popular rights. But since the document
admitted that the people were uneducated, it is plain that there
cannot have been any serious idea of giving them a share in the
administration. In fact, the Tosa Liberals were not really com
tending for popular representation in the full sense of the term.
What they wanted was the creation of some machinery for
securing to the samurai at large a voice in the management of
state affairs. They chafed against the fact that, whereas the
efforts and sacrifices demanded by the Restoration had fallen
270 JAPAN
equally on the whole military class, the official prises under the
new system were monopolized by a small coterie of men belonging
to the four principal dans. It is on record that Itagaki would
nave been content originally with an assembly consisting half
of officials, half of non-official samurai, and aot including any
popular element whatever.
But the government did not believe that the time had come
even for a measure such as the Tosa Liberals advocated. The
statesmen in power conceived that the nation must be educated
up to constitutional standards, and that the first step should be
to provide an official model. Accordingly, in 1874, arrange-
ments were made for periodically convening an assembly of
prefectural governors, in order that they might act as channels
of communication between the central authorities and the
provincial population, and mutually exchange ideas as to the
safest and most effective methods of encouraging progress within
the limits of their jurisdictions. This was intended to be the
embryo of representative institutions. But the governors,
being officials appointed by the cabinet, did not bear in any sense
the character of popular nominees, nor could it even be said that
they reflected the public feeling of the districts they adminis-
tered, for their habitual and natural tendency was to try, by
means of heroic object lessons, to win the people's allegiance to
the government's progressive policy, rather than to convince
the government of the danger of overstepping the people's
capacities.
These conventions of local, officials had no legislative power
whatever. The foundations of a body for discharging that
function were laid in 187 5, when a senate (genro-in) was organized.
It consisted of official nominees, and its duty was to discuss and
revise all laws and ordinances prior to their promulgation. It
is to be noted, however, that expediency not less than a spirit
of progress presided at the creation of the senate. Into its ranks
were drafted a number of men for whom no places could be
found in the executive, and who, without some official employ-
ment, would have been drawn into the current of disaffection.
From that point of view the senate soon came to be regarded as a
kind of hospital for administrative invalids, but undoubtedly
its discharge of quasi-legislative functions proved suggestive,
useful and instructive.
The second meeting of the provincial governors had just been
prorogued when, in the spring of 1878, the great minister, Okubo
A— mulaa- Toshimitsu, was assassinated. Okubo, uniformly
ttoaof ready to bear the heaviest burden of responsibility
O*"** in every political complication, bad stood promi-
nently before the nation as Saigo's opponent. He fell under the
swords of Saigd's sympathizers. They immediately surrendered
themselves to justice, having taken previous caje to circulate
a statement of motives, which snowed that they ranked the
government's failure to establish representative institutions as a
sin scarcely less heinous than its alleged abuses of power. Well-
informed followers of Saigd could never have been sincere
believers in representative institutions. These men belonged to
a province far removed from the scene of SaigO's desperate
struggle. But the broad fact that they had scaled with their
life-blood an appeal for a political change indicated the exist-
ence of a strong public conviction which would derive further
strength from their act. The Japanese are essentially a brave
people. Throughout the troublous events that preceded and
followed the Restoration, it is not possible to point to one man
whose obedience to duty or conviction was visibly weakened
by prospects of personal peril Okubo's assassination did not
alarm any of his colleagues; but they understood its suggcslive-
ness, and hastened to give effect to a previously formed resolve.
Two months after Okubo's death, an edict announced that
elective assemblies should forthwith be established in various
lucmi prefectures and cities. These assemblies were to con-
0»»ww sist of members having a high property qualification,
»■■*• elected by voters having one-half of that qualifica-
tion; the voting to be by signed ballot, and the session to last for
one month in the spring of each year. As to their functions, they
were to determine the method of levying and spending local
(DOMESTIC HJSTtntV
taxes, subject to approval by the minister of state for hone
affairs; to scrutinize the accounts for the previous year, and, if
necessary, to present petitions to the central government*
Thus the foundations of genuine representative institutions were
laid. It is true that legislative power was not vested in the
local assemblies, but in ail other important respects they dis-
charged parliamentary duties. Their history need not be related
at any length. Sometimes they came into violent collision with
the governor of the prefecture, and unsightly struggles resulted.
The governors were disposed to advocate public works which
the people considered extravagant; and farther, as years went
by, and as political organizations grew stronger, there was found
in each assembly a group of men ready to oppose the governor
simply because of his official status. But on the whole the
system worked welL The local assemblies served as training
schools for the future parliament, and their members showed
devotion to public duty as well as considerable aptitude for
debate.
This was not what Itagaki and his followers wanted. Their
purpose was to overthrow the clique of clansmen who, holding
the reins of administrative power, monopolized the TamUtmimt
prizes of officialdom. Towards the consummation *■**
of such an aim the focal assemblies helped little. Itagaki re-
doubled his agitation. He organized his fellow-thinkers into
an association called jiy&d (Liberals), the first political party in
Japan, to whose ranks there very soon gravitated several men
who had been in office and resented the loss of it; many that had
never been in office and desired to be; and a still greater number
who sincerely believed in the principles of political liberty, but
had not yet considered the possibility of immediately adapting
such principles to Japan's case. It was in the nature of things
that an association of this kind, professing such doctrines,
should present a picturesque aspect to the public, and that its
collisions with the authorities should invite popular sympathy.
Nor were collisions infrequent. For the government, arguing
that if the nation was not ready for representative institutions,
neither was it ready for full freedom of speech or of public
meeting, legislated consistently with that theory, and entrusted
to the police large powers of conrol over the press and the plat-
form. The exercise of these powers often created situations in
which the Liberals were able to pose as victims of official tyranny,
so that they grew in popularity and the contagion of political
agitation spread,
Three years later (1881) another split occurred in the ranks
of the ruling oligarchy. Okuma Shigenobu (afterwards Count
Okuma) seceded from the administration, and was ra*/*».
followed by a number of able men who had owed iwnw
their appointments to his patronage, or who, during ***tr«
his tenure of office as minister of finance, had passed under
the influence of his powerful personality. If Itagaki be
called the Rousseau of Japan, Okuma may be regarded as the
Peel. To remarkable financial ability and a lucid, vigorous
judgment he added the faculty of placing himself on the crest
of any wave which a genuine aura popularis had begun to swell.
He, too, inscribed on his banner of revolt against the oligarchy
the motto " constitutional government," and it might have been
expected that his followers would join hands with those of
Itagaki, since the avowed political purpose of both was identical.
They did nothing of the kind. .Okuma organized an inde-
pendent party, calling themselves Progressists (skimpott), who
not only stood aloof from the Liberals but even assumed an
attitude hostile to ihcm. This fact is eloquent. It shows that
Japan's first political parties were grouped, not about principles,
but about persons. Hence an inevitable lack of cohesion among
their elements and a constant tendency to break up into caves
and coteries. These arc the characteristics that render the story
of political evolution in Japan so perplexing to a foreign student.
He looks for differences of platform and finds none. Just as a
true Liberal must be a Progressist, and a true Progressist a Liberal,
so, though each may cast his profession of faith in a mould of
different phrases, the ultimate shape must be the same. The
mainsprings of early political agitation in Japan were personal
DOMESTIC HISTORY) JAPAN
grievance* and a desire to wiwt the administrative poller from
ike bands of the statesmen who had held it 30 long as to overtax
the patience of their rivals. He that searches for profound
moral or ethical bases will be disappointed. There were no
Conservatives. Society was permeated with the spirit of -progress.
In a comparative sense the epithet " Conservative " might have
been applied to the statesmen who proposed to defer parliamen-
tary institutions until the people, as distinguished from the
former samurai, had been in some measure prepared for such an
innovation. But since these very statesmen were the guiding
spirits of the whole Meiji revolution! it was plain that then-
convictions must be radical, and that, unless they did violence
to their record, they must finally lead the country to representa-
tive institutions, the logical sequel 0/ their own reforms.
Okubo's assassination had been followed, in 1878, by an edict
announcing the establishment of local assemblies. Qknma's
secession in 1881 was followed by an edict announcing that a
national assembly would be convened in 1891.
The political parties, having now virtually attained their
.object, might have been expected to desist from further agita-
tion. But they had another task to perform-
that of disseminating anti-ofikifel prejudices among
the future electors. They worked dthgently, and
they had an undisputed field, for no one was put
forward to champion the government's cause. The campaign
was not always conducted on lawful lines. There were plots to
assassinate ministers; there was an attempt to employ dynamite,
and there was a scheme to foment an insurrection in Korea.
On the other band, dispersals of political meetings by order of
police inspectors, and suspension or suppression of newspapers
by the unchallengeable verdict of a minister for home affairs,
were common occurrences. The breach widened steadily.
It is true that Okuma rejoined the cabinet for a time in 1887,
but he retired again in circumstances that aggravated his party's
hostility to officialdom. In short, during the ten years imme-
diately prior to the opening of the first parliament, on anti-
government propaganda was incessantly preached from the
platform and in the press.
Meanwhile the statesmen in power resolutely pursued their
path of progressive reform. They codified the civil and penal
laws, remodelling them on Western bases; they brought a vast
number of affairs within the scope of minute regulations; they
rescued the finances from confusion and restored them to a sound
condition; they recast the whole framework of local government;
they organized a great national bank, and established a network
of subordinate institutions throughout the country; they
pushed on the work of railway construction, and successfully
enlisted private enterprise in its cause; they steadily extended
the postal and telegraphic services; they economized public
expenditures so that the state's income always exceeded its
outlays; they laid the foundations of a strong mercantile marine;
they instituted a system of postal savings-banks; they under-
took large schemes of harbour improvement and road-making;
they planned and put, into operation an extensive programme
of riparian improvement; they made civil service appointments
depend on competitive examination; they sent numbers of
students to Europe and America to complete their studies; and .
by tactful, persevering diplomacy they gradually introduced
a new tone into the empire's relations with foreign powers.
Japan's affairs were never better administered.
In 1890 the Constitution was promulgated. Imposing cere-
monies marked the event. All the nation's notables were
Three*** summoned to the palace to witness tbe deb' very
ArfiM pi of the important document by the sovereign to the
u99 ' prime minister; salvos of artillery were fired; the
cities were illuminated, and the people kept holiday. Marquis
(afterwards Prince) ltd directed the framing of the Constitution.
He had visited the Occident for tbe purpose of investigating
tbe development of parliamentary institutions and studying
their practical working. His name is connected with nearly
every great work of constructive statesmanship in the history of
new Japan, and perhaps the crown of bis legislative career was
271
tbe drafting of the Constitution, to which the Japanese people
point proudly as the only charter of the kind voluntarily given
by a sovereign to his subjects. In other countries such conces-
sions were always the outcome of long struggles between ruler
and ruled. In Japan the emperor freely divested himself of a
portion of his prerogatives and transferred them to the people.
That view of the case, as may be seen from tbe story told above,
is not untinged with romance; but in a general sense it is true.
No incident in Japan's modern career seemed more hazard-
ous than this sudden plunge into parliamentary institutions.
There had been some preparation. Provincial as- Worth*
semblies had partially familiarized the people with •/<*•
the methods of deliberative bodies. But provin- Syat$m>
cial assemblies were at best petty arenas p laces where the
making or mending of roads, and tbe policing and sanitation of
villages came up for discussion, and where political parties
exercised no legislative function nor found any opportunity to
attack the government or to debate problems of national interest.
Thus the convening of a diet and tbe sudden transfer of financial
and legislative authority from the throne and its entourage of
tried statesmen to the hands of men whose qualifications for
public life rested on the verdict of electors, themselves apparently
devoid of all light to guide their choice — this sweeping innovation
seemed likely to tax severely, if not to overtax completely, tbe
progressive capacities of the nation. What enhanced the inter-
est of the situation was that the oligarchs who held the adminis-
trative power had taken no pains to win a following in the
political field. Knowing that tbe opening of the diet would be
a veritable letting loose of the dogs of war, an unmuzzling of tbe
agitators whose mouths had hitherto been partly closed by legal
restrictions upon free speech, but who would now enjoy complete
immunity within the walls of the assembly whatever the nature
of their utterances— foreseeing all this, the statesmen of the day
nevertheless stood severely aloof from alliances of every kind,
and discharged their administrative functions with apparent
indifference to the changes that popular representation could not
fail to induce. This somewhat inexplicable display of unconcern
became partially intelligible when the constitution was promul- .
gated, for it then appeared that the cabinet's tenure of office was
to depend solely on the emperor's will; that ministers were to
take their mandate from the Throne, not from parliament.
This fact was merely an outcome of the theory underlying every
part of the Japanese polity. Laws might be redrafted, institu-
tions remodelled, systems recast, but amid all changes and
mutations one steady point must be carefully preserved, the
Throne. The makers of new Japan understood that so long as
the sanctity and inviolability of the imperial prerogatives could
be preserved, the nation would be fceld by a strong anchor from
drifting into dangerous waters. They laboured under no mis-
apprehension about the inevitable issue of their work in framing
the constitution. They knew very weU that party cabinets are
an essential outcome of representative- institutions, and that to
some kind of party cabinet Japan must come. But they regarded
the Imperial mandate as a conservative safeguard, pending
the organization and education of parties competent to form
cabinets. Such parties did not yet exist, and until they came
into unequivocal existence, the Restoration statesmen, who had
so successfully managed the affairs of the nation during a quarter
of a century, resolved that the steady point furnished by the
throne must not be abandoned.
On the other hand, the agitators found here a new platform.
They had obtained ft constitution and a diet, but they had not
obtained an instrument for pulling down the " clan " adminis-
trators, since these stood secure from attack under the aegis
of the sovereign's mandate. They dared not raise their voices
against the unfettered exercise of the mikado's prerogative.
The nation, loyal to the core, would not have suffered such a
protest, nor could the agitators themselves have found heart
to formulate it. But they could read their own interpretation
into the text of the Constitution, and they could demonstrate
{jractically that a cabinet not acknowledging responsibility to the
egislature was virtually impotent for Uw-making purposes.
AJ2
These are the broad outlines of 'he contest that began in the
first session of the Diet and continued for several years. It is un-
ra» om necessary to speak oC the special points of controversy.
mmitk* Just as the political parties had been formed on the
Gsrwm- ii ne s f persons, not principles, so the opposition
mmL in the Diet was directed against men, not measures.
The struggle presented varying aspects at different times, but
the fundamental question at issue never changed. Obstruction
was the weapon of the political parties. They sought to render
legislation and finance impossible for any ministry that refused
to take its mandate from the majority in the lower house, and
they imparted an air of respectability and even patriotism to
their destructive campaign by making " anti-clannism " their
war-cry, and industriously fostering the idea that the struggle
lay between administration guided by public opinion and admin-
istration controlled by a clique of clansmen who separated the
throne from the nation. Had not the House of Peers stood
stanchly by the government throughout this contest, it is
possible that the nation might have suffered severely from the
rashness of the political parties.
. There was something melancholy in the spectacle. The Restor-
ation statesmen were the men who had made Modern Japan;
the men who had raised her, in the face of immense obstacles,
from the position of an insignificant Oriental state to that of a
formidable unit in the comity of nations; the men, finally,
who had given to her a constitution and representative institu-
tions. Yet these same men were now fiercely attacked by the
arms which they had themselves nerved; were held up to public
obloquy as self-seeking usurpers, and were declared to be im-
peding the people's constitutional route to administrative privi-
leges, when in reality they were only holding the breach until
the people should be able to march into the citadel with some
show of orderly and competent organization. That there was
no corruption, no abuse of position, is not to be pretended; but
on the whole the conservatism of the clan statesmen had only
one object — to provide that the newly constructed representa-
tive machine should not be set working until its parts were duly
adjusted and brought into proper gear. On both sides the
leaders understood the situation accurately. The heads of the
parties, while publicly clamouring for parliamentary cabinets,
privately confessed that they were not yet prepared to assume
administrative responsibilities; 1 and the so-called "clan stales-
men," while refusing before the world to accept the Diet's
mandates, admitted within official circles that the question was
one of time only. The situation did not undergo any marked
change until, the country becoming engaged in war with China
(1894-05). domestic squabbles were forgotten in the presence of
foreign danger. From that time an era of coalition commenced.
Both the political parties joined hands to vote funds for the
prosecution of the campaign, and one of them, the Liberals,
subsequently gave support to a cabinet under the presidency of
Marquis ItO, the purpose of the union being to carry through the
diet an extensive scheme of enlarged armaments and public
works planned in the sequel of the war. The Progressists, how-
ever, remained implacable, continuing their opposition to the
thing called bureaucracy quite irrespective of its measures.
The next phase (1808) was a fusion of the two parties into one
large organization which adopted the name " Constitutional
fW*»o# Party" (Junsei-tf). By this union the chief ob-
th* Tw stacles to parliamentary cabinets were removed.
***** Not only did the Constitutionalists command a
large majority in the lower house, but also they possessed a
sufficiency of men who, although lacking ministerial experience,
might still advance a reasonable title to be entrusted with port-
folios. Immediately the emperor, acting on the advice of
Marquis ltd, invited Counts Okunta and ltagaki to form a
cabinet. It was essentially a trial. The party politicians
were required to demonstrate in practice the justice of the claim
they had been so long asserting in theory. They had worked
• * Neither the Liberals nor the Progressists had a working majority
in the house of representatives, nor could the ranks of either have
furnished men Qualified to fill all the administrative oosts. <
JAPAN
[DOMESTIC HISTORY
in combination for the destructive purpose of palling down the
so-called " clan statesmen "; they had now to show whether
they could work in combination for the constructive purposes
of administration. Their heads, Counts Okuma and ltagaki,
accepted the imperial mandate, and the nation watched the
result. There was no need to wait long. In less than six
months these new links snapped under the tension of old
enmities, and the coalition split up once more into its original
elements. It had demonstrated that the sweets of power, which
the " clan statesmen " had been so vehemently accused of covet-
ing, possessed even greater attractions for their accusers. The
issue of the experiment was such a palpable fiasco that it effec-
tually rehabilitated the " dan statesmen," and finally proved,
what had indeed been long evident to every close observer, that
without the assistance of those statesmen no political party
could hold office successfully.
Thenceforth it became the unique aim of Liberals and Pro-
gressists alike to join hands permanently with the men towards
whom they had once displayed such implacable Ear^tmtmt
hostility. Prince It 6, the leader of the so-called tt^am
" elder statesmen," received special solicitations, for sett****
it was plain that he would bring to any political <■ /% * »/ « ■ #
party an overwhelming access of strength alike tn ^"* **
his own person and in the number of friends and
disciples certain to follow hire. But Prince Itft declined to
be absorbed into any existing party, or to adopt the principle
of parliamentary cabinets. He would consent to form a new
association, but it must consist of men sufficiently disciplined
to obey him implicitly, and sufficiently docile to accept their
programme from his hand. The Liberals agreed to these terms.
They dissolved their party (August 1000) and enrolled them-
selves in the ranks of a new organization, which did not even call
itself a party, its designation being rikken uiyQ-koi (association
of friends of the constitution), and which had for the cardinal
plank in its platform a declaration of ministerial irresponsibility
to the Diet. A singular page was thus added to the story of
Japanese political development; for not merely did the Liberals
enlist under the banner of the statesmen whom for twenty
years they had fought to overthrow, but they also tacitly
consented to erase from their profession of faith its essential
article, parliamentary cabinets, and, by resigning that article
to the Progressists, created for the first time an opposition with
a solid and intelligible platform. Nevertheless the seiyn-kai
grew steadily in strength whereas the number of its opponents
declined correspondingly. At the general elections in May
1908 the former secured 195 seats, the four sections of the
opposition winning only 184. Thus for the first time in Japanese
parliamentary history a majority of the lower chamber found
themselves marching under the same banner. Moreover,
the four sections of the opposition were independently organized
and differed nearly as much from one another as they all differed
from the seiyn-kai. Their impotence to make head against the
solid phalanx of the latter was thus conspicuous, especially
during the 1908-1909 session of the Diet. Much talk then began
to be heard about the necessity of coalition, and that this talk
will materialize eventually cannot be doubted. Reduction of
armaments, abolition of taxes specially imposed for belligerent
purposes, and the substitution of a strictly constitutional
system for the existing bureaucracy— these objects constitute
a sufficiently solid platform, and nothing is wanted except that
a body of proved administrators should join the opposition
in occupying it. There were in 1909 no signs, however, that
any such defection from the ranks of officialdom would take
place. Deference is paid to public opinions inasmuch as even a
seiyn-kai ministry will not remain in office after its popularity
has begun to show signs of waning. But no deference is paid
to the doctrine of party cabinets. Prince Ito did not continue
to lead the seiytl-kai for more than three years. In July 1903
he delegated that function to Marquis Saionjt, representative
of one of the very oldest families of the court nobility and a
personal friend of the emperor, as also was Prince It6. The
Imperial stamp is thus vicariously set upon the principle of
A JAPANESE VIEW]
political combinations for the better practical conduct of
parliamentary business, but that the seiyn-koi, founded by
Prince ltd and fed by Marquis Sasosji, should ever boid office
in defiance of the sovereign's mandate is unthinkable. Con-
ttitutional institutions in Japan are therefore developing along
lines entirely without precedent. The storm and stress of early
parliamentary days have given place to comparative calm.
During the first twelve sessions of the Df ^extending over 8 years,
there were five dissolutions of the lower house. During the next
thirteen sessions, extending over n years, there were two
dissolutions. During the first 8 years of the Diet's existence there
were six changes of cabinet; during the next it years there were
five changes. Another healthy sign was that men of affairs
were beginning to realise the importance of parliamentary
representation. At first the constituencies were contested
almost entirely by professional politicians, barristers and
journalists. In xooo there was a solid body (the boshin dub)
of business men commanding nearly 50 votes in the lower
house; and as the upper chamber included 4$ representatives
of the highest tax-payers, the interests of commerce and
industry were intelligently debated. (F. By.)
X.— The Claim of Japan: by a Japanese Statesman 1
It has been said that it is impossible for an Occidental to
understand the Oriental, and vice versa; bat, admitting that
the mutual understanding of two different races or peoples
is a difficult matter, why should Occidentals and Orientals
be thus set in opposition? No doubt, different peoples of
Europe understand each other better than they do the Asiatic;
but can Asiatic peoples understand each other better than they
can Europeans or than the Europeans can understand any of
them? Do Japanese understand Persians or even Indians
better than English or French? It is true perhaps that Japan-
ese can and do understand the Chinese better than Europeans;
bat that is due not only to centuries of mutual intercourse,
but to the wonderful and peculiar fact that they have adopted
the old classical Chinese literature as their own, somewhat in the
way, but in a much greater degree, in which the European
nations have adopted the old Greek and Latin literatures.
What is here contended for is that the mutual understanding
of two peoples is not so much a matter of race, but of the know-
ledge of each other's history, traditions, literature, &c.
The Japanese have, they think, suffered much from the
misunderstanding of their motives, feelings and ideas; what they
want is to be understood fully arid to be known for what they
really are, be it good or bad. They desire, above all, not to be
lumped as Oriental, but to be known and judged on their own
account. In the latter half of the 19th century, in fact up to
the Chinese War, it irritated Japanese travelling abroad more
than anything else to be taken for Chinese. Then, after the
Chinese War, the alarm about Japan leading Eastern Asia
to make a general attack upon Europe — the so-called Yellow
Peril — seemed so ridiculous to the Japanese that the bad effects of
such wild talk were not quite appreciated by them. The aim of
the Japanese nation, ever since, at the time of the Restoration
(1868), they laid aside definitively all ideas of seclusion and
entered into the comity of nations, has been that they should
rise above the level of the Eastern peoples to an equality with
the Western and should be in the foremost rank of the brother-
hood of nations; it was not their ambition at all to be the
champion of the East agamst the West, but rather to beat
down the barriers between themselves and the West
The intense pride of the Japanese in their nationality, their
patriotism and loyalty, arise from their history, for what other
nation can point to an Imperial family of one unbroken lineage
reigning over the land for twenty-five centuries? Is it not a
glorious tradition for a nation, that its emperor should be de-
scended directly from that grandson of the great hcaven-
* The following expression of the Japanese point of view, by a
statesman of the writer's authority and experience, may well supple-
ment the general account of the progress of Japan and its inclusion
among the great civilized powers of the world.— (Ed. & BJ
XV5*
JAPAN 273
ifluminating goddess,* 9 to whom she said, "This land (Japan)
is the region over which my descendants shall be the lords.
Do thou, my august child, proceed thither and govern it Go!
The prosperity of Iky dynasty shall be cceeal -with heaven and earth. 1 '
Thus they call their country the land of kami (ancient gods of
tradition). With this spirit, in the old days when China held
the hegemony of the East, and all neighbouring peoples were
regarded as its tributaries, Japan alone, largely no doubt on
account of its insular position, held itself quite aloof; it set at
defiance the power of Kublai and routed utterly the combined
Chinese and Korean fleets with vast forces sent by him to conquer
Japan, this being the only occasion that Japan was threatened
with a foreign invasion:
With this spirit, as soon as they perceived the superiority of
the Western civilization, they set to work to introduce it into
their country, just as in the 7th and 8th centuries they had
adopted and adapted the Chinese civilization. In 1868, the first
year of the era of Meiji, the emperor swore solemnly the memor-
able oath of five articles, setting forth the policy that was to be
and has been followed thereafter by the government. These
five articles were: —
t. Deliberative assemblies shall be established and all measures
of government shall be decided by public opinion.
a. All classes, high and low, shad unite in vigorously carrying
out the plan of government.
3. Officials, civil and military, and all common people shall as
far as possible be allowed to fulfil their just desires so that there
may not be any discontent among them.
4. Uncivilised customs of former times shall be broken through, and
everything shall be based upon just and equitable principles of
heaven and earth (nature).
§. Knowledge shall be sought for throughout the world, so that the
welfare of the empire may be promoted.
(Translation due to Prof. N. Hozurai of Tokyo Imp. Univ.)
It Is Interesting, as showing the continuity of the policy of the
empire, to place side by side with these articles the words of the
Imperial rescript issued in 1908, which are as follows: —
" We are convinced that with the rapid and unceasing advance of
civilization, the East and West, mutually dependent and helping
each other, are bound by common interests. It is our sincere wish
to continue to enjoy for ever its benefits in common with other
powers by entering into closer and closer relation and strengthening
our friendship with them. Now in order to be able to move onward
along with the constant progress of the world and to share in the
blessings of civilization, it is obvious that we must develop our
internal resources; our nation, but recently emerged from an ex-
hausting war, must put forth increased activity in every branch
of administration. It therefore behoves our people to endeavour
with one mind, from the highest to the lowest, to pursue their
callings honestly and earnestly, to be industrious and thrifty, to
abide in faith and righteousness, to be simple and warm-hearted,
to put away ostentation and vanity and strive after the useful and
solid, to avoid idleness and indulgence, and to apply themselves
incessantly to strenuous and arduous tasks . . .**
The ambition of the Japanese people has been, as already
stated, to be recognized as an equal by the Great Powers. With
this object in view, they have spared no efforts to introduce what
they considered superior in the Western civilization, although it
may perhaps be doubted whether in their eagerness they have
always been wise. They hate always resented any discrimination
against them as an Asiatic people, not merely protesting against
it, knowing that such would not avail much, but making every
endeavour to remove reasons or excuses for it. Formerly there
were troops stationed to guard several legations; foreign postal
service was not entirely in the hands of the Japanese government
for a long time; these and other indignities against the sove-
reignty of the nation were gradually removed by proving that
they were not necessary. Then there was the question of the
extra-territorial jurisdiction; an embassy was sent to Europe
and America as early as 187 1 with a view to the revision of
treaties in order to do away with this imperium in imperii that
being the date originally used for the revision; the embassy)
however, failed fei its object but was not altogether fruitless, for
it was then clearly seen that it would be necessary to revise
thoroughly the system of laws and entirely to reorganize the
law courts before Occidental nations could be induced to forgo
272
The*
first sc
madUt
Qover
Th*
the
W.t
t-
JAPAN
IA JAPANESE VIEW
in any case as
i of the Western methods and
^jjjeuby Utttactof their being a necessary
am*, ui treaties. When the new code of
..-x ^jc Diet ai its first session, and there
. witrti it in the House of Peers on account
» mprvjiiy ui its ignoring many established
-■cm. js .^r ;avaur, or at least one that had
. ^— j «no were unacquainted with tech-
j^.nrunwry fox the revision of treaties
~j>, -v>ui*i be afterwards amended at
_ *j» oil lire part of the government,
.. u uuhe meantime the whole nation,
jtj— .\**t ui it. was chafing impatiently
_... ** . joiiraoal indignity. The United
_«i«v koiu abandonment, although
_ ..* u^4iory by a conditional clause,
k ^.ut. .*ia which the Japanese have
_ * >a account of their attitude
^ w s.va»ummation so long and
«i *as the joy with which it
«k 44WD was indeed on terms
. m». Grwit Britain, by being the
._ -. •*_■ «m 4kt due to the remarkable
..^? .>* the opposition of their
*. ) %> bimg about the cordial
... k !*{ttt*Q, which made them
___ TT iv Vitgta-Japencse alliance.
■^ ^ *»»«(tut instrument for the
^ a»t has been, and always
.^ \v ;hv more intelligent and
.. .^* -* *> l ^f "A*** °f Uic people
. . ., vvmg partly to the already
. .. <>v vh, but also in a large
■< '*<t that Great Britain
^ . . u v cutvr into this alliance
^.-v »*» ^t Japan had entered
^ „ ivvKihJodof nations, and
, ^-.. * vi that discrimination
1 b*ft been to galling to
die
wor
ever.
thini
Tl
large
PttMJtm
Pmrtbu
large r,
aufBcier
might st
folios. I
Marquis .
cabinet. :
were requir
they had b<
• ■ Neither t .
In the house
furnished men
v xtnd nude, many charges
^.wiHVs While admitting
. .« A^^ii permissible to
.. u n . Juahi have often been
. « » .!**!*, w the result of a
. , i Osm^j« at* due to mis-
A»v^*h *.»*»*teda» of aach
,.^J». UU the principle
^ ^wjjKtv^wmment has
. ^*ov*m*ty to It. It
„ ^ ^ysiu.w U very keen
^ x ^vh^m** *houW aome-
^ v» vh **-Um«m» against
* i.«**itM««*llhftl People
s ^^ * >&v»*» *h*t|r*« wada
..****»« fci»i, white
\ . ^vv*dsdtwt unaware
* .****»*t**«»*lv*»ibut
„ . ,v%* *Ww thaigat to
^ w« JVaUMlUtwl lhat
* . t „M^^V lllllllipte
s „**du«vll That
* . ».kuv4 wMfclifaa
' ^ . ,* V* »MtVHHI»«i l»
,*^^«»h»teM,
quoque is never a valid argument, but there are black sh eep t v er y-
where, and there were special reasons why foreigners should have
come in contact with many such in their d e a lings with the
Japanese. In days before the Restoration, merchants and
tradesmen were officially classed as the lowest of four classes,
the samurai, the farmers, the artisans and the merchants;
practically, however, rich merchants serving as bankers and
employers of others were held in high esteem, even by the samurai.
Yet it cannot be denied that the position of the last three was
low compared with that of the samurai; their education was not
so high, and although of course there was the same code of
morality for them all, there was no such high standard of honour
as was enjoined upon the samurai by the bushidO or " the way
of samurai." Now, when foreign trade was first opened, it was
naturally not firms with long-established credit and methods that
first ventured upon the new field of business — some few that did
failed owing to their want of experience — it was rather enter-
prising and adventurous spirits with little capital or credit who
eagerly flocked to the newly opened ports to try their fortune.
It was not to be expected that all or most of those should
be very scrupulous in their dealings with the foreigners; the
majority of those adventurers failed, while a few of the abler men,
generally those who believed in and practised honesty as the
best policy, succeeded and came to occupy an honourable posi-
tion as business men. It is also asserted that foreigners, or at
least some of them, did not scruple to take unfair advantage of
the want of experience on the part of their Japanese customers
to impose upon them methods which they would not have
followed except in the East; it may be that such methods were
necessary or were deemed so in dealing with those adventurers,
but it is a fact that it afterwards took a long lime and great effort
on the part of Japanese traders to break through some usages
and customs which were established in earlier days and which
they deemed derogatory to their credit or injurious to their in*
terests. Infringement of patent rights and fraudulent imitation
of trade-marks have with some truth also been charged against
the Japanese; about this it is to be remarked that although
the principles of morality cannot change, their applications may
be new; patents and trade-marks arc something new to the
Japanese, and it takes time to teach that their infringement
should be regarded with the same moral censure as stealing.
The government has done everything to prevent such practices
by enacting and enforcing laws against them, and nowadays they
are not so common. Be that as it may, such a state of affairs
as that mentioned above is now passing away almost entirely;
commerce and trade are now regarded as highly honourable pro-
fessions, merchants and business men occupy the highest social
positions, several of them having been lately raised to the peerage*
and are as honourable a set of men as can be met anywhere. It
is however to be regretted that in introducing Western business
methods, it has not been quite possible to exclude some of their
evils, such as promotion of swindling companies, tampering with
members of legislature, and so forth.
The Japanese have also been considered in some quarters to
be a bellicose nation. No sooner was the war with Russia over
than they were said to be ready and eager to fight with the
United States. This is another misrepresentation arising from
want of proper knowledge of Japanese character and feelings.
Although it is true that within the quarter of a century preceding
1009 Japan was engaged in two sanguinary wars, not to mention
the Boxer affair, in which owing to her proximity to the scene
of the disturbances she had to take a prominent part, yet neither
of these was of her own seeking; in both cases she had to fight or
else submit to become a mere cipher in the world, if indeed she
could have preserved her existence as an independent state. The
Japanese, far from being a bellicose people, deliberately cut off
all intercourse with the outside world in order to avoid inter-
national troubles, and remained absolutely secluded from the
world and at profound peace within their own territory for two
centuries and a half. Besides, the Japanese have always re-
garded the Americans with a special goodwill, due no doubt to
'1 steady liberal attitude of the American govexnmaut and
JAPANNING— JARGON
people towards Japan and Japanese, and tfcey look upon
the idea of war between Japan and the United States- as
ridiculous.
Restrictions upon Japanese emigrants to the United States
and to Australia are irritating to the Japanese, because it is a
discrimination against them as belonging to the " yellow " race,
whereas it has been their ambition to raise themselves above the
level of the Eastern nations to an equality with the Western
nations, although they cannot change the colour of their skin.
When a Japanese even of the highest rank and standing has to
obtain a permit from an American immigrant officer before he can
enter American territory, is it not natural that he and his country-
men should resent this discrimination as an indignity? But they
have too much good sense to think or even dream of going to
war upon such a matter; on the contrary, the Japanese govern*
ment agreed in 1908 to limit the number of emigrants in order
to avoid complications.
It may be repeated that it has ever been the ambition of the
Japanese people to take rank with the Great Powers of the world,
and to have a voice in the council of nations; they demand that
they shall not be discriminated against because of the colour of
their skin, but that they shall rather be judged by their deeds.
With this aim, they have made great efforts: where charges
brought against them have any foundation in fact, they have
endeavoured to make reforms; where they ase false or due to
misunderstandings they have tried to live them down, trusting
to time for their vindication. They are willing to be judged by
the intelligent and impartial world: a fair field and no favour is
what they claim, and think they have a right to claim, from
the world. (K.)
BiBLiooaAPHY. — The latest edition of von Wemckstem's
Bibliography of the Japanese Empire contains the names of all
important books and publications relating to Japan, which have
bow become very numerous. A general reference must suffice
here to Captain F. Brinkley's Japan (12 vols., 1904); the works of
B. H. Chamberlain, Things Japanese (5th ed., 1905, Ac); W. G.
Aston, Hist, of Jap. Literature, &c, and Lafcadio Hcarn, Japan: an
Interpretation (1904), &c, as the European authors with intimate
knowledge of the country who have done most to give accurate and
illuminating expression to its development. Sec also Fifty Years
of New Japan, an encyclopaedic account of the national development
in all its aspects, compiled by Count Shigenobu Okuma (2 vols.,
1907, 1908; Eng. ed. by Marcus B. Huish, 1909).
JAPANNING, the art of coating surfaces of metal, wood, &c,
with a vavfety of varnishes, which are dried and hardened on in
stoves or hot chambers. These drying processes constitute the
main distinguishing features of the art. The trade owes its
name to the fact that it is an imitation of the famous lacquering
of Japan (see Japan: Art), which, however, is prepared with
entirety different materials and processes, and is in all respects
much more brilliant, durable and beautiful than any ordinary
japan work. Japanning is done in clear transparent varnishes,
in black and in body colours; but black japan is the most
characteristic and common style of work. The varnish for black
japan consists essentially of pure natural asphalt um with a pro-
portion of gum anime dissolved in linseed oil and thinned with
turpentine. In thin layers such a japan has a rich dark brown
colour; it only shows a brilliant black In thicker coatings. For
fine work, which has to be smoothed and polished, several coats
of black are applied in succession, each being separately dried in
the stove at a heat which may rise to about 300* F. Body
colours consist of a basis of transparent varnish mixed with the
special mineral paints of the desired colours or with broitte
powders. The transparent varnish used by japanners is a copal
varnish which contains less drying oil and more turpentine than
is contained in ordinary painters' oil varnish. Japanning pro-
duces a brilliant polished surface which is much more durable and
less easily affected by heat, moisture or other influences than any
ordinary painted and varnished work. It may be regarded as a
process intermediate between ordinary painting and enamelling.
It is very extensively applied in the finishing of ordinary iron-
mongery goods and domestic iron- work, deed boxes, clock dials
and papier-mache articles. The process is also applied to blocks
of slate for making imitation of black and other marbles for
*75
chimneypiecea, Ac, and in a modified form it employed for
prep aring en a m el led , japan or patent leather.
JAPHETH (n*), in the Bible, the youngest ion of Noah"
according to the Priestly Code {c. 450 B.C.); but in the earlier
tradition* the second son, also the " father " of one of the three
groups into which the nations of the world are divided.' In
Gen. ix. 27, Noah pronounces the following bleating on Japheth—
" God enlarge (Heb. yophf) Japheth (Heb. yepheth),
And let him dwell in the ttnu of Shem;
And let Canaan be his servant."
This is probably an ancient oracle independent alike of the flood
story and the genealogical scheme in Gen. x. Shem is probably
Israel; Canaan, of course, the Canaan ites; by analogy, Japheth
should be some third clement of the population of Palestine — the
Philistines or the^hoenicians have been suggested. The sense
of the second line is doubtful, it may be " let God dwell " or " let
Japheth dwell "; on the latter view Japheth appears to be in
friendly alliance with Shem. The words might mean that
Japheth was an intruding invader, but this Is not consonant with
the tone of the oracle. Possibly Japheth Is only present in
Gen. ix. 30-27 through corruption of the text, Japheth may
be an accidental repetition of yapht " may he enlarge," misread
as a proper name.
In Gen. x. Japheth is the northern and western division of the
nations; being perhaps used as a convenient title under which to
group the more remote peoples who were not thought of as stand-
ing in ethnic or political connexion with Israel or Egypt. Thus
of his descendants, Gomer, Magog, 4 Tubal, Meshech, Aahkenaz,
Riphath and Togarmah are peoples who are located with more
or less certainty in N.E. Asia Minor, Armenia and the lands to
the N.E. of the Black Sea; Javan is the Ionian*, used loosely for
the seafaring peoples of the West, including Tarshisb (Tartessus
in Spain), Kittim (Cyprus), Rodanim* (Rhodes). There is no
certain identification of Tins and Elishah.
The similarity of the name Japheth to the Titan Tapetos of Greek
mythology is probably a mere accident. A place Japheth is men-
tioned in Judith ii. 25, but it is quite unknown.
In addition to commentaries and dictionary articles, sec E. Meyer,
Die Iewaditen wed ikre NaekbariHmme, pp. 2 19 sqq. (W. H. Be)
JAR, a vessel of simple form, made of earthenware, glass, &c.,
with a spoutless mouth, and usually without bandies. The
word came into English through Fr. jarre or Span, jarra, from
Arab, jarrah, the earthenware vessel of Eastern countries, used
to contain water, oil, wine, &c The simple electrical condenser
known as a Leyden Jar (q.v.) was so called because of the early
experiments made in the science of electricity at Leiden. In the
sense of a harsh vibrating sound, a sudden shock or vibrating
movement, hence dissensidn, quarrel or petty strife, " jar " is
onomatopoeic in origin; it Is also seen in the name of the bird
night- jar (also known as the goat-sucker). In the expression
" on the jar " or " ajar/' of a door or window partly open, the
word is another form of chare or char, meaning turn or turning,
•which survives in charwoman, one who works at a turn, a job
and chore, a job, spell of work.
JARGON, in h* earliest use a term applied to the chirping and
twittering of birds, but since the 15th century mainly confined to
any language, spoken or written, which is either unintelKgible
to the user or to the hearer. .It is particularly applied by unin-
structed hearers* or readers to the language full of technical
terminology used by scientific, philosophic and other writers.
The word is O. Fr., and Cotgrave defines It as "gibridge
(gibberish), fustian language.'' It Is cognate with Span. geru
gonza, and Ital. gcrgo, gcrgone, and probably related to the
onomatopoeic O. Fr. jargouiller, to chatter. The root is probably
seen in Lat. gcrrire, to chatter.
» Geo. v. 32, vl. 10, viL 13, x. 1 ; cf» 1 Chron. t 4.
* Gen. he 27, x. a, J. c. 850-750 B.C. In ix, 18 Ham » an
editorial addition. ...... * .
» Gen. x. 1-5; cf. I Chron. L 5-7. For the significance of the
genealogies in Gen. x. see Ham.
* See Come*. Gog. ......
* So we should read with I Chron. L 7 (LXX.) for Dodanun.
z-<*
JARGOON— JAKVIS
'mma iH««Hr *• «M wntiags jan****
^ x- l * \
s
^ ■ * ■* * '
vJV
v V "A 1 ^
^ * V
&
I
•» v.*
a;
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tl
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of
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itl
^
til-
. x*C*^ '
pert
T
v .W-
mere
fori:
diahc
t *jj he cat as genvstooes, but are
mmts the hyacinth or jacinth.
Bisects). Some of the finest
« xnt md. yefttw, whilst some are
» «amm mtr be obtained by beating
*:** wsa b beated it sometimes
-*j»r mb 4. sad at tbe same time
k.v sa* brafcnacy. Tbe so-called
k, ^at J» Matara (or Matura), in
[V anon has strong re-
. ^ w ^ ^t""'*"*^ but it lacks
-C ^m«c&: ipvntv ol xircon is subject
" 4 . .tvxi^««* thus Sir A. H.
. «. ^*w»#«fi»ntobeaslow
x , v ^ **•*■ *» bigh as 47°S-
* ^ ,^^jcms» ar« sometimes mis-
1,^ ■» wiMMlme the dichro-
««*. a «*m* it » remarkably
• mmm att such higher than
... .'.. (F. W. R-*)
-i, f*JftftflA ^ ?*& Arabian poet,
% . ** AW ««» * member of the
% *,-a* *>a iWi in Irak. Of his
^ v ^v*wkm ut winning the favour
"" -«. ■** %v r*u*X Already famous
.1?. *><*> i*** Uy bis feud with
v ^^ ^ IXunaacus and visited
-.. . v **i that of his successor,
^ ^ k wxt^t * warm welcome.
,- "U- * ; * ,Jlmw U *» "^ was the
-^ s~w***0- (G. W. T.)
«. w ^«*> *■ ^^** * u tnc P rov »nce of
. *\X ^W* W*»rlo tbe Ili river.
^*kv ■** \y# department of
"^" y ^, x *v* vau.andontherail-
' * v»vn" V ^ slt y and C °8 nac *
v v> ** 'U »«J M avenue,
v % v v * WxUome suspension
"* .« : ^v*img ogival crypt.
, v v* ***** Df« nd y» wine
* s " k v v »^ Wiww was in 1569
v x \ V v^KU^ted ihe Protes-
*' v , *vv W«**, ^incedcCond^,
" s *,^ %♦* »v J*rnac gave its
s> , „ \s^ -^ ^^ known member
** xx V V whi»»e lucky back-
v ^,. ^.. aw |*vt rise to the
.^ ^'vV^vH *« unexpected
y ^ \\oVv |V«ay, rhlllppine
\ \\ ^ ^ t*»wn nf Iloflo, the
. * . ^ 4 ^Um liHho midst of
N , . ,\^i>H'mt*,» cathedral,
' ^^\\\ ^l^i ••»«! * monihly
v ^ ***wub «•» U»4- From
^ , ,1 ,v, \**\s Hnnunitlpality
^ v * ^w»U»Ih| o( hydroot
indistinct crystals with a yellowish-brown colour and brilliant
lustre. Hardness 3; sp. gr. 3*15. The best specimens, con-
sisting of crystalline crusts on limonite, are from the Jaroso
ravine in the Sierra Almagrera, province of Almeria, Spain, from
which locality tbe mineral receives its name. It has been also
found, often in association with iron ores, at a few other localities.
A variety occurring as concretionary or mulberry-like forms it
known as moronolile (from Gr. tuapow^ " mulberry," and Xitfst,
" stone "); it is found at Monroe in Orange county, New York.
The recently discovered species natrojarosite and plumbojarosite
occur as yellowish-brown glistening powders consisting wholly
of minute crystals, and are from Nevada and New Mexico
respectively. (L. J. S.)
JARRAH WOOD (an adaptation of the native name JerryU),
the product of a large tree (Eucalyptus marginata) found in
south-western Australia, where it is said to cover an area of
14,000 sq. m. The trees grow straight in tbe stem to a great size,
and yield squared timber up to 40 ft. length and 24 in. diameter.
The wood is very hard, heavy (sp. gr. i«oio) and close-grained,
with a mahogany-red colour, and sometimes sufficient " figure "
to render it suitable for cabinet-makers' use. The timber
possesses several useful characteristics; and great expectations
were at first formed as to its value for shipbuilding and general
constructive purposes. These expectations have not, however,
been realized, and the exclusive possession of the tree has not
proved that source of wealth to western Australia which was at
one time expected. Its greatest merit for shipbuilding and
marine purposes is due to the fact that it resists, better than
any other timber, tbe attacks of the Teredo navalis and other
marine borers, and on land it is "equally exempt, in tropical
countries, from the ravages of white ants. When felled with the
sap at its lowest point and well seasoned, the wood stands
exposure in the air, earth or sea remarkably well, on which
account it is in request for railway sleepers, telegraph poles and
piles in the British colonies and India. The wood, however,
frequently shows longitudinal blisters, or lacunae, filled with
resin, the same as may be observed in spruce fir timber; and
it is deficient in fibre, breaking with a short fracture under
comparatively moderate pressure. It has been classed at
Lloyds for ship-building purposes in line three, table A, of the
registry rules.
JARROW, a port and municipal borough in the Jarrow
parliamentary division of Durham, England, on the right bank
of the Tyne, 6| m. below Newcastle, and on a branch of the
North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901), 34,295- The parish
church of St Paul was founded in 685, and retains portions of
pre-Norman work. The central tower is Norman, and there
are good Decorated and Perpendicular details in the body of the
church. Close by are the scattered ruins of the monastery
begun by the pious Biscop in 681, and consecrated with the
church by Ceolfrid in 685. Within the walls of this monastery
the Venerable Bede spent his life from childhood; and his body
was at first buried within the church, whither, until it was
removed under Edward the Confessor to Durham, it attracted
many pilgrims. The town is wholly industrial, devoted to
ship-building, chemical works, paper mills and the neighbouring
collieries. It owes its development from a mere pit village
very largely to the enterprise of Sir Charles Mark Palmer (q.v.).
Jarrow Slake, a river bay, 1 m. long by | m. broad, contains
the Tyne docks of the North-Eastern railway company. A
great quantity of coal is shipped. Jarrow was incorporated in
1875, and the corporation consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and
18 councillors. Area, 783 acres.
JARRY, NICOLAS, one of the best-known 17th century
French calligraphers. He was born at Paris about 1620, and
was officially employed by Louis XIV. His most famous work
is the Guirlandc de Julie (1641). He died some time before
1674.
JARVII. JOHN WESLEY (1 780-1840), American artist,
nephew of the great John Wesley, was born at South Shields,
England, and was taken to the United States at the age ol
five. He was one of the earliest American painters to give
JASHAR, BOOK. OF— JASMINE
serious attention to the study of anatomy. He lived at first in
Philadelphia, afterwards establishing himself in New York,
where he enjoyed great popularity, though Jus conviviality and
eccentric mode of life affected his work. He visited Baltimore,
Charleston and New Orleans, entertaining much and painting
portraits of prominent people, particularly in New Orleans,
where General Andrew Jackson was one of his sitters. He had
for aitfotsnrs at different times both Sully and Inman. He
affected singularity in dress and manners, and his mots were
the talk of the day. But his work deteriorated, and he died
in great poverty in New York City. Examples of his painting
are in the collection of the New York Historical Society.
JASHAR, BOOK OF, in Hebrew Sefher ko-yaskor, a Hebrew
composition mentioned as though well-known in Josh. x. 13
and a Sam. L 18. From these two passages it seems to have
been a book of songs relating to important events, but no early
collection of the kind is now extant, nor is anything known of it.
Various speculations have been put forward as to the name: (1)
that it means the book of the upright, i.e. Israel or distinguished
Israelites, the root being the same as in Jeshurun; (a) that
Jashar C"*) is a transposition of shir C 1 *, song); (3) that it
should be pointed Yashir (V.\ sing; cf. Exod. xv. 1) and was
so called after its first word. None of these is very convincing,
though support may be found for them all in the versions. The
Septuagint favours (1) by its rendering kwi ptfrdov rod tiOovt
in Samuel (it omits the words in Joshua); the Vulgate has in
libro justorum in both places; the Syriac in Samuel has Ashir,
which suggests a Hebrew reading ha-skAr (the song), and in
Joshua it translates u book of praises." The Targtun on both
passages has " book of the law," an explanation which is fol-
lowed by the chief Jewish commentators, making the incidents
the fulfilment of passages in the Pentateuch. Since it con-
tained the lament of David (a Sam. i. 18) it cannot have been
completed till after his time. If Wcllhausen's restoration of
x Kings viiL xa be accepted (from Septuagint x Kings viii. 53,
ir /Sc/3XX%i rip tfiifi) where the reference is to the building
of the Temple, the book must have been growing in the time of
Solomon. The attempt of Donaldson 1 to reconstruct it is
largely subjective and uncritical.
fc
tie
Bibliography.— M. Heflprin, Historical Poetry of (he Ancient
Hebrews (New York, 1879), 1. 128-131; Mcrcati. "Una congettura
•opra il libro del Giustcv in Studi c Testi (5, Roma, 1901). On the
medieval work see Zunz, GoUesdienstliche Vortrdge der Juden (frank-
fun a. M., 189a), and ed, p. 16a.
JASHPTJB, a tributary state of India, in the Central Provinces,
having been transferred from Bengal in 1005. The country is
divided almost equally into high and low lands. The Uparghat
plateau on the east rises aaoo ft above sea-level, and the hius
above it reach their highest point in Ranijula (3527 ft.). The
only river of importance is the lb, in the bed of which diamonds
are found, while from time immemorial its sands have been
washed for gold. Jashpur iron, smelted by the Kols, is highly
prized. Jungles of sdl forests abound, harbouring elephant,
bison and other wild beasts. Jungle products include be,
silk cocoons and beeswax, which are exported. Area 1948
sq. m.; pop. (icox), 133,114; estimated revenue £8000.
1 Jashar: fragmenta archetypa carmhtum Hebraicorum (Berlin,
1854). Cf. Perownes Remarks on it (Loud. .1835).
*77
JASWK, JACQ0B* (1708-1*64), Provencal poet, was born at
Agen on the 6th of March X708, his family name being Boe. His
father, who was a tailor, had a certain facility for making doggerel'
verses, which he sang or recited at fairs and such-like popular
ga t he ri ngs; and Jacques, who used generally to accompany him,
was thus early familiarised with the part which he afterwards so
successfully oiled himself. When sixteen years of age he found
employment at a hairdresser's shop, and subsequently started
a similar business of his own On the Gravier at Agen. In x8s£
be published his first volume of PapiUotos (" Curl Papers "),
containing poems in French (a language he used with a certain
sense of restraint), and in the familiar Agen patois— <hc popular
speech of the working classes— in which he was to achieve all
his literary triumphs. Jasmin was the most famous forerunner
in Provencal literature (q,v.) of Mistral and the Pilibrige. His
influence in rehabilitating, for literary purposes, his native dialect,
was particularly exercised in the public recitals of his poems to
which he devoted himself. His poetic gift, and his flexible voice
and action, fitted him admirably for this double r61e of trouba-
dour and jongleur. In 1835 he recited his " Blind Girl of Castel-
Cuille " at Bordeaux, in 1836 at Toulouse; and he met with an
enthusiastic reception in both those important cities. Most of
his public recitations were given for benevolent purposes, the
proceeds being contributed by him to the restoration of the church
of Vergt and other good works. Four successive volumes of
PapiUotos were published during his lifetime, and contained
amongst others the following remarkable poems, quoted in order:
" The Charivari," " My Recollections" (supplemented after an
interval of many years), " The Blind Girl," " Francounetto,"
" Martha the Simple," and " The Twin Brothers." With the
exception of " The Charivari," these are all touching pictures of
humble life — in. most cases real episodes— carefully elaborated
by the poet till the graphic descriptions, full of light and colour,
and the admirably varied and melodious verse, seem too sponta-
neous and easy to have cost an effort. Jasmin was not a prolific
writer, and, in spite of his impetuous nature, would work a long
time at one poem, striving to realize every feeling he wished to
describe, and give it. its most lucid and natural expression. A
verse from his spirited poem, "The Third of May," written in
honour of Henry IV., and published in the first volume of Papil-
lotos, is engraved on the base of the statue erected to that king
at Nerac. In 185a Jasmin's works were crowned hy the Acade-
mic Francaise, and a pension was awarded him. The medal
struck on the occasion bore the inscription: Au poiU moral el
populate^ His title of " Maistre es Jeux" is a distinction only
conferred by the academy of Toulouse on illustrious writers.
Pius DC. sent him the insignia of a knight of St Gregory the
Great, and he was made chevalier of the Legion of Honour. He
spent the latter years of his life on a small estate which he had
bought near Agen and named ** Papillotos," and which he
describes in Ma Bigno (•• My Vine "). Though invited to repre-
sent his native dty, he refused to do so, preferring the pleasures
and leisure of a country life, and wisely judging that he was no
really eligible candidate for electoral honours. He died on the
4th of October 1864. His last poem, an answer to Renan, was
placed between his folded hands in his coffin.
JASMINE, or Jessamine, botanically Jasminum, a genus of
shrubs or climbers constituting the principal part of the tribe
Jasminoideae of the natural order Oleaceae, and comprising
about 150 spedes, of which 40 or more occur in the gardens of
Britain. The plants of the genus are mostly natives of the
warmer regions of the Old World; there is one South American
spedes. The leaves are pinnate or ternate, or sometimes appa-
rently simple, consisting of one leaflet, articulated to the petiole.
The flowers, usually white or yellow, are arranged in terminal or
axillary panides, and have a tubular 5- or 8-def t calyx, a cylin-
drical coroUa-tube, with a spreading limb, two induded stamens
and a two-celled ovary.
The name is derived from the Persian ydsmin. Linnaeus
obtained a fancied etymology from ta, violets, and fo/4* smell,
but the odour of its flowers bears no resemblance to that of the
violet. The common white jasmine, Jasminum officinal*, one
*78
JASON
of tht best known tad moot highly esteemed of British hardy
ligneous climbers, is a native of northern India and Persia, intro-
duced about the middle of the 16th century. In the centre and
south of Europe it is thoroughly acclimatized. Although it
grows to the height of 12 and sometimes so ft, its stem is feeble
and requires support ; its leaves are opposite, pinnate and dark
green, the leaflets are in three pairs, with an odd one, and are
pointed, the terminal one larger and with a tapering point. The
fragrant white flowers bloom from June to October; and, as they
are round chiefly on the young shoots, the plant should only be
pruned in the autumn. Varieties with golden and silver-edged
leaves and one with double flowers are known.
The zambak or Arabian jasmine, /. Sambae, is an evergreen white-
flowered climber, 6 or 8 ft. high, introduced into Britain in the latter
part of the 17th century. Two varieties introduced somewhat later
are respectively vleaved and double-flowered, and these, as well as
that with normal flowers," bloom throughout the greater part of the
Jasminum grandijlarum; flower, natural size.
year. O
highly es
Persian a
used to ai
from the
The flow
and used
Spanish,
north-wet
world, is
the bran
larger, aj
plants of
requiring
at Canne
rows, full
yearaftei
fragrant,
of August
The ai
Le. absor
Square g
over witl
to facitit!
which an
evaporati
ire
the
1 is
led
Ik.
lie
the
ew
U;
ich
old
&
in
«d
tly
£
sad
ide
in,
int
the
the
glass, melted at as low a temperati mr
When oil is employed as the absorbent, coarse cotton cloths pre*
viously saturated with the finest olive oil are laid on wire-gauze
frames, and repeatedly covered in the same manner with fresh
flowers ; they are then squeezed under a press, yielding what is termed
kuile antique au jasmin. Three pounds of flowers will perfume 1 m
of grease— this is exhausted by maceration in 1 pt. of rectified spirit
to form the " extract." An essential oil is distilled from jasmine in
Tunis and Algeria, but its high price prevents its being used to any
extent. The East Indian oil of jasmine is a compound larger/
contaminated with sandalwood-oil.
The dtft?ng" iah ' n g characters of 7. tdcratissimum, a native of the
Canary Islands and Madeira, consist principally in the alternate,
obtuse, ternate and pinnate leaves, the 3-flowered terminal peduncles
and the 5-cleft yellow corolla with obtuse segments. The flowers
have the advantage of retaining when dry their natural perfume,
which is suggestive of a mixture of jasmine, jonquil and orange-
blossom. In China /. paniculatum is cultivated as an erect shrub,
known as sieu'hing-kwa; it is valued for its flowers, which are used
with those of J. Sambae, in the proportion of 10 lb of the former to
30 lb of the latter, for scenting tea— 40 lb of the mixture being re-
auired for 100 lb of tea. J. angustifolium is a beautiful e vergreen
limber 10 to 12 ft. high, found in the Coromandel forests, and intro-
duced into Britain during the present century. Its leaves are of a
bright shining green; its large terminal flowers are white with a
faint tinge of red, fragrant and blooming throughout the year.
In Cochin China a decoction of the leaves and branches of
/. nervosum is taken as a blood-purifier; and the bitter leaves of
/. ftortbundum (called in Abyssinia habbem-tdim) mixed with kousso
is considered a powerful anthelmintic, especially for tapeworm; the
leaves and branches are added to some fermented liquors to increase
their intoxicating quality. In Catalonia and in Turkey the wood of
the jasmine is made into long, slender pipe-stems, hignty prized by
the Moors and Turks. Syrup of jasmine is made by placing in a jar
alternate layers of the flowers and sugar, covering the whole with
wet cloths and standing it in a cool place; the perfume is absorbed
by the sugar, which is converted into a very palatable syrup.
Tne important medicinal plant known in America as the " Carolina
jasmine " is not a true jasmine (see Gelsbiiium).
Other hardy species commonly cultivated in gardens are the tow
" '• " ' t East I
or Italian yellow-flowered jasmine, /. kumiU, an 1 ^
introduced and now found wild in the south of Europe, an erect
shrub 3 or 4 ft. high, with angular branches, alternate and mostly
ternate leaves, blossoming from June to September; the common
Kllow jasmine, J. frutkans, a native of southern Europe and the
editerranean region, a hardy evergreen shrub, 10 to is ft. high,
with weak, slender stems requiring support, and bearing yellow,
odourless flowers from spring to autumn ; and /. nudiflorum (China),
which bears its bright yellow flowers in winter before the leaves
It thrives in almost any situation and grows rapidly.
JASON (Tawr), in Creek legend, son of Aeson, long of Iolcus
in Thessaly. He was the leader of the Argonautic expedition
(see Axoonauts). After he returned from it he Kved at Corinth
with his wife Medea (g.v.) for many years. At last he put away
Medea, in order to marry Glauce (or Creusa), daughter of the
Corinthian kins; Creon. To avenge herself, Medea presented
the new bride with a robe and head-dress, by whose magic pro-
perties the wearer was burnt-to death, and slew her children by
Jason with her own hand. A later story represents Jason as
reconciled to Medea (Justin, xlii. 2). His death was said to have
been due to suicide through grief, caused by Medea's vengeance
(Died. Sic. iv. 55); or he was crushed by the fall of the poop of
the ship " Argo," under which, on the advice of Medea, he had
laid himself down to sleep (argument of Euripides' Medea).
The name (more correctly Iason) means " healer," and Jason b
possibly a local hero of Iolcus to whom healing powers were
attributed. The ancients regarded him as the oldest navigator,
and the patron of navigation. By the moderns he has been
variously explained as a solar deity; a god of summer; a god of
storm; a god of rain, who carries off the rain-giving cloud (tht
golden fleece) to refresh the earth after a long period of drought.
Some regard the legend as a cbthonian myth, Aea (Colchis)
being the under-world in the Aeolic religious system from which
Jason liberates himself and his betrothed; others, in view of
certain resemblances between the story of Jason and that of
Cadmus (the ploughing of the field, the sowing of the dragon's
teeth, the fight with the Sparti, who are finally set fighting with
one another by a stone hnrled into their midst), associate both
with Demeter the corn-goddess, and refer certain episodes to
practices in use at country festivals, e.g. the stone throwing,
which, like the PaXh/rin at the Eleusinia and the XtBcfioUa at
JASON OF CYRENE— JATAKA
Troezen (Pausanias U. 30, 4 wfth Fraxer J s note) was probably
intended to secure a good harvest by driving away the evil
spirits of unfruitf ulness.
See articles by C. Seeliger in Resetter's Lexikon der Mythology ^nd
by F. Durfbacn in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionnaire des anti-
gudUs; H. D. Mix)lcr,.MytkolotU der grieckiscken Sidmme (1861),
fi. 3*8, who explains the sum Jason as M wanderer "; W. Mann-
hardt. Myikolojucke Forsekunmm (1884). pp. 75, 130; 0. Crusius,
Beitrige stir gnukisclun Mytkolope und RuxgionsgtschichU (Leipzig,
1886).
Later Versions of the Legend.— Les fats el prouesses du noble et
veiUanl chevalier Jason was composed in the middle of the 15th
century by Raoul Ltfevre on the basis of Benolt's Roman de
Troie, and presented to Philip of Burgundy, founder of the order
of the Golden Fleece. The manners and sentiments of the 15th
century are made to harmonize with the classical legends after
the fashion of the Italian prc-Raphaelite painters, who equipped
Jewish warriors with knightly lance and armour. The story is
well told; the digressions are few; and there are many touches of .
domestic life and natural sympathy. The first edition is believed
to have been printed at Bruges in 1474.
Caztoa translated the book under the title of A Bote of the hook
Lyj of Jason, at the command of the duchess of Burgundy. A
Flemish translation appeared at Haarlem in 1495. The Benedictine
Bernard de Montfaucon (1653-1741) refers to a MS. by Guido delle
Colorme, Hisloria Medeae et Jasoms (unpublished)-
The Hisioir* de la Thotson d'Or (Paris, 1 516) by Guillaume FUlastre
{1400-1473), written about 1440-1450, is an historical compilation
dealing with the exploits ot the trls ckrlliennes maisons of France,
Burgundy and Flanders.
JASON OP CYRENB, a Hellenistic Jew, who lived about
100 B.C. and wrote a history ot the times of the Maccabees down
to the victory over Nicanor (175-161 B.C.). This work is said
to have been in five books and formed the basis of the present
2 Mace, (see ch. u. 19-32).
JASPER, an opaque compact variety of quartz, variously
coloured and often containing argillaceous matter. The
colours are usually red, brown, yellow or green, and are due to
admixture with compounds of iron, either oxides or silicates.
Although the term jasper is now restricted to opaque quarts it is
certain that the ancient jaspis or t&otis was a stone of con.
siderable translucency. The jasper of antiquity was in many
cases distinctly green, for it is often compared with the emerald
and other green objects. Jasper is referred to in the Niebelunge*'
Hed^ as being clear and green. Probably the jasper of the
Ancients included stones which would now be classed as chal-
cedony, and the emerald-like jasper may have been akin to our
chrysoprase. The Hebrew word yaskefek may have designated a
green jasper (cf . Assyrian yaskpu) . Professor Flinders Peine has
suggested that the odem, the first stone on the High Priest's
breastplate, translated " sard," was,* red jasper, whilst farskish,
the tenth stone, may have been a yellow jasper (Hastings's Diet,
Bible, 1002).
Many varieties of jasper are recognised. Riband jasper Is a form
in which the colours are disposed in bands, as m the well-known
ornamental stone from Siberia, which shows a regular alternation
of dark red and green stripes. Egyptian jasper is a brown jasper,
Occurring as nodules in the Lybian desert and in the Nile valley, and*
characterised by a tonal arrang e m ent of light and dark shades of
colour. Agate-jasper is a variety intermediate between true jasper
and chalcedony. Basanite, 1yd Ae, or Lydian stone, is a velvet-
black flinty jasper, used as a touchstone for testing the purity of
precious metals by their streak. Porcelain jasper is a clay indurated
by natural calcination. (F. W. R.*)
JfASSY (JapT). also written jAsnjAStfin and Yassy. the capital
of the department of Jassy, Rumania; situated on the left bank
of the river Bahlui, an affluent of the Jijia, about 10 m. W. of the
Pmth and the Russian frontier. Pop. (1000), 78,067. Jassy
communicates by rail with Galatz on the Danube, Kishinev in
Bessarabia, and Czernowitz in Bukowina. The surrounding
country is one of uplands and woods, among which rise the
monasteries of Cetatuia, Frumoasa, and Galata with its mineral
springs, the water-cure establishment of Rapide and the great
seminary of Socola. Jassy itself stands pleasantly amid vine-
yards and gardens, partly on two hills, partly in the hollow
270
between. Its primitive houses of tfntber and plaster ware mostly
swept away after 1 860, when brick or stone came into general rse,
and good streets were cut among the network of narrow, insani-
tary lanes. . Jassy is the seat of the metropolitan of Moldavia,
and of a Roman Catholic archbishop. Synagogues and churches
abound. The two oldest churches date from the reign of Stephen
the Great (1458-1504); perhaps the finest, however, are the 17th-
century metropolitan, St Spiridion and Trei Erarchi, the last a
curious example of Byzantine art, erected in 1639 or 1640 by
Basil the Wolf, and adorned with countless gilded carvings on
its outer walls and twin towers. The St Spiridion Foundation
(due to the liberality of Prince Gregory Ghika in 1727, and avafl-
able for the sick Of all countries and creeds) has an annual income
of over £80,000, and maintains hospitals and churches m several
towns of Moldavia, besides the baths at Sltnlc in Walachia. The
main hospital in Jassy is a large building, and possesses a mater-
nity institution, a midwifery school, a chemical institute, an
inoculating establishment, &c. A society of physicians and
naturatisls has existed in Jassy since the early part of the 19th
century, and a number of periodicals are published. Besides the
university, founded by Prince Cuza in 1864, with faculties of
literature, philosophy, law, science and medicine, there are
a military academy and schools of art, music and commerce;
a museum, a fine haM and a theatre; the state library, where
the chief records of Rumanian history are preserved; an appeal
court, a chamber of commerce and several banks. The city is
the headquarters of the 4th army corps. It has an active trade
in petroleum, salt, metals, timber, cereals, fruit, wine, spirits,
preserved meat, textiles, clothing, leather, cardboard and
dgarette paper.
The inscription by which the existence of a Jatsiorum muni*
cipium in the time of the Roman Empire is sought to be proved;
Hes open to grave suspicion; but the city is mentioned as early
as the 14th century, and probably does derive its name* from
the Jassians, or Jazygians, who accompanied the Cumanian
invaders. It was often visited by the Moldavian court. About
1564, Prince Alexander Lapusneanu, after whom one of the chief
streets is .named, chose Jassy for the Moldavian capital, instead
of Suceava (now Suczawa, in Bukowina). It was already
famous as a centre of culture. Between 1561 and 1563 an ex-
cellent school and a Lutheran church were founded by the Greek
adventurer, Jacob Basilicus (see Rumania: History). In 1643
the first printed book published in Moldavia was issued from a
press established by Basil the Wolf. He also founded a school, the
first in which the mother-tongue took the place of Greek. Jassy
was burned by the Tatars in 1513, by the Turks in 1538, and by
the Russians in 1686. By the Peace of Jassy the second Russo-
Turkish War was brought to a close in 179*. A Greek insurrec-
tion under Ypsilanti in 182 1 led to the storming of the city by the
Turks in iSea. In 1844 there was a severe conflagration. For
the loss caused to the city in 1S61 by the removal of the seat
of government to Bucharest the constituent assembly voted
£148,150, to be paid in ten annual instalments, but no payment
was ever made.
JATAKA, the technical name, in Buddhist literature, for a
story of one ot other of the previous births of the Buddha. The
word is also used for the name of a collection of 547 of such
stories included, by a most fortunate conjuncture of circum-
stances, in the Buddhist canon. This is the most ancient and the
most complete collection of folk-lore now extant in any literature
in the world. As it was made at latest in the 3rd century B.C.,
it can be trusted not to give any of that modern or European
colouring which renders suspect much of the folk-lore collected
by modern travellers.
Already in the oldest documents, drawn up by the disciples
soon after the Buddha's death, he is identified with certain
ancient sages of renown. That a religious teacher should claim
to be successor of the prophets of old is not uncommon in the
history of religions. But the current belief in metempsychosis
led, or enabled, the early Buddhists to make a much wider claim.
It was not very long before they gradually identified their master
with the hero of each of the popular fables and stories of which
2&0
JATH— JATS
^ Tte imuj i— l bwbtea complete by the
U^ •«« * la ^2" cieJiWf y iuci; lor ^« fiad at that <UU fllusom-
m ****^*x£mL*> m the ********* on the railing round the
m* «t the J*"*^ the title* of the Jitaka stones inscribed
* s— »« w ;cfcanctm of that period. 1 The beso of each
* Boifl"**" *l >kat **i * ^"g whn ~ ^<*>i«wi,
— , * jqi^gquent bertha, to become a Buddha. This
aft** **™**^,« of the Bodbisatu theory is the distinguishing
ppid dcwckJimw m ■■ frUtory q£ Buddhism, and was both cause and
fellI ^?^ e SSateaneous growth of the Jitaka book. la
rfcCt - if g^jThg ^ * nd nWes already current in India, the
* doptiB * *\k-i^C cfcange them very much. The stories as
BwMh*** '"V ^e for the most part Indian rather than Bud-
l*"**™^* *r^3 tbey iacnlfatr or suggest are milk lor babes;
"" * * J-51 a ifcinf** **** re ^ rr "« almost exclusively to
sa * i * 1 1» »fl schools of thought in India, and indeed
purity, honesty, generosity, worldly
*ery
d6CWta ^«^s^tt» v* ** vauMl virtues praised; the higher
► ****^" . ~*-arr«lv mentioned. These stories, nontdar
:' l _ Fat ) 1 ai« scarcely mentioned- These stories, popular
etn ** i ^-Lialty appreciated by that school of Buddhists
«"* **• *!Il!TthTBodhisatU theory— a school that obtained
.ju.t ^ a30P ^~ ^ probably had iU origin, in the extreme
** m<t ""TlmliriBd ■• ^ highlands of Asia. That school
»ict A-«ot * ^^Lrfy centuries of our era, the use of Sanskrit,
^^ V ^ ""^ » tne»eans of hterary expression. It is almost
90m * * >ll«»«bie that they would have carried the canonical
.^ "^;S»»i» •»**»• ^ ^^A^- Shorter col-
^ *»**• . h , ,._> %1 stories, written in Sanskrit, were in vogue
*> •*•> * J* vSTs^ch collection, the Jitaka-malA by Arya
""*"* a * CU !LurvV * stin extanl * °* the «rist«c* of another
^""* ^ * tlkaueh the Sanskrit original has not yet been found,
' v " ,Nl ""^ ^Tl tjtfoce. In the 6th century a book of Sanskrit
- ^^"T^wd auto Pahlavi, that is, old Persian (see
**■ ***. , * ^^jpg centuries this work was retranslated into
.;:».«•.« "'lw, thence into Latin and Greek and all the
** **"*" >^-mj L <A Eurof*- The book bears a close resem-
„,... • ***™|^;i cf chapters of a late Sanskrit fable book
*• * u . ■fcAvtng nve chapters, the Pancka tantra, or
*" % ^ , v . .go to the old Jitaka book gives the life of the
"* * ^** -s^ I ant introduction must also have reached
- • * • v * % ** ^ ^^it* For in the 8th century St John of
"* ^ ^^^y into Greek under the title of Barlacm
— -"* ** ■H.^^gcy became very popular in the West. It
*• -"" w ^jtvin* into seven European languages, and
*~ "* ^ " WK i the dialect of the Philippine Islands.
~ \ fetudhe* vns canonized as a Christian saint;
""" ~ >.<•«*«** «** officially fixed as the date for
*""'"" "itfefwasnor
i century at
rw largely for
iched Europe
id Phaedrus,
c 1st century
ova in ladia
ittcn on this
are still very
each story in
t * l a For India
|f, Khe Pancka
£, fl traced out.
IV , is been done.
itury B.C., of
er collection,
lited. but not
it are known
i stories, not
old ia full, ia
rob., London.
., Cambridge,
he Pali Text
yea i
Irac
ofA
T
l».
Squ
OVCl
tofi
Society (London, 1882) :H. Kern, Jlfcia mill, Sanskrit teat (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1891), (£ng. trans, by J. S Soever. Oxford, 1895);
Rhys Davids, BmidkistBtrik Sara (with Ml biblk*raphical
tables) (London. 1 880) ; Bmddktst Imdtm (chap. si 00 tbeJatakaBook)
'* ' ' " Kuho. BaHacm wmdjiasmpk (Munich, 1893);
Simp* tf BhmrkMt (London, 1879).
(T.W. R.D.)
(Loodoa, 1903); E. I
A. Cunmngnam, 7nt
JATH, a native state of India, in the Deccan division of
Bombay, ranking as one of the southern Mahratu jagirs. With
the small state of Daphlapor, which is an integral part of it, it
forms the Bijapur Agency, under the collector of Bijapur district.
Area, including Daphlapur, 080 sq. m. Pop. (1001), 68,665,
showing a decline of 14% in ^be decade. Estimated revenue
£24,000; tribute £700, Agriculture and cattle-breeding are
carried on; there are no important manufactures. The chief,
whose title is deshmukh, is a Mahratta of the Daphle family.
The town of Jath is 92 m. S.E. of Satara. Pop. (1001), 5404.
jilTVA (formerly written Xattva), or San Feutc de JAttva,
a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia, on the right
bank of the river Albaida, a tributary of the Jncar, and at the
junction of the Valencia-Murcia and Vaknck-Albecete railways.
Pop. (1000), 12,600, Jativa is built on the margin of a fertile
and beautiful plain, and on the southern slopes of the Monte
Bernisa, a hill with two peaks, each surmounted by a castle.
With its numerous fountains, and spacious avenues shaded
with elms or cypresses, the town has a dean and attractive
appearance. Its collegiate church, dating from 1414, but rebuilt
about a century later in the Renaissance style, was formerly a
cathedral, and is the chief among many churches and convents.
The town-hall and a church on the castle hul are partly con-
structed of inscribed Roman masonry, and several houses date
from the Moorish occupation. There is a brisk local trade ia
grain, fruit, wine, oil and rice.
Jitiva was the Roman Saetabis, afterw ards Valeria Augusta*
of Carthaginian or Iberian origin. Pliny (23-79) and Martial
(c. 40-102) mention the excellence of its linen doth. Under the
Visigoths (c. 483-711) it became an episcopal see; bat early in
the 8th century it was captured by the Moors, under whom it
attained great prosperity, and received its present name. It was
reconquered by James I. of Aragon (12 13-1276). During the 15th
and 16th centuries, Jativa was the home of many members of
the princely bouse of Borgia or Borja, who migrated hither from
the town of Borja in the province of Saiagossa.- Alphoaso
Borgia, afterwards Pope Calixtus HI., and Rodrigo Borgia,
afterwards Pope Alexander VI., were natives of Jativa, born
respectively in 1378 and 1431. The painter Jusepe Ribera was
also born here in 1 $88. Owing to its gallant defence against the
troops of the Archduke Charles in the war of the Spanish succes-
sion, Jativa received the additional name of San Felipe from
Philip V. (1 700-1 746).
JATS, or Jots, a people o( north-western India, who nu mber ed
altogether more than 7 millions in ioot. They form a considerable
proportion of the population in the Punjab, Rijputana and the
adjoining districts of the United Provinces, and are also widely
scattered through Sind and Baluchistan. Some writers have idea*
tified the Jits with the ancient Getae, and there b strong reason
%to believe them a degraded tribe of Rajputs, whose Scythic origin
has also been maintained. Hindu legends point to a prehistoric
occupation of the Indus valley by this people, and at the time
of the Mahommedan conquest of Sind (712) they, with a cognate
tribe called Meds, constituted the bulk of the population. Tbey
enlisted under the banner of Mahommed bin KAsim, but at a
later date offered a vigorous resistance to the Arab invaders.
In 836 they were overthrown by Amran, who imposed on them
a tribute of dogs, and used their arms to vanquish the Meds. In
1 025, however, they had gathered audacity, not only to invade
Mansura, and compel the abjuration of the Mussulman amir, but
to attack the victorious army of Mahmod, laden with the spoil of
Somnlth. Chastisement duly ensued: a formidable flotilla,
collected at Muhln, shattered in thousands the comparatively
defenceless Jit boats on the Indus, and annihilated their national
nretensions. It is not until the decay of the Mogul Empire that
* Jits again appear in history. One branch of them, settled
JAUBERT— JAUNDICE
south of Agra, mainly by bold plundering raids founded two
dynasties which still exist at Bharatpur (?.».) and Dholpur (?.».).
Another branch* settled north-west of Ddhi.who adopted the Sikh
religion, ultimately made themselves dominant throughout the
Punjab (f .«.) under Ranjit Singh, and are now represented in their
original home by the Phulkian houses of Patiala (as.), Jind (g.t.)
and Nabha (*«.). It is from torn latter branch that the Sikh
regiments of the Indian army are recruited. The Jits are mainly
agriculturists and cattle breeders. In their settlements on the
Ganges and Jumna, extending as far east as Bareilly, they are
divided into two great clans, the Dhe and the Hele; while in the
Punjab there are said to be one hundred different sections.
Their religion varies with locality. In the Punjab they have
largely embraced Sikh tenets, while in Sind and Baluchistan
they are Mahommedans. I n appearance they are not ill-favoured
though extremely dark} they have good teeth, and large beards,
sometimes stained with indigo. Their inferiority of social posi-
tion, however, to some extent betrays itself in their aspect, and
tends to be perpetuated by their intellectual apathy.
JAUBERT. PIBRRB AHfirfB &M1UEN PROBE (1770*
1S47), French Orientalist, was born at Aix in Provence on the
3rd of June 1770. He was one of the most distinguished
pupils of SUvestre de Sacy, -whose funeral Disown he pro-
nounced in 1838. Jaubert acted as interpreter to Napoleon in
Egypt in 1708-1790, and on bis return to Paris held various posts
under government. In 1802 he accompanied Scbastiani on his
Eastern mission; and in 1804 he was at Constantinople. Next
year he was despatched to Persia to arrange an alliance with
the shah; but on the way be was seised and imprisoned in a dry
cistern for four months by the pasha of Bayazid. The pasha's
death freed Jaubert, who successfully accomplished his mission,
and rejoined Napoleon at Warsaw in 1807. On the eve of
Napoleon's downfall be was appointed charge d'affaires at
Constantinople. The restoration ended his diplomatic career,
but in 1818 he undertook a journey with government aid to
Tibet, whence he succeeded in introducing into France 400
Kashmir goats. Hie rest of his life Jaubert spent in study, in
writing and in teaching. He became professor of Persian, in
the college de France, and director of the ecole des langues
orientate*, and in 1830 was elected member of the Academic
de. Inscriptions. Iri 1841 he was made a peer of France and
councillor of state. He died in Paris on the 38th of January,
1847.
Besides articles in the Journal asialique, he published Voyate en
A rmiuie el en Pern (1821 ; the edition of i860 has a notice of Jaubert,
by M. Sodillot) and EUmenU de la tram ma in turoue (1823-1834).
See notices in the Journal asialique t Jan. 1847, ana the Journal des
dibals, Jan. 30, 1847.
JATJCOORT, ARNAIL FRANCOIS, Maxquis de (1757*1852),
French politician, was born on the 14th of November 1757 at
Touraon (Seine-et-Marne) of a Protestant family, protected by
the prince de Cond*, whose, regiment he entered. He adopted
revolutionary ideas and became colonel of his regiment. In
the Assembly, to which he was returned in 1791 by the depart,
ment of Seine-et-Marne, he voted generally with the minority,
and bis views being obviously too moderate for his colleagues
he resigned m 1791 and was soon after arrested on suspicion of
being a reactionary. Mme de Statl procured his release from
P. L. Manuel just before the September massacres. He accom-
panied Talleyrand on his mission to England, returning to
France after the execution of Louis XVI. He lived in retirement
until the establishment of-the Consulate, when he entered the
tribunate, of which he was for some time president. In 1803 he
entered the senate, and next year became attached to the house*
bold of Joseph Bonaparte. Presently his Imperialist views
cooled, and at the Restoration he became minister of state and a
peer of France. At the second Restoration he was for a brief
period minister of marine, but held no further office. He
devoted himself to the support of the Protestant interest in
France. A member of the upper house throughout the reign of
Loufs Philippe, he was driven into private life by the establish-
ment of the Second Republic, but bred to see ihtCoup filal and
28l
to rally to the government of Louis Napoleon, dying in Paris
on the 5th of February 185a.
JAUBB, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Silesia, 13 m. by rail S. of Leignitx, on the Wttthende Neisse.
Pop- (1000), 13,0*4. St Martin's (Roman Catholic) church
dates from 1267-1200, and the Evangelical church from 1655.
A new town-hall was 'erected in 1895-1898. Jauer manu-
factures leather, carpets, cigars, carriages and gloves, and is
specially /amous for it* sausages. The town was first mentioned
in 1243, and was formerly the capital of a principality em-
bracing about 1200 sq. m., now occupied by 'the circles
of Jauer, Bunxlau, Loweberg, Hirschberg and Scbonau. From
1302 to 1741 >t belonged to the kings of Bohemia, being
taken from Maria Theresa by Frederick the Great. Jauer
was formerly the prosperous seat of the Silesian linen trade,
but the troubles of the Thirty Years' War, m the course of
which it was burned down three times, permanently injured
this.
See Schonaioh, Die all* FMemhmskanpMadl Jauer (Jauer, 1903).
JATJHARI (Abo Nasr Ismail ibn rJ/uniAD ul-Jauhabi)
(d. 100s or 1010), Arabian lexicographer, was born at Farab on
the borders of Turkestan. He studied language in Firftb and
Bagdad, and later among the Arabs of the desert He then
settled in Damghan and afterwards at Nlshapfir, where he died
by a fall from the roof of a house. His great work is the KiUb
us*$abfy fH-Lufha, an Arabic dictionary, fn which the words
are arranged alphabetically according to the last letter of the
root. He himself bad only partially finished the last recension,
but the work was completed by his pupil, Aba Ishaq Ibrahim Am
§ftfife ut-Warr*).
An edition was begun by E. Scheidius with a Latin translation^
but one part only appeared at Hardenvijk (1776). The whole has
been published at Tebru (1854) and at Cafro (1863), and many
abridgments and Persian jtrajidations have appeared ; ci. C. Brocket-
mann, Gcschickle der orabischen Literaiur (Weimar, 1898). i. 128 scq.
(6.W.T.)
JAUNDICE (Fr. jamtisse, from jaun* t yellow), or Icterus
(from its resemblance to the colour of the golden oriole, of which
Pliny relates that if a jaundiced person looks upon it he recovers
but the bird dies), a term in medicine applied to a yellow colora-
tion of the skin and other parts of the body, depending in most
instances on some derangement affecting the liver. This yellow
colour is due to the presence in the blood of bite or of some of the
elements of that secretion. Jaundice, however, must be re-
garded more as a symptom of some morbid condition previously
existing than as a disease ptr tt.
Cases with jaundice may be divided into three groups. . ,
1. Obstructive Jaundice. — Any obstruction of the passage
of bile from the liver into.the intestinal canal is sooner or later
followed by the appearance of jaundice, which in such cir-
cumstances is due to the absorption of bile into the blood.
The obstruction is due to one of the following causes: (1)
Obstruction by foreign bodies within the bile duct, eg. gallstones
or parasites; (2) inflammation of the duodenum or the lining
membrane of the duct; (3) stricture or obliteration of the duct;
(4) a tumour growing from the duct; (5) pressure on the duct
from without, from the liver or other organ, or tumours arising
from them. Obstructions from these causes may be partial or
complete, and the degree of jaundice will vary accordingly, but
it is to be noted that extensive organic disease of the liver
may exist without the evidence of obstructive jaundice.
The effect upon the liver of impediments to the outflow of
bile such as those above indicated is in the first place an increase
in its slse, the whole biliary passages and the liter cells being
distended with retained bile. This enlargement, however.
Speedily subsides when the obstruction is removed, but should it
persist the liver ultimately shrinks and undergoes atrophy in its
whole texture. The bile thus retained is absorbed into the
system, and shows itself by the yellow staining seen to a greater
or less extent in all the tissues and many of the fluids of the
body. The kidneys, which in such circumstances act in some
measure vicariously to the liver and excrete a portion of the
282
JAUNPUR
retained bfle, are apt to become affected in their structure
by the long continuance of jaundice.
The symptoms of obstructive jaundice necessarily vary
according to the nature of the exciting cause, but there generally
exists evidence of some morbid condition before the yellow
coloration appears. Thus, if the obstruction be due to an
impacted gallstone in the common or hepatic duct, there will
probably be the symptoms of intense suffering characterizing
hepatic colic (see Colic). In the cases most frequently seen —
those, namely, arising from simple catarrh of the bile ducts due to
gastro-duodcnal irritation spreading through the common duct —
the first sign to attract attention is the yellow appearance of
the white of the eye, which is speedily followed by a similar
colour on the skin over the body generally. The yellow tinge
is most distinct where the skin is thin, as on the forehead,
breast, elbows, &c. It may be also well seen in the roof of the
mouth, but in the lips and gums the colour is not observed till
the blood is first pressed from them. The tint varies, being in
the milder cases faint, in the more severe a deep saffron yellow,
while in extreme degrees of obstruction it may be of dark brown
or greenish hue. The colour can scarcely, if at all, be observed
in artificial light.
The urine exhibits well marked and characteristic changes in
jaundice which exist even before any evidence can be detected
on the ekin or elsewhere. It is always of dark brown colour
resembling porter, but after standing in the air it acquires a
greenish tint. Its froth is greenish-yellow, and it stains with
this colour any white substance. It contains not only the bile
colouring matter but also the bile acids. The former is delected
by the play of colours yielded on the addition of nitric acid, the
latter by the purple colour, produced by placing a piece of lump
sugar in the urine tested, and adding thereto a few drops of
strong sulphuric acid.
The contents of the bowels also undergo changes, being
characterized chiefly by their pale clay colour, which is in propor-
tion to the amount of hepatic obstruction, and to their consequent
want of admixture with bile. For the same reason they contain
a large amount of un absorbed fatty matter, and have an
extremely offensive odour.
Constitutional symptoms always attend jaundice with obstruc-
tion. The patient becomes languid, drowsy and irritable, and
has generally a slow pulse. The appetite is usually but not
always diminished, a bitter taste in the mouth is complained of,
while flatulent eructations arise from the stomach. Intolerable
itching of the skin is a common accompaniment of jaundice, and
cutaneous eruptions or boils are occasionally seen. Yellow
vision appears to be present in some very rare cases, Should
the jaundice depend on advancing organic disease of the liver,
such as cancer, the tinge becomes gradually deeper, and the
emaciation and debility more marked towards the fatal termina-
tion, which in such cases b seldom long postponed. Apart from
this, however, jaundice from obstruction may exist for many
years, as in those instances where the walls of the bile ducts are
thickened from chronic catarrh, but where they are only partially
occluded. In the common cases of acute catarrhal jaundice
recovery usually takes place in two or three weeks.
The treatment of this form of jaundice bears reference to the
cause giving rise to the obstruction. In the ordinary cases of
simple catarrhal jaundice, or that following the passing of gall-
stones, a light nutritious diet (milk, soups, &c, avoiding sac-
charine and farinaceous substances and alcoholic stimulants),
along with counter-irritation applied over the right side and the
use of laxatives and cholagogues, will be found to be advanta-
geous. Diaphoretics and diuretics to promote the action of the
skin and kidneys are useful in jaundice. In the more chrome
forms, besides the remedies above named, the waters of Carlsbad
are of special efficacy. In cases other than acute catarrhal,
operative interference is often called for, to remove the gall-
stones, tumour, &c, causing the obstruction.
2. Toxaemk Jaundice is observed to occur as a symptom in
certain fevers, e.g. yellow fever, ague, and in pyaemia also as
the effect of certain poisons, such as phosphorus, and the venom
of snake-bites. Jaundice of this kind Is almost always slight,
and neither the urine nor the discharges from the bowels exhibit
changes in appearance to such a degree as in the obstructive
variety. Grave constitutional symptoms are often present, bat
they are less to be ascribed to the jaundice than to the disease
with which it is associated.
3. Hereditary /anwrfice.— Under this group there are the
jaundice of new-born infants, which varies enormously In
severity, the cases in which a slight form of jaundice obtains in
several members of the same family, without other symptoms,
and which may persist for years; and lastly the group of cases
with hypertrophic cirrhosis.
The name malignant Jaundice is sometimes applied to that very
fatal form of disease otherwise termed acute yellow atrophy of the
liver (see Atrophy).
JAUNPUR, a city and district of British India, in the Benares
division of the United Provinces. The city is on the left bank of
the river Cumti, 34 m. N.W. from Benares by rail. Pop. (toot),
42,771. Jaunpur is a very ancient city, the former capital of a
Mahommedan kingdom which once extended from Budaun and
Etawah to Behar. It abounds in splendid architectural raonu-
ments, most of which belong to the period when the rulers of
Jaunpur were independent of Delhi The fort of Feroz Shah
is in great part completely ruined, but there remain a fine gateway
of the 16th century, a mosque dating from 1376, and the ham-
mams or baths of Ibrahim Shah. Amongother buildings may be
mentioned the At ala Masjid (1408) and the rained Jinjiri Masjid,
mosques built by Ibrahim, the first of which has a great clois-
tered court and a magnificent facade; the Dariba mosque con-
structed by two of Ibrahim's governors; the Lai Darwaza erected
by the queen of Mahmud, the Jama Masjid (1438-1478) 01 great
mosque of Husain, with court and cloisters, standing on a raised
terrace, and in part rdstored in modern times; and finally the
splendid bridge over the Oumti, erected by Munim Khan, Mogul
governor in 1 560-1 573. During the Mutiny of 1857 Jaunpur
formed a centre of disaffection. The city has now lost its im-
portance, the only industries surviving being the manufacture
of perfumes and papier-machl articles.
The District of Jaunpur has an area of 1 551 sq. m. It forms
part of the wide Oangetic plain, and its surface is accordingly
composed of a thick alluvial deposit. The whole country is
closely tilled, and no waste lands break the continuous prospect
of cultivated fields. It is divided into two unequal parts by the
sinuous channel of the Gumti, a tributary of the Ganges, which
flows past the city of Jaunpur. Its total course within the
district is about 00 m., and it is nowhere fordable. It is crossed
by two bridges, one at Jaunpur and the other 2 m. lower down.
The Gumti is liable to sudden inundations during the rainy season,
owing to the high banks it has piled up at its entrance into the
Ganges, which act as dams to prevent the prompt outflow of its
flooded waters. These inundations extend to its tributary the
Sal. Much damage was thus effected in 1774; but the greatest
recorded flood took place in September 1871, when 4000 houses
in the city were swept away, besides 9000 more in villages
along its banks. The other rivers are the Sal, Barna, Pill
and Basohi. Lakes are numerous in the north and south; the
largest has a length of 8 m. Pop. (toot), 1,202,020, showing
a decrease of 5% in the decade. Sugar-refining is the principal
industry. The district is served by the line of the Oudh &
Rohilkhand railway from Benares to Fyzabad, and by branches
of this and of the Bengal & North- Western systems.
In prehistoric times Jaunpur seems to have formed a portion
of the Ajodhya principality, and when it first makes an appear-
ance in authentic history it was subject to the rulers of Benares.
With the rest of their dominions it fell under the yoke of the
Mussulman invaders in 1194. From that time the district
appears to have been ruled by a prince of the Kanauj dynasty,
as a tributary of the Mahommedan suzerain. In 1388 Malik
Sarwar Khwaja was sent by Mahommed Tughlak to govern the
eastern province. He fixed his residence at Jaunpur, made
himself independent of the Delhi court, and assumed the title of
Sultao-us-Shark, or " eastern emperor." For nearly a century
JAUNTING-CAR— JAURES
2*3
the Sharlri dynasty ruled at Jaunptkr, and proved formidable
rivals to the sovereign* of Delhi. The last of the dynasty was
Sultan Husain, who passed his life in a fierce and chequered
struggle for supremacy with Bahlol Lodt, then actual emperor
at Delhi. At length, in 1478, Bahlol succeeded in defeating his
rival in a scries of decisive engagements. He took the city of
Jaunptir, but permitted the conquered Husain to reside there, and
to complete the building of his great mosque, the Jama Masjid,
which now forms the chief ornament of the town. Many other
architectural works in the district still hear witness to its great-
ness under Us independent Mussulman rulers. In 1775 the
district was made over to the British by the Treaty of Lucknow.
From that time nothing occurred which calls for notice till the
Mutiny. On the 5th of June 1857, when the news of the Benares
revolt reached Jaunpur, the sepoys mutinied. The district
continued in a state of complete anarchy til) the arrival of the
Gurkha force from Azamgarh in September. In November the
surrounding country was tost again, and it was not till May 1858
that the last smouldering embers of disaffection were stifled by
the repulse of the insurgent leader at the hands of the people
themselves.
See A. Fuhrcr, The Skargi Architecture «f Jaunpur (1889).
JAUNTING-CAR, m light two-wheeled carriage for a. single
horse, in its commonest form with seats for four persons placed
back to back, with the foot-boards projecting over the wheels.
It is the typical conveyance for persons in Ireland (see Cab).
The first part of the word is generally taken to be identical with
the verb to jaunt," now only used in the sense of to go on a
Short pleasure exclusion, but in its earliest uses meaning to make
a horse caracole or prance, hence to jolt or bump up and down.
It would apparently be a variant of " jaunce," of the same mean-
ing, which is supposed to be taken from O. Fr. jancer. Skeat
takes the origin of jaunt and jaunce to be Scandinavian, and
connects them with the Swedish dialect word ganta t to romp;
and he finds cognate bases in such words as " jump," " high
jinks." The word " jaunty," sprightly, especially used of any-
thing done with an easy nonchalant air, is a corruption of
" janty," due to confusion with " jaunt." " Janty," often spelt
in the 17th and 1 8th centuries "jant6" or "jantee," repre-
sents the English pronunciation of Fr. lentil, welkbred, neat,
spruce.
JAUREGUI, JUAN (1562-1582), a Biscayan by birth, was in
1582 in the service of a Spanish merchant, Gaspar d'Anastro,
who was resident at Antwerp. Tempted by the reward of
80,000 ducats offered by Philip II. of Spain for the assassination
of William the Silent, prince of Orange, but being himself with-
out courage to undertake the task, d'Anastro, with the help of
his cashier Venero, persuaded Jaurcgui to attempt the murder
for the sum of 2877 crowns. On Sunday the 18th of March
1582, as the prince came out of his dining-room Jaurcgui offered
him a petition, and William had no sooner taken it into his hand
than Jaurcgui fired a pistol at his head. The ball pierced the
neck below the right ear and passed out at the left jaw-bone;
but William ultimately recovered. The assassin was killed 00
the spot.
JAURtiGUIBERRY, JEAN BERNARD (181 5-1887), French
admiral, was born at Bayonne on the 26th of August 181 5. He
entered the navy in 1831, was made a lieutenant in 1845, com-
mander in 1856, and captain in i860. After serving in the
Crimea and in China, and being governor of Senegal, he was
promoted to rear-admiral in i860. He served on land during
the second part of the Franco-German War of 1870-71, in the
rank of auxiliary general of division. He was present at Coul-
miers, Viltepion and Loigny-Poupry, in command Of a division,
and in Chanzy's retreat upon Le Mans and the battle at that
place in command of a corps. He was the most distinguished
of the many naval officers who did good service in the military
operations. On the 9th of December he had been made vice-
admiral, and in 1871 he commanded the fleet at Toulon, in 1875
he was a member of the council of admiralty; and in October
1876 ft* was appointed to command the evolutionary squadron
in the Mediterranean. In February 1879 he becaaae minister of
' the navy in the Waddington cabinet, and on the 27th of May
following was elected a senator for life. He was again minister
of the navy in the Freycinet cabinet in 1880. A fine example of
the fighting French seaman of his time, Jaureguiberry died at
Paris on the aist of October 1887.
JAUREGUI Y AGUILAR, JUAN MARTINEZ DE (1583-1641),
Spanish poet, was baptised at Seville on the 24th of November
1583. In due course he studied at Rome, returning to Spain
shortly before 16 10 with a double reputation as a painter and a
poet. A reference in the preface to the Novetas exemplares has
been taken to mean that be painted the portrait of Cervantes,
who, in the second part of Don Quixote, praises the translation
of Tasso's Aminta published at Rome in 1607. Jiurcgui's
Rimes (1618), a collection of graceful lyrics, is preceded by a
controversial preface which attracted much attention on account
of its outspoken declaration against cuUeranismo. ThrougL the
influence of OKvares, he was appointed groom of the chamber
to Philip IV., and gave an elaborate exposition of his artistic
doctrines in the Discurso poitico contra d hablar culto y oscuro
(1624), a skilful attack on the new theories, which procured for
its author the order of Calatrava. It is plain, however, that the
shock of controversy had shaken J&uregui's convictions, and
his poem Qrfto (1624) is visibly influenced by G6ngora. Jiuregid
died At Madrid on the nth of January 2641, leaving behind him
a translation of the Pharsalia which was not published till 1684.
This rendering reveals Jaurcgui as a complete convert to the
new school, and it has been argued that, exaggerating the
affinities between Lucan and Gongora — both of Cordovan
descent — he deliberately translated the thought of the earlier
poet into the vocabulary of the later master. This is possible;
but it is at least as likely that Jaurcgui unconsciously yielded to
the current of popular taste, with no other intention than that
of conciliating the public of his own day.
JAURfeS, JEAN LfiON (1850- ), French Socialist leader,
was born at Castrcs (Tarn) on the 3rd of September 1859. He
was educated at the lycec Louis-le-Grand and the ecole normale
superieure, and took his degree as associate in philosophy in
1881. After teaching philosophy for two years at the lyc6e of
Albi (Tarn), he lectured at the university of Toulouse. He waft
elected republican deputy for the department of Tarn in 188$.
In 1889, after unsuccessfully contesting Cast res, he returned to
his professional duties at Toulouse, where he took an active
interest in municipal affairs, and helped to found the medical
faculty of the university. He also prepared two theses for his
doctorate in philosophy, De primis socialismi germanici tinea-
mentis a pud Lulkentm, Kant, Fichte el Hegel (1891), and De la
rtaUU du monde sensible* In 1902 he gave energetic support to
the miners of Carmaux who went out on strike in consequence
of the dismissal of a socialist workman, Carvignac; and in the
next year he was re-elected to the chamber as deputy for Albi.
Although he was defeated at the elections of 1898 and was for
four years outside the chamber, his eloquent speeches made him
a force in politics as an intellectual champion of socialism. He
edited the Petite Rtpublique, and was one of the most energetic
defenders of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. He approved of the
inclusion of M. Millerand, the socialist, iri the Waldcck-Rousseau
ministry, though this led to a split with the more revolutionary
section led by M. Guesde. In 1002 he was again returned as
deputy for Albi, and during the Combes administration his in-
fluence secured the coherence of the radical-socialist coalition,
known as the bloc. In 1904 he founded the socialist paper,
L'Humaniti. The French socialist groups held a congress at
Rouen in March 1905, which resulted in a new consolidation;
the new party, headed by MM. Jaurt* and Guesde, ceased to
co-operate with the radicals and radical-socialists, and became
known as the unified socialists, pledged to advance a collectivist
programme. At the general elections of 1006 M Jaures was
again elected for the Tarn. His ability and vigour were now
generally recognized; but the strength of the socialist party, and
the practical activity of its-leader, still had to reckon with the
equally practical and vigorous liberalism of M. Clcmenceau.
The latter was able to aooeal to his countrymen (in a notable
284
JAVA
speech in the spring of 1006) to rally to a radical programme
which had no socialist Utopia in view; and the appearance in
htm of a strong and practical radical leader had the result of
considerably diminishing the effect of the socialist propaganda.
M. Jaurds, in addition to his daily journalistic activity, published
Les preuvcs; ajfaire Dreyfus (1000): Actum socialist* (1809);
Eludes socialises (1002), and, with other collaborators, Histoire
socialist* (iqoi), &c.
JAVA* one of the larger islands of that portion of the Malay
Archipelago which is distinguished as the Sunda Islands. It
lies between 105° 12' 40* (St Nicholas Point) and 114° 35' 38" E-
(Cape Seloko) and between 5 52' 34* and a° 46' 46* S. It has
a total length of 622 m. from Pepper Bay in the west to Banyu-
wangi in the east, and an extreme breadth of 121 m. from Cape
Bugci in Japara to the coast of Jokjakarta, narrowing towards
the middle to about 55 m. Politically and commercially it is
important as the seat of the colonial government of the Dutch
East Indies, all other parts of the Dutch territory being
distinguished as the Outer Possessions (BuUenbmittungens).
According to the triangulation survey (report published in 1 901)
the area of Java proper is 48,504 sq. m.; of Madura, the large
adjacent and associated island, 1732; and of the smaller islands
administratively included with Java and Madura 14x6, thus
From Sumatra on the W. f Java is separated by the Sunda
Strait, which at the narrowest is only 14 m. broad, but widens
elsewhere to about 50 m. On the E. the strait of BaK, which
parts it from the island of that name, is at the northern end not
more than i\ m. across. Through the former strong currents
run for the greater part of the day throughout the year, outwards
from the Java Sea to the Indian Ocean. In the strait of Bafi
the currents are perhaps even stronger and are extremely
irregular. Pilots with local knowledge are absolutely necessary
for vessels attempting either passage. In spite of the strength
of the currents the Sunda Strait is steadily being diminished in
width, and the process if continued must result in a restoration
of that junction of Sumatra and Java which according to some
authorities formerly existed.*
In general terms Java may be described as one of the break-
water islands of the Indian Ocean— part of the moontainou
rim (continuous more or less completely with Sumatra) of the
partially submerged plateau which lies between the ocean on
the S. and the Chinese Sea on the N., and has the massive
island of Borneo as its chief subaerial portion. While the waves
and currents of the ocean sweep away most of the products of
denudation along the south coast or throw a small percentage
back in the shape of sandy downs, the Java Sea on the north—
making a total of 50,970 sq. m. The more important of these
islands are the following: Pulau Panaitan or Princes Island
(Prinseneiland), 47 sq. m., lies in the Sunda Strait, off the south-
western peninsula of the main island, from which it is separated
by the Behouden Passage. The Thousand Islands are situated
almost due N. of Batavia. Of these five were inhabited in 1006
by about 1280 seafarers from all parts and their descendants.
The Karimon Java archipelago, to the north of Semarang,
numbers twenty-seven islands with an area of 16 sq. m. and a
population of about 800 (having one considerable village on the
main island). Bavian * (Bawian), 100 m. N. of Surabaya, is a
ruined volcano with an area of 73 sq. m. and a population of
about 44.000. About a third of the men are generally absent as
traders or coolies. In Singapore and Sumatra they are known as
Boyans. They are devout Mahommcdans and many of them
make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The Sapudi and Kangean
archipelagoes are eastward continuationsof Madura. The former,
thirteen in all, with an area of 58 sq. m. and 53,000 inhabitants,
export cattle, dried nsh and trepang; and many of the male popu-
lation work as day labourers in Java or as lumbermen in Sum-
bawa. Florcs, &c. The main island of the Kangians has an area
of 19 sq. m.; the whole group 23 sq. m. It is best known for
its limestone caves and its buffaloes. Along the south coast the
islands are few and sroaU— Klftpper or Deli, Trouwcrs or Tingal,
Nusa Kembangan, Scmpu and Nusa Barung.
1 It must be observed that Bavian, Ac., art mere conventional
appendices to Java.
not more than so fathoms deep— allows them to settle and to
form sometimes with extraordinary rapidity broad alluvial
tracts.*
It is customary and obvious to divide Java into three divisions,
the middle part of the island narrowing into a kind of isthmus,
and each of the divisions thus indicated having certain structural
characteristics of its own. West Java, which consists of Bantam.
Krawang and the Preanger Regencies, has an area of upwards of
18.000 sq. m. In this division the highlands lie for the most part
in a compact mass to the south and the lowlands form a continuous
tract to the north. The main portion of the uplands consists of the
Preanger Mountains, with the plateaus of Bandong. Pekalongan.
Tegal. Badung and Curut, encircled with volcanic summits. On the
borders of the Preanger, Batavia and Bantam are the Halimon
Mountains (the Blue Mountains of the older travellers), reaching
their greatest altitudes in the volcanic summits of Gedeh and Salak.
To the west lie the highlands of Bantam, which extending northward
cut off the northern lowlands from the Sunda Strait. Middle Java
is the smallest of the three divisions, having an area of not much more
than 13.200 sq. m. It comprises Tegal, Pekalongan. Banyumas,
Bagelen, Kedu. Jokjakarta. Suralcarta, and thus not only takes in
the whole of the isthmus but encroaches on the broad eastern portion
of the island. In the isthmus mountains are not so closely massed
• H. B. Cuppy (R. 5. G. Soc. Magazine, 1889) holds that there is
no sufficient proof of this connexion but gives interesting details
of the present movement.
* See G. F. Tijdcman's map of the depths of the sea in the eastern
part of the Indian archipelago in M Weber's Siboto Expedition, 1003.
The details of the coast forms of the island have been studied by
f. F Sncllcman and J. F. Xiermeyer in a paper in the Veto Fersi-
oundet, utilizing inter alta Cuppy'a observations.
JAVA *S$
ia the south i
shed culmina
and the Javj
the south. J
to eastern Ja
almost right a
in the south. .
baya, Pasuru
In this divi
endless variei
range forms
The volcanic
isolated.
For its are
the world. }
tinued to dev
about I2§ v<
may be incr
•cation. It
groups: westi
Cheribon 2 I
(2 active) ; M
east Java 21
are Gedeh, 1
Slamct.Sendi
Raung, but I
slight ejcctioi
The plains
cal formation
north coast-!
levels, near t
and aboundii
fertile and a
coast of mid
morasses as '
of the rivers,
more partici
Java, again, 1
wider plains
tween the v
constituted c
by the riven
western plan
fringed with
some dbtanc
such as Sun
Besuki, owe
lie. occupying
sea. whence '
the plains ol
chains in Ja|
of rivers torn
part the prot
part of the al
the mountaii
chain, is still.
The conskj
the north cot
Tarum and tl
rafts, and arc
coast the Cr
stream avail*
mouth. In
coast— the P
of irrigation
mouths. Th
and Upak, ei
to irrigate th
shallows ant
however, the
rivers 01 eas
native boajs,
boats, as is 1
in 1893 at tJ
iis mouth, h
plain and fai
is also navtg
Java are, ho 1
They serve 1
of the fertile
The north
with nipa or
low dunes, s
demanding <
b of a diflfere
karta, range*
breadth fron
* This Mei
Fire Mounts..
286 JAVA
ue of a common cat*
djag {Cuon or Canis
>v a wild dog, Canis
'he Cheiroptera hold
nera being PUrofms,
Remarkable espe-
'0£w cdulis, a fruit-
lg the day in black
ig hastening in long
orest. The damage
and the sugar- palms
and their flesh is a
►hoot them by night
,th to the branches,
laps the commonest
ccs they congregate
excrement produces
le of Surakarta and
ins as the flying-cat
teeus volant or corto-
emuroids. Of these
he natives for their
represented by the
Icowi {Semnoptiktcns
t milratus), and the
the most generally
wou-wou makes its
Hrhcre it congregates
ind cacophonous, at
ape also prefers the
h as 7000 ft. above
r grey ape keeps for
including the brown
it were a native; a
cupines (Acanthiom
uirrels (four species)
Ms, originally from
gtivora comprise a
upaya and llylomvt
irest relation to the
nd Htlictis oriental**
le mountains occur*
n the streams of the
xroditus), a civet at
lerpesles javanicus),
va; by 1900 Vorder*
are, of course, rare
us of man. Others
is in the landscape.
t pelicans, Ac., give
Snipe-shooting is a
owl (Strix ilommea)
e species ot hornbtll,
Meatus, lunulas and
one. The Javanese
piciferus), and even
le splendour of its
putcd parent of aH
f beautiful bird and
wo species only are
d the pretty little
s talkers and mimics
favourite cage-bird
'is, may be heard hi
oraging-grounds of
loctus bow). They
the gclatiks (Munus
wen principal foe.
The NuluaHnos or
the humming-bird,
1, ranging from the
a* regions the birds,
ind some of th em —
are remarkable for
a fucipkaga) builds
rith eleven hundred
ling to the number. 1
ny kinds, as is well
e neighbourhood of
are used as food by
1 the number by the
Teat sise. The sea
(a perch). Of more
:wcnty-four
lunne oecoooraische
JAVA 287
the eve for very different reason*. Farther intend along the sea-
board appear the nipa dwarf palm (Nipa frutieans), the Alsbonia
sckotoris (the wood of which is lighter than cork), Cycadacea,
tree-ferns, screw pines (Pandanus), &c. In west Java the gebang
palm (Corypha gebonga) grows in clumps and belts not far from
natives encourage the young growth of the grass by annually setting
the prairies on fire. The true forest, which occupies a great part of
this region, changes its character as we proceed from west to east.
In west Java it is a dense rain-forest in which the struggle of exist-
ence b maintained at high pressure by a host of lofty trees and
parasitic plants in bewildering profusion. . The preponderance of
certain types is remarkable. Thus of the Moraceae there are in
Java (and mostly here) seven genera with ninety-five species*
eighty-three of which are Fiats (see S. H. Koorders and T. Valeton.
" Boomsoorten op Java " in Bijdr. Mede. Dtp. Landbcwer (1906).
These include the so-called waringm, several kinds of figs planted a*
shade-trees in the parks of the nobles and officials. The Magno»
liaceae and Anonaccae are both numerously represented. In middle
{ava the variety of trees is less, a large area being occupied by teak.
n eastern Java the character of the forest is mainly determined by
the abundance of the Casuarina or Chimoro (C. Montana and c.
Jungknkniana). Another species, C. — - — '-'-- '— -' J ' *
Java as an ornamental tree. These
and encumbered with the heavy para
but their tall stems are often covi
vermilion fungi. Wherever the local
the true rain-forest claims its own
zones is the region of, more espcci
plantations, of maize and the sngai
the trees are richly clad with ferns ;
profusion of underwood (Pavetta nu
folia; several species of Lasianthus, I
of woody lianas and ratans, of trc
Between the bashes the ground is
tradescantias, Bignoniaceae, specie
lianas the largest is Plectocomia do
was found to have a length of nea
Tdepkora princtps, is more than a yi
of different species from those of the
to the same genus; and new types L rr
The third zone, which consists mainly of the upper slopes of volcanic
mountains, but also comprises several plateaus (the L>«cng, parts of
the Tengeer, the Ijen) is a region of clouds and mists. There are a
considerable number of lakes and swamps in several parts of the
region, and these have a luxuriant environment of grasses, Cyper*
accae, Characcae and similar forms. The taller trees of the region —
oaks, chestnuts, various Lauraccae, and four or five species of
Podocarpus — with some striking exceptions, Astronia sbectabilis,
&c, are less floriferous than those of the lower zones; but tne shrubs
(Rhododendron javanicum, Ardisiaiavanica, Sec), herbs and parasites
more than make up for this defect. There is little cultivation,
except in the Tengger, where the natives grow maize, rye and
tobacco, and various European vegetables (cabbage, potatoes, &c),
with which they supply the lowland markets. In western Java one
of the most striking features of the upper parts of this temperate
region is what Schimper calls the " absolute dominion of mosses,"
associated with the" elfin forest," as he quaintly calls it, a perfect
tangle of " low, thick, oblique or even horizontal stems," almost
choked to leafiessness by their grey and ghostly burden. Much of
the lower vegetation begins to have a European aspect; violets,
primulas, thalictrums, ranunculus, vacciniuxns, equisctums, rhodo-
dendrons (Rhod. r durum). The Primula impertalis, found only
on the Pangerango, is a handsome species, prized by specialists.
In. the- fourth or alpine zone occur such distinctly European forms as
Artemisia vulgaris, Plantago major, Solanum nigrum, Stdlaria media;
and altogether the alpine flora contains representatives of no fewer
than thirty-three families. A characteristic shrub is Anaphalis
javanica, popularly called the Javanese edelweiss, which 'often
entirely excludes all other woody plants."* The tallest and noblest
* Bertha Hoola van Nooten published Fleurs, fruits dfeuSlages de
laftore etdela pomone de I'Ue de Java in* 1 863. but the book b difficult
of access. Excellent views of characteristic aspects of the vegeta-
tion will be found in Karsten and Schenck, VegttationsbUder (1903).
288
of all the tree* in the island Is the rasamala or IkraJd-cmbar (AUingia
exetisc), which, riling with a straight clean trunk, sometimes 6 ft.
in diameter at the base, to a height of ioo to 130 ft., spreads out into
a magnificent crown of branches and foliage. When by chance a
climbing plant has joined partnership with it, the combination of
blossoms at the top is one of the finest colour effects of the forest.
The rasamala, however, occurs only in the Preanger and in the
neighbouring parts of Bantam and Buitenxorg. Of the other trees
that may be classified as timber — from 300 to 400 species— many
attain noble proportions. It is sufficient to mention CalopkyUmm
inophyllvm, which forms fine woods in the south of Bantam, Mtmus-
oPs acuminata. Into glabra, Daibergia latifolia (sun wood. English
black-wood) in middle and east Java; the rare but splendid PUkt-
colobium Jungkuknianum; Sckima Noronkae, Biukofia jam nic a,
Pterospermmm jaoanicum (greatly prized for ship-building), and the
upas-tree. From the economic point of view all these hundreds of
trees are of less importance than Tectona grandis, the iati or teak,
which, almost to the exclusion of all others, occupies about a third
of the government forest-lands. It grows best in middle and
eastern Java, preferring the comparatively dry and hot climate of
the plains and lower hills to a height of about aooo ft. above the
tea, and thriving best in more or less caldferous soils. In June it
sheds its leaves and begins to bud again in October. Full-grown
trees reach a height of 100 to iso ft. In 1895 teak (with a very
limited quantity of other timber) was felled to the value of about
£101 ,800, and in 1904 the corresponding figure was about £1 19,935.
That an island which has for so long maintained a dense and grow-
ing population in its more cultivable regions should have such
extensive tracts of primeval or quasi-primeval forest as have been
above indicated would be matter of surprise to one who did not
consider the simplicity of the life of the Javanese. They require
but little fuel; and both their dwellings and their furniture are
mostly constructed of bamboo supplemented with a palm or two.
They destroy the forest mainly to get room for their rice-fields and
pasture for their cattle. In doing this, however, they are often
extremely reckless and wasteful; and if it had not been for the
unusual humidity of the climate their annual fires would have
resulted in widespread conflagrations. As it is, many mountains
are now bare which within historic times were forested to the top:
bnt the Dutch government has proved fully alive to the danger of
denudation. The state has control of all the woods and forests of
the island with the exception of those of the Preanger, the " particu-
lar lands," and Madura; and it has long been engaged in replanting
with native trees and experimenting with aliens from other parts
of the world— Eucalyptus globulus, the iuar, Cassia florida from
Sumatra, the suriaa (Cedrcla febrifuga), &c The greatest success
has been with cinchona.
Left to itself Java would soon clothe itself again with even a
richer natural vegetation than it had when it was first occupied by
man. The open space left by the demolition of the fortifications on
Nusa Kambangan was in twenty-eight years densely covered by
thousands of shrubs and trees of about twenty varieties, many of the
latter 80 ft. high. Resident Snijthoff succeeded about the close
of the 19th century in re-afforesting a Urge part of Mount Muria by
the simple expedient of protecting the territory be had to deal
with from ail encroachments by natives. 1
Population.— The population of Java (including Madura, &c)
was 30,008,008 in 1905. In 1900 it was 28,746,688; in 1800,
23,912,564; and in 1880, 19,794,505. The natives consist of the
Javanese proper, the Sundanese and the Madurese. All three
belong to the Malay stock. Between Javanese and Sundanese
the distinction is mainly due to the influence of the Hindus
on the former and the absence of this on the latter. Between
Javanese and Madurese the distinction is rather to be ascribed
to difference of natural environment. The Sundanese have best
retained the Malay type, both in physique and fashion of life.
They occupy the west of the island. The Madurese area,
besides the island of Madura and neighbouring isles, includes the
eastern part of Java itself. The residencies of Tegal, Pekalon-
gan, Banyumas, Bagelen, Kedu, Semarang, Japara, Surakarta,
Jogjakarta, Rembang, Madiun, Kediri and Surabaya have an
almost purely Javanese population. The Javanese are the most
numerous and dvilized of the three peoples.
The colour of the skin in all three cases presents various
shades of yellowish-brown; and it is observed that, owing per-
haps to the Hindu strain, the Javanese are generally darker than
the Sundanese. The eyes are always brown or black, the hair of
the head black, long, lank and coarse. Neither breast nor limbs
are provided with hair, and there is hardly even the suggestion
of a beard. In stature the Sundanese is less than the Javanese
1 It Is interesting to compare this with the natural " refloriza-
lion " of Krakatoa. See Penrig. Ann. iard. d* Buitetuorg, vol. viii.
O902); and W. Botting in Natur* (1903).
JAVA
proper, being little over 5 ft. in average height, whereas the
Javanese is nearly 5) ft.; at the same time the Sundanese is more
stoutly built. The Madurese is as tall as the Javanese, and as
stout as the Sundanese. The eye is usually set straight in the
head in the Javanese and Madurese; among the Sundanese it is
often oblique. The nose is generally flat and small, with wide
nostrils, although among the Javanese it not infrequently be-
comes aquiline. The lips are thick, yet well formed; the teeth
are naturally white, but often filed and stained. The cheek-bones
are well developed, more particularly with the Madurese. In
expressiveness of countenance the Javanese and Madurese are
far in advance of the Sundanese. The women are not so well
made as the men, and among the lower classes especially soon
grow absolutely ugly. In the eyes of the Javanese a golden
yellow complexion is the perfection of female beauty. To judge
by their early history, the Javanese must have been a warlike
and vigorous people, but now they are peaceable, docile, sober,
simple and industrious.
One million only out of the twenty-six millions of natives are
concentrated in towns, a fact readily explained by their sources
of livelihood. The great bulk of the population is distributed
over the country in villages usually called by Europeans dessas,
from the Low Javanese word dlsA (High Javanese dusun). Every
dessa, however small (and those containing from 100 to 1000
families are exceptionally large), forms an independent commu-
nity; and no sooner does it attain to any considerable size than
it sends off a score of families or so to form a new dessa. Each
lies in the midst of its own area of cultivation. The general
enceinte is formed by an impervious hedge of bamboos 40 to
70 ft. high. Within this lie the houses, each with its own en-
closure, which, even when the fields are the communal property,
belongs to the individual householder. The capital of a district
is only a larger dessa, and that of a regency has the same general
type, but includes several kampongs or villages. The bamboo
houses in the strictly Javanese districts are always built on the
ground; in the Sunda lands they are raised on piles. Some of
the well-to-do, however, have stone houses. The principal
article of food is rice; a considerable quantity of fish is eaten,
but little meat. Family life is usually well ordered. The upper
class practise polygamy, but among the common people a man
has generally only one wife. The Javanese are nominally
Mahommedans, as in former times they were Buddhists and
Brahmins; but in reality, not only such exceptional groups as
the Kalangs of Surakarta and Jokjakarta and the Baduwis or
nomad tribes of Bantam, but the great mass of the people must
be considered as believers rather in the primitive animism of
their ancestors, for their belief in Islam is overlaid with super-
stition. As we ascend in the social scale, however, we find the
name of Mahommedan more and more applicable; and conse-
quently in spite of the paganism of the populace the influence of
the Mahommedan " priests " (this is their official title in Dutch)
is widespread and real. Great prestige attaches to the pilgrim-
age to Mecca, which was made by 5068 persons from Java in
1 900. In every considerable town there is a mosque. Christian
missionary work is not very widely spread.
Languages.— In spite of Sundanese, Madurese and the intrusive
Malay, Javanese has a right to the name. 1 1 is a rich and cultivated
language which has passed through many stages of development
and, under peculiar influences, has become a linguistic complex
of an almost unique kind. Though it is customary and convenient
to distinguish New Javanese from Kavi or Old Javanese, jast as it
was customary to distinguish English from Anglo-Saxon, there is no
break of historical continuity. Ravi (Basa Kavi, i.e. the language
of poetry) may be denned as the form spoken and written before the
founding of Maiapahit; and middle Javanese, still represented by
the dialect of Banyumas, north Chcribon, north Krawang and
north Bantam, as the form the language assumed under the Maja-
pahit court influence; while New Javanese is the language as it has
developed since the fall of that kingdom. Kavi continued to be a
literary language long after it had become archaic It contains
more Sanskrit than any other language of the archipelago. New
Javanese breaks up into two great varieties, so different that some-
times they are regarded as two distinct languages. The nobility
use one form, Krama; the common people another, Ngoko, the
" thouing " language (cf. Pr. tutoyanl, Cer. dutvnd) : but each dasa
understand* the language of the other ckuuk The aristocrat speaks
JAVA
289
to the commonalty in the language of the commoner; the commoner
speaks to the aristocracy in the language of the aristocrat; and.
according to clearly recognized etiquette, every Javanese plays the
part of. aristocrat or commoner towards those whom he addresses.
To speak Ngoko to a superior is to insult him ; to speak Krama to an
equal or inferior is a mark of respect. In this way Dipa Negara
showed his contempt for the Dutch General de Kock. The ordinary
Javanese thinks in Ngoko; the children use it to each other, and so on.
Between the two forms there is a kind of compromise, the Madya,
or middle form of speech, employed by those who stand to each
other on equal or friendly footing or by those who feel littleconstraiat
of etiquette. For every idea expressed in the language Krima has
one vocable, the Ngoko another, the two words being sometimes
completely different and sometimes differing only in the termination,
the beginning or the middle. Thus every Javanese uses, as it were,
two or even three languages delicately differentiated from each
other. How this state o? affairs came about is matter of speculation.
Almost certainly the existence side by side of two peoples* speaking
each its own tongue, and occupying towards each other the position
intellectually and politically of superior and inferior, had much to
do with it. But Professor Kern thinks that some influence must
also be assigned to Pamela or pantang, word-taboo — certain words
being in certain circumstances regarded as of evil omen— a super-
stition still lingering, e.g. even among the Shetland fishermen (see
G. A. F. Hazeu, De tool pantangs). It has sometimes been asserted
that Krama contains more Sanskrit words than Ngoko docs; but
the total number in Krama does not exceed so; and sometimes
there is a Sanskrit word in Ngoko which is not in Krama. There
is a village Krama which is not recognued by the educated classes:
Krama inggil, with a vocabulary of about 300 words, is used in
addressing the deity or persons of exalted rank. The Basa Kedaton
or court language is a dialect used by all living at court except
royalties, who use Ngoko. Among themselves the women of the
court employ Krama or Madya, but they address the men ia Basa
Kedaton.*
Literature.— Though a considerable body of Kavi literature is still
extant, nothing like a history of it is possible. The date and author-
ship of most of the works arc totally unknown. The first place may
be assigned to the Brata Yuda (Sanslc, Bharata Yudka, the conflict
of the Bharatas), an epic poem dealing with the struggle between the
Pandawas and the Korawas for the throne of Ngastina celebrated
in parwas 5- 10 of the Mah&bk&rata. To the conception, however, of
the modern Javanese it is a purely native poem ; its kings and heroes
find their place in the native history and serve as ancestors to
their noble families. (Cohen Stuart p""--«— « -«- J — » :9 c
version with a Dutch translation :c,
Samarang. 1877. The Kavi text w ;ue
by S. Lankhout.) Of greater antiq nd
rViwdhd (or marriage festival of Ar srn
• thinks nuty be assigned to the first 1 he
Christ ian era. The name indicates i ie-
derich published the Kavi text from a wa
en Br&ia Joodo Kauri, lithographed fa< S.,
Bata via, 1878. Djarwa is the name ?rn
Javanese.) The oldest poem of wt is
probably the mythological KAndA (».„. ...v....~,..,, »~ «.w..^..». are
to some extent known from the modern Javanese version. In the
literature of modern Javanese there exists a great variety of so-
called babads or chronicles. It is sufficient to mention the " history "
of Baron Sakender, which appears to give an account — often hardly
recognisable — of the settlement of Europeans in lava (Cohen
Stuart published text and translation, Batavia. 1851 ; J. Vcth gives an
analysis of the contents), and the Babad Tanah Djawi (the Hague*
1874, 1877), giving the history of the island to 1647 of the Javanese
era. Even more numerous are the wyangs or puppet-plays which
usually take their subjects from the Hindu legends or from those
relating to the kingdoms of Maiapahit and Paiajaram (see e.g. H. C.
Humme, AbiAsA. een Javaansdu toneeltluk, the Hague, 1878). In
these plays grotesque figures of gilded leather are moved by the
performer, who recites the appropriate speeches and, as occasion
demands, plays the part of chorus.
Several Javanese specimens are also known of the beast fable,
which plays so important a part in Sanskrit literature (W. Palmer
van den Broek, Javaanscke VerteJlingen, bevattende de lotgevallen
mm een kantjti, een reebok, &c, the Hague, 1878). To the Hindu-
Javanese literature there naturally succeeded a Mahommedan-
Javanese literature consisting largely of translations or imitations
of Arabic originals; it comprises religious romances, moral exhorta-
tions and mystical treatises in great variety.*
Arts. — In mechanic arts the Javanese are in advance of the other
peoples of the archipelago. Of thirty different crafts practised among
them, the most important are those 01 the blacksmith or cutler, the
carpenter, the kris-shcath maker, the coppersmith, the goldsmith
1 See Walbreken, De Taalsvorten in het Javaansh ; and G. A.
Wilken. Handboek voor de vergelijkende Volkenkunde tan Neder-
landsck Indie, edited by C. M. Fleyte (1803).
■ See Van den Berg's account of the MSS. of the Batavian Society
(the Hague, 1877) ; and a series of papers by C. Poensen in Meded.pan
wege kei Ned. Zendelinggenootsckap (1880).
and the potter. Their skiO la the working of the metals is the more
noteworthy as they have to import the raw materials. The most
esteemed product of the blacksmith's skill is the kris; every man and
boy above the age of fourteen wears one at least as part of his ordi-
nary dress, and men of rank two and sometimes four. In the finish-
ing and adornment of the finer weapons no expense is spared;
and ancient krises of good workmanship sometimes fetch enormous
prices. The Javanese gold and silver work possesses considerable
beauty, but there is nothing equal to the filigree of Sumatra; the
brass musical instruments are of exceptional excellence. Both
bricks and tiles are largely made, as well as a coarse unglaaed
pottery similar to that of Hindustan; but all the finer wares are
imported from China. Cotton spinning, weaving and dyeing are
carried o~ '~ **- - — -~ cly domestic operations by the
women. variety of colour is by weaving
in stripes »nt coloured yarns, but another
mode is t damar the part of the cloth not
intended process is naturally a slow one,,
and has t the number of colours required.
As a com » cloths thus treated are called,
are in re sacs. For the most part quiet
colours ai se of the present day the ancient
buildings he work of supernatural power.
Except « »pean master he seldom builds
anything bamboo or timber framework;
but in th lie exhibits both skill and taste.
When Ei stand they found native vessels
of large t me of ships; and, though ship-
building proper is now carried on only under the direction of Euro-
peans, boat-building is a very extensive native industry along the
whole of the north coast — the boats sometimes reaching a burden
of 50 tons. The only one of the higher arts which the Javanese
have carried to any degree of perfection is music; and in regard
to the value of their efforts in this direction Europeans differ
greatly. The orchestra (gomelan) consists of wind, string and
percussion instruments, the latter being in preponderancy to the
other two. (Details of the instruments will be found in Raffles'
Java, and a description of a performance in the Tour du monde.
1880.)
Chief Towns and Places of Note. — The capital of Java and of the
Dutch East India possessions is Batavia (q.v.), pop. 115.567. At
Mecster Cornelis (pop. 33,119). between 6 and 7 ra. from Batavia
on the railway to Buitenxorg. the battle was fought in 181 1 which
placed Java in the hands of the British. In the vicinity lies Depolc,
originally a Christian settlement of freed slaves, but now with about
3000 Mahommedan inhabitants and only 500 Christians. The
other chief towns, from west to east through the island, are as
follows: Serang (pop. 5600) bears the same relation to Bantam, about
6 m. distant, which New Batavia bears to Old Batavia. its slight
elevation of 100 ft. above the sea making it fitter for European
occupation. Anjer (Angerlor, Anger) lies 96 m. from Batavia by
rail on the coast at the narrowest part of the Sunda Strait ; formerly
European vessels were wont to call there for fresh provisions and
water. Pandegtang (pop. 3644), 787 ft. above sea-level, is known
for its hot and cold sulphur springs. About I7'm. west of Batavia
lies Tangerang (pop. 13.535), a busy place with about 2800 or 3000
Chinese among its inhabitants. Buitcnzorg (q.v.) is the country-
seat of the governor-general, and its botanic gardens are famous.
Krawang, formerly chief town of the residency of that name— the
least populous of all — has lost its importance since Purwakerta
(pop. 6862) was made the administrative centre. At Wanyasa in
the neighbourhood the first tea plantations were attempted on a
large scale.
The Preanger regencies — Bandung.Chanjur.Sukabumi, Sumedang,
Garut and Tasikmalaya— constitute the most important of all the
residencies, though owing to their lack of harbour on the south and
the intractable nature of much of their soil they have not shared
in the prosperity enjoyed by many other parts of the island. Ban-
dung, the chief town since 1864, lies 2300 ft. above sea-level, 109 m.
south of Batavia by rail; it is a well-built and flourishing place
(p " " ~ esc 2650) with a handsome
res (1867), a school for the sons
of rtant quinine factory in the
iali 1 good opportunity is afforded
of : and official Java and the
cu on people. The district is
fai nost remarkable of which is
wr a narrow gully to leap down
frc neighbourhood is the great
mi formerly the chief town, in
spi ion still has a population of
13 ; 569 Europeans), a pleasant
he itude of 1965 ft., tourists are
act >r the sake of the picturesque
sh< after 1870 one of the centres
of has only 8013 inhabitants,
ha ttwav , lne highway traffic : it
is ( I by Tasikmalaya (9196), but
it 1 ortsmen for its proximity to
thi : snipe-shooting matches art
JAVA
- v , tt o a *T«ol "• *»** < **** * * VMM*- » *■
■>N
£fc
, x - .. » v. x. x* «- «^ *-*"
. , . . - x ».*■**- * w
h . ■ :? ;\- * v.. - ^ >
. . - ... » ^ V*..Xn» * -
. ..Cxs. 4 x *. .. KV* Of
* ' " "\ .. „ •• iV— *Kjs4od
* NV il " ! * *.N *»- o x>** 5ank»
v "** "* v v . ^ »"•• .-vh»o»* wader
v x ^ ' * ^ x ^ . .x >.•«.< **d the
J*" / Vv . v v - . nv M the rice
^ . ».. *** » .*.**> tnhabi-
v " . ^ v.**. » »«we commercial
^ v v ,* ,» .v\«n*/i to overcome
v " „ x * K—& "■»«* only during
^ . n, j«.vt«oed and regu-
N ^ w. > .». ^%o* of Java: com-
. x t k.«.-« are all well repre-
v . v ^ at employment to the
v v N . k Ov\H»l various improve-
v. » v*c»acty populated (3100
v \ , lV . * :& .u 10,665 inhabitants is
/ v . . .,. v < apulang, Lebaksiu, &c).
< t .^ v m. *36) the most important
. % v. aiut stamped cloths; there
.. .vm*. » The*two towns are only
. . \ » * iirce mosque, a Protestant
k . ^ i.tvr of European houses. The
,„ . .. »i »«e or brick buildings. Peka-
, > *v i *.wwik Brebes (13.474) on the
v %.*•«.•■ Banyumas (5000Y is the scat
v >.vvv s * tVrwokerto (12,610), Purbalinggo
fc . . sV v^ This last possesses the best
* .v.i »'*l but for malaria would have been
* . v tv^n as the seat of a great military
.v. ;*, ,*Ki intoned, the fort being blown up
, s W.-w. of whom 4800 are Europeans
. .hi iKc Kali Kgaran near the centre of the
v .« tSo old European town was surrounded
k tt **»» almost the exact reproduction of a
*x ^i^hicst accommodation to the exigencies
.>,. U.1110W and irregular. The modern town
^ the more noteworthy buildings of Sema-
. . v4 Orange fort, the resident's house, the
vH. i he Protestant church, the mosque, the
\ « w impulse to the growth of the town was
, v4 the railway to Surakarta and Jokiakarta
. ike place is unfortunately situated. The
.ivxl up; the roadstead is insecure in the west
vk-lavs an artincial canal, begun in 1858,
\ -
k substitute for the river; but further works
,,"ij great canal to the cast, began in 1896.
iiUtions and thus improve the healthiness of
\ in. N.E. of Somarang, though situated in a
v«.tiupa and having only 5000 inhabitants, is
vaiH-*e history. The mosque, erected by the
**ti rebuilt in 1845; only a small part of the
. u* l*cservcd, but as a sanctuary it attracts
1 Mutually. To visit Demak seven times has
>t *W as the pilgrimage to Mecca. The tombs
l, *r* still extant. Salatiga (" three stones,"
v. .it4r« now destroyed) was in early times one
« «u*taasadors proceeding to the court of Mat-
..»»«i*it history of Java its name is associated
x .ml the capitulation of l8n. It is the seat
,>U<\ camp. Its population, about 10.000,
\mharawa with its railway station is, on
.■tv increasing. Its population of 14.745
, fc Akmt a mite to the N. lies the fortress
, lv Kn Uo*ch meant to make the centre of the
a tl «\v work«i the Banyubiru military camp
. ^» KvimIaI (i5.<»o) J » a centre of the sugar
,nv» 4 **> Chinese) has grown to be one of
A* >.l towns. Its cloth and battik pedlars are
«. rf» cim*' 4 ^^ k v tne ^ utcn : an exception to
k %(u.h I j ukes the place of the Ch- used in
■ Ae kbsrf mt Hfce soccess of their enterprise b
^«^t « ^10^ <4 tW Wv«v A good trade is also carried on
lA*v< o.v«rk n.vtTT> and all sorts of small wares. The
^ -v- .**• *j-* > kas interesting remains of Matapahit
,-* -m v)m- fM»b of Pangeran Kudus is a noted Mahoov
w.n. 1 *••*.* — ** A steam tramway leads northward towards, but
,.,*-* ».n -**jv- k .'->para, which in the I7th century was the chief
vv « ^ v^W ttwdom of Mataram and retained its commercial
...<v«* i.kv ft the Dutch Company removed its establishment to
x- ..%^ la I8t8 Daendels transferred its resident to Pad.
v va.vt-v Ko6 ft. above the sea, was a place of importance as early
*» .V 17th century, and in modern times has become known as a
im. Rembang. a well-built coast town and the seat of a
. has grown rapidly to have a population of 29.538 with 210
e^trooeans. Very similar to each other are Surakarta or Solo and
Jogjakarta, the chief towns of the quasi-independent states or
Vorstenlanden. Surakarta (pop. 109,450. Chinese 5159. Europeans
1913) contains the palace (Kraton, locally called the Bata bumi)
of the susuhunan (which the Dutch translated as emperor), the
dalem of Prince Mangku Negara. the residences of the Solo nobles,
a small Dutch fort (Vastenburg), a great mosque, an old Dutch
settlement, and a Protestant church. Here the susuhunan lives in
Oriental pomp and state. To visitors there are few more interesting
entertainments than those afforded by the celebration of the 31st
of August (the birthday of the queen of the Netherlands) or of the
New Year and the Puasa festivals, with their wayungs, ballet-
dancers, and so on. Jokjakarta (35 m. S.) has been a great city
since Mangku Burnt settled there in 1755. The Kraton has a circuit
of 3} m., and is a little town in itself with the palace proper, the
residences of the ladies of the court and kampongs for the hereditary
smiths, carpenters, sculptors, masons, payong-makers, musical
instrument makers, &c.,&c. of his highness. The independent Prince
Paku Alam has a palace of his own. As in Surakarta there are an
old Dutch town and a fort. The Jogka market is one of the most
important of all Java, especially for jewelry. The tout population
is 72,235 with 1424 Europeans. To the south-east lies Pasar Cedeh,
a former capital of Mataram. with tombs of the ancient princes in
the Kraton, a favourite residence of wealthy Javanese traders.
Surabaya (f.f ). on the strait of Madura, is the largest commercial
town in Java. Its population increased from 118,000 in 1890 to
146.9^4 in 1900 (8906 Europeans). To the north lies Grissee or
Gresih (25,688 inhabitants) with a fairly good harbour and of special
interest in the early European history of lava. Inland is the
considerable town of Lamongan (12.485 inhabitants). Fifteen m.
S. by rail lies Sidoarjo (10,207; 185 Europeans), the centre of one of
the most densely populated districts and important as a' railway
junction. In the neighbourhood is the populous village of Mojosari.
Pasuraan was until modern times one of the chief commercial
towns in Java, the staple being sugar. Since the opening of the
railway to Surabaya it has greatly declined, and its warehouses and*
dwelling-houses are largely deserted. The population is 27,152
with 663 Europeans. Probolinggo (called by the natives Banger)
is a place of 13,240 inhabitants. The swampy tracts in the vicinity
are full of fishponds. The baths of Banyubiru (blue water) to the
south have Hindu remains much visited by devotees. Pasirian in
the far south of the residency is a considerable market town and the
terminus of a branch raflway. Besuki, the easternmost of ad the
residencies, contains several places of some importance; the chief
town Bondowoso (8289.); Besuki, about the same sice, but with no
foreign trade; Jcmber, a small but rapidly increasing place, and
Banyuwangi (17,559). This last was at one time the seat of the
resident, now the eastern terminus of the railway system, and is a
seaport on the Bali Strait with an important office of the telegraph
company controlling communication with Port Darwin and Singa-
pore. It has a- very mingled population, besides Javanese and
Madurese, Chinese and Arabs, Balinese, Buginese and Europeans.
The chief town of Kediri (10,489) is the only residency town in the
Interior traversed by a navigable river, and fs exceeded by Tulunga-
fung; and the residency of Madiun has two considerable centres of
population: Madiun (21,168) and Ponorogo (16,765).
Agriculture.— -About 40% of the soil of Java is under cultivation.
Bantam and Besuki have each 16% of bad under cultivation;
Krawang, 21% Preanger, 23%: Rembang, 30%; Japara, 62%;
Surabaya, 65%; Kedu, 66%; Samarang, 67%. Proceeding along
the south coast from its west end, we find that in Bantam all the
land cultivated on its south shore amounts to at most but 5% of
that regency ; in Preanger and Banyumas, as far as Chilachap, the
land under cultivation amounts at a maximum to 20%. East of
Surakarta the percentages of land on the south coast under cultiva-
tion decline from 30 to 20 and 10. East of the residency of Pro-
bolinggo the percentage of land cultivated on the south coast sinks
to as low as 2. On the north coast, in Krawang and Rembang, with
their morasses and double chains of chalk, there arc districts with
only 20% and 10% of the soil under cultivation. In the residencies,
on the other hand, of Batavia. Cheribon. Tegal, Samarang, Japara.
Surabaya and Pasuruan. there arc districts having 80% to 90% of
soil, and even more, under cultivation.
The agricultural products of lava must be distinguished into
those raised by the natives for their own u^e and those raised for
the government and private proprietors. The land assigned to the
JAVA
291
natives for thetr own culture end use amounts to about 9.633.000
acres. In western Java the prevailing crop is rice, less prominently
cultivated in middle Java, while in eastern Java and Madura other
articles of food take the first rank. The Javanese tell strange
legends concerning the introduction of rice, and observe various
ceremonies in connexion with its planting, paying more regard to
them than to the proper cultivation of the cereal. The agricultural
produce grown on the lands of the government and private pro-
prietors, comprising an area of about 3$ million acres, consists of
sugar, cinchona, coffee, tobacco, tea. indigo, &e. The Javanese
possess buffaloes, ordinary cattle, horses, dogs and cats. The
buffalo was probably introduced by the Hindus. As in agricultural
f>rcducts, so also in cattle-rearing, western Java is distinguished
rom middle and eastern Java. The average distribution of buffa-
loes is 106 per 1000 inhabitants, but it varies considerably in different
districts, being greatest in western Java. The fact that rice is the
prevailing culture in the west, while in eastern Java other plants
constitute the chief produce, explains the larger number of buffaloes
found in western Java, these animals being more in requisition in
the culture of rice. The ordinary cattle are of mixed race ; the Indian
zebu having been crossed with the banting and with European cattle
of miscellaneous origin. The horses, though small, are of excellent
character, and their masters, according to their own ideas, arc
extremely particular in regard to purity of race. Riding comes
naturally to the Javanese; horse-races and tournays nave been in
vogue among diem from early times.
CoRte is an alien in Java. Specimens brought in 1696 from
Cannanore on the Malabar coast perished in an earthquake and
floods in 1699; the effective introduction of the precious shrub was
due to Hendrik Zwaardckron (see N. P. van den Berg, " Voortbreng-
ing en verbruck van korae," Tijdsckrift v. Nijyerh. en Landb. 1879;
and the article " Koffie " in Encyc.Ned.Ind. Wiji kawih is mentioned in
a Kavi inscription of a.d. 856, and the bean-broth in David Tappcn'a
list of Javanese beverages, 1667-1682, may have been coffee). The
first consignment of coffee (804 lb) to the Netherlands was made in
171 1-1712, but it was not till after 1721 that the yearly exports reached
any considerable amount. The aggregate quantity sold in the
home market from 171 1 to 1791 was 2,036,437 piculs, or on an average
about 143 tons per annum; and this probably represented nearly
the whole production of the island. By the beginning of the 19th
century the annual production was about 7143 tons and after the
introduction of the Van den Bosch system of forced culture a further
augmentation was effected. The forced culture system was, in
I909. however, of little importance. Official reports show that
from 1840 to 1873 the amount ranged from 5226 tons to 7354.
During the ten years 1869 to 1878 the average crop of the planta-
tions under state control was 5226 tons, that of the private planters
about 810. The government has shown a strange reluctance to
surrender the old-fashioned monopoly, but the spirit of private
enterprise has slowly gained the day. Though the appearance of
the coffee blight (Hemueia vastatrix) almost ruined the industry the
planters did not give in. An immune variety was introduced from
Liberia, and scientific methods of treatment have been adopted in
dealing with the plantations. In 1887, a record year, the value of
the coffee crop reached £3,083,333, and at its average it was about
£1,750,000 between 1886 and 1895. The value was only £1,166,666
in 1896. The greatest difficulties arc the uncertainties both of the
crop and of its marketable value. The former is well shown in
the figures for 1903 to 1905; government 17,900, 3949 and 351 1
tons, and private planters 22,395, '5.3" and 21,395 tons. Liberia
coffee is still produced in much smaller quantity than Java coffee;
the latter on an average of these three years 21,360 tons; the former
74°9-
The cultivation of sugar has been long carried on in Java, and
since the decline of the coffee plantations it has developed into the
leading industry of the island. There are experimental stations at
Pasuruan, Pckalongan and elsewhere, where attempts are made to
overcome the many diseases to which the cane is subject. Many of
the mills are equipped with high-class machinery and produce
sugar of excellent colour and grain. In 1853-1857 the average crop
was 98.094 tons; in 1869-1873, 170,831, and in 1875-1880, 204,678.
By 1899-1900 the average had risen to 787,673 tons: and the crops
for 190a and 1905 were respectively 1,064.935 and 1,028,357 tons.
Prices fluctuate, but the value of the harvest of 1905 was estimated
at about (15,000,000.
• The cultivation of indigo shows a strange vitality.^ Under the
culture system the natives found this the most oppressive of all the
state crops. The modern chemist at one time seemed to have
killed the industry by his synthetic substitute, but in every year
between 1899 an< * , 9°4 J av * exported between one million and one
and a half million pounds of the natural product. Japan and Russia
were the largest buyers. As blue is a favourite colour with the
Javanese proper a large quantity is used at home.
Tea was first introduced to Java by the Japanese scholar von
Siebold in 1826. The culture was undertaken by the state in 1829
with plants from China, but in 1842 they handed it over to con-
tractors, whose attempts to increase their profits by delivering an
inferior article ultimately led to the abandonment of the contract
system in i860. In the meantime the basis of a better state of the
industry had been laid by the Dutch tea-taster J. J. L. t. Jacobson
ki;
(tl
kr
Tl
Ti
in<
fa
tn
tei
te!
fruits is known as cotton wool; and among other uses it
serves almost as well as cork for filling life-belts; and the oil from its
seed is employed to adulterate ground-nut oil. The quantity of
wool exported nearly trebled between 1890 and 1896, in the latter
year the total sent to Holland, Australia, Singapore, &c, amounting
to 38,586 bales. The rapid exhaustion of the natural supply of
india-rubber and gutta-percha began to attract the attention of
government in the latter decades of the 19th century. Extensive
experiments have been made in the cultivation of Ficus elastica
(the karct of the natives), Castilloa elastica, and Hevea brasiliensis.
The planting of gutta-percha trees was begun about 1886, and a
regular system introduced in the Prcangcr in 1901. The Palaquium
oblongijotium plantations at Blavan, Kcmutuk and Scwang in
Banyumas have also been brought under official control. Java
tobacco, amounting to about 35,200,000 lb a year, is cultivated
almost exclusively in eastern Java. Among other products which
arc of some importance as articles of export may be mentioned
nutmegs, mace, pepper, hides, arrack and copra.
Particular Lands. — At different times down to 1830 the govern-
ment disposed of its lands in full property to individuals who,
acquiring complete control of the inhabitants as well as of the soil,
continued down to the 19th century to act as if they were indepen-
dent Of all superior authority. In this way more than 1} millions
of the people were subject not to the state but to " stock companies,
absentee landlords and Chinese." According to the Regeerings
Almanak (1906) these " particular lands," as they are called, were
distributed as follows: Bantam 21, Batavia 36, Meestcr Cornelis
163, Tangerang 80, Buitenzorg 61, Scmarang 32, Surabaya 46.
Krawang and Demak 3 each, Cheribon 2, and Pckalongan, Kendal
and Pasuruan 1 each. _ In Mccster Cornelis no fewer than 297,912
persons were returned in 1905 as living on these lands. Of the 168
estates there arc not 20 that grow anything but grass, rice and coco-
nuts. In Buiteiuorg (thanks probably to the Botanic Gardens)
matters arc better: tea, coffee, cinchona and india-rubber appearing
amongst the objects of cultivation; and, in general, it must be noted
that these estates have often natural difficulties to contend against
far beyond their financial strength.
Minerals. — Of all the great islands of the archipelago Java is the
poorest in metallic ores. Gold and silver are practically non-
existent. Manganese is found in Tokjakarta and various other
parts. A concession for working the magnetic iron sands in the
neighbourhood of Chilachap was granted in' 1904. Coal occurs in
thin strata and small pockets in many parts (Bantam, Rembang,
J ok Jakarta, &c.) ; and in 1905 a concession was granted to a company
to work the coal-beds at Rajah close to the harbour of Wijnkoopers
Bay, a port of call of the KoninklijkPaketvaart Maatschappij.
The discovery by De Groot in 1863 of petroleum added a most
important industry to the list of the resources of lava. The great
Port Petroleum Company, now centred at Amsterdam, was founded
in 188*7. The production of this company alone rose from 79,179
kisUn or cases (each 8-14 gall.) in 1891 to 1,642,780 in 1890, and
to 1,967,124 in 1905. In 1904 there were no fewer than 36 conces-
sions for petroleum. At the same time there is a larger importation
of oil from Sumatra as well as from America and Russia. Sulphur
is regularly worked in the Gunong Slamct, G. Sindoro, G. Sumbing,
and in the crater of the Tangkuban Prahu as well as in other places
in the Preanger regencies and in Pasuruan. Brine-wells exist in
various parts. The blcdcgs (salt-mud wells) of Grobogan in the
Solo Valley, Scmarang, arc best known. They rise from Miocene
strata and yield iodine and bromine products as well as common
salt/ The natives of the district arc allowed to extract the salt for
their own use, but elsewhere (except in jokjakarta) the manufacture
2 9 2 JAVA
of salt is a government monopoly and confined to the districts of
Sumcoep, Panekasan and Sampang in Madura, where from 3000 to
4600 people are hereditarily engaged in extracting salt from tea
water, delivering it to the government at the rate of 10 fl. (nearly
about £835 (10.000 fl.) to Karl Bolt* von BoUberg for an improved
method of packing. Between 1888 and 189a the annual amount
als middcl van belasting," De Jnd. Gids. (1905). The scarcity of salt
has led to a great importation of salted fish from Siam (upwards of
6600 tons in 1902).
Communications. — Roads and railways for the most part follow
the fertile plains and table-lands along the coast and between the
volcanic areas. The principal railways are the Semarang-1 ok Ja-
karta and Batavia-Buitcnzorg lines of the Netherlands-Indian
railway company, and the Surabaya- Pasuruan, Bangil-Mulang,
Sidoarjo-Paron. Kcrtosono-Tulung Agung, Buitenzorg-Chianjur,
Surakarta-Madiun.Pasuruan-Probolinggo.Jokjakarta-Chilachapand
other lines of the government. The earliest lines, between Batavia
and Buitcnzorg and between Semarang and the capitals of the
sultanates, were built about 1870 by a pnvate company with a state
guarantee. Since 1875, when Dr van Goltstcin, then a cabinet
minister and afterwards Dutch minister in London, had an act passed
for the construction of state railways in Java, their progress has
become much more rapid. In addition, several private companies
have built cither light railways or tramways, such as that between
Scmarang and Joana, and the total length of all lines was 2460 in
1905. There are some 3500 miles of telegraph line, and cables
connect Java with Madura, Bali and Sumatra, and Port Darwin in
Australia. Material welfare was promoted by the establishment
of lines of steamships between Java and the other islands, all
belonging to a Royal Packet Company, established in 1888 under a
special statute, and virtually possessing a monopoly on account of
tnc government mail contracts.
Administration.— Each village (dessa) forms an independent
community, a group of dessas forms a district, a group of districts a
department and a group of departments a residency, of which there
are seventeen. At the head of each residency is a resident, with an
assistant resident and a controller, all Dutch officials. The officials
of the departments and districts are natives appointed by the
government; those of the dessa are also natives, elected by the
inhabitants and approved by the resident. In the two sultanates
of Surakarta and Jokjakarta the native sultans govern under the
supervision of the residents. (For the colonial administration of
Netherlands India see Malay Archipelago.)
History.— The origin of the name Java is very doubtful. It
is not improbable that it was first applied either to Sumatra or
to what was known of the Indian Archipelago— the insular
character of the several parts not being at once recognized.
Jawa Dwipa, or " land of millet," may have been the original
form and have given rise both to the Jaba diu of Ptolemy and to
the Je-pho-thi of Fahicn, the Chinese pilgrim of the 4th~5th
century. The oldest form of the name in Arabic is apparently
Zabcj. The first epigraphic occurrence of Jawa is in an inscrip-
tion of 1343. In Marco Polo the name is the common appella-
tion of all the Sunda islands. The Jawa of Ibn Batuta is Sumatra ;
Java is his Mul Jawa {i.e. possibly " original Java "). Jiwi
is the modern Javanese name (in the court speech Jawi), some-
times with Nusa, " island," or Tanah, " country," prefixed.
It is impossible to extract a rational historical narrative from
the earlier babads or native chronicles, and even the later are
destitute of any satisfactory chronology. The first great era
in the history is the ascendancy of the Hindus, and that breaks
up into three periods— a period of Buddhism, a period of
aggressive Sivaism, and a period of apparent compromise. Of
the various Hindu states that were established in the island,
that of Majapahit was the most widely dominant down to the
end of the 15th century; its tributaries were many, and it even
extended its sway into other parts of the archipelago. The
second era of Javanese history is the invasion of Islam in the
beginning of the 15th century; and the third is the establishment
of European and more particularly of Dutch influence and
authority in the island. About 1520 the Portuguese entered
into commercial relationship with the natives, but at the close
of the same century the Dutch began to establish themselves.
At the time when the Dutch East India company began to fix
its trading factories on the coast towns, the chief native state
was Mataram, which had in the t6th century succeeded to the
ovcrlordship possessed by the house of Demak — one of the
states that rose after the fall of Majapahit. The emperors of
Java, as the princes of Mataram are called in the early accounts,
had their capital at Kartasura, now an almost deserted place,
6 m. west of Surakarta. At first and for long the company had
only forts and little fragments of territory at Jakatra (Batavia),
&c; but in 1705 it obtained definite possession of the Preanger
by treaty with Mataram; and in 1745 its authority was extended
over the whole north-east coast, from Cheribon to BanyuwangL
In 1755 the kingdom of Mataram was divided into the two states
of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, which still retain a shadow of
independence. The kingdom of Bantam was finally subjugated
in 1808. By the English occupation of the island (1811-1818)
the European ascendancy was rather strengthened than weak-
ened; the great Java war (1825-1830), in which Dip! Negiri,
the last Javanese prince, a clever, bold and unscrupulous leader,
struggled to maintain his claim to the whole island, resulted in
the complete success of the Dutch. To subdue him and his
following, however, taxed all the resources of the Dutch Indian
army for a period of five years, and cost it the loss of 15,000
officers and soldiers, besides millions of guilders. Nor did his
great influence die with him when his adventurous career came
to a dose in 1855 at Macassar. Many Javanese, who dream of a
restoration of their ancient empire, do not believe even yet that
Dipi Negiri is dead. They are readily persuaded by fanatical
had j is that their hero will suddenly appear to drive away the
Dutch and claim his rightful heritage. Several times there
have been political troubles in the native states of central Java,
in which Dipi Negiri 's name was used, notably in 1883, when
many rebellious chieftains were exiled. Similar attempts at
revolt had been made before, mainly in 1865 and 1870, but none
so serious perhaps as that in 1849, in which a son and a brother
of Dipi Negiri were implicated, aiming to deliver and reinstate
him. All such attempts proved as futile there as others in
different parts of Java, especially in Bantam, where the trouble
of 1850 and 1888 had a religious origin, and in the end they
directly contributed to the consolidation of Dutch sway. Being
the principal Dutch colony in the Malay Archipelago, Java was
the first to benefit from the material change which resulted from
the introduction of the Grondwet or Fundamental Law of 1848
in Holland. The main changes were of an economical character,
but the political developments were also important. Since 1850
Dutch authority has steadily advanced, principally at the ex-
pense of the semi-independent sultanates in central Java, which
had been allowed to remain after the capture and exile of Dipt
Negiri. The power of the sultans of Jokjakarta and Sura-
karta has diminished; in 1863 Dutch authority was strengthened
in the neighbouring island of Madura, and Bantam has lost every
vestige of independence. The strengthening of the Dutch power
has largely resulted from a more statesmanlike and more generous
treatment of the natives, who have been educated to regard the
orang blcnda, or white man, as their protector against the nativs
rulers. Thus, in 1866, passports for natives travelling in Java
were abolished by the then governor-general, Dr Sloet van de
Bcele, who also introduced many reforms, reducing the corvee in
the government plantations to a minimum, and doing away with
the monopoly of fisheries. Six years later a primary education
system for the natives, and a penal code, whose liberal provi-
so ' * ■ - - ,-Qp^u^ wcrc introduced.
es of early human occupation are few
»r 00 buildings speedily perish. Stone
w nd. But remains of the temples and
m du period are numerous and splendid.
»« tenting architecture which reached a
hi se of mortar, supporting columns or
si i, though the word originally meant a
d) saint) are not found in western Java.
T s: one in middle Java, one in eastern
J* inguishing characteristics, both archi-
t< former begins in the Dycng plateau,
" id extends into the east of Baeelcn,
K listricu of Semarang. northern Jokja-
k< of Surakarta. The latter lies mainly
u uuruan. A considerable number of
JAVA
-Jl
preserved, tome mere heaps of stone — to prove the devotion their
Ch. Puntadeva and Ch. Sembadro, each a simple square chamber
with a portico reached by a flight of steps. The second group, Ch.
Daravati and Ch. Parakesit, lies to the north-east. The third, now a
ruined mound, lies to the east. The fourth, to the north-west, U a
group of seven small temples of which Ch. Sanchald is the most
important, with a square ground plan and an octagon roof with a
second circular storey. Of the fifth group, in the south, only one
temple remains — the Chandi Bima — a small, beautiful and excep-
tionally interesting building, in " the form of a pyramid, the ribs
of which stand out much more prominently than the horizontal
lines of the niche-shaped ornaments which rest each on its lotus
cushion." How this happens to be the one Chalukyan temple
amid hundreds is a problem to be solved. The plateau lies 6500 ft.
above the sea, and roads and stairways, locally known as Buddha
roads, lead up from the lowlands of Bagelen and Pekalongan. The
stairway between Lake Mcnjur and Lake Chebong alone consisted
.of 4700 steps. The width of the roadway, however, is only some three
or four feet. A remarkable subterranean tunnel still exists, which
served to drain the plateau.
Of alT the Hindu temples of Java the largest and most magnificent
is Boro-Budur, which ranks among the architectural marvels of the
world. Jt lies in the residency of Kedu, a little to the west of the
Progo, a considerable stream flowing south to the Indian Ocean.
The place is best reached by taking the steam-tram from MageJaog
or Jogjakarta to the village of Muntilam Passar. where a conveyance
may be hired. Strictly speaking, Boro-Budur is not a temple but a
hill, rising about IW> ft. above the plain, encased with imposing
terraces constructed of hewn lava-blocks and crowded with sculp-
tures. The lowest terrace now above ground forms a square, each
side 497 ft. long. About 50 ft. higher there is another terrace of
similar shape. Then follow four other terraces of more irregular
contour. The structure is crowned by a dome or cupola 52 ft. in
diameter surrounded by sixteen smaller bell-shaped cupolas.
Regarded as a whole, the main design, to quote Mr Sewell, may be
described as "an archaic Indian temple, considerably flattened
and consisting of a series of terraces, surmounted by a quasi-stupa
a * See R. Verbeek, " Liget der oudheden van Java," in Verhand,
v. k. Bat. Gen., xlvi., and his Oudreid kundite kaart van Java.
R. Sc well's " Antiquarian notes in Java," in Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society (1906), give the best conspectus available for English
readers. W. B. Worsfold. A Visit to /ova (London, 189)), has a
good sketch of what was then known, revised by Professor W. Rhys
Davids; but whoever wishes full information must refer to Dutch
.authorities. These are numerous but difficult of
»93
by a dagoba." It was discovered by the engineer J. W.
Ijzerman in 1885 that the basement of the structure had been earthed
up before the building was finished, and that the lowest retaining
wall was completely concealed by the embankment. The architects
had evidently found that their temple was threatened with a de-
structive subsidence; and, while the sculptors were still busy with
the decoration of the lower facades, they had to abandon their work.
.But the unfinished bas-reliefs were carefully protected by clay and
blocks of stone and left in position ; and since 1896 they are gradually
but systematically being exhumed and photographed by the Dutch
archaeologists, who, however, have to proceed with caution, filling
up one portion of the embankment before they go on to deal with
another. The subjects treated in this lowest enceinte are of the
most varied description, forming a picture-gallery of landscapes,
scenes of outdoor and domestic life, mingled with mythological and
religious designs. Among the genre class appear men shooting birds
with blow-pipe or bow and arrow, fishermen with rod or net, a man
playing a bagpipe, and so on. It would seem as if the architect had
intended gradually to wean the devotees from the things of this
world, when once they began to ascend from stage to stage of the
temple-hill they were introduced to the realities of religion ; and. by
the time they reached the dagoba they had passed through a process
of instruction and were ready, with enlightened eyes, to enter and
behold the image of Buddha, symbolically left imperfect, as beyond
the power of human art to realise or portray. From basement to
summit the whole hill is a great picture bible of the Mahayana
creed.
If the statues and bas-reliefs of Boro-Budur were placed side
by side they would extend for 3 m. The eye of the spectator,
looking up from the present ground-level, is caught, says Mr SewelL
by the rows of life-size Buddhas that adorn the retaining walls of
the several terraces and the cage-like shrines on the circular plat-
forms. All the great figures on the east side represent Akshobhya,
the Dhyani Buddha of the East. His right hand is in the Chumis-
parsa mudra (pose) touching the earth in front of the right knee—
u 1 swear by the earth." All the statues on the south side are
Ratnasara Chavu in the varada mudra — the right hand displayed
upwards—" I give you all." On the west side the statues represent
Amitabha in the dhyana or padinasama mudra, the right hand
resting palm upwards on the left, both being on the lap — the attitude
of meditation. Those on the north represent AmoeaskJdhi in the
abhaya mudra, the right hand being raised and displayed, palm
outwards-—" Fear not, all is well."
Otbei
of Pram
frorath
the two
Pramba
tical sei
only th<
and thii
are the
ones at
bnildinc
or teaci
and so-
not aftc
(i.e. Vii
souther
Brahma
Of the <
his nam
the ext
deserve
consists
temple,
the earl
those of
the foui
Yule pt
stucco on the exterior and the interior of the buildings, and he com-
pared in this respect " the cave walls of Ellora, the great idols at
Bamiaa, and the Doric order at Selinus." Other temples in the
same neighbourhood as Chandi Sewu are Ch. Lurobung, Ch. Kali
Bening (Baneng), with a monstrous Kala head as the centre of the
design on the southern side, Ch. Kalong and Ch. Plaosan. Tradition
assigns these temples to 1 266-1296.
Of the temples of the eastern zone the best known is Chandi Jag©
(or Tumpang), elaborately described in the Archaeological Commis-
sion's monograph. According to the Pararaton, a native chronicle
(published in the Verkand. v. h. Bat. Gen. t. K. en W., 1896), it
belongs to the 13th century, containing the tomb of Rangavuni or
Vishnuvardhana, who died in 1272-1273. The shrine proper
occupies the third of three platforms, the lowest of which forms a
•The chief authorities on Prambanan are J. W. Ijzerman,
Beseirimng der. oudheden nabij do Grots der residenties Soerakarta en
Djokjakarta (Batavia, 1891, with photographs and atlas); and
i. Croneman, Tiandi Parambananop Midden Java: see also Guide
trovers V exposition des Pays-Bos (The Hague, 1 900), No. 174, sqq.
29+
JAVELIN— JAY, JOHN
seems to be Celtic, tod the word it cognate, with Ir. fft/t, a hook*
fork, gaff; the root is seen in " gable " (?.*.), and in the German
Gabd, fork. The change in meaning from fork, forked end
of a spear, to the spear itself is obscure.
JAW (Mid. Eng. jawe, jawe uid geovt, O. Eng. ckeowan, con-
nected with " chaw " and " chew," and in form with " jowl "),
in anatomy, the term for the upper maxillary bone, and the
mandible or lower maxillary bone of the skull; it is sometimes
loosely applied to all the lower front parts of the skull (?.».).
JAWALlQl, Abu MansO* MauhCb ul-JawAl1q1 (1073-1x45),
Arabian grammarian, was bora at Bagdad, where he studied
philology under TibrizI and became famous for his handwriting.
In his later years he acted as imam to the caliph MoqtafL His
chief work is the Kildb ut-Mu'arrab, or " Explanation of Foreign
Words used in Arabic."
The text was edited from an incomplete manuscript by E. Sachau
(Leipzig, 1867). Many of the lacunae in this have been supplied
from another manuscript by W. Spitta in the Journal of the German
Oriental Society, xwriii. 208 §qq. Another work, written as a supple-
ment to the Durrat uUGhavrwas of Hariri fa.n.), has been published
as " Le Livre des locutions vicieuses." by n. Derenbourg in Morgen-
l&ndischt Forschungen (Leipzig, 1875), pp. 107-166. (G. W. T.)
JAWHAR, a native state of India, in the Konkan division of
Bombay, situated among the lower ranges of the western Ghats.
Area 3x0 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 47»538. The estimated revenue is
£11,000; there is no tribute. The chief, who is a Koli by caste,
traces back his descent to X343. The leading exports are teak
and rice. The principal villageisthat of Jawhar (pop. 3567).
JAW0R6W, a town in Galicia, Austria, 30 m. W. of Lcmberg.
Pop! (1900), 10,090. It has a pottery, a brewery, a distillery
and some trade in agricultural produce. Not far from it is the
watering-place of Szkto with sulphur springs. The town was a
favourite residence of John Sobicski, who there received the
congratulations of the pope and the Venetian republic on his
success against the Turks at Vienna (1683). At Jaworow Peter
the Great was betrothed to Catherine I.
JAY, JOHN (1745-1829), American statesman, the descendant
of a Huguenot family, and son of Peter Jay, a successful New
York merchant, was born in New York City on the 12th of
December 1745. On graduating at Ring's College (now Colum-
bia University) in X764, Jay entered the office of Benjamin
Kissam, an eminent New York lawyer. In x 768 he was admitted
to the bar, and rapidly acquired a lucrative practice. In 1774
he married Sarah, youngest daughter of William Livingston,
and was thus brought into close relations with one of the most
influential families in New York. Like many other able young
lawyers, Jay took an active part in the proceedings that resulted
in the independence of the United States, identifying himself
with the conservative element in the Whig or patriot party. He
was sent as a delegate from New York City to the Continental
Co n g r ess at Philadelphia in September 1774, and though almost
the youngest member, was entrusted with drawing up the
address to the people of Great Britain. Of the second congress,
also, which met at Philadelphia on the xoth of Hay 1775,
Jay was a member; and on its behalf he prepared an address
to the people of Canada and an address to the people of Jamaica
and Ireland. In April 1776, while still retaining his scat
in the Continental Congress, Jay was chosen as a member of
the third provincial congress of New York; and his consequent
absence from Philadelphia deprived him of the honour of
affixing his signature to the Declaration of Independence.
As a member of the fourth provincial congress he drafted a
resolution by which the delegates of New York in the Continental
Congress were authorized to sign the Declaration of Indepen-
dence. In 1777 he was chairman of the committee of the con-
vention which drafted the first New York state constitution
After acting for some time as one of the council of safety (which
administered the state government until the new constitution
came into effect), he was made chief justice of New York state,
in September 1777. A clause in the state constitution pro-
hibited any justice of the Supreme Court from holding any other
post save that of delegate to Congress on a " special occasion,"
but in November 1778 the legislature pronounced the secession
of what is now the state of Vermont from the jurisdiction of
New Hampshire and New York to be such an occasion, and
sent Jay to Congress charged with the duty of securing a settle-
ment of the territorial claims of his state. He took his seat
in congress on the 7th of December, and on the 10th was chosen
president in succession to Henry Laurens.
On the 27th of September 1770 Jay was appointed minister
plenipotentiary to negotiate a treaty between Spain and the
United States. He was instructed to endeavour to bring Spain
into the treaty already existing between France and the United
States by a guarantee that Spain should have the Floridas in
case of a successful issue of the war against Great Britain,
reserving, however,, to the United States the free navigation of
the Mississippi. He was also to solicit a subsidy in consideration
of the guarantee, and a loan of five million dollars. His task was
one of extreme difficulty. Although Spain had joined France in
the war against Great Britain, she feared to imperil her own
colonial interests by directly encouraging and aiding the former
British colonies in their revolt against their mother country,
and she had refused to recognize the United States as an in-
dependent power. Jay landed at Cadiz on the 22nd of January
1780, but was told that he could not be received in a formally
diplomatic character. In May the Jung's minister, Count
de Florida Blanca, intimated to him that the one obstacle to a
treaty was the question of the free navigation of the Mississippi,
and for months following this interview the policy of the
court was clearly one of delay. In February 1781 Congress
instructed Jay that he might make concessions regarding the
navigation of the Mississippi, if necessary; but further delays
were interposed, the news of the surrender of Yorktown arrived,
and Jay decided that any sacrifice to obtain a treaty was no
longer advisable. His efforts to procure a loan were not much
more successful, and he was seriously embarrassed by the action
of Congress in drawing bills upon him for large sums. Although
by importuning the Spanish minister, and by pledging his
personal responsibility, Jay was able to meet some of the bills,
he was at last forced to protest others; and the credit of the
United States was saved only by a timely subsidy from France.
In 1781 Jay was commissioned to act with Franklin, John
Adams, Jefferson and Henry Laurens in negotiating a peace
with Great Britain. He arrived in Paris on the 23rd of June
1782, and jointly with Franklin had proceeded far with the
negotiations when Adams arrived late in October. The in*
•tractions of the American negotiators were as follows: —
" You are to make the most candid and confidential communica-
tions upon all subjects to the minister* of our generous ally, the
king of France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace
or truce without their knowledge and concurrence; and ultimately
to govern yourselves by their advice and opinion, endeavouring
in your Whole conduct to make them sensible how much we rely
on his majesty's influence for effectual support in every thinp that
may be necessary to the present security, or future prosperity, of
the United States of America."
Jay, however, in a letter written to the president of Congress
from Spain, had expressed in strong terms his disapproval of
such dependence upon France, and, on arriving in Paris, he
demanded that Great Britain should treat with his country on
an equal footing by first recognizing its independence, although
the French minister, Count de Vergennes, contended that an
acknowledgment of independence as an effect of the treaty
was as much as could reasonably be expected. Finally,
owing largely to Jay, who suspected the good faith of France,
the American negotiators decided to treat independently with
Great Britain. The provisional articles, which were so favour-
able to the United States as to be a great surprise to the courts
of France and Spain, were signed on the 30th of November 1782,
and were adopted with no important change as the final treaty
on the 3rd of September 1783.
On the 24th of July 1784 Jay landed in New York, where he
was presented with the freedom of the city and elected a delegate
to Congress. On the 7th of May Congress had already chosen him
to be secretary for foreign affairs, and in December Jay resigned
JAY, JOHN 295
his seat in Congress and accepted the secretaryship. He con-
tinued to act in this capacity until 1700, when Jefferson became
secretary of state under the new constitution. In the question of
this constitution Jay had taken a keen interest, and as an
advocate of its ratification he wrote over the name " Publius,"
five (Nos. 2, 3, 4, $ and 64) of the famous series of papers known
collectively as the Federalist (see Hamilton, Alexander). He
published anonymously (though without succeeding in concealing
the authorship) An Address to the People of New York, in vindica-
tion of the constitution; and in the state convention at Pough-
keej>sie he ably seconded Hamilton in securing its ratification
by New York. In making his first appointments to federal
offices President Washington asked Jay to take his choice;
Jay chose that of chief justice of the Supreme Court, and held
this position from September 1789 to June 1795. The most
famous case that came before him was that of Ckisoim v. Georgia,
in which the question was, Can a state be suea by a citizen
of another state ? Georgia argued that it could not be so sued,
on the ground that it was a sovereign state, but Jay decided
against Georgia, on the ground that sovereignty in America
resided with the people. This decision led to the adoption of
the eleventh amendment to the federal constitution, which
provides that no suit may be brought in the federal courts
against any state by a citizen of another state or by a citizen or
subject of any foreign state. In x 702 Jay consented to stand for
the governorship of New York State, but a partisan returning-
board found the returns of three counties technically defective,
and though Jay had received an actual majority of votes, his
opponent, George Clinton, was declared elected.
Ever since the War of Independence there had been friction
between Great Britain and the United States. To the grievances
of the United States, consisting principally of Great Britain's
refusal to withdraw its troops from the forts on the north-
western frontier, as was required by the peace treaty of 1783, her
refusal to make compensation for negroes carried away by the
British army at the close of the War of Independence, her
restrictions on American commerce, and her refusal to enter
into any commercial treaty with the United States, were added,
after war broke out between France and Great Britain in 1703,
the anti-neutral naval policy according to which British naval
vessels were authorized to search American merchantmen and
impress American seamen, provisions were treated as contraband
of war, and American vessels were seized for no other reason than
that they had on board goods which were the property of the
enemy or were bound for a port which though not actually
blockaded was declared to be blockaded. The anti-British
feeling in the House of Representatives became so strong that
on the 7th of April 1704 a resolution was introduced to prohibit
commercial intercourse between the United States and Great
Britain until the north-western posts should be evacuated and
Great Britain's anti-neutral naval policy should be abandoned.
Thereupon Washington, fearing that war might result, appointed
Jay minister extraordinary to Great Britain to negotiate a new
treaty, and the Senate confirmed the appointment by a vote of
18 to 8, although the non-intercourse resolution which came
from the house a few days later was defeated in the senate only
by the casting vote of Vice-President John Adams." Jay landed
at Falmouth in June 1704, signed a treaty with Lord Grenville
on the 19th of November, and disembarked again at New York
on the 28th of May x 795. The treaty, known in history as Jay's
Treaty, provided that the north-western posts should be
evacuated by the 1st of June 1706, that commissioners should be
appointed to settle the north-east and the north-west boundaries,
and that the British claims for British debts as well as the
American claims for compensation for illegal seizures should
be referred to commissioners. More than one-half of the clauses
in the treaty related to commerce, and although tbey con-
tained rather small concessions to the United States, they
were about as much as could reasonably have been expected
in the circumstances. One clause, the operation of which
was limited to two years from the close of the existing war,
provided that American vessels not exceeding 70 tons burden
ig6
JAY, W.— JAY
might trade with the West Indies, bat should carry only
American products there- and take away to, American ports only
West Indian products; moreover, the United States was to
export in American vessels no molasses, sugar, coffee, cocoa
or cotton to any part of the world. Jay consented to this
prohibition under the impression that the articles named
were peculiarly the products of the West Indies, not being aware
that cotton was rapidly becoming an important export from
the southern states. The operation of the other commercial
clauses was limited to twelve years. By them the United States
was granted limited privileges of trade with the British East
Indies; some provisions were made for reciprocal freedom of
trade between the United States and the British dominions in
Europe; some articles were specified under the head of " contra*
band of war "; it was agreed that whenever provisions were
seized as contraband they should be paid for, and that in cases of
the capture of a vessel carrying contraband goods such goods
only and not the whole cargo should be seized; it was also
agreed that no vessel should be seized merely because it was bound
for a blockaded port, unless it attempted to enter the port
after receiving notice of the blockade. The treaty was laid before
the Senate on the- 8th of June 1795, and, with the exception
of the clause relating to trade with the West Indies, was ratified
on the 24th by a vote of 20 to xo. . As yet the public was ignorant
of its contents, and although the Senate had enjoined secrecy
on its members even after the treaty had been ratified, Senator
Mason of Virginia gave out a copy for publication only a few
days later. The Republican party, strongly sympathizing with
France and strongly disliking Great Britain, had been opposed
to Jay's mission, and had denounced Jay as a traitor and
guillotined him in effigy when they heard that he was actually
negotiating. The publication of the treaty only added to their
fury. They filled newspapers with articles denouncing it,
wrote virulent pamphlets against it, and burned Jay in effigy.
The British flag was insulted. Hamilton was stoned at a public
meeting in New York while speaking in defence of the treaty, and
Washington was grossly abused for signing it. In the House
of Representatives the Republicans endeavoured to prevent
the execution of the treaty by refusing the necessary appro-
priations, and a vote (20th of April, 1795) on a resolution that it
ought to be carried into effect stood 49 to 49; but on the next
day the opposition was defeated by a vote of 51 to 48. Once
in operation, the treaty grew in favour. Two days before landing
on his return from the English mission, Jay had been elected
governor of New York state; notwithstanding his temporary
unpopularity,- be was re-elected in April 1798. With the close
of this second term of office in x8ox, he ended his public career.
Although not yet fifty-seven years old, he refused all offers
ot office and retiring to his estate near Bedford in Westchester
county, N.Y., spent the rest of his life in rarely interrupted
seclusion. In politics he was throughout inclined toward
Conservatism, and after the rise of parties under the federal
government he stood with Alexander Hamilton and John
Adams as one of the foremost leaders of the Federalist party,
as opposed to the Republicans or Democratic-Republicans.
From 1821 until 1828 he was president of the American Bible
Society. He died on the 17th of May 1829. The purity and
integrity of his life are commemorated in a sentence by Daniel
Webster: "When the spotless ermine of the judicial robe
fell on John Jay, it touched nothing less spotless than itself."
See The Correspondence and Public Papers of John Jay (4 vols.,
New York, 1800-1893). edited by H. P. Johnston; William Jay.
Life of John Jay trith Selection* from his Correspondence and Miscel-
laneous Papers (2 vols.. New York. 1833) ; William Whitelocke, Life
§ud Times of John Jay (New York, 1887); and George Pellew,
John Jay (Boston, 1890), in the " American Statesmen Series."
John Jay's son, WauxM Jay (1789-1858), was born in New
York City on the 16th of June 1789, graduated from Yale in
1 So 7, and soon afterwards assumed the management of his
father's large estate in Westchester county, N.Y. He was
actively interested in peace, temperance and .anti-slavery move-
meats. He took a prominent part in 18 16 in founding the
American Bible Society; was a jndge of Westchester county firom
1818 to 1843, when he was removed from office by the party in
power in New York, which hoped, by sacrificing an anti-slavery
judge, to gain additional strength in the southern states;
joined the American anti-slavery society in 1834, and held
several important offices in this organization. In 1840, how-
ever, when it began to advocate measures which he deemed top
radical, he withdrew his membership, but with his pen he coin
tinued his labours on behalf of the slave, urging emancipation
in the district of Columbia and the exclusion of slavery from the
Territories, though deprecating any attempt to interfere with
slavery in the states. He was a member of the American peace
society and was its president for several years. His pamphlet,
War and Peace: the Evils of the First with a Plan for Securing
the Last, advocating international arbitration, was published by
the English Peace Society in 1842, and is said to have contributed
to the promulgation, by the powers signing the Treaty of Paris
in 1856, of a protocol expressing the wish that nations, before
resorting to arms, should have recourse to the good offices of a
friendly power. Among William Jay's other writings, the most
important are The Life of John Jay (2 vols., 1833) and a Review
of the Causes and Consequences of the Mexican War (1849). He
died at Bedford on the 14th of October 1858.
See Bayard Tuckerman, William Jay and the Constitutional
Movement for the Abolition of Slavery (New York, 1893).
William Jay's son, John Jay (18x7-1894), also took an active
part in the anti-slavery movement. He was a prominent mem-
ber of the free soil party, and was one of the organizers of the
Republican party in New York. He was United States minister
to Austria-Hungary in 1860-1875, and was a member, and for a
time president, of the New York civil service commission
appointed by Governor Cleveland in 1883.
JAY, WILLIAM ( 1 760-1853), English Nonconformist divine,
was born at Tisbury in Wiltshire on the 6th of May 1760. He
adopted his father's trade of stone-mason, but gave it up in
1785 in order to enter the Rev. Cornelius Winter's school at
Marlborough. During the three years that Jay spent there,
his preaching powers were rapidly developed. Before he was
twenty-one he had preached nearly a thousand times, and in
x 788 he had for a while occupied Rowland Hill's pulpit in London.
Wishing to continue his reading he accepted the* humble pastor-
ate of Christian Malford, near Chippenham, where he remained
about two years. After one year at Hope chapel, Clifton, he
was called to the ministry of Argyle Independent chapel in Bath;
and on the 30th of January 1791 he began the work of his lift
there, attracting hearers of every religions denomination and
of every rank, and winning for himself a wide reputation as *
brilliant pulpit orator, an earnest religious author, and a friendly
counsellor. Sheridan declared him to be the most manly orator
he had ever heard. A long and honourable connexion of sixty-
two years came to an end in January 1853, *nd he died on the
27th of December following.
The best-known of Jay's works are his Morning and Evening
Exercises-. The Christian contemplated: The Domestic Minister's
A sristant; and his Discourses. He a\*o wrote* Lift of Re*. Cornelius
Winter, and Memoirs of Re$. John Clarke. An edition of Jay's
Works in la vol*., 8vo, revised by himself, was issued in 1 843-1 844.
and again in 1856. A new edition, in 8 vols., 8vo, was published in
1876. See A utobiography (1 854) ; S. Wilson's Memoir of Jay (1 854) ;
S. Newth in Pulpit Memorials (1878).
JAY (Fr. giai), a well-known and veTy beautiful European
bird, the Corvus glandarius of Linnaeus, the Carrulus glandarius
of modern ornithologists. To this species are more or less
closely allied numerous birds inhabiting the Palaearctic and
Indian regions, as well as the greater part of America,
but, not occurring in the Antilles, in the southern portion
of the Neotropical Region, or in the Ethiopian or Austra-
lian. All these birds are commonly called jays, and form a
group of the crows or Corvidae, which may fairly be considered
a sub-family, Garrulinae. Indeed there are, or have been,
systematise who would elevate the jays to the rank of a family
Garrulidac—v proceeding which seems unnecessary. Some of
than have an unquestionable resemblance to the pies, if the group
new known by that name can be satisfactorily severed from the
true Cornnae. In structure the jays are not readily differen-
tiated from the pies; but in habit they are much more arboreal,
delighting in thick coverts, seldom appearing in the open, and
seeking their food on or under trees. They seem also never to
walk or run when on the ground, but always to hop. The body-
feathers are commonly loose and soft; and, gaily coloured as are
most of the species, in few of them has the plumage the metallic
glossiness it generally presents in the pies, while the proverbial
beauty of. the " jay's wing " is due to the vivid tints of blue —
turquoise and cobalt, heightened by bars of jet-black, an indica-
tion of the same style of ornament being observable in the greater
Fig. I — European Jay.
number of the other forms of the group, and in some predomi-
nating over nearly the whole surface. Of the many genera
that have been proposed by ornithologists, perhaps about nine
may be deemed sufficiently well established.
The ordinary European jay, Garrulus glandariut (fig. i), has
suffered so much persecution in the British Islands as to have
become in many districts a rare bird. In Ireland it seems now
to be indigenous to the southern half of the island only; in
England generally, it is far less numerous than formerly; and
in Scotland its numbers have decreased with still greater rapidity.
There is little doubt that it would have been exterminated but
for its stock being supplied in autumn by immigration, and for
its shy and wary behaviour, especially at the breeding-season,
when it becomes almost wholly mute, and thereby often escapes
detection. No truthful man, however much he may love the
bird, will gainsay the depredations on fruit and eggs that it at
tiroes commits; but the gardeners and gamekeepers of Britain,
instead of taking a few simple steps to guard their charge from
injury, deliberately adopt methods of wholesale -destruction —
methods that in the case of this specks are only too easy and too
effectual — by proffering temptation to trespass which it is not in
jay-nature to resist, and accordingly the bird runs great chance
of total extirpation. Notwithstanding the war carried on against
the jay, its varied cries and active gesticulations show it to be a
sprightly bird, and at a distance that renders its beauty-spots
invisible, it is yet rendered conspicuous by its cinnamon-coloured
body and pure white tail-coverts, which contrast with the deep
black and rich chestnut that otherwise mark its plumage, and
even the young at once assume a dress closely resembling that
of the adult. The nest, generally concealed in a leafy tree or
bush, is carefully built, with a lining formed of fine roots neatly
interwoven. Herein from four to seven eggs, of a greenish-
white closely freckled, so as to seem suffused with light olive,
are laid in March or April, and the young on quitting it accom-
pany their parents for some weeks.
Though the common jay of Europe inhabits nearly the whole
of this quarter of the globe south of 64° N. lat., its territory in
the east of Russia is also occupied by G. brondli, a kindred form,
which replaces it on the other side of the Ural, and ranges thence
across Siberia to Japan; and again on the lower Danube and
JAY 297
thence to Constantinople the nearly allied G. krynicM (which
alone is found in southern Russia, Caucasia and Asia Minor)
shares its haunts with it. 1 It also crosses the Mediterranean
to Algeria and Morocco; but there, as in southern Spain, it is
probably but a winter immigrant. The three forms just named
have the widest range of any of the genus. Neat to them come
G. atricapiUus, reaching from Syria to Baluchistan, G. jdp*nicus t
the ordinary jay of southern Japan, and G. sinensis, the Chinese
bird. Other forms have a much more limited area, as G. cervicalis,
the local and resident jay of Algeria, G. hyrcanus, found on the
southern shores of the Caspian Sea, and G. taevanus, confined to
the island of Formosa. The most aberrant of the true jays is
C. lidthi, a very rare species, which seems to come from some
part of Japan (vide Salvadori, AUi Accad. Tori**, vii. 474),
though its exact locality is not known.
Leaving the true jays of the genus Garrulus, it is expedient
next to consider those of a group named, in 1831, Perisoreus
by Prince C. L. Bonaparte (Saggto, &c, Anim. Vcrttbrati, p. 43)
and Dysomitkia by Swainson (F. B- Americana, ii. 405).*
This group contains two species— one the Lanins infeushts of
Linnaeus and the Siberian jay of English writers, which ranges
throughout the pine-forests of the north of Europe and Asia, and*
the second the Conns canadensis of the same author, or Canada
jay, occupying a similar station in America. The so-called
Siberian jay is one of the most entertaining birds in the world. Its
versatile cries and actions, as seen and beard by those who pene-
trate the solitude of the northern forests it inhabits, can never be
forgotten by one who has had experience of them, any more than
the pleasing sight of its rust-coloured tail, which an occasional
gleam of sunshine will light up into a brilliancy quite unexpected
by those who have only surveyed the bird's otherwise gloomy
appearance in
the glass-case of
a museum. It «
seems scarcely to *
know fear, eb- jj
truding itself on •
the notice of any $
traveller who in- *
vades its haunts, 4
and, should he ;
halt, making it- ■
self at once a j
denizen of his
bivouac. In con- *
finement it
speedily becomes ■
friendly, but suit- j
able food for it is J
not easily found. '
Linnaeus seems
to have been
under a misap-
prehension when
he applied to it F" 10 * a.^-American Blue Jay.
the trivial epithet it bears; for by none of his countrymen Is it
deemed an unlucky bird, but rather the reverse In fact, no one
can listen to the cheery sound of its ordinary calls with any but
a hopeful feeling. The Canada jay, or "whisky-jack" (the
corruption probably of a Cree name), seems to be of a similar
nature, but it presents a still more sombre coloration, its nestling
plumage,* indeed, being thoroughly corvine in appearance and
suggestive of its being a pristine form.
• As though to make amends for the dull plumage of the species
last mentioned, North America offers some of the. most brilliantly
1 Further information will possibly show that these districts are
not occupied at the same season of the year by the two forms.
• Recent writers have preferred the former name, though it was
only used sub-generically by its author, who assigned to it no charac-
ters, which the inventor of the latter was careful to do, regarding it
at the same time as a genus.
• In this it was described and figured (P. B. Americana, u. 396
pL 55) as a distinct species, G. brachyrkynchus.
298
JEALOUSY— JEANNIN
coloured of the sub-family , and the common blue jay 1 of Canada
and the eastern states of the Union, Cyanurus cristatus (fig. 2),
is one of the mo*t conspicuous birds of the Transatlantic woods.
The account of its habits by Alexander Wilson is known to every
Student of ornithology, and WUson'3 followers have had little to
do but supplement his history with unimportant details. In
this bird and its many allied forms, coloration, though almost
confined to various tints of blue, seems to reach its climax, but
want of space forbids more particular notice of them, or of the
members of the other genera Cyanociita, Cyonocorax, Xantkura,
Psilorhinus, and more, which inhabit various parts of the
Western continent. It remains, however, to mention the genus
Cissa, including many beautiful forms belonging to the Indian
region, and among them the C. speciosa and C. sinensis, so often
represented in Oriental drawings, though doubts may be ex-
pressed whether these birds are not more nearly related to the
pies than to the jays. (A. N.)
JEALOUSY (adapted from Fr. jalousie, formed from jaloux,
jealous, Low Lat. telosus, Gr. f i}Xot, ardour, zeal, from the root
seen in feu?, to boil, ferment; cf. " yeast "), originally a condi-
tion of zealous emulation, and hence, in the usual modern sense,
of resentment at being (or believing that one is or may be)
supplanted or preferred in the love or affection of another, or in
the enjoyment of some good regarded as properly one's own.
Jealousy is really a form of envy, but implies a feeling of personal
claim which in envy or covetousness is wanting. The jealousy
of God, as in Exod. xx. 5, " For I, the Lord thy God, am a jealous
God," has been defined by Pusey (Minor Prophets, i860) as the
attribute " whereby he does not endure the love of his creatures
to be transferred from him." "Jealous," by etymology, is
however, only another form of " zealous," and the identity is
exemplified by such expressions as " I have been very jealous
for the Lord God of Hosts " (1 Kings xix. 10). A kind of glass,
thick, ribbed and non-transparent, was formerly known as
"jealous-glass," and this application is seen in the borrowed
French word jalousie, a blind or shutter, made of slats of wood,
which slope in such a way as to admit air and a certain amount
of light, while excluding rain and sun and inspection from
without.
JEAN D'ARRAS, a i$th-century trouvere, about whose
personal history nothing is known, was the collaborator with
Antoine du Val and Fouquart de Cambrai in the authorship of
a collection of stories entitled £vangiles de qucnoville. They
purport to record the narratives of a group of ladies at their
spinning, who relate the current theories on a great variety of
subjects. The work dates from the middle of the 15th century
and is of considerable value for the light it throws on meJieval
manners.
There were many editions of this book in the i«h and 16th cen-
turies, one of which was printed by Wynlcyn dc Worde in English,
as The Cospdles of Dystaves. A modern edition (Collection Jannet)
has a preface by Anatolc France.
Another trouvere, Jean d'Arras who flourished in the
second half of the 14th century, wrote, at the request of John,
duke of Berry, a long prose romance entitled Chronique de la
princesse. It relates with many digressions the antecedents
and life of the fairy Melusine (q.v.).
JEAN DE MEUN, or De Meuno (c. 125©-*. ty>s), whose
original name was Jean Clopinel or Chopinel, was born at Meun-
sur-Loire. Tradition asserts that he studied at the university
of Paris. At any rate he was, like bis contemporary, Rutebeuf,
a defender of Guillaume dc Saint- Amour and a bitter critic of the
mendicant orders. Most of his life seems to have been spent in
Paris, where he possessed, in the Rue Saint-Jacques, a house with
a tower, court and garden, which was described in 1305 as the
house of the late Jean de Meung, and was then bestowed by a
certain Adam d'Andcly on the Dominicans. Jean dc Mcun says
that in his youth he composed songs that were sung in every
public place and school in France. In the enumeration of his
own works he places first his continuation of the Roman de la
rose of Guillaume de Lorris (q.v.). The date of this second part
1 The birds known as blue jays in India and Africa axe rollers ($*.).
is generally fixed between 1268 and 128$ by a reference in the
poem to the death of Manfred and Conradin, executed (1*68) by
order of Charles of An jou (d. 1285) who is described as the present
king of Sicily. M. F. Guillon (Jean Clopinel, 1903), however,
considering the poem primarily as a political satire, places k ia
the last five years of the 13th century. Jean de Meun doubtless
edited the work of his predecessor, Guillaume dc Lorris, before
using it as the starting point of his own vast poem, running to
19,000 lines. The continuation of Jean de Mcun is a satire on
the monastic orders, on celibacy, on the nobility, the papal see.
the excessive pretensions of royalty, and especially on women
and marriage. Guillaume had been the servant of love, and the
exponent of the laws of " courtoisie "; Jean de Meun added an
•• art of love," exposing with brutality the vices of women, their
arts of deception, and the means by which men may outwit
them. Jean de Meun embodied the mocking, sceptical spirit of
the fabliaux. He did not share in current superstitions, he had
no respect for established institutions, and he scorned the con-
ventions of feudalism and romance. His poem shows in the
highest degree, in spite of the looseness of its plan, the faculty of
keen observation, of lucid reasoning and exposition, and it entitles
him to be considered the greatest of French medieval poets.
He handled the French language with an ease and precision
unknown to his predecessors, and the length of his poem was no
bar to its popularity in the 13th and 14th centuries. Part of its
vogue was no doubt due to the fact that the author, who had
mastered practically all the scientific and literary knowledge of
his contemporaries in France, had found room in his poem for a
great amount of useful information and for numerous citations
from classical authors. The book was attacked by Guillaume de
Dcgulleville in his Pelerinage de la tie kumaine (e. 1330), long a
favourite work both in England and France; by John Gerson,
and by Christine de Pisan in her £pttre au dieu d' amour; but it
also found energetic defenders.
Jean de Mcun translated in 1284 the treatise, De rt mOitari, of
Vcgetius into French as Le litre de Vetece de I' art de ckepalerie* (ed.
Ulysse Robert, Soe. des anciens testes Jr., 1897). He also produced
a spirited version, the first in Freach, of the letters of Abelaxd and
Hcloisc. A 14th-century MS. of this translation in the BibUotheqoe
Nationalc has annotations by Petrarch. Hi* translation of the
De consdatione pkilosophiae of Boctius is preceded by a letter to
Philip IV. in which he enumerates his earlier works, two of which
are lost— De spirtiuelte antUii from the De spirituals amicisia at
Aelrcd of Ricvaulx (d. 1 166), and the Livre des merveiUes d'Hiriande
from the Topotraphia Hibernica, or De MirabUibus Hiberniae of
Giraldus Cambrensis (Giraud de Barry). His last poems are
doubtless his Testament and CodicilU. The Testament is written in
quatrains in mooorime, and contains advice to the different classes
of the community.
See also Paulin Paris in Hist. lit. de la France, xxviiL 391-439.
and E. Langkus in Hist, de la laniue etde la lit. francaise, cd. L.
Petit de Julleville, ii, 125-161 (1096); and editions of the Roman
de la rose (9*.).
JEANNETTE, a borough of Westmoreland county, Pennsyl-
vania, U.S.A., about 27 m. E. by S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890),
3»o6; (1000), 5865 (1340 foreign -born); (1010), 8077. It is
served by the Pennsylvania railroad, and is connected with
Pittsburg and Uniontown by electric railway. It is supplied
with natural gas and is primarily a manufacturing centre,, its
principal manufactures being glass, table-ware and rubber goods.
Jeannette was founded in 1888, and was incorporated v as a
borough in 1889.
JEANNIN, PIERRE (1 540-1622), French statesman, was born
at Autun. A pupil of the great jurist Jacques Cujas at Bourges,
he was an advocate at Dijon in 1569 and became councillor and
then president of the partcment of Burgundy. He opposed in
vain the massacre of St Bartholomew in his province. As
councillor to the duke of Maycnne he sought to reconcile him
with Henry IV. After the victory of Fontaine-Francaise (1 595),
Henry took Jeannin into his council and in 1602 named him
intendant of finances. He took part in the principal events of
the reign, negotiated the treaty of Lyons with the duke of Savoy
* Jean de Meun's translation formed the basis of a rhymed version
(1290) by Jean Priorat of Bcsancon, Li abrcyanct de I'ordre de ckeva-
Uris.
JEBB, JOHN— JEDBURGH
(see HsiftY IV.), and the defensive affiance between France and
the United Netherlands in 1608. As superintendent of finances
under Louis XIII. , he tried to establish harmony between the
king and the queen-mother.
See Berger de Xivrey, Lettres missives de Henri IV. (In the Cotlec-
Horn. inUiU pour I' his toirede France), t. v. (1850) ; P(ierne) S(aumatae).
EUtt surUviede Pierre Janin (Dijon, 1625) ; Sainta-Bcuve, Causeries
du lundi, U x. (May 1854).
JEBB, JOHN (1736-1786), English divine, was educated at
Cambridge, where he was elected fellow of Peterhouse in 1761,
having previously been second wrangler. He was a man of
independent judgment and warmly supported the movement of
L771 for abolishing university and clerical subscription to the
Thirty-nine Articles. In his lectures on the Greek Testament he
is said to have expressed Soctnian views. In 177$ he resigned
his Suffolk church livings, and two years afterwards graduated
M.D. at St Andrews. He practised medicine in London and was
elected F.R.S. in 1779.
Another John J ebb (1775-1833), bishop of Limerick, is best
known as the author of Sacred Literature (London, 1820).
JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSB (1841-1005), English
classical scholar, was born at Dundee on the 37th of August
184 1. His* father was a well-known barrister, and his grand-
father a judge. He was educated at Charterhouse and at
Trinity College, Cambridge. He won the.Porson and Craven
scholarships, was senior classic in 186*, and became fellow and
tutor of his college in 1863. From i860 to 1875 he was public
orator of the university; professor of Greek at Glasgow from 1875
to 1889, and at Cambridge from 1889 till his death on the 9th of
December 1905. In 1891 he was elected member of parliament
for Cambridge University; he was knighted in 1900. Jebb was
acknowledged to be one of the most brilliant classical scholars of
his time, a humanist in the best sense, and his powers of transla-
tion from and into the classical languages were unrivalled. A
collected volume, Translations into Greek and Latin, appeared
in 1873 (cd. 1909). He was the recrpfent of many honorary
degrees from European and American universities, and in 1903
was made a member of the Order of Merit. He married in
1874 the widow of General A. J. Slemmer, of the United States
army, who survived him.
Tebb was the author of numerous publications, of which the
following are the most important : The Characters of Theophrastus
(1870), text, introduction, English translation and commentary
(re-edited by J. E. Sandys, 1909); The Attic Orators from Antiphon
to Isaeus (2nd ed., 1893), with companion volume, Selections from Ike
Attic Orators (2nd ed., 1888) ; Bentley (1882); Sophocics (3rd cd., 1893)
the seven plays, text, English translation and notes, the pro-
mised edition of the fragments being prevented by his death;
Bacchyiides (1905), text, translation, and notes: Homer (3rd cd.. 1888),
an introduction to the Wad and Odyssey-, Modern ureece (1901);
The Growth and Influence of Classical Greek Poetry (1893). His
translation of the Rhetoric of Aristotle was published posthumously
under the editorship of J. E. Sandys (1909). A selection from his
Etsays and Addresses, and a subsequent volume. Life and Letters of
Str Richard Claverhouse Jebb (with critical introduction by A. VV.
Vcrrall) were published by his widow in 1907 ; see also an appreciative
notice by J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Classical Scholarship, iii. (1908).
JEBEIL (anc. Gebal- Byblus), a town of Syria pleasantly
situated on a slight eminence near the sea, about 20 m. N. of
Beirut. It is surrounded by a wall i£ m. in circumference, with
square towers at the angles, and a castle at the south-cast corner.
Numerous broken granite columns in the gardens and vineyards
that surround the town, with the number of ruined houses within
the walls, testify to its former importance. The stele of Jchaw-
melek, king of Gcbal, found here, is one of the most important
of Phoenician monuments. The small port is almost choked up
with sand and ruins. Pop. 3000, all Moslems.
The inhabitants of the Phoenician Gebal and Greek Byblus
were renowned asstonecuttcrs and ship-builders. Arrian (ii. 20. 1)
represents Enylus, king of Byblus, as joining Alexander with a
fleet, after that monarch had captured the city. Philo of Byblus
makes it the most ancient city of Phoenicia, founded by Cronus,
ix. the Moloch who appears from the stele of Jchawmclck to have
been with Baalit the chief deity of the city. According to
Plutarch (Mar. 357), the ark with the corpse of Osiris was cast
299
ashore at Byblus, aad there found by Ids. The orgies of Adonis
in the temple of Baalit (Aphrodite Byblia) are described by
Lurian, De Dea Syr. f cap. vi. The river Adonis is the Nahr al-
Ibrahim, which flows near the town. The crusaders, after failing
before it in 1009, captured " Giblet " in 1103, but lost it again
to Saladin in 11 89. Under Mahommedan rule it has gradually
decayed. (D.G.H.)
JE&EL (plur. jibaT), also written Gxbkl with hard g (plur.
gibaT), an Arabic word meaning a mountain or a mountain chain.
It is frequently used in place-names. The French transliteration
of the word is djebd. Jebeii signifies a mountaineer. The pro-
nunciation with a hard g sound is that used in the Egyptian
dialect of Arabic.
JEDBURGH, a royal and police burgh and county-town of
Roxburghshire, Scotland. Pop. of police burgh (1901), 3136,
It is situated on Jed Water, a tributary of the Teviot, 56 J m. S.E.
of Edinburgh by the North British railway, via Roxburgh and
St Boswells (49 m. by road), and xo m. from the border at
Catclcuch Shin, a peak of the Cheviots, 1742 ft. high. Of the
name Jedburgh there have been many variants, the earliest being
Gedwearde (800), Jedwarth (1251), and Geddart (1586), while
locally the word is sometimes pronounced JetharL The town
is situated on the left bank of the Jed, the main streets running
at right angles from each side of the central market-place. Of
the renowned group of Border abbeys — Jedburgh, Melrose,
Dryburgh and Kelso— that of Jedburgh is the stateliest. In
1 x 18, according to tradition, but more probably as late as 1138,
David, prince of Cumbria, here founded a priory for Augustinian
monks from the abbey of St Quentin at Beauvais in France, and
in 1147, after he had become king, erected it into an abbey
dedicated to the Virgin. Repeatedly damaged in Border warfare,
it was ruined in 1544-45 during the English invasion led by
Sir Ralph Evers (or Eurc). The establishment was suppressed
in 1559, the revenues being temporarily annexed to the Crown.
After changing owners more than once, the lands were purchased
in 1637 by the 3rd earl of Lothian. Latterly five of the bays at
the west end had been utilized as the parish church', but in 1873-
x 875 the 9th marquess of Lothian built a church for the service
of the parish, and presented it to the heritors in exchange for the
ruined abbey in order to prevent the latter from being injured
*>>
nostty
to 1 The
an of the
e nave
ains a
11 each
round
dere-
tower,
lassivc
twork
north
n. the
of the
early
is the
rquess
al the
le 8th
choir,
1 three
It is
I roof,
>m the
ncipal
hor of
ti aisle
ab
of
Tk
int rcopy
of by Sir
Re . in the
abbey was carried out.
The castle stood on high ground at the south end of the burgh,
or " town-head." Erected by David I., it was one of the strong-
holds ceded to England in 11 74, under the treaty of Falaisc, for
the ransom of William the Lion. It was, however, so often
captured by the English that it became a menace rather than a
protection, and the townsfolk demolished it in 1409. It had
3<>o
occastoaaBy been used as a royal residence, and was the scene, in
November 1285, of the revels held in celebration of the marriage
(solemnized in the abbey) of Alexander IIL to Jo&eta, or Yolande,
daughter of the count of Dreux. The site was occupied in 1833
by the county prison, now known as the castle, a castellated
structure which gradually fell into disuse and was acquired by
the corporation in 1800. A house exists in Backdate in which
Mary Queen of Scots, resided in 1566, and one in Castlegate
which Prince Charles Edward occupied in 1745.
The public buildings include the grammar school (built in
1833 to replace the successor of the school in the abbey), founded
by William Turnbull, bishop of Glasgow (d. 1454). the county
buildings, the free library and the public hall, whkh succeeded to
the corn exchange destroyed by fire in 1808, a loss that involved
the museum and its contents, including the banners captured
by the Jethart weavers at Bannockburn and Killiecrankie. The
old market cross still exists, and there are two public parks.
The chief industry is the manufacture of woollens (blankets,
hosiery), but brewing, tanning and iron-founding are carried on,
and fruit (especially pears) and garden produce are in repute.
Jedburgh was made a royal burgh in the reign of David I., and
received a charter from Robert I. and another, in 1566, from
Mary Queen of Scots. Sacked and burned time after time dur-
ing the Border strife, it was inevitable that the townsmen should
become keen fighters. Their cry of " Jethart 's here I " was heard
wherever the fray waxed most fiercely, and the Jethart axe of
their invention— a steel axe on a 4-ft. pole — wrought havoc in
their hands.
" Jethart or Jeddart justice," according to which a man was
hanged first and tried afterwards, seems to have been a hasty
generalization from a solitary fact — the summary execution in
James VI. 's reign of a gang of rogues at the instance of Sir
George Home, but has nevertheless passed into a proverb.
Old Jeddart, 4 m. S. of the present town, the first site of the
burgh, is now marked by a few grassy mounds, and of the great
Jedburgh forest, only the venerable oaks, the " Capon Tree " and
the "King of the Woods" remain. Dunion Hill (1095 ft.),
about a m. south-west of Jedburgh, commands a fine view of
the capital of the county.
JEEJEEBHOY (Jwbhai), SIR JAMSETJEE (Jamseiji),
Bart. (1783-1859), Indian merchant and philanthropist, was
born in Bombay in 1783, of poor but respectable parents, and
was left an orphan in early life. At the age of sixteen, with a
smattering of mercantile education and a bare pittance, he
commenced a scries of business travels destined to lead him to
fortune and fame. After a preliminary visit to Calcutta, be under-
took a voyage to China, then fraught with so much difficulty and
risk that it was regarded as a venture betokening considerable
enterprise and courage; and he subsequently initiated a syste-
matic trade with that country, being himself the carrier of his
merchant wares on his passages to and fro between Bombay and
Canton and Shanghai. His second return voyage from China
was made in one of the East India Company's fleet, which, under
the command of Sir Nathaniel Dance, defeated the French
squadron under Admiral Linois (Feb. 15, 1804). On his
fourth return voyage from China, the Indiaman in which he
sailed was forced to surrender to the French, by whom he was
carried as a prisoner to the Cape of Good Hope, then a neutral
Dutch possession; and it was only after much delay, and with
great difficulty, that he made his way to Calcutta in a Danish
ship. Nothing daunted, he undertook yet another voyage to
China, which was more successful than any of the previous ones.
By this time be had fairly established his reputation as a mer-
chant possessed of the highest spirit of enterprise and consider-
able wealth, and thenceforward he settled down in Bombay,
where he directed his commercial operations on a widely extended
scale. By 1836 his firm was large enough to engross the energies
of his three sons and other relatives; and he had amassed what
at that period of Indian mercantile history was regarded as
fabulous wealth. An essentially self-made man, having experi-
enced in early life the miseries of poverty and want, in his days
of affluence Jamsetjee Jeejecbhoy developed -».
JEEJEEBHOt— JEFFERIES
of sympathy with his poorer countrymen, and commenced that
career of private and public philanthropy which is his chief title
to the admiration of mankind. His liberality was unbounded,
and the absorbing occupation of his later life was the alleviation
of human distress. To his own community be gave lavishly,
but his benevolence was mainly cosmopolitan. Hospitals,
schools, homes of charity, pension funds, were founded or en*
dowed by him, while numerous public works in the shape of wells,
reservoirs, bridges, causeways, and the like, not only in Bombay,
but in other parts of India, were the creation of his bounty. The
total of his known benefactions amounted at the time of ha
death, which took place in 1859, to over £230,000. It was not.
however, the amount of his charities so much as the period and
circumstances in which they were performed that made his
benevolent career worthy of the fame he won. In the first half
of the 19th century the various communities of India were much
more isolated in their habits and their sympathies than they are
now. Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy's unsectarian philanthropy awak-
ened a common understanding and created a bond between them
which has proved not only of domestic value but has had a
national and political significance. His services were recognized
first in 1842 by the bestowal of a knighthood upon him, and in
1858 by that of a baronetcy. These were the very first distinc-
tions of their kind conferred by Queen Victoria upon a British
subject in India.
His title devolved in 1859 on his eldest son Cuksetjze, who,
by a special Act of the Viceroy's Council in pursuance of a
provision in the letters-patent, took the name of Sir Jamsetjee
Jeejecbhoy as second baronet. -At his death in 1877 his eldest
son, Menekjee, became Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, the third
baronet. Both had the advantage of a good English education,
and continued the career of benevolent activity and devoted
loyalty to British rule which had signalized the life-work of the
founder of the family. They both visited England to do homage
to their sovereign; and their public services were recognized
by their nomination to the order of the Star of India, as well
as by appointment to the Legislative Councils of Calcutta and
Bombay.
On the death of the third baronet, the title devolved upon his
brother, Cowsajee (i 853-1908), who became Sir Jamsetjee
Jeejeebhoy, fourth baronet, and the recognized leader of the
Parse* community all over the world. He was succeeded by
his son Rustobtjee (b. 1878), who became Sir Jamsetjee
Jeejeebhoy, fifth baronet.
Since their emigration from Persia, the Parsee community had
never had a titular chief or head, its communal funds and affairs
being managed by a public body, more or less democratic in its
constitution, termed the Parsee panchayat. The first Sir
Jamsetjee, by the hold that he established on the community,
by his charities and public spirit, gradually came to be regarded
in the light of its chief; and the recognition which he was the
first in India to receive at the hands of the British sovereign
finally fixed him and his successors in the baronetcy in the posi-
tion and title of the official Parsee leader. (M. M. Bu.)
JEFFERIES, RICHARD (1848-1887), English naturalist and'
author, was born on the 6th of November 1848, at the farmhouse
of Coate about 2\ m. from Swindon, on the road to Marlborough.
He was sent to school, first at Sydenham and then at Swindon,
till the age of fifteen or so, but his actual education was at the
hands of his father, who gave him his love for Nature and taught
him how to observe. For the faculty of observation, as Jefferies,
Gilbert White, and H. D. Thorcau have remarked, several gifts are
necessary, including the possession of long sight and quick sight,
two things which do not always go together. To them must be
joined trained sight and the knowledge of what to expect. The
boy's father first showed him what there was to look for in the
hedge, in the field, in the trees, and in the sky. This kfnd of
training would in many cases be wasted: to one who can under-
stand it, the book of Nature will by -and -by offer pages which are
blurred and illegible to the city-bred lad, and even to the country
lad the power of reading them must be maintained by constant
practice. To live amid streets or in the working world destroys
JEFFERSON, J.— JEFFERSON, T.
Jt. The ooserver must Uve alone aod always to the country;
he must not worry himself about the ways of the world; he must
be always, from day to day, watching the infinite changes and
variations of Nature. Perhaps, even when the observer can
actually read this book of Nature, his power of articulate speech
may prove inadequate for the expression of what he sees. But
Jefferies, as a boy, was more than an observer of the fields, he
was bookish, and read all the books that he could borrow or buy.
And presently, as is apt to be the fate of a bookish boy who cannot
enter a learned profession, he became a journalist and obtained
a post on the local paper. He developed literary ambitions, but
for a long time to come was as one beating the air He tried local
history and novels; but his early novels, which were published
at his own risk and expense, were, deservedly, failures. In 187a,
however, he published a remarkable letter in The Times, on
" The Wiltshire Labourer/' full of original ideas and of facts
new to most readers. This was in reality the turning-point
in his career. In 1873, after more false starts, Jefferies
returned to his true field of work, the life of the country,
and began to write for Frascr's Magazine on " Farming and
Farmers." He had now found himself. The rest of his
history is that of continual advance, from close observation
becoming daily more and more close, to that intimate com-
munion with Nature with which his later pages are filled. The
developments of the later period are throughout touched
with the melancholy that belongs to ill-health. For, though in
his prose poem called " The Pageant of Summer " the writer
seems absolutely revelling in the strength of manhood that be-
longs to that pageant, yet, in the Story of My Heart, written about
the same time, we detect the mind that is continually turned to
death. He died at Goring, worn out with many ailments, on the
14th of August 1887. The best-known books of Richard Jefferies
are: The Gamekeeper at Home (1878); The Story 0/ My Heart
(1883) ; Life of the Fields (1884), containing the best paper he ever
wrote, " The Pageant of Summer"; Amaryllis at the Fair (1884),
in which may be found the portraits of his own people; and The
Open Air, He stands among the scanty company of men who
address a small audience, for whom he read aloud these pages of
Nature spoken of above, which only he, and the lew like unto
him, can decipher.
See Sir Walter Besant, Eulogy of Richard Jefferies (1888); H. S.
Salt, Richard Jefferies: a Study (1894); Edward Thomas. Richard
Jefferies, his Life and Work (1909). (W. Be.)
JEFFERSON, JOSEPH (1820-1905), American actor, was born
in Philadelphia on the 20th of February i8ao» He was the third
actor of this name in a family of actors and managers, and the
most famous of all American comedians. At the age of three he
appeared as the boy in Kotzebue's Pisarro, and throughout his
youth he underwent all the hardships connected with theatrical
touring in those early days. After a miscellaneous experience,
partly as actor, partly as manager, be won his first pronounced
success in 1858 as Asa Trcnchard in Tom Taylor's Our American
Cousin at Laura Keene's theatre in New York. This play was
the turning-point of his career, as it was of Sothern's. The
naturalness and spontaneity of humour with which be acted the
love scenes revealed a spirit in comedy new to his contemporaries,
long used to a more artificial convention; and the touch of pathos
which the part required revealed no less to the actor an unex-
pected power in himself. Other early parts were Newman Noggs
in Nicholas Nicklcby, Caleb Plummer in The Cricket on the Hearth,
Dr Pangloss in The Heir at Law, Salem Scudder in The Octoroon,
and Bob Acres in The Rivals, the last being not so much an inter-
pretation of the character as Sheridan sketched it a* a creation
of the actor's. In 1859 Jefferson made a dramatic version of the
story of Rip Van Winkle on the basis of older plays, and acted
it with success at Washington. The play was given its perma-
nent form by Dion Boudcault in London.where (1865) it ran 170
nights, with Jefferson in the leading part. Jefferson continued
to act with undiminished popularity in a limited number of parts
in nearly every town in the United States, his Rip Van Winkle,
Bob Acres, and Caleb Plummer being the most popular. He was
one of the first to establish the travelling combinations which
3ot
superseded the old system -of local stock companies. With the
exception of minor parts, such as the First Cravedigger in
Hamlet, which he played in an " all star combination " headed
by Edwin Booth, Jefferson created no new character after 1865;
and the success of Rip Van Winkle was so pronounced that he
has of ten been called a one-part actor. If this was a fault, it was
the public's, who never wearied of his one masterpiece. Jefferson
died on the 23rd of April 1005. No man in his profession was
more honoured for his achievements or his character. He was
the friend of many of the leading men in American politics, art
and literature. He was an ardent fisherman and lover of nature,
and devoted to painting. Jefferson was twice married: to an
actress, Margaret Clements Lockyer (1832-1861), in 1850, and in
1867 to Sarah Warren, niece of William Warren the actor.
; Jefferson's Autobiography ^New York, 1889) U written with admir-
Joseph Jefferson (1894) j Mis. E. P. Jefferson, Re c ollec ti ons of Jt
Jefferson (1909).
JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826), third president of the
United States of America, and the most conspicuous apostle of
democracy in America, was born on the 13th of April 1743,
at ShadweU, Albemarle county, Virginia. His father, Peter
Jefferson (1707-1757). of early Virginian yeoman stock, was a
civil fnginrw and a man of remarkable energy, who became a
justice of the peace, a county surveyor and a burgess, served the
Crown in inter-colonial boundary surveys, and married into one
of the most prominent colonial families, the Randolphs. Albe-
marle county was then in the frontier wilderness of the Blue
Ridge, and was very different, socially, from the lowland counties
where a few broad-acred families dominated an open-handed,
somewhat luxurious and assertive aristocracy. Unlike his
Randolph connexions, Peter Jefferson was a whig and a thorough
democrat; from him, and probably, too, from the Albemarle
environment, his son came naturally by democratic inclinations.
Jefferson carried with him from the college of William and
Mary at Williamsburg, in his twentieth year, a good knowledge
of Latin, Greek and French (to which he soon added Spanish,
Italian and Anglo-Saxon), and a familiarity with the higher
mathematics and natural sciences only possessed, at his age, by
men who have a rare natural taste and ability for those studies.
He remained an ardent student throughout life, able to give and
take in association with the many scholars, American and foreign,
whom he numbered among his friends and correspondents.
With a liberal Scotsman, Dr William Small, then of the faculty
of William and Mary and later a friend of Erasmus Darwin, and
George Wythe (1726-1806), a very accomplished scholar and
leader of the Virginia bar, Jefferson was an habitual member,
while still in college, of a partie carrte at the table of Francis
Fauquier (& 1720-1768), the accomplished lieutenant-governor
of Virginia. Jefferson was an expert violinist, a good singer and
dancer, proficient in outdoor sports, and an excellent horseman.
Thorough-bred horses always remained to him a necessary
luxury. When it is added that Fauquier was a passionate
gambler, and that the gentry who gathered every winter at
Williamsburg, the seat of government of the province, were
ruinously addicted to the same weakness, and that Jefferson had
a taste for racing, it docs credit to his early strength of character
that of his social opportunities he took only the better. He
never used tobacco, never played cards, never gambled, and was
never party to a personal quarrel.
Soon after leaving college he entered Wythe's law office, and
in 1767, after five years of close study, was admitted to the bar.
His thorough preparation enabled him to compete from the first
with the leading lawyers of the colony, and his success shows that
the bar had no rewards that were not fairly within his reach. As
an advocate, however, he did not shine; a weakness of voice made
continued speaking impossible, and he had neither the ability
nor the temperament for oratory. To his legal scholarship and
collecting zeal Virginia owed the preservation of a large part
of her early statutes. He seems to have lacked interest in
litigfousness, which was extraordinarily developed in colonial
So?
Virginia; and be saw and wished to reform the law's abuses.
It is probable that he turned, therefore, the more willingly to
politics; at any rate, soon after entering public life he abandoned
practice (1774).
The death of his father had left him an estate of 1000 acres, the
income from which (about £400) gave him the position of an
independent country gentleman; and while engaged fn the law
he had added to his farms after the ambitious Virginia fashion,
until, when he married in his thirtieth year, there were 5000
acres all paid for; and almost as much more 1 came to him in 1 773
on the death of his father-in-law. On the 1st of January 1772,
Jefferson married Martha Wayles Skelton ( 1 749-1 782) , a childless
widow of twenty-three, very handsome, accomplished, and very
fond of music. Their married life was exceedingly happy, and
Jefferson never remarried after her early death. Of six children
born from their union, two daughters alone survived infancy.
Jefferson was emotional and very affectionate in his home, and
his generous and devoted relations with his children and grand-
children are among the finest features of his character.
Jefferson began his public service as a justice of the peace and
parish vestryman; he was chosen a member of the Virginia house
of burgesses in 1769 and of every succeeding assembly and con-
vention of the colony until he entered the Continental Congress
in 1775. His forceful, facile pen gave him great influence from
the first ; but though a foremost member of several great delibera-
tive bodies, be can fairly be said never to have made a speech.
He hated the " morbid rage of debate " because he believed that
men were never convinced by argument, but only by reflection,
through reading or unprovocative conversation; and this belief
guided him through life. Moreover tl is very improbable that
be could ever have shone as a public speaker, and to this fact,
unfriendly critics have attributed, at least in part, his abstention
from debate. The house of burgesses of 1 769, and its successors
in 1775 and 1774, were dissolved by the governor (see Virginia)
for their action on the subject of colonial grievances and inter-
colonial co-operation. Jefferson was prominent in all; was a
signer of the Virginia agreement of non-importation and economy
(1769); and was elected in 1774 to the first Virginia convention,
called to consider the state of the colony and advance inter-
colonial union. Prevented by illness from attending, Jefferson
sent to the convention elaborate resolutions, which he proposed
as instructions to the Virginia delegates to the Continental
Congress that was to meet at Philadelphia in September. In
the direct language of reproach and advice, with no disingenuous
loading of the Crown's policy upon its agents, these resolutions
attacked the errors of the king, and maintained that " the relation
between Great Britain and these colonies was exactly the same
as that of England and Scotland after the accession of James and
until the Union; and that our emigration to this country gave
England no more rights over us than the emigration of the Danes
and Saxons gave to the present authorities of their mother
country over England." This was cutting at the common root
of allegiance, emigration and colonization; but such radicalism
was too thorough-going for the immediate end. The resolutions
were published, however, as a pamphlet, entitled A Summary
View ef the Rights of A mcrica, which was widely circulated. In
England, after receiving such modifications— attributed to
Burke— as adapted it to the purposes of the opposition, this
pamphlet ran through many editions, and procured for its author,
as he said, " the honour of having his name inserted in a long
list of proscriptions enrolled in a bill of attainder commenced in
one of the two houses of parliament, but suppressed in embryo
by the hasty course of events." It placed Jefferson among the
foremost leaders of revolution, and procured for him the honour
of drafting, later, the Declaration of Independence, whose
historical portions were, in large part, only a revised transcript
of the Summary View. In June 1775 he took his seat in the
Mt was embarrassed with a debt, however, of £3749. which,
owing to conditions caused by the War of Independence, he really
paid three times to his British creditors (not counting destruction
on his estates, of equal amount, ordered by Lord Cornwallis). This
fereatlv reduced his income (or a number of years.
JEFFEfcSON, T.
Continental Congress, taking with him fresh credentials of
radicalism in the shape of Virginia's answer, which he had
drafted, to Lord North's conciliatory propositions. Jefferson
soon drafted the reply of Congress to the same propositions.
Reappointed to the next Congress, he signalized his service by
the authorship of the Declaration of Independence iq.v.). Again
reappointed, he surrendered his scat, and after refusing a
proffered election to serve as a commissioner with Benjamin
Franklin and Silas Dcane in France, he entered again, in October
1776, the Viiginia legislature, where he considered his services
most needed.
The local work to which Jefferson attributed such importance
was a revision of Virginia's laws. Of the measures proposed to
this end he says: " I considered four, passed or reported, as
forming a system by which every trace would be eradicated
of ancient or future aristocracy, and a foundation laid for
a government truly republican " — the repeal of the laws of
entail; the abolition of primogeniture and the unequal
division of inheritances (Jefferson was himself an eldest son);
the guarantee of freedom of conscience and relief of the people
from supporting, by taxation, an established church; and a
system of general education. The first object was embodied in
law in 1776, the second in 1785, the third* in 1786 (supplemented
1 799, 1801). The last two were parts of a body of codified laws
prepared (1 776-1 779) by Edmund Pendleton* George Wythe,
ana Jefferson, and principally by Jefferson. Not so fortunate were
Jefferson's ambitious schemes of education. District, grammar
and classical schools, a free state library and a state college, were
all included in his plan. He was the first American statesman
to make education by the state a fundamental article of demo-
cratic faith. His bill for elementary education he regarded as
the most important part of the code, but Virginia had no strong
middle class, and the planters would not assume the burden of
educating the, poor. At this time Jefferson championed the
natural right of expatriation, and gradual emancipation of the
slaves. His earliest legislative effort, in the five-day session
of 1769, had been marked by an effort to secure to masters
freedom to manumit their slaves without removing them from
the state. It was unsuccessful, and the more radical measure
he now favoured was even more impossible of attainment ; but
a. bill he introduced to prohibit the importation of slaves was
passed in 1778 — the only important change effected in the slave
system of the state during the War of Independence. Finally
he endeavoured, though unsuccessfully, to secure the introduc-
tion of juries into the courts of chancery, and — a generation and
more before the fruition of the labours of Romilly and his co-
workers in England— aided in securing a humanitarian revision
of the penal code/ which, though lost by one vote in 178s, was
sustained by public sentiment, and was adopted in 1 796. Jeffer-
son is of course not entitled to the sole credit for all these
services: Wythe, George Mason and James Madison, in parti-
cular, were his devoted lieutenants, and — after his departure
for France — the principals in the struggle; moreover, an approv
ing public opinion must receive large credit. But Jefferson was
throughout the chief inspirer and foremost worker.
In 1 779i at almost the gloomiest stage of the war in the southern
states, Jefferson succeeded Patrick Henry as the governor of
Virginia, being the second to hold that office after the organiza-
tion of the state government. In his second term (1780-1781)
the state was overrun by British expeditions, and Jefferson, a
civilian, was blamed for the ineffectual resistance. Though he
cannot be said to have been eminently fitted for the task that
devolved u£on him in such a crisis, most of the criticism of his
* The first law of its kind in Christendom, although not the earliest
practice of such liberty in America.
( * George Mason and Thomas L. Lee were members of the commis-
sion, but they were not lawyers, and did little actual work on the
revision.
4 Capital punishment was confined to treason and murder; the
former was not to be attended by corruption of blood, drawing, or
quartering; all other felonies were made punishable by confinement
and hard Labour, save a few to which was applied, against Jefferson's
desire, the principle of retaliation.
JEFFERSON, T.
administration wis undoubtedly grossly unjust. His conduct
being attacked, be declined rcnomination for the governorship,
but was unanimously returned by Albemarle as a delegate to the
state legislature; and on the day previously set. for legislative
inquiry on a resolution offered by an impulsive critic, be received,
by unanimous vote of the house, a declaration of thanks and
confidence. He wished however to retire permanently from
public life, a wish strengthened by the illness and death of his
wife. At this time he composed his Notts on Virginia, a semi-
statistical work full of humanitarian liberalism. Congress twice
offered him an appointment as one of the plenipotentiaries to
negotiate peace with England, but, though he accepted the
second offer, the business was so far advanced before he could
sail that his appointment was recalled. During the following
winter (i 783) he was again in Congress, and headed the committee
appointed to consider the treaty of peace. In the succeeding
session his service was marked by a report, from which resulted
the present monetary system of the United States (the funda-
mental idea of its decimal basis being due, however, to Gouverneur
Morris); and by the honour of reporting the first definitely
formulated plan for the government of the western territories, 1
that embodied in the ordinance of 1784. He was already
particularly associated with the great territory north-west of the
Ohio; for Virginia had tendered to Congress in 1781, while
Jefferson was governor, a cession of her claims to it, and now in
1784 formally transferred the territory by act of Jefferson and
his fellow delegates in congress: a consummation for which he
had laboured from the beginning. His anti-slavery opinions
grew in strength with years (though he was somewhat inconsis-
tent in his attitude on the Missouri question in 1820-1821). Not
only justice but patriotism as well pleaded with him the cause of
the negroes, 2 for he foresaw the certainty that the race must some
day, in some way, be freed, and the dire political dangers involved
in the institution of slavery; and could any feasible plan of
emancipation have been suggested he would have regarded its
cost as a mere bagatelle.
From 1784 to 1780 Jefferson was in France, first under an
appointment to assist Benjamin Franklin and John Adams in
negotiating treaties of commerce with European states, and then
as Franklin's successor (1785-1789) as minister to France. 9 In
these years he travelled widely in western Europe. Though the
commercial principles of the United States were far too liberal
for acceptance, as such, by powers holding colonies in America,
Jefferson won some specific concessions to American trade. He
was exceedingly popular as a minister. The criticism is even
to-day current with the uninformed that Jefferson took his
manners, 4 morals, " irrcligion " and political philosophy from his
French residence; and it cannot be wholly ignored. It may
therefore be said that there is nothing except unsubstantiated
scandal to contradict the conclusion, which various evidence
* This plan applied to the south-western as well as to the north-
western territory, and was notable for a provision that slavery
should not exist therein after 1800. This provision was defeated
in 1784, but was adopted in 1787 for the north-western territory— a
step which is very often said to have saved the Union in the Civil
War; the south-western territory (out of which- were later formed
Mississippi. Alabama, &c) being given over to slavery. Thus the
anti-slavery clause of the ordinance of 1784 was not adopted; and
it was preceded by unofficial proposals to the same end; yet to it
belongs rightly some special honour as blazoning the way for federal
control 01 slavery in the territories, which later proved of such
enormous consequence. Jefferson in the first draft of the Ordinance
of 1784, suggested the names to be given to the states eventually
to be formed out of the territory concerned. For his suggestions
he has been much ridiculed. The names are as follows: IDinoia,
Michigania, Sylvania, Polypotamia, AssenisCpia, Charronesus,
Pclbipia, Saratoga. Mesopotamia and Washington.
9 He owned at one time above 150 slaves. His overseers were
under contract never to bleed them; but he manumitted only a few
at his death.
» During this time be assisted in negotiating a treaty of amity
and commerce with Prussia (1785) and one with Morocco (1780),
and negotiated with France a " convention defining and establishing
the functions and privileges of consuls and vice-consuls " (1788).
4 Patrick Henry humorously declaimed before a popular audience
that Jefferson, who favoured French wine and cookery, had " abjured
bis native victuals.'*
303
supports, that Jefferson's morals were pure. His religious view*
and political beliefs will be discussed later. His theories had a
deep and broad basis in English whiggism; and though he may
well have found at least confirmation of his own ideas in French
writers— and notably in Condorcet — he did not read sympa-
thetically the writers commonly named, Rousseau and Montes-
quieu; besides, his democracy was seasoned, and he was rather
a teacher than a student of revolutionary politics when he went
to Paris. The Notes on Virginia were widely read in Paris, and
undoubtedly had some influence in forwarding the dissolution
of the doctrines of divine rights and passive obedience among
the cultivated classes of France. Jefferson was deeply interested
in all the events leading up to the French Revolution, and all his
ideas were coloured by his experience of the five seething years
passed in Paris. On the 3rd of June 1789 be proposed to the
leaders of the third estate a compromise between the king and
the nation. In July he received the extraordinary honour of
being invited to assist in the deliberations of the committee
appointed by the national assembly to draft a constitution.
This honour his official position compelled him, of course, to
decline; for he sedulously observed official proprieties, and
in no way gave offence to the government to which he was
accredited.
When Jefferson left France it was with the intention of soon
returning; but President Washington tendered him the secretary-
ship of state in the new federal government, and Jefferson
reluctantly accepted. His only essential objection to the consti-
tution— the absence of a bill of rights— was soon met, at least
partially, by amendments. Alexander Hamilton (q.v.) was
secretary of the treasury. These two men, antipodal in tempera-
ment and political belief, clashed in irreconcilable hostility, and
in the conflict of public sentiment, first on the financial measures
of Hamilton, and then on the questions with regard to France
and Great Britain, Jefferson's sympathies being predominantly
with the former, Hamilton's with the latter, they formed about
themselves the two great parties of Democrats and Federal-
ists. The schools of thought for which they stood have
since contended for mastery in American politics: Hamilton's
gradually strengthened by the necessities of stronger administra-
tion, as time gave widening amplitude and increasing weight to
the specific powers— and so to Hamilton's great doctrine of
the " implied powers " — of the general government of a growing
country; Jefferson's rooted in colonial life, and buttressed by
the hopes and convictions of democracy.
The most perplexing questions treated by Jefferson as secre-
tary of state arose out of the policy of neutrality adopted by the
United States toward France, to whom she was bound by treaties
and by a heavy debt of gratitude. Separation from European
politics — the doctrine of " America for Americans M that was
embodied later in the Monroe declaration — was a tenet cherished
by Jefferson as by other leaders (not, however, Hamilton) and
by none cherished more firmly, for by nature he was peculiarly
opposed to war, and peace was a fundamental part of his politics.
However deep, therefore, his French sympathies, he drew the
same safe line as did Washington between French politics and
American politics, 1 and handled the Genet complications to the
satisfaction of even the most partisan Federalists. He expounded,
as a very high authority has said, " with remarkable clearness
and power the nature and scope of neutral duty," and gave a
" classic " statement of the doctrine of recognition. -
But the French question bad another side in its reaction on
American parties. 7 Jefferson did not read excesses in Paris as
warnings against democracy, but as warnings against the abuses
• Jefferson did not sympathize with the temper of his followers
who condoned the zealous excesses of Genet, ana in general with the
" misbehaviour " of the democratic clubs; but, as a student of Eng-
lish liberties, he could not accept Washington's doctrine that for a
self-created permanent body to declare " this act unconstitutional,
and that act pregnant with mischiefs " was " a stretch of arrogant
presumption " which would, if unchecked, " destroy the country.**
•John Basset Moore, American Diplomacy (New York, 1905),
'Compare C. D. Hazen, Contemporary American opinion of tho
French Revolution (Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, 1807).
JEFFERSON, T.
304
of monarchy; nor did he regard Bonaparte's coup fttal as
revealing the weakness of republics, but rather as revealing
the danger of standing armies; he did not look on the war of
the coalitions against France as one of mere powers, but as one
between forms of government; and though the immediate fruits
of the Revolution belied his hopes, as they did those of ardent
humanitarians the world over, he saw the broad trend of history,
which vindicated his faith that a successful reformation of
government in France would insure "a general reformation
through Europe, and the resurrection to a new life of their
people." Each of these statements could be reversed as regards
Hamilton. It is the key to an understanding of the times to
remember that the War of Independence had disjointed society;
and democracy — which Jefferson had proclaimed in the Declara-
tion of Independence, and enthroned in Virginia — after strength-
ening its rights by the sword, had run to excesses, particularly in
the Shays' rebellion, that produced a conservative reaction. To
this reaction Hamilton explicitly appealed in the convention of
1787; and of this reaction various features of the constitution,
and Harailtonian federalism generally, were direct fruits.
Moreover, independently of special incentives to the alarmist
and the man of property, the opinions of many Americans
turned again, after the war, into a current of sympathy for
England, as naturally as American commerce returned to English
ports. Jefferson, however, far from America in these years
and unexposed to reactionary influences, came back with un-
diminished fervour of democracy, and the talk he heard of praise
for England, and fearful recoil before even the beginning of the
revolution in France, disheartened him, and rilled him with
suspicion. 1 Hating as he did feudal class institutions and
Tudor-Stuart traditions of arbitrary rule, 1 his attitude can be
imagined toward Hamilton's oft-avowed partialities— and
Jefferson assumed, his intrigues— for British class-government
with its eighteenth-century measure of corruption. In short,
Hamilton took from recent years the lesson of the evils of lax
government; whereas Jefferson clung to the other lesson, which
crumbling colonial governments had illustrated, that govern-
ments derived their strength (and the Declaration had proclaimed
that they derived their just rights) from the will of the governed.
Each built his system accordingly: the one on the basis of order,
the other on individualism— which led Jefferson to liberty alike
in religion and in politics. The two men and the fate of the
parties they led are understandable only by regarding one as the
leader of reaction, the other as in line with the American tenden-
cies. The educated classes characteristically furnished Federal-
ism with a remarkable body of alarmist leaders; and thus it
happened that Jefferson, because, with only a few of his great
contemporaries, he had a thorough trust and confidence in the
people, became the idol of American democracy.
As Hamilton was somewhat officious and very combative, and
Jefferson, although u neon ten tious, very suspicious and quite
independent, both men holding inflexibly to opinions, cabinet
harmony became impossible when the two secretaries had formed
parties about them and their differences were carried into the
on
lis-
nd
ira
1 a
me
nil
ier
(*>
id.
.«**s ^* ^y»V«t» from Blackstone's toryism to Coke on
... v * v *■•* trad Walter Scott, to strong was his
j '.4*t «««tv« > ,*vvUxtio» lor class and feudalism.
newspapers; 1 and Washington abandoned perforce his idea M if
parties did exist to reconcile them." Partly from discontent
with a position in which he did not feel that he enjoyed the abso-
lute confidence of the president, 4 and partly because of the
embarrassed condition of his private affairs, Jefferson repeatedly
sought to resign, and finally on the 31st of December 1793, with
Washington's reluctant consent, gave up his portfolio and retired
to his home at Monticello, near Charlottesville.
Here he remained improving his estate (having refused a
foreign mission) until elected vice-president in 1706. Jefferson
was never truly happy except in the country. He loved garden-
ing, experimented enthusiastically in varieties and rotations of
crops and kept meteorological tables with diligence. For eight
years he tabulated with painful accuracy the earliest and latest
appearance of thirty-seven vegetables in the Washington market.
When abroad he sought out varieties of grasses, trees, rice and
olives for American experiment, and after his return from
France received yearly for twenty-three years, from his old friend
the superintendent of the J or din des plan Us, a box of seeds,
which he distributed to public and private gardens throughout
the United States. Jefferson seems to have been the first dis-
coverer of an exact formula for the construction of mould-boards
of least resistance for ploughs. He managed to make practical
use of his calculus about his farms, and seems to have been re-
markably apt in the practical application of mechanical principles.
In the presidential election of 1796 John Adams, the Federalist
candidate, received the largest number of electoral votes, and
Jefferson, the Republican candidate, the next largest number,
and under the law as it then existed the former became president
and the latter vice-president. Jefferson re-entered public life
with reluctance, though doubtless with keen enough interest and
resolution. He had rightly measured the strength of his followers,
and was waiting for the government to " drift into unison " with
the republican sense of its constituents, predicting that President
Adams would be " overborne " thereby. This prediction was
speedily fulfilled. At first the reign of terror and the X. Y. Z.
disclosures strengthened the Federalists, until these, mistaking
the popular resentment against France for a reaction against
democracy — an equivalence in their own minds — passed the alien
and sedition laws. In answer to those odious measures Jefferson
and Madison prepared and procured the passage of the Kentucky
and Virginia resolutions. These resolutions later acquired extra-
ordinary and pernicious prominence in the historical elaboration
of the states'-rigbts doctrine. It is, however, unquestionably
true, that as a startling protest against measures " to silence,"
in Jefferson's words, " by force and not by reason the com-
plaints or criticisms, just or unjust, of our citizens against the
conduct of our agents," they served, in this respect, a useful
purpose; and as a counterblast against Hamiltonian principles
of centralization they were probably, at that moment, very
salutary; while even as pieces of constitutional interpretation
it is to be remembered that they did not contemplate nullifica-
tion by any single state, and, moreover, are not to be judged by
constitutional principles established later by courts and war.
The Federalist party had ruined itself, and it lost the presidential
election of 1800. The Republican candidates, Jefferson and
Aaron Burr (q.v.), receiving equal votes, it devolved upon the
House of Representatives, in accordance with the system which
then obtained, to make one of the two president, the other vice-
president. Party feeling in America has probably never been
more dangerously impassioned than in the three years preceding
• Hamilton wrote for the papers himself; Jefferson never did.
A talented clerk in his department, however, Philip Frcncau, set up
an anti-administration paper. It was alleged that Jefferson ap-
pointed him for the purpose, and encouraged him. Undoubtedly
there was nothing in the charge. The Federalist outcry could only
have been silenced by removal of Frcneau. or by disclaimers or
admonitions, which Jefferson did not think it incumbent upon
himself— or, since be thought Frcncau was doing good, desirable for
him— to make.
* Contrary to the general belief that Hamilton dominated Washing-
ton 1 in the cabinet, there is the president's explicit statement that
"there were as many instances " of his deciding against as in favour
01 thn secretary of the treasury.
JEFFERSON, T.
•this election; discount a* one w31 tbe contrary obsessions of
men like Fisher Ames, Hamilton and Jefferson, the time was
. fateful Unable to induce Burr to avow Federalist principles,
influential Federalists, in defiance of the constitution, contem-
plated the desperate alternative of preventing an election, and
Appointing an extra-constitutional (Federalist) president pro
tempore. Better counsels, however, prevailed; Hamilton used
his influence in favour of Jefferson as against Burr, and Jefferson
became president, entering npon his duties on the 4th of March
1801. Republicans who had affiliated with the Federalists at
the time of the X.Y Z. disclosures returned, ytxy many of the
Federalists themselves Jefferson placated and drew over. *' Be-
lieving," he wrote, " that (excepting the ardent monarchists) all
our citizens agreed in ancient whig principles "—or, as he else-
where expressed it, in " republican forms " — u I thought it
■advisable to define and declare them, and let them see the ground
on which we can rally." This he did in his inaugural, which,
though somewhat rhetorical, is a splendid and famous statement
of democracy l His conciliatory policy produced a mild schism
In bis own party, but proved eminently wise, and the state
elections of 1801 fulfilled his prophecy of 1701 that the policy of
the Federalists would leave them ",all head and no body." In
1804 be was re-elected by 162 out 0/176 votes.
Jefferson's administrations were distinguished by the simplicity
that marked his conduct in private life. He eschewed tbe pomp
and ceremonies, natural inheritances from English origins, that
had been an innocent setting to the character oi his two noble
predecessors. His dress was of " plain cloth " on the day of his
inauguration. Instead of driving to the Capitol in a coach and
six, he walked without a guard or servant from his lodgings— or,
as a rival tradition has it, he rode* and hitched his horse to a
neighbouring fence—attended by a crowd of citizens. Instead of
opening Congress with a speech to which a formal reply was
expected, he sent in a written message by a private hand. He
discontinued the practice of sending ministers abroad in pablic
vessels. Between himself and the governors of states he recog-
nized no difference in rank. He would not have his birthday
celebrated by state balls. The weekly levee was practically
abandoned. Even such titles as " Excellency," " Honourable,"
" Mr " were distasteful to him. It was formally agreed in cabinet
meeting that " when brought together in society, all are perfectly
equal, whether foreign or domestic, titled or untitled, in or out
of office." Thus diplomatic grades were ignored in social pre-
cedence and foreign relations were seriously compromised by
dinner-table complications. One minister who appeared m
gold lace and dress sword for his 'first, and regularly appointed,
official call on tbe president, was received — as he insisted with
studied purpose — by Jefferson in negligent undress and slippers
down at the heel. All this was in part premeditated system*— a
part of Jefferson's purpose to rcpubficanize the government
and public opinion, which was the distinguishing feature of his
administration ; but it was also simply the nature of the man. In
the company he chose by preference, honesty and knowledge
were his only tests. He knew absolutely no social distinctions in
his willingness to perform services for the deserving. He held up
to his daughter as an especial model the family of a poor but
gifted mechanic as one wherein she would see '* the best examples
of rational living." •' If it be possible," he said, * to be certainly
conscious of anything, I am conscious of feeling no difference
between writing to the highest and lowest being on earth."
Jefferson's first administration was marked by ft reduction of
the army, navy, diplomatic establishment and, to the uttermost,
of governmental expenses; some reduction of the, civil service,
accompanied by a large shifting of offices to Republicans; and,
above aH, by the Louisiana Purchase (?.*.), following which
Meriwether Lewis arid William Clark, sent by Jefferson, con-
1 See also Jefferson to E. Gerry. 26th of January 1799 ( Writings,
vii. 325), and to Oupont de Nemours (x. 23). Cf. Hamilton to
J. Dayton. 1799 (Works, x. 329).
' In 1786 he suggested to James Monroe that the society of
friends he hoped to gather in Albemarle might, in sumptuary
marten, -!' set a good example " to a country (u. Virginia) that
" needed " it. ...
XV 6
305
ducted their famous exploring expedition across the continent to
the Pacific (see Lswis, Meriwether). Early in his term he
carried out a policy he had urged upon the government when
minister to France and when vice-president, by dispatching
naval forces to coerce Tripoli into a decent respect for the trade
of his country— the first in Christendom to gain honourable im-
munity from tribute or piracy in the Mediterranean. Tbe
Louisiana Purchase, although tbe greatest " inconsistency " of
his career, was also an illustration, in corresponding degree, of
his essential practicality, and one of the greatest proofs of his
statesmanship. It was the crowning achievement of his adminis-
tration. It is often said that Jefferson established the " spoils
system " by his changes in the civil service. He was the inno-
vator, because for the first time there was opportunity for inno-
vation. But mere justice requires attention to the fact that
incentive to that innovation, and excuse for it, were found in the
absolute one-party monopoly maintained by the Federalists.
Moreover, Jefferson's ideals were high; his reasons for changes
were in general excellent; he at least so far resisted tbe great
pressure for office— producing by his resistance dissatisfaction
within his party— as not to have lowered, apparently, the per-
sonnel of the service; land there were no such blots on his adminis*
tration as President Adams's " midnight judges." Nevertheless,
his record here was not clear of blots, showing a few regrettable
inconsistencies.* Among important but secondary measures of
his second administration were the extinguishment of Indian
titles, and promotion of Indian emigration to lands beyond the
Mississippi; reorganization of the militia; fortification of the
seaports; reduction of the public debt; and a simultaneous
reduction of taxes. But his second term derives most of its
historical interest from the unsuccessful efforts to convict Aaron
Burr of treasonable acts in the south-west, and from tbe efforts
made to maintain, without war, the rights of neutrals on the
high seas. In his diplomacy with Napoleon and Great Britain
Jefferson betrayed a painful incorrigibility of optimism. A
national policy of " growling before fighting "—-later practised
successfully enough by the United States— was not then pos-
sible; and one writer has very justly said that what chiefly
affects one in the whole matter is the pathos of it—" a philo-
sopher and a friend of peace struggling with a despot of super-
human genius, and a Tory cabinet of superhuman insolence
and stolidity " (Trent). It is possible to regard the embargo
policy dispassionately as an interesting illustration of Jefferson's
love of peace. The idea— a very old one with Jefferson— was
not entirely original; in essence it received other attempted
applications in the Napoleonic period— and especially in the
continental blockade. Jefferson's statesmanship had the limita-
tions of an agrarian outlook. The extreme to which he carried
his advocacy of diplomatic isolation, his opposition to the
creation of an adequate navy, 4 his estimate of cities as "sores
upon the body politic," his prejudice against manufactures,
trust in farmers, and political distrust of the artisan class, all
reflect them.
When, on the 4th of March 1800, Jefferson retired from the
presidency, he had been almost continuously in tbe public
service lor forty years. He refused to be re-elected for a third
time, though requested by the legislatures of five states to be a
candidate ; and thus, with Washington's prior example, helped
• See C. R. Fish. The Civil Service and the Patronage (Harvard
Historical Studies, New York, 1905), en. 2.
4 Jefferson's dislike of a navy was due to his desire for an econonw-
cal administration and for peace. Shortly after his inauguration he
expressed a desire to lay up the larger men of war in the eastern
branch of the Potomac, where they would require only M one set
of plunderers to take care of them." To Thomas Paine he wrote
in 1807: " I believe that gunboats are the only water defence which
can be useful to us and protect us from the ruinous folly of a navy.*'
(Works. Ford ed, ix. 137.) The gunboats desired by Jefferson
were small, cheap craft equipped with one or two guns and kept on
shore under sheds until actually needed, when they were to be
launched and manned by a sort of naval militia. A large number
of these boats were constructed and they afforded some protection
to coasting vessels against privateers, but in bad weather, or when
employed against a frigate, they were worse than useless, and
Jefferson's" gunboat system" was admittedly a failure.
3<>6
JEFFERSON, T.
**> estabfefe a pendent deemed by him to be erf great impor-
tance under a democratic government. His influence seemed
scarcely kmened in his retirement. Madison and Monroe, his
immediate successors — neighbours and devoted friends, whom he
had advised in their early education and led in their maturer
years— consulted him on all great questions, and there was no
break of prindples m the twenty-four years of the " Jeffersonian
system." Jefferson was one of the greatest political managers
his country has known. He had a quick eye for character, was
genuinely amiable, uncontentious, tactful, masterful; and it
may be assumed from his success that he was wary or shrewd to
a degree. It is true, moreover, that, unless tested by a few
unchanging principles, his acts were often strikingly inconsis-
tent; and even when so tested, not infrequently remain so in
appearance. Fall explanations do not remove from some impor-
tant transactions in his political life an impression of indirect-
ness. But reasonable judgment must find very unjust the stigma
of duplicity put upon him by the Federalists. Measured by the
records of other men equally successful as political leaders,
there seems little of this nature to criticize severely. Jefferson
had the full courage of his convictions. Extreme as were his
principles, his pertinacity in adhering to them and his indepen-
dence of expression were quite as extreme. There were philo-
sophic and philanthropic elements in his political faith which
w«U always lead some to class him as a visionary and fanatic;
but all hough he certainly indulged at times in dreams at which
•a* may still smile, he was not, properly speaking, a visionary;
aor ran he with justice be stigmatized as a fanatic. He felt
fervently, was not afraid to risk all on the conclusions to which
his heart and his mind led trim, declared himself with openness
and energy; and he spoke and even wrote his conclusions, how
♦vee boJd or abstract, without troubling to detail his reasoning
«* vhp his offhand speculations. Certain it is that there is
much in his utterances for a less robust democracy than his own
tv> cavil at. 1 Soar, however, as he might, he was essentially not
a diKlrinaire, but an empiricist', his mind was objective. Though
*+ remained, to the end, firm in his belief that there had been
in active monarchist party,* this obsession did not carry him
tut of touch with the realities of human nature and of his
tin*. He built with surety on the colonial past, and had a
better reasoned view of the actual future than had any of his
oMtiemporaries.
Kveats soon appraised the ultra-Federalist judgment of Ameri-
can democracy, so tersely expressed by Fisher Ames as " like
ritath . < . only the dismal passport to a moie dismal hereafter";
and. with it, appraised Jefferson's word in his first inaugural
Km those who, "in the full tide of successful experiment,"
were ready to abandon a government that had so far kept
I hem " tree and firm, on the visionary fear that it might by
l*uathiUty lack energy to preserve itself." Time soon tested,
t\*v his principle that that government must prove the strongest
an earth "where every man . . . would meet invasions of the
ituNic order as his own personal concern." He summed up as
Mktwt the difference between himself and the Hamiltonian
group: "One feared most the ignorance of the people; the
other I he selfishness of rulers independent of them." Jefferson,
In short, had unlimited faith in the honesty of the people; a
fcrg* faith In their common sense; believed that all is to be won
*ula-
other
seat-
i few
orary
i and
just
other
ative
u It
t htm
by appealing to the reason of voters; that by education their
ignorance can be eliminated; that human nature is indefinitely
perfectible; that majorities rule, therefore, not only by virtue,
of force (which was Locke's ultimate justification of them), but
of right.* His importance as a maker of modern America can
scarcely be overstated, for the ideas he advocated have become
the very foundations of American republicanism. His ad-
ministration ended the possibility, probability or certainly —
measure it as one will— of the development of Federalism in the
direction of class government; and the party he formed, inspired
by the creed he gave it, fixed the democratic future of the
nation. And by bis own labours he had vindicated his faith
in the experiment of self-government.
Jefferson's last years were devoted to the establishment of
the university of Virginia at Charlottesville, near his home.
He planned the buildings, gathered its faculty— mainly from
abroad— and shaped its organization. Practically all the great
ideas of aim, administration and curriculum that dominated
American universities at the end of the 19th century were antici-
pated by him. He hoped that the university might be a domi-
nant influence in national culture, but circumstances crippled it.
His educational plans bad been maturing in his mind since 1776.
His financial affairs in these last years gave him grave concern.
His fine library of over 10,000 volumes was purchased at a low
price by Congress in 1815, and a national contribution ($16,500)
just before his death enabled him to die in peace. Though not
personally extravagant, his salary, and the small income from
his large estates, never sufficed to meet his generous maintenance
of his representative position; and after his retirement from
public life the numerous visitors to Montkello consumed the
remnants of his property. He died on the 4th of July i8a6, the
fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, on the
same day as John Adams. He chose for his tomb the epitaph:
"Here was buried Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration
of American Independence, of the statute of Virginia for reli-
gious freedom, and father of the university of Virginia."
_ Jefferson was about 6 ft. in height, large-boned, slim, erect and
sinewy. He had angular features, a very ruddy complexion, sandy
hair, and hazel-flecked, grey eyes. Age lessened the unattractive-
ness of his exterior. In later years he was negligent in dress and
loose in bearing. There was grace, nevertheless, m his manners;
and his frank and earnest address, his quick sympathy (yet he
seemed cold tc % 1.;- —•—_.— . -.......-. *r . _ «
gave him an er
aglow with int
Yet he seems
on system. H
was the most
America. Th<
he was preside!
a biographical
seem to have I
crowds roman
quality in you
Ossiaa, and *
inartwasevidV
and shrank fr<
about him: be
malignant abut
and decency; <
than any of hu. _ .„ __.^ |WH « MH VKKUM&Hn . «. «-
blooded personality. In short, his kindness of heart row above all
social, rcligjous or political differences, and nothing destroyed his
confidence in men and his sanguine views of life.
Authorities.— See the editions of Jefferson's Writings by H. A
Washington (9 vols.. New York, 1*53-1854), and— the best— by Paul
•"Jefferson, in 1789, wrote some such stuff about the will of
majorities, as a New Englandcr would lose his rank among men of
sense to avow."— Fisher Ames (Jan. 1800).
4 He was classed as a " French infidel " and atheist. His attitude
toward religion was in fact deeply reverent and sincere, but he
insisted that religion was purely an individual matter, "evidenced,
as concerns the world by each one's daily life." and demanded
absolute freedom of private judgment. He looked on Unitarianiam
with much sympathy and desired its growth. " I am a Christian/*
he wrote in 1823. " in the only seme in which he (Jesus) wished any
one to be; sincerely attached to his doctrines in preference to aB
others; ascribing; to himself every human excellence, and believing
be never claimed any other."
JEFFERSON CITY— JEFFREY, LORD
3o7
good water power for mamifatttirtiig purpose* both at Jefferson*
ville and at Louisville. The total value of the factory product
in 1005 was $4,5*6,443, an Increase of 20 % since 1000. The
Indiana reformatory (formerly the Southern Indiana peniten*
rtary) and a large supply de'po* of the United States army are at
Jeffersonvilie. General George Rogers Clark started (June 24,
1778) on hfs expedition against Kaskaskia and Vincennes from
Corn Island (now completely washed away) opposite wliat is
now Jeffersonvilie. In 1786 the United States government
established Fort Finney (built by Captain Walter Finney), after-
wards re-named Fort Steuben, on the site of the present cfly?
but the fort was abandoned in 1701, and the actual beginning
of Jeffersonvilie was in 1809, when' a part <of the Clark grant
(the she of the present city) was transferred by its original
owner, Lieut. Isaac Bowman, to three trustees, under whose
direction a town was laid out. Jeffersonvilie was incorporated
as a town in 1815, and was cha rtered as a city in 1839.
JKPPKKY, FRANCIS JEFFREY, Lord (1773-1850), Scottish
judge and literary critic, son of a dcpute-derk in the Court of
Session, was born at Edinburgh on the 73rd of October 1773.
After attending the high school for six years, he studied at the
university of Glasgow from 1787 to May 1780, and at Queen's
College, Oxford, from* September 1791 16 June 179*. He had
begun the study of law at Edinburgh before going to Oxford,
and now resumed his studies there. He became a member of
the speculative society, where he measured himself in debate
with Scott, Brougham, Francis Horner, the marquess of Lans-
downe, Lord Kinnaird and others. He was admitted to the
Scotch bar in December 1794, bat, having abandoned the Tory
principles in which he had been educated, he found that his
Whig politics seriously prejudiced his legal prospects. In conse-
quence of his lack of success at the bar he went to London in
1798 to try his fortune as a journalist, but without Success; he
also made more than one vain attempt to obtain an office which
would have secured him the advantage of a small but fixed
salary. His marriage with Catherine Wilson in 1801 made the
question of a settled income even more pressing. A project for a
new review was brought forward by Sydney Smith in Jeffrey's flat
in the presence of H. P. Brougham {afterwards Lord Brougham),
Francis Horner and others; and the scheme resulted in the
appearance on the 10th of October 1802 of the first number of the
Edinburgh Review. At the outset thV Review was not undef
the charge of any special editor. The first three numbers were,
however, practically edited by Sydney Smith, and on his leaving
for England the work devolved chiefly on Jeffrey, who, by an
arrangement with Constable, the publisher, was eventually
appointed editor at a fixed salary. Most of those associated in
the undertaking were Whigs; but, although the general bias of
the Review was towards social and political reforms, it was at
first so little of a party organ that for a time it numbered Sir
Walter Scott among its contributors; and no distinct emphasis
was given to its political leanings until the publication in 1808 of
an article by Jeffrey himself on the work of Don Pedro Cevallos
on the French Usurpation of Spain. This article expressed
despair of the success of the British arms in Spain, and Scott at
once withdrew Tiis subscription, the Quarterly being soon after-
wards started in opposition. According to Lord Cockbum the
effect of the first number of the Edinburgh Review was " dec-
trical.'* The English reviews were at that time practically
publishers* organs, the articles in which were written by hack-
writers instructed to praise or blame according to the publishers*
interests. Few men of any standing consented to write for
them. The Edinburgh Review, dn the other hand, enlisted a
brilliant and independent staff of contributors, guided by the
editor, not the publisher. They received sixteen guineas a
sheet (sixteen printed pages), increased subsequently to twenty-
five guineas in many cases, instead of the two guineas which
formed the ordinary London reviewer's fee. Further, the review
was not limited to literary criticism. It constituted itself the
accredited organ of moderate Whig public opinion. The particu-
lar work which provided the starting-point of an article was m
many cases merely the occasion for the exposition, always
308
! JEFFREYS, BARQfcJ ■'[ . t ( ..]
brilliant and incisive, of the author's views on politics, social
subjects, ethics or literature. These general principles and the
novelty of the method ensured the success of the undertaking
even after the original circle of exceptionally able men who
founded it had been dispersed. It had a circulation, great for
those days, of 1 2,000 copies. The period of Jeffrey's editorship
extended to about twenty-six years, ceasing wiih the ninety-
eighth number, published in June 1829, when he resigned in
favour of Macvey Napier.
Jeffrey's own contributions, according to a list which has the
sanction of his authority, numbered two hundred, all except
six being written before his resignation of the cdi 1 orship. Jeffrey
wrote with great rapidity, at odd moments of leisure and with
little special preparation. Great fluency and ease of diction,
considerable warmth of imagination and moral sentiment, and
a sharp eye to discover any oddity of style or violation of the
accepted canons of good taste, made his criticisms pungent and
effective. But the essential narrowness and timidity of his
general outlook prevented him from delecting and estimating
latent forces, either in politics or in matters strictly intellectual
and moral; and this lack of understanding and sympathy ac-
counts for his distrust and dislike of the passion and fancy of
Shelley and Keats, and for his praise of the half-hearted and ele-
gant romanticism of Rogers and Campbell (For his treatment
of the lake poets see Wordsworth, William.)
A criticism in the fifteenth number of the Review on the
morality of Moore's poems led in 1806 to a duel between the two
authors at Chalk Farm. The proceedings were stopped by the
police, and Jeffrey's pistol was found to contain no bullet. The
affair led to a warm friendship, however, and Moore contributed
to the Review, while Jeffrey made ample amends in a later article
on Lalla Rookh (181 7).
Jeffrey's wife had died in 1805, and in 1810 he became ac-
quainted with Charlotte, daughter of Charles Wilkes of New
York, and great-niece of John Wilkes. When she returned to
America, Jeffrey followed her, and they were married in 181 3.
Before returning to England they visited several of the chief
American cities, and his experience strengthened Jeffrey in the
conciliatory policy he had before advocated towards the States.
Notwithstanding the increasing success of the Review, Jeffrey
always continued to look to the bar as the chief field of his ambi-
tion. As a matter of fact, his literary reputation helped his
professional advancement. His practice extended rapidly in
the civil and criminal courts, and be regularly appeared before
the general assembly of the Church of Scotland, where his work,
though not financially profitable, increased his reputation. As
an advocate his sharpness and rapidity of insight gave him a for-
midable advantage in the detection of the weaknesses of a witness
and the vulnerable points of his opponent's case, while he grouped
his own arguments with an admirable eye to effect, especially
excelling in eloquent closing appeals to a jury. Jeffrey was
twice, in 1820 and 1822, elected lord rector of the university of
Glasgow. In 1 829 he was chosen dean of the faculty of advocates.
On the return of the Whigs to power in 1830 he became lord
advocate, and entered parliament as member for the Perth
burghs. He was unseated, and afterwards relumed for Malton,
a borough in the interest of Lord Fitzwilliam. After the passing
of the Scottish Reform Bill, which he introduced in parliament,
he was returned for Edinburgh in December 1832. His parlia-
mentary career, which, though not brilliantly successful, had
won him high general esteem, was terminated by his elevation
to the judicial bench as Lord Jeffrey in May 1834. In 1842 be
was moved to the first division of the Court of Session. On the
disruption of the Scottish Church he took the side of the seceders,
giving a judicial opinion in their favour, afterwards reversed by
the house of lords. He died at Edinburgh on the 26th of January
185a
Some of his contributions to the Edinburgh Review appeared in
four volumes in 1844 and 1845. This selection includes the essay
on " Beauty " contributed to the Eucy. Brit. The Life of Lord
Jefrey. wiih a Selection from kts Correspondence, by Lord Cockburn,
appeared in 1852 in 2 vols. See also the Selected Correspondence
of Macvey Napier (1877); the sketch of Jeffrey in Carlyle's Remtnix*
cerues, vol. it. (188O; and an essay by Lewis E. Cates in Three
Studies in Literature (New York. 1899).
JEFFREYS, GEORGE JEFFREYS, ist Baron (1648- 1680),
lord chancellor of England, son of John Jeffreys, a Welsh country
gentleman, was born at Acton Park, his father's seat in Denbigh-
shire, in 1648. His family, though not wealthy, was of good
social standing and repute in Wales; his mother, a daughter of
Sir Thomas Ireland of Bewsey, Lancashire, was " a very pious
good woman." He was educated at Shrewsbury, St PauPs
and Westminster schools, at the last of which he was a pupil
of Busby, and at Trinity College, Cambridge; but he left the
university without taking a degree, and entered the Inner
Temple as a student in May 1663. From his childhood Jeffreys
displayed exceptional talent, but on coming to London he
occupied himself more with the pleasures of conviviality than
with serious study of the law. Though he never appears to
have fallen into the licentious immorality prevalent -at that
period, be early became addicted to hard drinking and boisterous
company. But as the records of his early years, and indeed of his
whole life, are derived almost exclusively from vehemently hostile
sources, the numerous anecdotes of his depravity cannot be
accepted without a large measure of scepticism. He was a
handsome, witty and attractive boon-companion, and in the
taverns of the city he made friends among attorneys with
practice in the criminal courts. Thus assisted he rose so rapidly
in his profession that within three years of his call to the bar
in 1668, he was elected common scrjeant of the city of London,
Such advancement, however, was not to be attained even in
the reign of Charles II. solely by the aid of disreputable friend-
ships. Jeffreys had remarkable aptitude for the profession of
an advocate — quick intelligence, caustic humour, copious elo-
quence. His powers of cross-examination were masterly;
and if he was insufficiently grounded in legal principles to become
a profound lawyer, nothing but greater application was needed in
the opinion of so hostile a critic as Lord Campbell, to have made
him the rival of Nottingham and Hale. Jeffreys could count
on the influence of respectable men of position in the city, such as
Sir Robert Clayton and his own namesake Alderman Jeffreys;
and he also enjoyed the personal friendship of the virtuous
Sir Matt how Hale. In 1667 Jeffreys had married in circum-
stances which, if improvident, were creditable to his generosity
and sense of honour; and his domestic life, so far as is known,
was free from the scandal common among his contemporaries,
While holding the judicial office of common scrjeant, he pursued
his practice at the bar. With a view to further preferment
he now sought to ingratiate himself with the court party,
to which he obtained an introduction possibly through William
Chiffinch, the notorious keeper of the king's closet. He at once
attached himself to the king's mistress, the duchess of Ports-
mouth; and as early as 1672 he was employed in confidential
business by the court. His influence in the city of London,
where opposition to the government of Charles 1} was now be-
coming pronounced, enabled Jeffreys to make himself useful to
Danby. In September 1677 h« received a knighthood, and his
growing favour with the court was further marked by his
appointment as solicitor-general to James, duke of York; while
the city showed its continued confidence in him by electing
him to the post of recorder in October 1678.
In the previous month Titus Oates had made his first revela-
tions of the alleged popish plot, and from this time forward
Jeffreys was prominently identified, either as advocate or
judge, with the memorable state trials by which the political
conflict between the Crown and the people was waged during
the remainder of the 1 7th century. The popish plot, followed
by the growing agitation for the exclusion of the duke of
York from the succession, widened the breach between the city
and the court. Jeffreys threw in his lot with the latter, display-
ing his zeal by initiating the movement of the " abhorrers '* (q.v.)
against the " petitioners " who were giving voice to the popular
demand for the summoning of parliament. He was rewarded
with the coveted office of chief justice of Chester on the 30th
JEFFREYS* BARDMT
M April 1680; bat wbeo parliament toot tnOctober theHouse of
Commons passed a hostile resolution which induced him to
rssign ha recordersoip, a piece of pusillanimity that drew from
the tag the remark that Jeffrey* was " not parliament -proof "
Jeffreys nevertheless received from the city aldermen a substan-
tial token of appretiatksa for his past services. Id 1681 be was
created a baronet In Juae 1683 the first of the Rye House con-
spirators were brought to trial. Jeffreys was briefed for the
crown in the prosecution of Lord William Howard, and, hav-
ing been raised to the bench as lord chief justice of the king's
bench in September, he presided at the trials of Algernon Sidney
tn November 1683 and of Sh* Thomas Armstrong in the following
June In the autumn of 1684 Jeffreys, who had been active in
procuring the surrender of municipal charters to the crown,
was called to the cabinet, having previously been sworn of the
privy council. In May 1685 he had the satisfaction of passing
sentence on Titus Oates for perjury in the plot trials; and about
the same time James IL rewarded his seal with a peerage as
Baron Jeffreys of Wem, an honour never before conferred on a
chief Justice during his tenure of office. Jeffreys had for some
time been suffering from stone, which aggravated the irrita-
bility of his naturally violent temper; and the malady probably
was in some degree the cause of the unmeasured fury he dis-
played at the trial of Richard Baxter (q.v.) for seditious libel—
if the unofficial ex parte report of the trial, which alone exists,
is to be accepted as trustworthy.
In August 1685 Jeffreys opened at Winchester the commission
known in history as the " bloody assizes," his conduct of which
lias branded his name with Indelible infamy. The number
of persons sentenced to death at these assises for complicity in
the duke of Monmouth's insurrection is uncertain. The official
return of those actually executed was 320; many hundreds
more were transported and sold fnto slavery in the West Indies.
I n all probability the great majority of those condemned were
in fact concerned in the rising, but the trials were in many
cases a mockery of the administration of justice. Numbers were
cajoled into pleading guilty; the case for the prisoners seldom
obtained a hearing. The merciless severity of the chief justice
did not however exceed the wishes of James II. ; for on Ms return
to London Jeffreys received from the king the great seal with
the title of lord chancellor. For the next two years be was a
strenuous upholder of prerogative, though he was less abjectly
pliant than has sometimes been represented. There is no reason
to doubt the sincerity of his attachment to the Church of England ;
for although the king's favour was capricious, Jeffreys never took
the easy and certain path to secure it that lay through apostasy;
and be even withstood James on occasion, when the latter
pushed his Catholic zeal to extremes. Though it is true that
he accepted the presidency of the ecclesiastical commission,
Burnet's statement that it was Jeffreys who suggested that
institution to James is probably incorrect; and he was so far
from having instigated the prosecution of the seven bishops in
tr>88, as has been frequently alleged, that he disapproved
of the proceedings and rejoiced secretly at the acquittal. But
-while he watched with misgiving the king's preferment of Roman
Catholics, he made himself the masterful instrument of un-
constitutional prerogative in coercing the authorities of Cam-
bridge University, who in 1687 refused to confer degrees on a
Benedictine monk, and the fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford,
who declined to elect as their president a disreputable nominee
of the king.
Being thus conspicuously identified with the most tyrannical
measures of James II., Jeffreys found himself in a desperate
ptight when on the ittb of December to88 the king fled from
the country on the approach to London of William of Orange.
The lord chancellor attempted to escape like his master; but
in spite of his disguise as a common seaman he was recognized
In a tavern at Wapping— possibly, as Roger North relates, by an
attorney whom Jeffreys had terrified on some occasion in the
court of chancery — and was arrested and conveyed to the
Tower. The malady from which he had long suffered had
recently made fatal progress, and he died in the Tower on
309
the 18th of AprttrtoB^ He wansdocsstted in ts* peerage faykii
son, John (tnd Baron Jeffreys of Wesa), who died without sale
issue in 1 70*1 when the title became extinct.
It is impossible to determine precisely with what justice
tradition has made the name of " Judge Jeffreys " a byword of
iofamy The Revolution, winch brought about his fall, handed
over his reputation at the same time to the mercy of his bitterest
enemies. They alone have recorded his actions and appraised bis
motives and character. Even the adherents of the deposed
dynasty had no interest in finding excuse for one who served as
a convenient, scapegoat for the offences of bis master. For at
least half a century after bis death no apology for Lord Jeffrey*
would have obtained a bearing; and none was attempted.
With the exception therefore of what is to be gathered from the
reports of the state trials, all knowledge of his conduct rests
on testimony tainted by undisguised hostility. Innumerable
scurrilous lampoons vilifying the hated instrument of Jameses
tyranny, but without a pretence of historic value, flooded the
country at the Revolution; and these, while they fanned -the
undiscrioiinating hatred of contemporaries who remembered
the judge's severities, and perpetuated that hatred fn tradition,
have not been sufficiently discounted even by modern historians
like Macaulay and Lord Campbell The name of Jeffreys has
therefore been handed down as that of a coarse, ignorant*
dissolute, foul-mouthed, inhuman bully, who prostituted the
seat of justice. That there was sufficient ground for the execra-
tiqn in which his memory was long held is not to be gainsaid.
But the portrait bas nevertheless been blackened overmuch.
An occasional significant admission in his favour may be gleaned
even from the writings of his enemies. Thus Roger North
declares that " in matters indifferent," i.e. where politics were
not concerned, Jeffreys became the seat of justice belter than any
other that author had seen in bis place. Sir J. Jekyll, master
of the rolls, told Speaker Onslow that Jeffreys " had great parts
and made a great chancellor m the ousiness of hi* court. ' In
acre private matters he was thought an able and upright judge
wherever he sat." His keen sense of humour, at&ed with a spirit
of inveterate mockery and an exuberant command *of pungent
eloquence, led him to rail and storm at prisoners and witnesses in
grossly unseemly fashion. But m this he did not greatly surpass
most of bis contemporaries on the judicial bench, and It was
a failing from which even the dignified and virtuous Hale we* not
altogether exempt. The intemperance of Jeffreys which shocked
North, certainly did not exceed that of Saunders? in violence he
was rivalled by Scroggs; though accused of political apostasy,
he was not a shameless renegade like Williams; and these 4s
no evidence that in pecuniary matters he was personally venal,
or that in licentiousness he followed the example set by
Charles II. and most of his courtiers. Some of his actions
that have incurred the sternest reprobation of posterity were
otherwise estimated by the best of his contemporaries. His
trial of Algernon Sidney, described* by Macaulay and Lord
Campbell as one of the most heinous of his iniquities, was waimly
commended by Dr* William Lloyd, who was toon afterwards
to become a popular idol as one of the illustrious seven bfshops
(see letter from the bishop of St Asaph in H. B. living's Life of
fudge Jefrcyt, p. 184). Nor was the habitual illegality of bis
procedure on the bench so unquestionable as many writers have
assumed. Sir James Stephen inclined to the opinion that no
actual abase-of law tainted the trials of the Rye House conspira-
tors, or that of Alice Usle, the most prominent victim of the
*' bloody assises." The conduct of the judges in Russell's trial
was, he thinks, " moderate and fair ra general"; and the trial
of Sidney " much resembled that of Russell." The same high
authority pronounces that the trial of Lord Delamere in the
House of Lords was conducted by Jeffreys "with propriety and
dignity." And if Jeffreys judged political offenders with cruel
severity, he also crashed some glaring abuses; conspicuous
examples of which were the frauds -of attorneys who infested
Westminster Hall, and the systematic kidnapping practised
by the municipal auUwriiies of Bristol. Moreover, if any
value is to be attached to the evidence of physiognomy* tne
«I©
JEHOIACHIN— JEHORAM
haps the advance troops despatched by the Babylonian king;
the power of Egypt was broken and the whole land came into
the hands of Nebuchadrezzar. It was at the close of Jeboiakim'i
reign, apparently just before his death, that the enemy appeared
at the gates of Jerusalem, and although he himself " slept with
his fathers" his young son was destined to see the first captivity
of the land of Judah (597 B.C.) (See Jehoiachin.)
Which " three years " (2 Kings xxiv 1) arc intended is disputed;
it is uncertain whether Judah suffered in 605 B c. (Berossus la
Tot. c A p. 1 19) or was left unharmed (Jot. AnL x. 6. I), perhaps
Nebuchadrezzar made his first inroad against Judah to 601 ».c
I against ,
_ „.--.-- -incklcr.X* „_.„
Test , pp. 107 seq ). and the three years of allegiance extends to 599.
The chronicler's tradition (2 Chron. xxxvi. 5-8) speaks oflchotakim •
because of its intrigue with Egypt (H Winckkr, /Cn/iwdkrt// u.d alU
q).r
captivity, apparently confusing him with Jehoiachin. The Septua-
gint, however, still pr es e r ves there the record of htS peaceful death,
in agreement with the earlier source in 2 Kings, but against the
prophecy of Jeremiah (xxii. 18 seq., xxxvi. 30). which is accepted by
1 os. A nt. x. 6 3. The different traditions can scarcely be reconciled.
Nothing certain is known of the marauding bands sent against
iehoiakim. for Syrians (Aram) one would expect Edomites (Edum),
ut see ler. xxxv. 11; some recensions of the Septuagint even
include the " Samaritans "! (For further references to this reign
see especially Jeremiah ; sec also Jews: History, § 17.) (S. A. C.)
JEHOL (" hot stream "), or Ch'£ng-t£-fu, a city of China,
formerly the seat of the emperor's summer palace, near lift*
E. and 41° N., about 140 m. N.E. of Peking, with which it t$
connected by an excellent road. Pop. (estimate), 10,000. It
is a flourishing town, and consists of one great street, about 2 m.
long, with smaller streets radiating in ail directions. The people
are well-to-do and there arc some fine shops. The palace, called
Pi-shu-shan-chuang, or " mountain lodge for avoiding heat,"
was built in 1703 on the plan of the palace of Yuen-ming-yuen
near Peking. A substantial brick wall 6 m. in circuit encloses
several well-wooded heights and extensive gardens, rockeries,
pavilions, temples, &c. Jehol was visited by Lord Macartney
on his celebrated mission to the emperor K'ienlung in 1793;
and it was to Jehol that the emperor Hienftng retired when
the allied armies of England and France occupied Peking in
i860. In the vicinity of Jehol are numerous Lama monas-
teries and temples, the most remarkable being Potala-su,
built on the model of the palace of the grand lama of Tibet
at Potala.
JEHORAM, or Jo&aic (Heb. " Yah(wcb] is high "). the name
of two Biblical characters.
1. The son of Ahab, and king of Israel in succession to his
brother Ahaziah.* He maintained close relations with Judah,
whose king came to his assistance against Moab which had re-
volted after Ahab 's death (2 Kings i. 1 ;iii.). The king in question
is said to have been Jehoshaphat; but, according to Lucian's
recension, it was Ahaziah, whilst i. 17 would show that it was
Jehoram's namesake (see 2). . The result of the campaign appears
to have been a defeat for Israel (see on the incidents Eoou,
Eusha, Moab). The prophetical party were throughout bos-
tile to Jehoram (with his reform iii. 2 contrast x. 27), and the
singular account of the war of Benhadad king of Syria against
the king of Israel (vi. 24-vij.) shows the feeling against the
reigning dynasty. But whether the incidents in which Elisha
and the unnamed king of Israel appear originally belonged to the
time of Jehoram is very doubtful, and in view of the part which
Elisha took in securing the accession of Jehu, it has been urged
with much force that they belong to the dynasty of the latter,
when the high position of the prophet would be perfectly natural.'
The briefest account is given of Jehoram's alliance with Ahaziah
(son of 2 below) against Hazael of Syria, at Ramoth-Gilead
1 2 Kings i. 17 seq.; see Lucian's reading (cf, Vulg. and Pesh.).
Apart from the allusion 1 Kings xxii. 49 (see 2 Chron. xx. 35). and
the narrative ia 2 Kings i. (see Elijah), nothing is known of this
Ahaziah. Notwithstanding his very brief reign 7l Kings xxii. 51 ;
2 Kings iii. I), the compiler passes the usual hostile judgment
(1 Kings xxii. 52 seq.); see Kinos(Books). Thechronology ml Kings
xxii. 51 is difficult; if Lucian's text (twenty-fourth year of Jeho-
shaphat) is correct, Jehoram 1 and 2 must have come to their
respective thrones at almost the same time.
» In vii. 6 the hostility of Hittttes and Mixraim (?*.) point* to a
period ofitr 842 a.C (See JEWS, 1 10 seq.)
JEHOSHAPHAT— JEHOVAH
(s Kings vitf. 35-19), and the incident— with tha wounding of
the Israelite king in or about the critical year 842 B.C.— finds a
noteworthy parallel in the time of Jehoshaphat and Ahab
(1 Kings xxii. 29-36) at the period of the equally momentous
events in 854 (see Abab). See further Jehu.
2. The son of Jehoshaphat and king of Judah. He married
Athaliah the daughter of Ahab, and thus was brother-in-law of
1 . above, and contemporary with him ( 2 Kings i. 1 7) . In his days
Edom revolted, and this with the mention of Libnah's revolt
(2 Kings viii. 20 sqq.) suggests some common action on the part
of Philistines and Edomites. The chronicler's account of his
life (2 Chron. xxi-xxii. 1) presupposes this, but adds many
remarkable details: he began his reign by massacring his breth-
ren (cf. Jehu son of Jehoshaphat, and his bloodshed, > Kings
ix. seq.); for his wickedness he received a communication from
Elijah foretelling his death from disease (cf. Elijah and Ahaziah
of Israel, 2 Kings i.) ; in a great invasion of Philistines and Arabian
tribes he lost all his possessions and family, and only Jehoahaz
{it. Ahaziah) was saved. 1 His son Ahaziah reigned only for a
year (cf. his namesake of Israel); he is condemned for his
Israelite sympathies, and met his end in the general butchery
which attended the accession of Jehu (» Kings viii. 25 sqq.;
9 Chron. xxii. 3 seq., 7; with 2 Kings ix. 27 seq., note the variant
tradition in 2 Chron. xxii. 8 seq., and the details which the LXX.
(Lucian) appends to 2 Kings x.). (S. A. C.)
JEHOSHAPHAT (Heb. " Yahweh judges"), in the Bible,
son of Asa, and king of Judah, in the 9th century B.C. During
his period dose relations subsisted between Israel and Judah;
the two royal houses were connected by marriage (see Athaliah;
Jehokam, 2), and undertook joint enterprise in war and commerce.
Jehoshaphat aided Ahab in the battle against Benhadad at
Ramoth-GUead in which Ahab was slain (1 Kings xxii.; 2 Chron.
xviii.; cf. the parallel incident in 2 Kings viii. 25-29), and trading
journeys to Ophir were undertaken by his fleet in conjunction
no doubt with Ahab as well as with his son Ahaziah (2 Chron.
**• 35 *<ra-; * Kings xxii. 47 sqq.). The chronicler's account
of his war against Moab, Ammon and Edomite tribes (2 Chron.
xx.), must rest ultimately upon a tradition which is presupposed
In the earlier source (1 Kings xxii. 47). and the disaster to the
■hips at Ezkm-Gebcr at the head of the Golf of A^aba preceded,
if it was not the introduction to, the great revolt in the days
of Jehoshaphat f s son Jehorara, where, again, the details in
a Chron. xxi. must rely in the first instance upon an old source.
Apart from what is said of Jehoshaphat's legislative measures
(2 Chron. xix. 4 sqq.; cf. the meaning of his name above), an
account is preserved of his alliance with Jehorara of Israel
against Moab (2 Kings iii.), on which see Jbhoram; Moab. The
"valley of Jehoshaphat " (Joel iii. 12) has been identified by
tradition (as old as Eusebius) with the valley between Jerusalem
and the mount of Olives. (S. A. C)
.JEHOVAH (Yahweh*), in the Bible, the God of Israel.
" Jehovah " is a modern mispronunciation of the Hebrew name,
resulting from combining the consonants of that name, Jhvh,
with the vowels of the word Addndy, " Lord," which the Jews
substituted for the proper name in reading the scriptures. In
such cases of substitution the vowels of the word which is to be
read are written in the Hebrew text with the consonants of the
word which is not to be read. The consonants of the word to
be substituted are ordinarily writ ten in the margin; but inasmuch
as Adonay was regularly read instead of the ineffable name Jhvh,
it was deemed unnecessary to note the fact at every occurrence.
When Christian scholars began to study the Old Testament in
Hebrew, if they were ignorant of this general rule or regarded
the substitution as a piece of Jewish superstition, reading what
actually stood in the text, they would inevitably pronounce the
name Jehovah It is an unprofitable inquiry who first made this
blunder, probably many fell into it independently. The state-
neat still commonly repeated that it originated with Petrus
1 These details are scarcely the invention of the chronicler;
iee Chbonicxss, and ExpotUor, Aug. 1906, p. 191
■ This form, Yakweh. as the correct one, is generally used in the
separate article* ihroogfaoui this work.
3"
Oalatinus' (1518) is erroneous; Jefeova occurs in manuscripts
at least as early as the 14th century.
The form Jehovah was used in the x6th century by many
authors, both Catholic and Protestant, and in the 17th was
zealously defended by Fuller, Gataker, Leusden and others,
against the criticisms of such scholars as Drusius, CappeUus and
the elder Buxtorf. It appeared in the English Bible in Tyndale's
translation of the Pentateuch (1530), and is found in all English
Protestant versions of the i6lh century except that of Coverdale
( T 535)- I n the Authorized Version of 161 1 it occurs in Exod. vi. 3;
PS. lxxxfH. 18; Isa. xii. 2; xxvi. 4, beside the compound names
Jehovah-jireh, Jehovah-nissi, Jehovah-shalom; elsewhere, in
accordance with the usage of the ancient versions, Jhvh is repre-
sented by Lord (distinguished by capitals from the title " Lord,"
Heb. adonay). In the Revised Version of 1885 Jehovah is
retained in the places in which it stood in the A. V., and is intro-
duced also in Exod. vi. *, 6, 7, 8; Ps. lxvifi. 20; Isa. xHx. 14;
Jer. xvi. 21; Hab. Hi. 19. The American committee which co-
operated in the revision desired to employ the name Jehovah
wherever Jhvh occurs in the original, and editions embodying
their preferences are printed accordingly.
Several centuries before the Christian era the name Jhvh bad
ceased to be commonly used by the Jews. Some of. the later 5
writers in the Old Testament employ the appellative Elohim,
God, prevailingly or exclusively; a collection of Psalms (Ps. xlii.-
Ixxxiii.) was revised by an editor who changed the Jhvh of the
authors into Elohim (see e.g. xlv. 7; xhriii. to; I. 7; li. 14);
observe also the frequency of " the Most High," " the God of
Heaven," " King of Heaven," in Daniel, and of " Heaven " in
First Maccabees. The oldest Greek versions (Septuagint), from
the third century B.C., consistently use Kipim, "Lord," where
the Hebrew has Jhvh, corresponding to the substitution of
Adonay for Jhvh in reading the original; in books written in-
Greek in this period (e.g. Wisdom, 2 and 3 Maccabees), as in the
New Testament, K&ptor takes the place of the name of God.
Josephus, who as a priest knew the pronunciation of the name,
declares that religion forbids him to divulge it; Philo calls it
ineffable, and says that it is lawful for those only whose ears and
tongues are purified by wisdom to hear and utter it in a holy
place (that is, for priests in the Temple) ; and in another passage,
commenting on Lev. xxiv. 15 seq.: ** If anyone, I do not say
should blaspheme against the Lord of men and gods, but should
even dare to utter bis name unseasonably, let him expect the
penalty of death."*
Various motives may have concurred to bring about the sup-
pression of the name. An instinctive feeling that a proper name
for God implicitly recognizes the existence of other gods may have
had some influence; reverence and the fear lest the holy name
should be profaned among the heathen were potent reasons; but
probably the most cogent motive was the desire to prevent the
abuse of the name in magic. If so, the secrecy had the opposite
effect; the name of the god of the Jews was one of the great
names in magic, heathen as well as Jewish, and miraculous
efficacy was attributed to the mere utterance of it.
In the liturgy of the Temple the name was pronounced ra the
priestly benediction (Num. vi. 27) after the regular daily sacrifice
(in the synagogues a substitute — probably Adonay— was em-
ployed); 4 on the Day of Atonement the High Priest uttered the
name ten times in his prayers and benediction., In the last
generations before the fall of Jerusalem, however, it was pro-
nounced in a low tone so that the sounds were lost in the chant
of the priests. 1
* See Josephus, Ant. it. 12, 41 PhitO. Vita Mosis, til. ft (ii: ftiia*
ed. Cohn and Wendland); ib. iii. a? (ii. §206). The Palestinian
authorities more correctly interpreted Lev. xxiv. (5 seq.. not of the
mere utterance of the name, but of the use of the name of God in
blaspheming God.
« Siphri. Num. || 39, 43; M. Sotoh, iii. 7 ; Sotoh. 38a. The tradi-
tion that the utterance of the name in the daily benedictions ceased
with the death of Simeon the Just, two centuries or more before
the Christian era, perhaps arose from a misunderstanding oT Metux-
bt>tk. load; in any ease it cannot stand against the testimony of
older and more authoritative texts.
» Yama, 396 ; Jer, Yvma, iii. 7 ; Ktddusktn, 710. J
3i2 JEHOVAH
After the destruction of the Temple (a.d. 70) the liturgical use
of the name ceased, but the tradition was perpetuated in the
schools of the rabbis. 1 It was certainly known in Babylonia in
the latter part of the 4th century,* and oot improbably much
later. Nor was the knowledge confined to these pious circles;
the name continued to be employed by healers, exorcists and
magicians, and has been preserved in many places in magical
papyri. The vehemence with which the utterance of the name
is denounced in the Mishna— " He who pronounces the Name
with jts own letters has no part in the world to cornel"* —
suggests that this misuse of the name was not uncommon
among Jews.
The Samaritans, who otherwise shared the scruples of the Jews
about the utterance of the name, seem to have used it in judicial
oaths to the scandal of the rabbis. 4
The early Christian scholars, who inquired what was the true
name of the God of the Old Testament, had therefore no great
difficulty in getting the information they sought. Clement of
Alexandria (d. c. 212) says that it was pronounced loot*.*
Epiphanius (d. 404), who was born in Palestine and spent a con-
siderable part of his life there, gives Icu3e (one cod. lave).* Theo-
doret (d. c. 4S7). 7 born in Antioch, writes that the Samaritans
pronounced the name lafk (in another passage, IcuSat), the
Jews Afa.* The latter is probably not Jhvh but Ehyeh (Exod. iii.
14), which the Jews counted among the names of God; there is
no reason whatever to imagine that the Samaritans pronounced
the name Jhvh differently from the Jews. This direct testimony
is supplemented by that of the magical texts, in which Io£c f<0u0
(Jahveh §ebadth), as well as la£a, occurs frequently. 9 In an
Ethiopic list of magical names of Jesus, purporting to have been
taught by him Co his disciples, Kdwfris found. 10 Finally, there is
evidence from more than one source that the modern Samaritan
priests pronounce the name Yahweh or Yahoo. 11
There is no reason to impugn the soundness of this substantially
consentient testimony to the pronunciation Yahweh or Jahveh,
coming as it does through several independent channels. It is
confirmed by grammatical considerations. The name Jhvh
enters into the composition of many proper names of persons
in the Old Testament, either as the initial element, in the form
Jeho- or Jo- (as in Jchoram, Joram), or as the final clement, in
the form -jahu or -jah (as in Adonijahu, Adonijah). These
various forms are perfectly regular if the divine name was
Yahweh, and, taken altogether, they cannot be explained on any
other hypothesis. Recent scholars, accordingly, with but few
exceptions, are agreed that the ancient pronunciation of the
name was Yahweh (the first A sounded at the end of the syllable).
Genebrardus seems to have been the first to suggest the pro-
nunciation Iahuty but it was not until the 19th century that it
became generally accepted.
Jahveh or Yahweh is apparently an example of a common
type of Hebrew proper names which have the form of the 3rd
pers. sing, of the verb. e.g. Jabneh (name of a city), Jabln,
Jamlek, Jiptib (Jephthah), &c. Most of these really are verbs,
the suppressed or implicit subject being 'll, " numen, god," or
the name of a god; cf. Jabneh and Jabn£-el, Jiptab and Jiptab-el.
The ancient explanations of the name proceed from Exod. iii.
14, 15, where "Yahweh" hath sent me " in v. 15 corresponds
to " Ehyeh hath sent me " in 9. 14, thus seeming to connect
the name Yahweh with the Hebrew verb hdydh, " to become, to
be." The Palestinian interpreters found in this the promise that
1 R. lohanan (second half of the 3rd century), Kiddushin, 71a.
* Kiddushin. tx.^Pesa^im, <oa.
* M. Sanhedrin, x. 1 ; Abba Saul, end of 2nd century.
* Jer. Sanhedrim* x, I ; R. Mara, 4th century.
* Strom, v. 6, Variants: Uom,U ovai; cod. L. law.
' Penarton, Haer. 40, 5: cf. Lagardc, PialUr juxta Kebnuos. T54.
' Quae it- 15 in Exod. ; Fab. hatrel. tern tend. v. 5. sub/in.
* Afa occurs also in the great magical papyrus of Paris, 1. 3020
(Wendy. PtnkKhrtJi. Wten. Ahad., Phil. Hist. Kl~. XXXVI. p. 120),
and in the Leiden Papyrus, xvit 31,
' See Deissmann, Bibtlsludten, 13 sqq.
* See Driver. Studia BiHica, I. 20.
u See Montgomery JournalofBMtfal Literature, xxv. (1906), 49-51.
tt Chronographta, Paris. 1567 (cd. Paris, 1600, p. 79 seq.).
** This transcription will be used henceforth.
God would be with bis people (cf. 0. 12) an future oppressions as
he was in the present distress, or the assertion of his eternity, or
eternal constancy; the Alexandrian translation 'Eyw efo* fir
. . . '0 & direoTaXxtr ft* rpift ujios, understands it in Use
more metaphysical sense of God's absolute being. Both inter*
pretations, " He (who) is (always the same)," and M He (who) is
(absolutely, the truly existent)," import into the name all that
they profess to find in it; the one, the religious faith in God's
unchanging fidelity to bis people, the other, a philosophical cols*
ception of absolute being which is foreign both to the meaning of
the Hebrew verb and to the force of the tense employed. Modern
scholars have sometimes found in the name the expression of
the aseity 14 of God; sometimes of his reality, in contrast to the
imaginary gods of the heathen. Another explanation, which
appears first in Jewish authors of the middle ages and has found
wide acceptance in recent times, derives the name from the
causative of the verb; He (who) causes things to be, gives them
being; or calls events into existence, brings them to pass; with
many individual modifications of interpretation — creator, life*
giver, fulfiller of promises. A serious objection to this theory
in every form is that the verb hdydk, " to be," has no causative
stem in Hebrew; to express the ideas which these scholars find
in the name Yahweh the language employs altogether different
verbs.
This assumption that Yahweh is derived from the verb " to be,"
as seems to be implied in Exod. iii. 14 seq,, is not, however, free
from difficulty. " To be " in the Hebrew of the Old Testament
is not hdw&h, as the derivation would require, but hdydh; and we
are thus driven to the further assumption that hdwdh belongs to
an earlier stage of the language, or to some older speech of the
forefathers of the Israelites. This hypothesis is not intrinsically
improbable — and in Aramaic, a language closely related to
Hebrew, " to be " actually is hdwd— but it should be noted that
in adopting it we admit that, using the name Hebrew in the his-
torical sense, Yahweh is not a Hebrew name. And, inasmuch as
nowhere in the Old Testament, outside of Exod. iii, is there the
slightest indication that the Israelites connected the name of
their God with the idea of " being " in any sense, it may fairly
be questioned whether, if the author of Exod. iii. 14 seq., intended
to give an etymological interpretation of the name Yahweh, 11 his
etymology is any better than many other paronomastic explana-
tions of proper names in the Old Testament, or than, say, the
connexion of the name 'Aw&Xw with arokoiw, oroXfor in
Plato's Cratyius, or the popular derivation from atdXXvju.
A root h&wdh is represented in Hebrew by the nouns htw&k
(Ezek., Isa. xlvii. xi) and hawwdh (Ps,, Prov., Job) " disaster,
calamity, ruin." M The primary meaning is probably "sink
down, fall," in which sense — common in Arabic — the verb
appears in Job xxxvii. 6 (of snow falling to earth). A Catholic
commentator of the 16th century, Hieronymus ab Oleastro,
seems to have been the first to connect the name " Jehova "
with hdwdh interpreting it conditio, sive penuries (destruction
of the Egyptians aad Canaanites); Daumer, adopting the same
etymology, took it in a more general sense: Yahweh, as well as
Shaddai, meant "Destroyer," and fitly expressed the nature
of the terrible god whom he identified with Moloch.
The derivation of Yahweh from hdwdh is formally unimpeach-
able, and is adopted by many recent scholars, who proceed,
however, from the primary sense of the root rather than from the
specific meaning of the nouns. The name is accordingly inter-
preted, He (who) falls (baetyl, 0cUrvXot, meteorite); or causes
(rain or lightning) to fall (storm god); or casts down (his foes,
by his thunderbolts). It is obvious that if the derivation be
correct, the significance of the name, which in itself denotes
only " He falls " or " He fells," must be learned, if at all, from
early Israelitish conceptions of the nature of Yahweh rather than
from etymology.
" A -se-itas, a scholastic Latin expression for the quality of existing
by oneself.
u The crit kal difficulties of these verses need not be discussed here.
See W. R. Arnold, " The Divine Name in Exodus iii. 14," Journal of
Biblkot Lttertm XXIV. (1905). 107-165.
>• CI. also kawwih, " desire/' Micvk *; Prov. a.*.
A more fundamental question is whether die name Yahweh
originated Among the Israelites or was adopted by thorn from
some other people and speech. 1 The biblical author of the his-
tory of the sacred institutions (P) expressly declares that the
name Yahweh, was unknown to the patriarchs (Exod. vL 3), and
the much older Israelite historian (E) records the first revelation
of the name to Moses (Exod. lit. 13*15), apparently following a
tradition according to which the Israelites bad not been wor-
shippers of Yahweh before the time of Moses, or, as he conceived
it, had not worshipped the god of their fathers under that name.
The revelation of the name to Moses was made it a mountain
sacred to Yahweh (the mountain of God) far to "the south of
Palestine, in a region where the forefathers of the Israelites had
never roamed, and in the territory of other tribes; and long after
the settlement in Canaan this region continued to be regarded as
the abode of Yahweh (Judg. v. 4 ; Deut. xxxiii. a sqq. ; 1 Kings xix.
8 sqq. &c). Moses is closely connected with the tribes in the vici-
nity of the holy mountain; according to one account, he married a
daughter of the priest of Midian (Exod. ii. 16 sqq.; iii. t); to this
mountain he led the Israelites after their deliverance from
Egypt; there his father-in-law met him, and extolling Yahweh
as " greater than all the gods," offered (in his capacity as priest
of the place?) sacrifices, at which the chief men of the Israelites
were his guests; there the religion of Yahweh was revealed
through Moses, and the Israelites pledged themselves to serve
God according to its prescriptions. It appears, therefore, that
in the tradition followed by the Israelite historian the tribes
within whose pasture lands the mountain of God stood were
worshippers of Yahweh before the time of Moses; and the surmise
that the name Yahweh belongs to their speech, rather than to
that of Israel, has considerable probability. One of these tribes
was Midian, in whose land the mountain of God lay. The
Kenites also, with whom another tradition connects Moses,
seem to have been worshippers of Yahweh. It is probable that
Yahweh was at one time worshipped by various tribes south 'of
Palestine, and that several places in that wide territory (Horeb,
Sinai, Kadesh, &c) were sacred to him; the oldest and most
famous of these, the mountain of God, seems to have lain in
Arabia, east of the Red Sea. From some of these peoples and
at one of these holy places, a group of Israelite tribes adopted the
religion of Yahweh, the God who, by the hand of Moses, had
delivered them from Egypt.*
The tribes of this region probably belonged to some branch of
the great Arab stock, and the name Yahweh has, accordingly,
been connected with the Arabic Mawa\ " the void " (between
heaven and earth), " the atmosphere," or with the verb kawd,
cognate with Heb. k&wdk, " sink, glide down " (through space);
kaurwd " blow " (wind). " He rides through the air, He blows "
(Wellhausen), would be a fit name for a god of wind and storm.
There is, however, no certain evidence that the Israelites in his-
torical times bad any consciousness of the primitive significance
of the name.
The attempts to connect the name Yahweh with that of
an Indo-European deity (Jehovah- Jove, &c), or to derive it from
Egyptian or C hinese, may be passed over. But one theory which
has had considerable currency requires notice, namely, that
Yahweh, or Yahu, Yaho,* Is the name of a god worshipped
throughout the whole, or a great part, of the area occupied by
the Western Semites. In ks earlier form this opinion rested
chiefly on certain misinterpreted testimonies in Greek authors
about a god 'Iota, and was conclusively refuted by Baudissin; re-
cent adherents of the theory build more largely on the occurrence
in various parts of this territory of proper names of persons
1 See Hebrew Religion.
1 The divergent Judaean tradition, according to which the fore-
fathers had worshipped Yahweh from time immemorial, may indicate
that Judah and the kindred dans had in fact been worshippers of
Yahweh before the time of Moses.
* The form Yahu. or Yako % occurs not only in composition, but
by itself; see Aramaic Papyri discovered at Aswan, B 4, 6. 1 1 ; E 14 ;
to. This is doubtless the original of "I&w, frequently found in
reek authors and in magical texts as the name 01 the God of the
Jews.
JEHOVAH- .3*3
and places which they explain as Compounds of Yahu or Yah. 4
The explanation is in most cases simply an assumption of the
point at issue; some of the names have been misread; others
are undoubtedly the names of Jews. There remain, however,
some cases in which it is highly probable that names of non-
Israelites are really compounded with Yahweh. The most
conspicuous of these is the king of Hamath who in the inscrip-
tions of Sargon (724-705 B.C.) is called Yaubi'di and IluBi'di
(compare Jehoiakim-Eliakim). Azriyau of Jaudi, also, in
inscriptions Of Tiglatb-Pileser (745-728 B.C.), who was for-
merly supposed to be Axariah (Uznah) of Judah, is probably
a king of the country in northern Syria known to us from the
Zenjirli inscriptions as JaMi.
Friedrich Delitasch brought into notice three tablets, of the
age of the first dynasty of Babylon, in which he read the names
of Fc- tf*-te-tf», Ya++4lu t and K<*-*-«m-#* ('♦ Yahweh is God "),
and which he regarded as conclusive proof that Vahweh was
known in Babylonia before 2000 B.C.; he was a god of the
Semitic invaders in the second wave of migration, who were,
according to Windier and Dctttxsch, of North Semitic stock
(Canaanites, in the linguistic sense).* We should thus have
in the tablets evidence of the worship of Yahweh among the
Western Semites at a time long before the rise of Israel. The
reading of the names is, however, extremely uncertain, not to say
improbable, and the far-reaching inferences drawn from them
carry no conviction. In a tablet attributed to the 14th century
B.C. which Sellin found in the course of his excavations at
Tell Ta'annuk (the Taanach of the O.T.) a name ocean which
may be read Ahi-Yawi (equivalent to Hebrew Ahijab);* if the
reading be correct, this would show that Yahweh was wor-
shipped in Central Palestine before the Israelite conquest.
The reading is, however, only one of several possibilities. The
fact that the full form Yahweh appears, whereas in Hebrew
proper names only the shorter Yahu and Yah occur, weighs
somewhat against the interpretation, as it does against DeliUsCb r s
reading of his tablets.
It would not be at all surprising if, In the great movements
of populations and shifting of ascendancy which lie beyond
our historical horizon, the worship of Yahweh should have been
established in regions remote from those which it occupied in
historical times; but nothing which we now know warrants the
opinion that bis worship was ever genera) among the Western
Semites,
Many attempts have been made to trace the West Semitic
Yahu back to Babylonia. Thus Deliusch formerly derived the
name from an Akkadian god, I or la; or from the Semitic
nominative ending, Yau; T but this deity has since disappeared
from the pantheon of Assyriologists. The combination of
Yah with Ea, one of the great Babylonian gods, seems to have a
peculiar fascination for amateurs, by whom ft is periodically
" discovered." Scholars are now agreed that, so far as Yahu or
Yah occurs in Babylonian texts, it is as the name of a foreign
god.
Assuming that Yahweh was primitively a nature god, scholars
in the 10th century discussed the question over what sphere of
nature he originally presided. According to some he was the
god of consuming fire; others saw in him the bright sky, or the
heaven; still others recognized in him a storm god, a theory
with which the derivation of the name from Heb. kdvdh ot Arab.
havd well accords. The association of Yahweh with storm and
fire is frequent in the Old Testament; the thunder is the voice
of Yahweh, the lightning his arrows, the rainbow his bow. The
revelation at Sinai is amid the awe-inspiring phenomena of
tempest. Yahweh leads Israel through the desert in a pillar of
doud and fire; he kindles Elijah's altar by lightning, and
translates the prophet in a chariot of fire. See also Judg. v. 4 seq. ;
* See a collection and critical estimate of this evidence by Zimmern,
Die Keilinschriflen und das Alte Testament. 465 sqq.
* Babel und BtM, 1902. The enormous, and for the most part
ephemeral, literature provoked by Delitzschs lecture cannot be
cited here.
* Denkschriften d. Wien. Akad., L. iv. p. 1 15 seq. (1904).
1 Wo lag das Parodies t (i 881 ). pp. T58-T66
JIHU-— JELLACHICH
W*
lit. - —
ug> •
W .- "
abdu * "*
oath* • "
Tb
nam*
dimci
Alex* j.
Eptpb
ildeta ^
doret
pronoi
Jews A
X4), *
norea
tbc nai
t&supp
(Jahve
Ethiopi
taught
evidcnc
priests i
There
consent i
coming
confirmc
enters it
in the 0.
Jeho- or
the forn
various i
Yabweh,
other hy
exceptioj
name wa>
Genebr
nunciatio.
became gi
Jahveh
type of H
pers. sing.
Jamlek, Ji
the suppre
the name o
The anci
14, 15, wht
to '« Ehyeh
the name Y
be." The]
• R. lobar
• Kiddush
• U Sank,
• Jer. Stub
• Strom, v.
• Pananon
» Qvatst. i ;
• hi* occur
(Weprly. Den
and in the Lei
• See Deist
"SeeDrivci
» SteMontg
" Ckronogra
u This tram
jri « ifttemd
j*t pee***
*a*»»t«f t*«
JtstaeGod
»»* jm*v** «* w; be
> ''"^.i.******* war ia the
* * j^ ^stiaatftsnortant
- *■***_* **s»«*4 *i the arsnks
-** m******* ** lke name
** *** \sw**> wak U* ark. or
*• • ^j^;*sta«s conceived
, . v - *^ » Jte*w»«t of Yah web
^ ^*^is*eryil*.lxxiix.);
V*f^L^*»»« Adding.
—^ and circle*; but
<* pBr ~rJd«cb«>** powers. In
^*»* 2T* e*rt sokmn »ub-
+ * x T'-jb * has probably
..***.* .^wk Mme to be
- ^L*** Jj^Bawhsin. " Der
-^~ » &*GJZ* Theories on the
^-^>>"*^<£rfd£
^-<53^wa^^^/^
~-*'***\pt Kimshi, in the
*** •**** f^KrotheT of Ahaziah
~ L^O* ie T! t «AeansofDarnas-
* ^^«^Lwhitbcr Ahaziah
^^^reaainedattbe
^^ <** I* . rreat religious
« ^ . -m** 1 0/ --.Jon for the
A vivid
of Baal at
Vhilejchu
, a similar
t Jehoiada
clear that
1 (7 Rings
opposition
jngs x. a8
ient which
la tbe course of an expedition against Haanef la 84* Shalma-
aeser U. of Assyria received tribute of silver and gold from
Ya-u-a son of Omri, 1 Tyre and Sidon; another attack followed
ia 8jo. For some years after this Assyria was unable to interfere,
and war broke out between Damascus and Israel. The Israelite
story, which may perhaps be supplemented from Judaean sources
(see JOASE), records a great loss of territory on the east of the
Jordan (a Kings x. $» seq.). Under Jehu's successor Jehoahax
there was continual war with Hazael and his son Ben-badad,
but relief was obtained by fats grandson Joash, and the land
recovered complete independence under Jeroboam.
Jehu w also the name of a prophet of the time of Baasha aad
Jenoshaphat (1 Kings xvi. ; 2 Chroa. xix., xx.). (S. A. C)
JEKYLL, SIR JOSEPH (1663-1/38), English lawyer and mas-
ter of the rolls, son of John Jekyll, was born in London, and after
studying at the Middle Temple was called to tbe bar in 1687.
He rapidly rose to be chief justice of Chester (1697), scrjeant-at*
law and king's Serjeant (1700), and a knight. In I717 he was
made master of the rolls. A Whig in politics, be sat in parliament
for various constituencies from 1697 to the end of his life, and
took an active part there in debating constitutional questions
with much learning, though, according to Lord Hervey (J/ cm. x v
474), with little " approbation." He was censured by the House
of Commons for accepting a brief for the defence of Lord Halifax
in a prosecution ordered by the house. He was one of tbe
managers of the impeachment of the Jacobite earl of Wintoun
in 17x5, and of Harley (Lord Oxford) in 1 717. In later years
he supported Walpole. He became very unpopular in 1 736 for
his introduction of the "gin act," taxing the retailing of
spirituous liquors, and his house had to be protected from tbe
mob. Pope has an illusion to " Jekyll or some odd Whig, Who
never changed his principle or wig " {Epilogue to Ike Satires).
Jekyll was also responsible for the Mortmain Act of 1736, which
was not superseded till 1888. He died without issue in 1738.
His great-nephew Joseph Jekyll (d. 1837) was a lawyer,
politician and wit, who excited a good deal of contemporary
satire, and who wrote some.rVux d' esprit which were well-knowa
in his time. His Letters of the late Ignatius Sancho, an African,
published in 1782. In 1804 his correspondence was edited,
with a memoir, by the Hon. Algernon Bourke.
JELLACHICH, JOSEF, Count (1 801-1859), Croatian states-
man, was born on the 16th of October 1801 at Pltervarad. He
entered the Austrian army (1819), fought against the Bosnians
in 184s, was made ban of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia in
1848 on the petition of the Croatians, and was simultaneously
raised to the rank of lieutenant-general by the emperor. As ban,
Jellachich's policy was directed to preserving the Slav kingdoms
for the Habsburg monarchy by identifying himself with the
nationalist opposition to Magyar ascendancy, while at the same
time discouraging the extreme " Ulyrism " advocated by Lodovik
G4j (1800-1872). Though his separatist measures at first
brought him into disfavour at the imperial court, their true
objective was soon recognised, and, with the triumph of the more
violent elements of the Hungarian revolution, he was hailed at
the most conspicuous champion of the unity of the empire, and
was able to bring about that union of the imperial army with the
southern Slavs by which the revolution in Vienna and Budapest
was overthrown (see Austkia-Huncary: History). He began
the war of independence in September 1848 by crossing the Drave
at the head of 40,000 Croats. After the bloody battle of Buda
he concluded a three days' truce with the Hungarians to enable
him to assist Prince Windtschgratx to reduce Vienna, and subse-
quently fought against the Magyars at Schwechat. During the
winter campaign of 1848-49 he commanded, under Windisch-
gratz, the Austrian right wing, capturing Magyar-Ovar and
Raab, and defeating the Magyars at M6r. After the recapture
of Buda he was made commander-in-chief of the southern army.
1 / € either descendant of, or from the same district as, Omri
(see Hogg, Btuy. Bib. col. 2291). The Assyrian king^st^lpture.
depicting the embassy and it* gifts, is the so-called '• black obrlitk
now in the British Museum (Nimroud Central Gallery, No. 98;
^UU to Bab. and Ass. Antiq., 1900, p. 24 seq., pi. ii.).
JELUNEKr-JENA'
3U
At first be gained some successes against Bern (qv.) t but on the
54th of July 1849 was routed by the Hungarians at Hegyes and
riven behind the Danube, He took no part in the remainder
of the war, but returned to Agram to administer Croatia. In
1853 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the army sent
against Montenegro, and in 1855 was created a count. He died
#n the aotb of May 1859. His Gedkkte were published at Vienna
in 1851.
See the anonymous The Croatian Revolution of the Yeat 1848
(Croat ), Agram, 1898. - (R. N. 3.)
JELUlfEK, ADOLP (1821-1895), Jewish preacher and
scholar, was bom in Moravia. After filling clerical posts in
Leipzig, he became Prcdiger (preacher) in Vienna in 1856.
He was associated with the. promoters of the New Learning
within Judaism, and wrote on the history of the Kabbala. His
bibliographies (each bearing the Hebrew title Qontres) were useful
compilations. But his most important work lay in three other
directions. (1) Midrashic. Jellinek published in the six parts
of his Beth ka-Mutrasch (1853-1878) a large number of smaller
Afidrashi, ancient and medieval homilies and folk-lore records,
which have been of much service in the recent revival of interest
in Jewish apocalyptic literature. A translation of these collec-
tions of Jellinek. into German was undertaken by A. Wuensche,
tinder the general title Aus Israels Lehrkatte. (2) Psychological.
Before the study of ethnic psychology had become a science,
Jellinek devoted attention to the subject. There is much keen
analysis and original investigation in his two essays Derjudische
Slamm (1869) and Der jiidische Slamm in nickt-jUdischen
SprUchwdrlern (1881-1882). It is to Jellinek that we owe
the oft-repeated comparison of the Jewish temperament to
that of women in its quickness of perception, versatility and
sensibility. (3) Homiletic, Jellinek was probably the greatest
synagogue orator of the 19th century. He published some 200
sermons, in most of which are displayed unobtrusive learn-
ing, fresh application of old sayings, and a high conception of
Judaism and its claims. Jellinek was a powerful apologist and
an accomplished homifist, at once profound and ingenious.
His son. George Jellinek, was appointed professor of inter-
national law at Heidelberg in 1891. Another son, Max Hermann
Jellinek, was made assistant professor of philology at Vienna
in 1892.
A brother of Adolf, Hekxaiw Jellwek (b. 18*3), was
executed at the age of 26 on account of his association with
the Hungarian national movement of 1848. One of Hermann
JeDinck's best -known works was Uriel Acosta. Another brother,
Moritz Jellinek (1823-1883), was an accomplished econo-
mist, and contributed to the Academy of Sciences essays on
the price of cereals and on the statistical organization of the
country. He founded the Budapest tramway company (1864)
and was also president of the corn exchange.
See Jewish Encyclopedia, vii. 92-94. For a character sketch of
Adolf Jellinek see S. Singer, lectures and Addresses (1908), pp. 88-93;
Kohut, BerQhmte israeltttsche Manner und Frauen. (I. A.)
JEMAPPES, a town in the province of Hainaut, Belgium,
near Mons. famous as the scene of the battle at which Dumouriea,
at the head of the French Revolutionary Army, defeated the
Austrian army (which was greatly outnumbered) under the
duke of Saxe-Teschen and Cierfayt on the 6th of November
1792 (see FftENCB R evolutionary Wabs).
JENA, a university town of Germany, m the grand duchy of
Saxe- Weimar, on the left bank of the Saale, 56 m. S.W. from
Leipzig by the Gtossberigen-Saalfeld and 12 m. S.E. of Weimar
by the Weimar-Gera lines of railway. Pop, (1905), 96,355.
Its situation in a broad valley environed by limestone hills is
somewhat dreary. To the north lies the plateau, descending
steeply to the valley, famous as the scene of the battle of Jena.
The town is surrounded by promenades occupying the site of
the old fortifications; it contains in addition to the medieval
market square, many old-fashioned houses and quaint narrow
streets. Besides the old university buildings, the most inter-
esting edifice* are the i^th-century church o( St Michael, with a
tower 3x8 ft. high), containing an altar, braaath wtych if a door-
way leading to a vault, and a bronse statue of Luther, originally
destined for bis tomb; the university library , in which is preserved
a curious figure of* a dragon, and the bridge across the Saale, aa
long as the church steeple is high, the centre arch of which is,
surmounted by a atone carved head of a malefactor. Across
the river is the " mountain,'* or hill, whence a fine view is ob-,
tamed of the town and surroundings, and hard by the Fuchs-
Turra (Fox tower) celebrated for student orgies, while in the
centre of the town is the house of an astronomer, Weigel, with
a deep shaft through which the stars can be seen in the day time.
Thus the seven marvels of Jena are summed up in the Latin
lines:—
Ara, caput, draco, mons, pons, vulpecula turris,
Weigelutna domus; septan mracvta Jena*.
There must also be mentioned the university church, the new
university buildings, which occupy the site of the ducal palace
(Schloss) where Goethe wrote his Hermann und Dorothea, the
Schwarzer Bar Hotel, where Luther spent the night after his
flight from the Warthurg, and four towers and a gateway which
now alone mark the position of the ancient walls. The town has
of late years become a favourite residential resort and haa greatly
extended towards the west, where there is a colony of pleasant
villas. Its chief prosperity centres, however, in the university.
In r 547 the elector John Frederick the Magnanimous of Saxony,
while a captive in the hands of the emperor Charles V., conceived
the plan of founding a university at Jena, which was accordingly
established by his three sons. After having obtained a charter
from the emperor Ferdinand I., it was inaugurated on the 2nd
of February 1558. It was most numerously attended about the,
middle of the 18th century; but the most brilliant professoriate
was under the duke Charles Augustus, Goethe's patron (1787-^
1806), when Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, Schlegel and Schiller were
on its teaching staff. Founded as a home for the new religious
opinions of the 16th century, it has ever been in the forefront
of German universities in liberally accepting new ideas. It
distances perhaps every other German university in the extent
to which it carries out what are popularly regarded as the charac-
teristics of German student-life—duclling and the passion foe
Frdkeit. At the end of the x8th and the beginning of the 19th
century, the opening of new universities, co-operating with the
suspicions of the various German governments as to the demo-
cratic opinions which obtained at Jena, militated against the
university, which has never regained its former prosperity. In
1905 it was attended by about 1100 students, and its teaching
staff (including prhatdocenten) numbered 1x2. Amongst' its
numerous auxiliaries may be mentioned the library, with 200,000
volumes, the observatory, the meteorological institute, the botan«
ical garden, seminaries of theology, philology and education,
and well equipped clinical, anatomical and physical institutes.
There are also veterinary and agricultural colleges in connexion
with the university. The manufactures of Jena are not consider-
able. The book trade has of late years revived, and there are
several printing establishments.
Jena appears to have possessed municipal rights in the xjth
century. At the beginning of the 24th century it was in the
possession of the margraves of Meissen, from whom it passed in
1423 to the elector of Saxony. Since 1485 it has remained in
the Ernestine line of the house of Saxony. In 1662 it fell to
Bernhard, youngest son of William duke of Weimar, and became
the capital of a small separate duchy. Bernhard 's line having
become extinct in 1600, Jena was united with E isenach, and in
1741 reverted with that duchy to Weimar. In more modern
times Jena has been made famous by the defeat inflicted in
the vicinity, on the 14th of October 1806, by Napoleon upon the
Prussian army under the prince of Hobenlohe (see Napoleonic
Campaigns).
SeeSchreiber and Firber. Jena vonseinem Urspntntbis turmemestem
Zeil (and ed M 1858); Ortloff. Jena und Umgeknd (3rd ed., 1875);
Leonhardt, Jena als Universitdt und Stadt Qcm, 1002); Rittef,
Ftinrer dunk Jena und Umrtbunr (lena. loot); Biedermann, Die
Vuhersm Jena (Jena. 1858) ; and the Urkundenbueh der Stadt Jena
edited by J. E, A. Martin and O. Oevrient (1888-1903).
JENAT^Hr-jSN(5HI2 KHAN
b
o
n
u
I?
• ^itfjoK Swiss poBtical leader, one
^ isr troubled history of Ihe Grisons
at S euiadcn (capital of the Upper
-.: .^ndt and Basel, and in 1617 became
v-amos 'nearTImsis). But almost at
s> xr-.^r Tu&ics, taking the side of the
*r «f. the Sofis family, as against
^v~ -supported by the rival family,
x ** {jujnAcrs ■* who in 1618 tor*
__ of Sbodrio, and outlawed
4 TTT—sosL a '"ji«^y of Protestants were
—re-, st Ae VwYHIma, a very fertile
^ -^ i^csi mQartaace (for through it
. - ^ . aaaumta^c by the Umbrail Pass
*ca^ rto jal -a:o the hands of the
__^ _ s.v v * i»e jimAi (i6?t) of Pompey
***T^ t — * -«<r *«t , S*erw*hh«s friends was
-■*** «_ ^ — * -.--xTpteposawaasapastor,
— ~ ,«. •e^wm afclefcedm the revolt
^ ^..^ -^».> jed ta the invasion
»t*o> *r* **».%.". *•* ** peace made
* ^. w >§*.-* *tt ;ft« YAeKsa in the
w -w-^jt^^^ VmcscV* Wipes. Having
^ "..*,* . .„.„ t**sc* sad once mote to
"* IL *^ ~ <~*» «* ** Venetians
'■* \ * *-y x ^^ serf v-t«**r supported
r _". ^-* ** $»■**&«•<«* the Val-
^u w-** * Has** (1635),
^^v**?<*. s>***soonsaw
- ^ ». «c ^ct«*rds to testore
^^^Mc ^-*k* l A 15**)* So
.*. ^erv .**** ^mty with the
**•"" u ^ x ***r* ^V conspiracy
^ ^ Vi * ^ «r«toM«f Rohan
-.v.^ -v^ ** •.■**?• *» JenetselTs
v l^ttwka from
But
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Bi
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revolt
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Elisha
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to the
tqq.»H
was pas
w*^^**^* 1 ' * *ab.o
^r*,**?**? reason of
^„^ o» ** sassession
V +>«» ****** WM
* ^\. ^m a Tatar
_.-» nn-^ ^ favoured
■— ** ** ^^T .. •.* g*w»pment
^. *••**-"**** , % v «ieYulun
. *■ - * *fT* ^^obaerved
,. > — ** K , *> *»*d stone.
--■■* f * \~* m **«*<t referred
^ v~* 1S % " A »toee named
,X* placed
%^-'
the
<^mi lemon-
k r% deepest
^■etiinea
^ t Mtbyno
w ad those
^andsuc-
% ^IMV With
wMing his
^ M^hbourSng
. <d4 Merkits.
Ml unceasing
^Wim him-
of his Kingdom to an assembly on the banks of the Onon, and
at their unanimous request adopted the name and title of
Jenghia Khan (Chinese, Cbeng-sze. or " perfect warrior"). At
this time there remained to him but one open enemy on the
Mongolian steppes, Polo the Naiman khan. Against this chief
he now led his troops, and in one battle so completely shattered
his forces that Kushlek, the successor of Polo, who was left dead
upon the field, fled with his ally Toto, the Mcrkit khan, to the
river Irtysh.
Jenghiz Khan now meditated an invasion of the empire of the
Kin Tatars, who had wrested northern China from the Sung
dynasty. As a first step he invaded western Hia, and, having
captured several strongholds, retired in the summer of 1208 to
Lung-ting to escape the great heat cf the plains. While there
news reached him that Toto and* Kushlek were preparing for
war. In a pitched battle on the river Irtysh he overthrew them
completely. Toto was amongst (he slain, and Kushlek fled for
refuge to the Khitan Tatars. Satisfied with his victory, Jenghiz
again directed his forces against Hia. After having defeated
the Kin army under the leadership of a son of the sovereign, be
captured the Wu-liang-hai Pass in the Great Wall, and pene-
trated as far as Ning-sia Fu in Kansuh. With unceasing vigour
he pushed on his troops, and even established his sway over the
province of Liao-tung. Several of the Kin commanders, seeing
how persistently victory attended his banners, deserted to him,
and garrisons surrendered at his bidding. Having thus secured
a firm footing within the Great Wall, he despatched three armies
in the autumn of 12 13 to overrun the empire. The right wing,
under his three sons, Juji, Jagatai and Ogotai, marched towards
the south; the left wing, under his brothers Hochar, Kwang-tsin
Noyen and Chow-tsc-te-po-shi, advanced eastward towards the
sea; while Jenghiz and his son Tul£ with the centre directed their
course in a south-easterly direction. Complete success attended
all three expeditions. The right wing advanced as far as Honan,
and after having captured upwards of twenty-eight cities rejoined
headquarters by the great western road. Hochar made himself
master of the country as far as Liao-si; and Jenghiz ceased his
triumphal career only when he reached the cliffs of the Shan-
tung promontory. But cither because he was weary of the
strife, or because it was necessary to revisit his Mongolian
empire, he sent an envoy to the Kin emperor in the spring of the
following year (12x4), saying, " All your possessions in Shan-
tung and the whole country north of the Yellow River are now
mine with the solitary exception of Yenking (the modern Peking).
By the decree of heaven you are now as weak as I am strong, but
I am willing to retire from my conquests; as a condition of my
doing so, however, it will be necessary that you distribute
largess to my officers and men to appease their fierce hostility."
These terms of safety the Kin emperor eagerly accepted, and as
a peace offering he presented Jenghiz with a daughter of the late
emperor, another princess of the imperial house, 500 youths and
maidens, and 3000 horses. No sooner, however, had Jenghiz
passed beyond the Great Wall than the Kin emperor, fearing to
remain any longer so near the Mongol frontier, moved his court
to K*ai-feng Fu in Honan. This transfer of capital appearing
to Jenghiz to indicate a hostile attitude, he once snore marched
his troops into the doomed empire.
While Jenghiz was thus adding city to city and province to
province in China, Kushlek, the fugitive Naiman chief, was not
idle. With characteristic treachery he requested permission
from his host, the Khitan khan, to collect the fragments of his
army which had been scattered by Jenghiz at the battle on the
Irtysh, and thus having collected a considerable force he leagued
himself with Mabommed, the shah of Ktrw&ricm, against the
confiding khan. After a short but decisive campaign tbe alKes
remained masters of the position, and' the khan was compelled
to abdicate the throne in favour of the late guest.
With the power and prestige thus acquired, Kushlek prepared
once again to measure swords with the Mongol chief. On
receiving the news of his hostile preparations, Jenghiz at once
took the field, and in the first battle routed the Naiman (
•id made Kishkk a prisooer.His ill-gotten 1
m •>• ■
JENGHIZ KHAN
a*, apanage of the Mongol Empire. - Jenghiz uawHeht sway up
to the Khwarlzm frontier. Beyond this he had no immediate
desire to go, and he therefore sent envoys to Mahommed, the
sbal* with presents, saying, '* I send thet greeting; I know thy
power and the vaat extent of thine empire; I regard thee as my
most cherisfted soli. On my part thoa must know that I have
conquered China, and all the Turkish nations north «ff it} than
knowest that my country is a magazine of warriors, a mine
of silver, and that I have no need of other lands. I take It that
we have an eqaai interest in encouraging trade between our
subjects." This peaceful message was well received by the shah,
and in all probability the Mongol armies' would never have
appeared in Europe but for an unfortunate occurrence. Shortly
after the despatch of this first mission Jenghiz sent a party of
traders into Transoxiana who were seized and put to death as
spies by Inafjuk, the governor of Otrar. As satisfaction for
this outrage Jenghiz demanded the extradition of the offending
governor. Far from yielding to this ' summons, however,
Mahommed beheaded the chief of the Mongol envoys, and sent
the others back without their beards. This insult made war
inevitable, and in the spring of 12 19 Jenghiz set out from
Karakorum on a campaign which was destined to be as startling
in its immediate results as its ulterior effects were far-reaching.
The invading force was in the first Instance divided into two
armies: one commanded by Jenghiz's second son Jagatai was
directed to march against the Kankalis, the northern defenders
Of the Khwarizm empire; and the other, led by Juii, his eldest
son, advanced by way of Sighnak against Jand (Jendj. Against
this latter force Mahommed led an army of 400,009 men, who
were completely routed, leaving it is said 160,000 dead upon
the field. With the remnant of his host Mahommed fled to
Samarkand. Meanwhile Jagatai marchecj down upon the Syr
Daria (J&*a*tes) by the pass of Taras and invested Otrar, the
offending city. After a siege of five months the citadel was taken
by assault, and Inaljuk and his followers were put to the sword.
The conquerors levelled the walls with the ground, after having
given the city over to pillage. At the same time a third army
besieged and took Khojcnt on the Jaxartes; and yet a fourth, led
by Jenghiz and his youngest son Tulf, advanced in the direction
of Bokhara, Tashkent and Nur surrendered on their approach,
and after a short siege Bokhara fell Into their bands. On
entering the town Jenghiz ascended the steps of the principal
mosque, and shouted to his followers, 4| The hay is cut; gfve your
horses fodder/* No second invitation to plunder was needed;
the city was sacked, and the inhabitants either escaped beyond
the walls or were compelled to submit to infamies which were
worse than death. As a final act of vengeance the town was
fired, and before the last of the Mongols left the district, the
great mosque and certain palaces were the only buildings left
to mark the spot where the " centre of science " once stood
From the ruins of Bokhara Jenghiz advanced along the valley
of the Sogd to Samarkand, which, weakened by treachery, sur-
rendered to him, as did also Balkh. But in neither case did
submission save either the inhabitants from slaughter or the
city from pillage. Beyond (Ms point Jenghiz went no farther
westward, but sent Tulf, at the head of 70,000 men, to ravage
Khorasan, and two flying columns under Chepfc and Sabutai
Bahadar to pursue after Mahommed who had taken refuge in
Nishapur. Defeated and almost alone, Mahommed fled before
Ins pursuers to the village of Astara on the shore of the Caspian
Sea, where he died of an attack of pleurisy, leaving his empire
to his son Jelaleddln (Jalfl) ud-din). Meanwhile Tul* carried his
arms into the fertile province of Khorasan, and after having
captured Kessa by assault appeared before Merv. By an act of
atrocious treachery the Mongols gained possession of the city,
and, after their manner, sacked and burnt the town. From Merv
Tule inarched upon Nishapur, where he met with a most deter-
mined resistance. For four days the garrison fought desperately
011 the walls and rn the streets, but at length they were over-
powered, and, with the exception of 400 artisans who were sent
Into Mongolia, every man. woman and child was slain. Herat
1 the fate which, had overtaken Merv and Nishapur by
3*7
opening its gates to the Mongols. At this point of his vic-
torious career Tufe received an order to join Jenghiz before
Talikhan in Badakshan, where that chieftain was preparing to
renew his pursuit of Jelaleddln, after a check he had sustained
in an engagement fought before Ghazni. As soon as sufficient
rtinfofce**ent* -arrived Tenghiz advanced against Jelaleddln,
who had taken up a position on the banks of the Indus. Here
the Turks, though far outnumbered, defended their ground
with undaunted courage, until, beaten at all points, they fled in
confusion. Jelaleddln, seeing that alt was lost, mounted a fresh
horse and jumped into the river, which flowed 20 ft. below.
With admiring gaze Jenghiz watched the desperate venture of
his enemy, and even saw without regret the dripping horseman
mount the opposite bank. From the Indus Jenghiz seat rn
pursuit of Jdaleddfn, who fled to Delhi, but failing to capture
the fugitive the Mongols returned to Ghazni after having ravaged
the provinces of Lahore, Peshawar and Meltkpur. At this
moment news reached Jenghiz that the inhabitants of Herat
had deposed the governor whom Tulf had appointed over the
city, and had placed one of their own choice in his room. To
punish this act of rebellion Jenghiz sent an army of 80,000
men against the offending city, which after a siege of six months
was taken by assault. For a whole week the Mongols ceased
not to kill, burn and destroy, and 1,600,000 persons are said to
have been massacred within the walls. Having consummated
this act of vengeance, Jenghiz returned to Mongolia by way of
Balkh, Bokhara and Samarkand.
Meanwhile Chdpe and Sabutai marched through Aeerbeijan,
and in the spring of 1 2*2 advanced into Georgia. Here they
defeated a combined force of Lesghtans, Circassians and Kip-
chaks, and after taking Astrakhan followed the retreating Kip-
chaks to the Don. The news of the approach of the mysterious
enemy of whose name even they were ignorant was received by
the Russian princes at Kiev with dismay. At the instigation,
however, of Milfslaf , prince of Galicia, they assembled an opposing
force on the Dnieper. Here they received envoys from the
Mongol camp, whom they barbarously put to death. " You
have killed our envoys," was the answer made by the Mongols;
" well, as you wish for war you shall have it. We have done
you no harm. God is impartial; He will decide our quarrel.' 9
In the first battle, on the rivet Kaleza, the Russians were utterly
routed, and fled before the invaders, who, after ravaging Great
Bulgaria retired, gorged with booty, through the country of
Saksin, along the river Aktuba, on their way to Mongolia.
In China the same success had attended the Mongol arms as in
western Asia. The whole of the country north of the Yellow
river, with the exception of one or two cities, was added to the
Mongol rule, and, on the death of the Kin emperor Sfian Tsung
in i2 2j, the Kin empire virtually ceased to be, and Jenghiz'*
frontiers thus became conterminous with 'those of the Sung
emperors who held sway over the whole of central and
southern China. After his return from Central Asia, Jenghiz
once more took the field in western China. While on this cam-
paign the five planets appeared in a certain conjunction, which to
the superstitieusly minded Mongol chief foretold that evil was
awaiting him. With this presentiment strongly impressed
upon him he turned his face homewards, and had advanced no
farther than the Si-Kiang river in Kansuh when be was seized
with an illness of which be died a short time afterwards (1227)
at his travelling palace at Ha-lao-tu, on the banks of the river
Sale in Mongolia. By the terms of his will Ogotai was appointed
his successor, but so essential was it considered to be that his
death should remain a secret until Ogotai was proclaimed that,
as the funeral procession moved northwards to the great ordu
on the banks of the Kerulen, the escort killed every one they
met. The body of Jenghiz was then carried successively to the
ordus of his several wives, and was finallv laid to rest in the
valley Of Kilien.
Thus ended the career of one of the greatest conquerors the
world has ever seen. Born and nurtured as the chief of a petty
Mongolian tribe, he lived to see his armies victorious from the
China Sea to the banks of the Dnieper; and, though the empire
JBNKIN— JINKS
ultimately dwindled away under the hands of
^cjcendants, leaving not a wrack behind, we have
of the Turks in Europe a consequence of his rule,
advance of his armies which drove their Osmanli
' l )„ e ir original home in northern Asia, and thus
I>"« J """^ s ioDo(Biitvynia under Othman, and finally their
*> •^V^rope under Amurath I.
9 Uflworth. The History ♦/ <*« Monads ; Sir Robert K.
- K *ffiS*uU*m. J * ^ (R.K.D.)
Y** J£fCi CHARLES FLEEMWG (1833-1885), British
^ _ 0^^ a neat Dungeuess on the 25th oC March 1831,
8$$) beiag a naval commander, and his mother
\&- f ?iual some literary repute, her best books perhaps
% -v« l . l r (l 8 59 )andiyatf6rea*r.Aayi(i86i). Fleets
w> ^~S£> ^,\»* - 5< ^ c duat^ it first in Scotland, but in 1846 the
*i * £+^^ <**** Svea br0 * d% •*"« *° financial straits, and he
!»^*^Jfc»^ L to w University, where he took a first-class degree
« J. ^* O^^St Ia ,8si ** be * an *" s engineering career as
*^Sel *\ ^^^abUsta"* 111 * 1 Manchester, and subsequently
*^!li^ i r» ** ir* submarine cable works at Birkenhead. In
frF*?***^ W*** ,nncert wuh Sir Wilham Thomson (afterwards
a
It
bi
n»
to
1*
teW
one
tn»
tne
be I
Spa
whit
and
part
VheS
ontb
the*
was 1
Jenat
theU
of the
hi the
Seel
***** work on problems respecting the making and
to^Z) , l °. .|j e importance oi his researches on the resis-
1^ c *^le*» i^jp was at once recogniaed. From this time
"t c^^Tt*"^ rtfluest in connexion with submarine tele-
<* ^ <4 ^Z^nS***^** kaowa abo as an inventor. In partner-
^KTv^
is*-"" * »** *T he P^^ke made a large income as a consulting
* *ry. ^bof** 11 ' J, ,S»s * *» «*««» F-R-S.. and was
U^P^itfc 'Jiu**' ' , ,*uKcriag ** University College, London.
^JaP 1 * ^^ofe^, ViT^niofcssorslup at Edinburgh Univer-
***S^ P J^^w iSsW a teaibook of UtttotisM and
stf^b*r^S7J "!!^5«erL He was author of the article
\*^^ ^of < ^^ e i, t ii a <rfUusenQ^i)acdia. His
^^i^lJv ^ t* ^Ibaegh students was pronounced, and
* J £Us** «^* 1 *is4n**» ,rfl " 1 ' is a sympathetic tribute
" \*Z& *^S* ^TlV aweeork chann of his convcr-
fu^^^ •^~-^ essay on " Talk and
^Z*^l&***Z?Li*£*&±*~ Jenkina interests were
»rL fe*^**^L-^.a^es2eadedtoiheartsand
his critical and
in two volumes
irf fffcM ^ an ansomatic method of
• ^inngi *'— but the completion
^ to. «awV 4* the inh of June
- ** a**^ R-* -^^aohfehedid much
rs4 aicas on the subject
J0i
tent or
absent
cbieftai
Yesuka
in triuin
had give
in its ck
Intheey
to his vie
the infan
Temuchin
signal als<
the old ch
strated wit
wells are s
broken; wh
means wflh'
retainers wl
ceeded in bn
this doubtft
ground again
tribes, more
With one ore
wartar*4a*fl
self the micro
*Zk
v Ca<hsh lawyer and
.— - uj-i-i^MXeatleman. He was
•v^* 4 ' Vb^.v>l^e. Oxford, of which
1x0$* ^ <«-'•"* T^L^ atJi .'JQOk having been an
**T^*°* ■, irf— ' t '^!riiH .x**»nwcalth; and in
^^ii^'li * * c * wne ye**!*** 5
*L**#* .**>*-* *» » 4a»tminsur; in 1664
^ j*^** * "^^^ a year later judge of
' -•• "• , * , '"* ^ ^MOgative court of
Bill, though he was by no means a pliant tool in the hands of ine
court. He resigned office in 1684, and died on the 1st of Sep*
tembcr 1685. He left most of his property to Jesus College,
Oxford, including his books, which he bequeathed to the college
library, built by himself; and he left some important manuscripts
to All Souls College, where they are preserved. Jenkins left his
impress on the law of England in the Statute oi Frauds, and the
Statute of Distributions, of which he was the principal author,
and of which the former profoundly affected the mercantile law
of the country, while the latter regulated the inheritance of the
personal property of intestates. He was never married.
Sec William Wynne. Ii/r of Sir Led ine Jenkins (a vols., London,
1724), which contains a number of his diplomatic despatches, letters,
speeches and other papers. Sec also Sir William Temple. Works,
vol. ii. (4 vols.. 1770); Anthonv k Wood, Athenae Oxonienscs
(Fasti) edited by P. Bliss (4 vols., London, 1813-1820), and History
and A ntiqmhes of Ike University of Oxford, edited by J . Gutch (Oxford,
1792-1796).
JENKINS, ROBERT (J. 1731-1745). English master mariner.
Is known as the protagonist of the '* Jenkins's ear " incident,
which, magnified in England by the press and the opposition,
became a contributory cause of the war between England and
Spain ( 1 7 jo). Bringing home the brig " Rebecca " from the West
Indies in 1731, Jenkins was boarded by a Spanish guarda-costa,
whose commander rifled the holds and cut off one of his ears. On
arriving in England Jenkins stated his grievance to the king, and
a report was furnished by the commander-in-chief in the West
Indies confirming his account. At first the case created no great
stir, but in 1738 he repeated his story with dramatic detail
before a committee of the House of Commons, producing what
purported to be the ear thai had been cut off. Afterwards it
was suggested that he might have lost the car in the pillory.
Jenkins was subsequently given the command of a ship in the
East India Company s service, and later became supervisor of the
company's affairs at St Helena. In 1741 he was sent from England
to that island to investigate charges of corruption brought against
the acting governor, and Trom May 1741 until March 174? he admin-
istered the affairs of the island. Thereafter he resumed his naval
career, and is stated in an action with a pirate vessel to have pre-
served his own vessel and three others under his care (see T. H.
Brooke. History of the Island of Si Helena (London, 2nd ed., 1*24),
and H. R. Janisch. Extracts from the St Helena Records, 1885).
JENKS, JEREMIAH WHIPPLE (1856- ), American econo-
mist, was bprn in Si Clair, Michigan, on the 2nd of September
1856. He graduated at the university of Michigan in 1878;
taught Greek, Latin and German in Ml. Morris College, Illinois;
studied in Germany, receiving the degree of Ph.D. from the
university of Halle in 1885; taught political science and English
btcrature at Knox College. Galesburg. III., in 1886-1889; was
professor of political economy and social science at Indiana State
University in 1880- 1891 ; and was successively professor of politi-
cal, municipal and social institutions (1891-1892), professor oi
political economy and civil and social institutions (1892-1901),
and after 1901 professor of political economy and politics at
Cornell University. In 1890-1001 he served as an expert agent
of the United Slates industrial commission on investigation
of trusts and industrial combinations in the United Slates
and Europe, and contributed to vols, »., viii. and xiii. of this
commission's report (1900 and 1001), vol. viii. being a report,
written wholly by him, on industrial combinations in Europe. In
1 001-1002 he was special commissioner of the United States war
department on colonial administration, and wrote a Report on
Certain Economic Questions m Ike English and Dutch Colonies in
the Orient, published (100;) by the bureau of insular affairs, and
in 1003 he was adviser to the Mexican ministry of finance on pro-
jected currency changes. In 1003-1904 he was a member of the
United States commission on international exchange, in especial
charge of the reform of currency in China; in 1905 he was special
representative of the United Slates with the imperial Chinese
special mission visiting the United Slates. In 1007 he became a
member of the United Stales immigration commission. Best
known as an expert on " trusts," he has written besides on elec-
tions, ballot reform, proportional representation, on education
(especiallj' as a training for citiaenship), on legislation regarding
highways, &c
JENNE-JBNNE£, EDWARD
dkonom
Great
espies of Politics (1909).
JEHN& a city of West Africa, formerly the capital of the
Songhoi empire, now included in the French colony of Upper
Senegal and Niger. Jenne* is situated on a marigot or natural
canal connecting the Niger and its affluent the Bani or Mahcl
Balevel, and is within a few miles of the latter stream. It lies
150 m. S.W. of Timbuktu in a straight line. The city is sur-
rounded by channels connected with the Bani but in the
dry season it ceases to he an island. On the north is the
Moorish quarter; on the north-west, the oldest part of the
city, stood the citadel, converted by the French since 1893
into a modern fort. The market-place is midway between the
fort and the commercial harbour. The old mosque, partially
destroyed in 1830, covered a large area in the south-west portion
of the city. It was built on the site of the ancient palace of the
Songhoi kings. The architecture of many of the buildings
bears a resemblance to Egyptian, the facades of the houses being
adorned with great buttresses of pylonic form. There is little
trace of the influence of Moorish or Arabian art. The build-
ings are mostly constructed of day made into flat long bricks.
Massive clay walls surround the city. The inhabitants are great
traders and the principal merchants have representatives at
Timbuktu and all the chief places on the Niger. The boats
built at Jenne are famous throughout the western Sudan.
Jenne is believed to have been founded by the Songhoi in the
8tb century, and though it has passed under the dominion of
many races it has never been destroyed. Jcnne* seems to have
bees at the height of its power from the 12th to the 16th century,
when its merchandise was found at every port along the west
coast of Africa* From this circumstance It is conjectured that
Jenne* (Guinea) gave its name to the whole coast (see Guinea).
Subsequently, under the control of Moorish, Tuareg and Fula
invaders, the importance of the city greatly declined. With the
advent of the French, commerce again began to flourish.
See F. Dubois. Tomboucteu la mysttricuit (Paris, 1897). in which
•everal chapters are devoted to Jenne; also Songhoi; Timbuktu;
and Senegal.
JENNER, EDWARD (1740-1833), English physician and
discoverer of vaccination, was born at Berkeley, Gloucestershire,
on the 17th of May 1740. His father, the Rev. Stephen Jenner,
rector of Rock ham p ton and vicar of Berkeley, came of a family
that had been long established in that county, and was possessed
of considerable landed property; he died when Edward was
only six years old, but his eldest son, the Rev. Stephen Jenncr,
brought his brother up with paternal care and tenderness.
Edward received bis early education at Wotton-under-Edge
and Cirencester, where he already showed a strong taste for
natural history. The medical profession having been selected
for him, he began his studies under Daniel Ludlow, a
surgeon of Sodbury near Bristol; but in his twenty-first year
he proceeded to London, where be became a favourite pupil
of John Hunter, in whose bouse he resided for two years.
During this period he was employed by Sir Joseph Banks to
arrange and prepare the valuable zoological specimens which
he had brought back from Captain Cook's first voyage in
1771. He must have acquitted himself satisfactorily in this
task, since he was offered the post of naturalist in the second
expedition, but declined it as well at other advantageous offers,
preferring rather to practise his profession in his native place,
and near his eldest brother, to whom he was much attached. He
was the principal founder of a local medical society, to which
be contributed several papers of marked ability, in one of which
he apparently anticipated later discoveries concerning rheumatic
inflammations of the heart. He maintained a correspondence
with John Hunter, under whose direction he investigated various
points in biology, particularly the hibernation of hedgehogs and
habits of the cuckoo; his paper on the latter subject was laid by
Hunter before the Royal Society, and appeared in the Phu\
7>c*r. for 178$. He also devoted considerable attention to the
319
varied geological character of the distric tfn wh^cfe. he Jived, and
cqnstructed the first balloon seen in those parts. He was a great
favourite in general society, from bis agreeable and instructive
conversation, and the many accomplishments he possessed.
Thus he was a fair musician, both as a part singer and as a per-
former on the violin and flute, and a very successful writer, after
the fashion of that time, of fugitive pieces of verse. In 1788 he
married Catherine Ringscote, and in 1 79a he obtained the degree
of doctor of medicine from St Andrews.
Meanwhile the discovery that is associated with his name
had been slowly maturing in hie mind. When only an apprentice
at Sodbury, his attention had been directed to the relations,
between cow-pox and small-pox in connexion with a popular
belief which be found current in Gloucestershire, as to the antagon-
ism between these two diseases. During his stay in London
he appears to have mentioned the thing repeatedly to Hunter,
who, being engrossed by other important pursuits, was not so
strongly persuaded as Jenner was of its possible importance, yet
spoke of it to his friends and in his lectures. After he began,
practice in Berkeley, Jenner was always accustomed to inquire
what his professional brethren thought of it; but be found that,
when medical men had noticed the popular report at all, they
supposed k to be based on imperfect induction. His first careiuL
investigation of the subject dated from about 1775, and five years
elapsed before he had succeeded in clearing away the most per-
plexing difficulties by which it was surrounded. He first
satisfied himself that two different forms of disease had been
hitherto confounded under the term cow-pox, only one of which
protected against small-pox, and that many of the cases of failure
were to be thus accounted for; and his next step was to ascertain
that the true cow-pox itself only protects when communicated
at a particular stage of the disease. At the same time he came
to the conclusion that " the grease " of horses is the same
disease as cow-pox and small-pox, each being modified by the
organism in which it was developed. For many years, cow-pox
being scarce in his county, he had no opportunity of inoculating.
the disease, and so putting bis discovery to the test, but he did
all be could in the way of collecting information and communi-
cating what he had ascertained. Thus in .1788 he carried a.
drawing of the cow-pox, as seen on the hands of a milkmaid, to
London,. and showed it to Sir E. Home and others, who agreed
that it was " an interesting and curious subject." At length,
on the 14th of May 1706, he was able to inoculate James
Phipps, a boy about eight years old, with matter from cow-pox
vesicles on the hand of Sarah Nelmes. On the 1st of the follow-
ing July the boy was carefully inoculated with variolous matter,
but (as Jenner had predicted) no small-pox followed. The dis-
covery was now complete, but Jenner was unable to repeat his
experiment until 1708, owing to the disappearance of cow-pox
from the dairies. He then repeated bis inoculations with the
utmost care, and prepared a pamphlet {Inquiry into the Cause and
Ejjccts of the Variolae Vaccinae) which should announce his dis-.
covery to the world. Before publishing it, however, he thought
it well to visit London, so as to demonstrate the truth of his
assertions to his friends; but he remained in London nearly three
months, without being able to find any person who would submit
to be vaccinated. Soon after he bad returned home, however;
Henry Cline, surgeon of St Thomas's Hospital, inoculated some
vaccine matter obtained from him over the diseased bip-jointofa
child, thinking the counter-irritation might be useful, and found
the patient afterwards incapable of acquiring small-pox. In the
autumn of the same year, Jenner met with the first opposition to,
vaccination; and this was the more formidable because it pro-
ceded from J. Jngcnhousz, a celebrated physician and man o(
science. But meanwhile Cline's advocacy of vaccination brought
it much more decidedly before the medical profession, of whom
the majority were prudent enough to suspend their judgment
until they had more ample information. , But besides these
there were two noisy and troublesome factions, one of which
opposed vaccination as a useless and dangerous practice, while
the other endangered its success much more by rash and seU-
seeking advocacy. At the head of the latter was George Pearson,
3*8
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^-^I,,^ ntttemUy aided
*** ^**jS«*aww> * *** m*d*
,,«*«* introduced by
<{ physic at Harvard,
* was at first diffused
^ «f the war between
^hw « reaching Paris;
^i rapidly over France,
4 wis ** extension may be
,^ ,—i * S ^jfcA* ^ lke expedition which
"* * -^l^ j, ,503, (<* * h « purpose of
" .„* * ^S^nish possessions in the
* ^ * % ~L B *d in three years, having
" "^ «ccteded beyond its utmost
"" rfJ * ^JZ* *** Holland urged vacci-
\^ ** *^y>g pulP*^ in Sicily, South
"*"*^j*** r,, Tj S ioos were formed for the
* ^ - * i TLj!«rsiry of Jenner's birthday, or
~ • ,vv *^rfI*» cS phi W*» was * or man 3 r
* .*> ** Germany! »nd the empress of
** ***i -©crated upon t0 rcce * ve ^ e
* ^ JS IW * at ln€ P UDnc expense,
.. * ^g * * fenser"* friends in Gloucester*
•*~ , v ****J[ i^ice of plate as a testimonial
„-.-* ^ar^^Jjj hi* discovery. This was ln-
■ * *!*i* *^ to the presenting of a petition
" -?w * J Sb petit* 011 wa* presented in 1802,
*■.*** ??#,d wn * ca l ^ e investigations
. ••"" , if p0>l t j ijje grant, and ultimately in a
v** taken to form a society for
.** w^^ion in London, and the Royal
**** -— *■* Mished, Jcnner returning to
This institution began very
usand persons having been
is, and with such effect that
r the latter half of the 18th
fell in 1804 to 622. Unfor-
r soon set himself up as an
s led to such dissensions as
1.
f the chancellor of the ex-
rd, to attempt practice in
rned to Berkeley. His grant
ter the deduction of about
pay the expenses attendant
thoroughly known every-
tk*t m* he himself said, he
was "the wtJ**derk of tne whole world.** At the same time
be coocutned to vaccinate gratuitously all the poor who applied
to htm 00 oeruin days, so that he sometimes bad as many as
three hundred persons wailing at his door. Meanwhile honours
beg&A to shower upon him from abroad: he was elected a member
ot almost all the chief scientific societies on the continent of
Fttrope, the first being that of GSttingen, where he was pro*
posed by J. F. Blumenbach. But perhaps the most flattering
proof of his influence was derived from France. On one occasion,
when he was endeavouring to obtain the release of some of the
unfortunate Englishmen who had been detained in Fiance on
the sadden termination of the Peace of Amiens, Napoleon was
about to reject the petition, when Josephine uttered the name of
Jenner. The emperor paused and exclaimed: " Ah, we can
refuse nothing to that name." Somewhat later he did the same
service to Englishmen confined in Mexico and in Austria; and
during the latter part of the great war persons before leaving
England would sometimes obtain certificates signed by him
which served as passports. In his own country bis merits were
less recognized. His applications on behalf of French prisoners
in England were less successful; he never shared in any of the
patronage at the disposal of the government, and was even unable
to obtain a living for his nephew George.
In 1806 Lord Henry Petty (afterwards the marquess of Lans-
downe) became chancellor of the exchequer, and was so con-
vinced of the inadequacy of the former parliamentary grant that
he proposed an address to the Crown, praying that the college of
physicians should be directed to report upon the success of
vaccination. Their report bcing-strongly in its favour, the then
chancellor of the exchequer (Spencer Perceval) proposed that
a sum of £10,000 without any deductions should be paid to
Jenner. The anti-vaccinationists found but one advocate in
the House of Commons; and finally the sum was raised to £20,000.
Jenner, however, at the same time had the mortification oi
learning that government did not intend to take any steps
towards checking small-pox inoculation, which so persistently
kept up that disease. About the same time a subscription for
his benefit was begun in India, where his discovery had been
gratefully received, but the full amount of this (£7383) only
reached him in 1812.
The Royal Jennerian Society having failed, the national vaccine
establishment was founded, for the extension of vaccination, in
1808. Jenner spent five months in London for the purpose of
organizing it, but was then obliged, by the dangerous illness of
one of his sons, to return to Berkeley. He had been appointed
director of the institution; but he had no sooner left London
than Sir Lucas Pepys, president of the college of physicians,
neglected his recommendations, and formed the board out of the
officials of that college and toe college of surgeons. Jenner at
once resigned his post as director, though he continued to give
the benefit of his advice whenever it was needed, and this resigna-
tion was a bitter mortification to him. In 1810 his eldest son.
died, and Jenner's grief St his loss, and his incessant labours,
materially affected his health. In 18x3 the university of
Oxford conferred on htm the degree of M.D. It was believed
that this would lead to his election into the college of physicians,
but that learned body decided that he could not be admitted
until he had undergone an examination in classics. This Jenner
at once refused; to brush up his classics would, he said, " be
irksome beyond measure. 1 would not do H for a diadem. That
indeed would be a bauble; I would not do it for John Hunter's
museum."
He visited London for the last time in 1814, when he was
presented to the Allied Sovereigns and to most of the principal
personages who accompanied them. In the next year his wife's
death was the signal for him to retire from public life: he never
left Berkeley again, except for a day or two, as long as he lived.
He found sufficient occupation for the remainder of his life in
collecting further evidence on some points connected with his
great discovery, and in his engagements as a physician, a
naturalist and a magistrate. In 1818 a severe epidemic of
small-pox prevailed, and fresh doubts were thrown on the
JENNER, SIR WILLIAM--JEPHSON
efficacy of vaccination, ra part apparently owing to tie bad
quality of the vaccine lymph employed. This caused Jenner
much annoyance* which was relieved by an able defence of the
practice, written by Sir Gilbert filane. But this led him, in
182 1, to send a circular letter to most of the medical men in
the kingdom inquiring into the effect of other skin diseases in
modifying the progress of cow-pox. A year later he published
his last work, On the Influence of Artificial Eruptions in Certain
Diseases; and in 1823 he presented his last paper—" On the
Migration of Birds "—to the Royal Society. On the 24th of
January 1823 he retired to rest apparently as well as usual, and
next morning rose and came down to his library, where he was
found insensible on the floor, in a state of apoplexy, and with
the right side paralysed. He never rallied, and died on the
following morning.
A public subscription was set on foot, shortly after his death,
by the medical men of his county, for the purpose of erecting
some memorial in his honour, and wKh much difficulty a suffi-
cient sum was raised to enable a statue to be placed in Gloucester
Cathedral. In 1 850 another attempt was made to set up a monu-
ment to him; this appears to have failed, but at length, in 1858,
a statue of him was erected by public subscription in London.
Jenner's life was written by the intimate friend of Ms later years,
Dr John Baron of Gloucester (a vols., 1827, 1838). Sec also
Vaccination.
JENNER, SIR WILLIAM, Bakt. (1815-1808), English physician,
was born at Chatham on the 30th of January 181 5, and educated
at University College, London. He became M.R.C.S. in 1837,
and F.R.C.P. in 1852, and in 1844 took the London M.D. la
1847 he began at the London fever hospital investigations into
cases of " continued " fever which enabled him finally to make the
distinction between typhus and typhoid on which his reputation
as a pathologist principally rests. In 1849 he was appointed pro-
fessor of pathological anatomy at University College, and also
assistant physician to University College Hospital, where he
afterwards became physician (1 854-1 876)andconsultingpbysidan
(1870)1 besides holding similar appointments at other hospitals.
He was also successively Holme professor of clinical medicine
and professor of the principles and practice of medicine at
University College. He was president of the college of physicians
(1881-1888); he was elected F.R.S.in 1864, and received honorary
degrees from Oxford, Cambridge and Edinburgh. In t86t he
was appointed physician extraordinary, and in 1862 physician
in ordinary, to Queen Victoria, and in 1863 physician in ordinary
to the prince of Wales; he attended both the prince consort and
the prince of Wales in their attacks of typhoid fever. In 1868
he was created a baronet. As a consultant Sir William Jenner
had a great reputation, and he left a large fortune when he died,
at Bishop's Waltham, Hants, on the nth of December 1898,
having then retired from practice for eight years owing to failing
health.
JENNET, a small Spanish horse; the word is sometimes applied
in English to a mule, the offspring of a she-ass and a stallion.
Jennet comes, through Fr. genet, from Span, jinele, a light
horseman who rides a la gineta, explained as " with his legs
tucked up." The name is taken to be a corruption of the
Arabic Zenita, a Berber tribe famed for its cavalry. English
and French transferred the word from the rider to his horse, a
meaning which the word has only acquired in* Spain in modern
times.
JENOLAN CAVES, a series of remarkable caverns in Roxburgh
county, New South Wales, Australia; 1 13 m. W. by N. of Sydney,
and 36 m. from Tarana, which is served by railway. They are
the most celebrated of several similar groups in the limestone
of the country; they have .wt yielded fossils of great interest,
but the stalactitic formations, sometimes pure white, are of
extraordinary beauty. The caves have been rendered easily
accessible to visitors and lighted by electricity.
JENSEN. WILHELM (1837- ). German author, was born
at Hetligenhafen in Holstein on the 15th of February 1837, the
son of a local Danish maristrate, who came of old patrician
Frisian stock. After attending the classical schools at Kiel and
321
Lfibeck, Jensen studied medicine at the universities of Kiel,
Wuffzburg and Breslau. He, however, abandoned the medical
profession for that of letters, and after engaging for some years
in individual private study proceeded to Munich, where he
associated with men of letters. After a residence in Stuttgart
(1865-1869), where for a short time he conducted the Sckuti-
bische Voiks-Zeihtng, he. became editor in Flensburg of the
Nordd cu i sche Zeitung. In 1874 be again returned to Kiel, lived
from 1876 to 1888 m Freiburg im Breisgau, and since 2888 has
been resident in Munich.
Jensen is perhaps the most fertile of modern German writers of
fiction, more than one hundred works having proceeded from his
pc •-—--•■- •__...*.. * .. . n caught the public
ta n (Berlin, 1878); Die
bn *feifer von Dusenboch,
E\ long others may be
m Gisela (Berlin, 1886);
H md (Dresden, 1897);
L\ s, A us den Tegen der
H tin, J881-1885); and
H \e tragedies, among
wl s Reich (Freiburg im
Bi
JENYN8, 80AMB (1704-1787), English' author, was born in
London on the rst of January 1704, and was educated at
St John's College, Cambridge. In 174a he was chosen M.P. for
Cambridgeshire, in which his property lay, and he afterwards sat
for the borough of Dnnwkh and the town of Cambridge. From
I7SS to 1780 be was one of the commissioners of the board of
trade. He died on the x8th of December 1787.
For the measure of literary repute which he enjoyed during his
life Jcnyns was indebted as much to his wealth and social Stand-
ing as to his accomplishment* and talents, though both were
considerable. His poetical works, the Art of Dancing (1 727) and
Miscellanies (1770). contain many passages graceful and livefy
though occasionally verging on licence. The first of his prose
works was his Free Inquiry into the Nature and Origin of EvH
(1756). This essay was severely criticized on its appearance,
especially by Samuel Johnson in the Literary Magazine. John-
son, in a slashing review— the best paper of the kind he ever
wrote — condemned the book as a slight and shallow attempt to
solve one of the most difficult of moral problems. Jenyns, a
gentle and amiable man in the main, was extremely irritated by
his failure. He put forth a second edition of his work, prefaced
by a vindication, and tried to take vengeance on Johnson after
his death by a sarcastic epitaph. 1 In 1776 Jenyns published his
View of the Internal Evidence of the Christian Religion. Though
at one period of his life he had affected a kind of deistic scepticism,
he had now returned to orthodoxy, and there seems no reason
to doubt his sincerity, questioned at the time, in defending
Christianity on the ground of its total variance with the prin-
ciples of human reason. The work was deservedly praised in its
day for its literary merits, but is so plainly the production of an
amateur in theology that as a scientific treatise it is valueless. 1
A collected edition of the works of Jenyns appeared in 1790,
with a biography by Charles Nalson Cole. There are several
references to him in BoswcH's Johnson.
JEOPARDY, a term meaning risk or danger of death, loss or
other injury. The word, in Mid. Eng. juparU, jeufartie, ftc,
was adapted from O. Fr. ju, later jcu, and parti, even game,
in medieval Latin jocus parliius. This term was originally
used of a problem in chess or of a stage in any other game at
which the chances of success or failure are evenly divided
between the players. It was thus early transformed to any
state of uncertainty.
JEPHSON, ROBERT (1736-1803), British dramatist, was
born in Ireland. After serving Tor some years in the British
army, he retired with the rank of captain, and lived in England,
where he was the friend of Garrick, Reynolds, Goldsmith,
Johnson, Burke, Burney and Charles Townshend. His appoint-
ment as master of the horse to the lord-lieutenant of Ireland
1 Two lines will suffice :—
Boswell and Thrale, retailers of his wit.
Will tell you bow he wrote, and talk'd. and cough *d. and spit* -
$22
took him back to Dublin. He published, in the Mercury news-
paper a series of articles in defence of the lord-lieutenant's
administration which were afterwards collected and issued in
book form under the title of The Bachelor, or Speculations ef
Jeoffry Wagstaffe. A pension of £300, afterwards doubled,
was granted him, and he held his appointment under twelve
succeeding viceroys. From 1775 he was engaged in the writing
of plays. Among others, his tragedy Braganxa was successfully
performed at Drury Lane in 1775, Conspiracy in 1796, The Law
of Lombardy in 1779, and The Count of N or bonne at Covent
Garden in 1781. In 1704 he published an heroic poem Roman
Portraits, and The Confessions of Jacques Baptiste Couteau, a
satire on the excesses of the French Revolution. He died at
Blackrock, near Dublin, on the 3 1st of May 1803.
JEPHTHAH, one of the judges of Israel, in the Bible, was an
illegitimate son of Gilead, and, being expelled from his father's
house by his lawful brethren, took refuge in the Syrian Jand of
Tob, where he gathered around him a powerful band of homeless
men like himself. The Ammonites pressing bard on his country-
men, the elders of Gilead called for his help, which he consented
to give on condition that in the event of victory he should be
made their head (Judg. *»• i-xiL 7). His name.it best known in
history and literature in connexion with his vow, which led to
the sacrifice of his daughter on his successful return. The reluct-
ance shown by many writers in accepting the plain sense of the
narrative on this point proceeds to a large extent on unwarranted
assumptions as to the stage of ethical development which bad
been reached in Israel in the period of the judges, or at the time
when the narrative took shape. The annual lamentation of
the women for her death suggests a mythical origin (see
Adonis). ' Attached to the narrative is an account of a quarrel
between Jephthah and the Ephraimites. The latter were
defeated, and their retreat was cut off by the Gileadites, who had
seized the fords of the Jordan. As* the fugitives attempted to
cross they were bidden to say " shibboleth " (" flood " or " ear
of corn "), and those who said "sibbdleth" (the Ephraimites
apparently being unused to sh) t were at once put to death. In
this way 43,000 of the tribe were killed. 1
The loose connexion between this and the main narrative, as also
the lengthy speech to the children of Ammon (xi. 14-27), which really
relates to Moab, has led some writers to infer that two distinct
heroes and situations have been combined. See further the com-
mentaries on the Book of Judges («.».), and Cheyne, Ency. Btb., art.
" Jephthah." G>- A. C.)
JERAHMEEL, <Heb. " May God pity "), in the Bible, a
clan which with Caleb, the Kenites and others, occupied the
southern steppes of Palestine, probably in the district around
Arad, about 17 ra. S. of Hebron. It was on friendly terms with
David during his residence at Ziklag (z Sam. xxx. 29), and
it was apparently in his reign that the various elements of the
south were united and were reckoned to Israel. This is
expressed in the chronicler's genealogies which make Jecahmeel
and Caleb descendants of Judah (see David; Judas).
On the names in 1 Chron. ii. see S. A, Cook, Ency.Bib., col.
2363 scq. Pclcth (v. 33) may be the origin of the Pclcthites (2 Sam.
viii. 18; xv. 18; xx. 7)7 and since the name occurs in the revolt of
Korah (Num. xvi. x), it is possible that Jerahmeel, like Caleb and
the Kenites, had moved north wards from Kadcsh. Samuel (f.r.)
was of Jerahmeel (1 Sam. i 1: Septuasint), and the consecutive
Jerahmeclite names Nathan and Zabad (l Chron. it 36) have been
associated with the prophet and officer (Zabud, T Kings iv. 5) of the
times of David and Solomon respectively. The association of
Samuel and Nathan with this dan, if correct, is a further illustra-
tion of the importance of tha south for the growth of biblical
history (see Kenites and Rechabites). The Chronicles of Jerahmed
(M. Caster, Oriental Translation Fund, 1809) is a late production
containing a number of apocryphal Jewish legends of no historical
value. (S* A. C)
JEPHTHAH— JERBOA 1
1 Similarly a Syrian storV tens how the Druses came to slay
Ibrahim Pasha's troops, and desiring to spare the Syrians ordered
the men to say gasnal (camel ). As the Syrians pronounce the g soft ,
and the Egyptians the f, hard, the former were easily identified.
Other examples from the East will be found in H. C. Kay,
Yamon, p. 36, and in S. Lane-Poole, History of Egypt in the Middle
Ages, p. 30a Also, at the Sicilian Vespers (March 13, uM) the
French were made to betray themselves by their pronunciation of
ceci and tkeri (ItaL e Ukc ten; Fr. t like *),
JERBA, an island off the coast of North Africa in the Gulf
of Gabes, forming part of the regency of Tunisia. It is separated
from the mainland by two narrow straits, and save for these
channels blocks the entrance to a large bight identified with
the Lake Triton of the Romans. The western strait, opening
into the Gulf of Gabes, is a mile and a half broad; the eastern
strait is wider, but at low water it is possible to cross to the
mainland by the Tarik-ei-Jemil (road of the camel). The
island is irregular in outline, its greatest length and breadth
being some 20 m., and its area 425 sq. m. It contains
neither rivers nor springs, but is supplied with water by wells
and cisterns. It is flat and well wooded with date palms and
olive trees. Pop. 35,000 to 40,000, the bulk of the inhabitants
being Berbers, Though many of them have adopted Arabic
a Berber idiom is commonly spoken. An affinity exists between
the Berbers of Jerba and the Beni Mzab. About 3000 Jews
live apart in villages of their own, and some 400 Europeans,
chiefly Maltese and Greeks, are settled in the island. Jerba has
a considerable reputation for the manufacture of the woollen
tissues interwoven with silk which arc known as burnous
stuff 6; a market for the sale of sponges is held from November
till March; and there is a considerable -export trade in olives,
dates, figs and other fruits. The capital, trading centre and
usual landing-place arc at Haumt-es-3uk (market quarter) on
the north side of the island (pop. 2500). Here are a medieval
fort, built by the Spaniards in 1284, and a modem fort, garri-
soned by the French. Gallala, to the south, is noted for the
manufacture, of a kind of white pottery* much prized. At £1
Kantara (the bridge) on the eastern strait, and formerly con-
nected with the mainland by a causeway, are extensive ruins
of a Roman city — probably those of Meninx, once a flourishing
seaport.
Jerba is the Lotophagitis or Lotus-eaters' Island of the
Greek and Roman geographers, and is also identified with the
Brachion of Scylax. The modern name appears as early as
the 4th century in Sextus Aurelius Victor. In the middle ages
the possession of Jerba was contested by the Normans of
Sicily, the Spaniards and the Turks, the Turks proving vic-
torious. In 1560 after the destruction of the Spanish fleet off
the coast Of the island by Piali Pasha and the corsair Dragut
the Spanish garrison at Haumt-cs-Suk was exterminated, and
a pyramid, 10 ft. broad at the base and 20 ft. high, was built
of their skulls and other bones. In 1848 this pyramid was pulled
down at the instance of the Christian community, and the
bones were buried in the Catholic cemetery. In general, from
the Arab iavasion in the 7 tb_ century Jerba shared the fortunes
of Tamsia.
See H. Barth, Wanderungen durch die KHstenL des Mittetmeeres
(Berlin, 1849); and H. von Maltzan, Seise in Tunis und Tripolis
(Leipzig, 1870) v
JERBOA, properly the name of an Arabian and North
African jumping rodent mammal, Jaculus aegyptius (also known
as Jaculus, or Difius, jaculus) typifying the family Jaculidae (or
Dipodidae), but in a wider sense applied to most of the repre-
sentatives of that family, which are widely distributed over the
desert and semi-desert tracts of the Old World, although un-
known in Africa south of the Sahara. In all the more typical
members of the family the three middle metatarsals of the, long
lund-legs are fused into a cannon-bone; and in the true jerboas
of the genus Jaculus the two lateral toes, with their supporting
meta t a r sa l * , are lost, although they are present in the alactagas
(Alaclaga), in which, however, as in certain allied genera, only
the three middle toes are functional. As regards the true
jerboas, there is a curious resemblance in the structure of their
hind-legs to that obtaining among birds. In both groups, for
instance, the lower part of the hind-leg is formed by a long,
slender cannon-bone, or metatarsus, terminating inferiorly in
triple condyles for the three long and sharply clawed toes, the
resemblance being increased by the fact that in both cases
the small bone of the leg (fibula) is fused with the large one
(tibia). It may also be noticed that in mammals and birds
which hop on two legs, such as. jerboas, kangaroos, thrushes and
JERDAtf-rfJBREMIAH.
finches, the proportionate length of the thigh-bone or femur to
Che tibia and foot (metatarsus and toes) is constant, being a to 5;
in animals, on the other hand, such as hares, horses and frogs*
which use all four feet, the corresponding lengths are 4 to 7. The
resemblance between the jerboa's and the bird's skeleton is
owing to adaptation to a similar mode of existence. In the
young jerboa the proportion of the femur to the rest of the kg
is the same as in ordinary running animals. Further, at an early
stage of development the fibula is a complete and separate bone,
while the three metatarsals, which subsequently fuse together
to form the cannon-bone, arc likewise separate. In addition to
their long hind and short fore limbs, jerboas are mostly charac-
terised by their silky coats — of a fawn colour to harmonize with
their desert surroundings—their large eyes, and long tails and
ears. As is always the case with la*ge-eared .animals, the
tympanic bullae of the skull are of unusually large size; the size
varying in the different genera according to that of the ears.
(for the characteristics of the family and of its more important
generic representatives, see RodentiAJ
In the Egyptian jerbo at
of the tail, which is Ion air
terminated by a tuft, : ex-
tremely short, while th< en
about to spring, this jert Icr
extremities, and suppot til,
while the fore-feet are 1 be
scarcely visible, which d 'o-
footed. It then leaps in ut
instantaneously erecting on
in such rapid succession ; ig.
ft is a gregarious animal vs<
which it excavates with i pf
and Arabia. In these iy»
emerging at night in set is
exceedingly shy, and th ty,
renders it difficult to a by
dosing up all the exits fi by
which the rodents are 1 »*
placed for their capture. gh
the hardest wood in ordc: oa
(Akutagm indica\ is ab ng
chiefly on grain, which ts.
closing these when full, ai >ly
of food above ground is exhausted (see also JUMPING Mouss).
(ILL.*)
JERDAN, WILLIAM (1 782-1869), Scottish Journalist, was
born on the 16th of April 1782, at Kelso, Scotland. During the
yean between 1709 and 1806 he spent short periods in a country
lawyer's office, a London West India merchant's counting-
house, an Edinburgh solicitor's chambers,and held the position of
surgeon's mate on board H.M. guardship "Gladiator" in Ports-
mouth Harbour, under his uncle, who was* surgeon. He went to
London in 1806, and became a newspaper reporter. He was in the
lobby of the House of Commons on the nth of May 1812 when
Spencer Perceval was shot, and was the first to seise the assassin.,
By 181 a he had become editor of The Sun, a semi-official Tory
paper; he occasionally inserted literary articles, then quite an
unusual proceeding; but a quarrel with the chief proprietor
brought that engagement to a close in 181 7, He passed next to
the editor's chair of the Literary Gazette, which he conducted with
success for thirty-four years. Jerdan's position as editor 1
brought him into contact with many distinguished writers. An
account of his friends, among whom Canning was a special
intimate, Is to be found in his Men I hate Known (1866). When
Jerdan retired in 1856 from the editorship of the Literary
Gaulle his pecuniary affairs were far from satisfactory. A
testimonial of over £000 was subscribed by his friends; and in
1853 * government pension of 100 guineas was conferred on
him by Lord Aberdeen. He published his Autobiography in
1852-1853, and died on the nth of July 1869.
JEREMIAH, in the Bible, the last prc-exilic prophet (ft. 6z6-
586 B.C. ?), son of Hilkiah.
Early Days of Jeremiah.— There must anciently have existed
one or more prose works on Jeremiah and his times, written
partly to do honour to the prophet, partly to propagate those
vtewr respecting Israel's past with, which the name of
323
Jeremiah was associated. Some fragments of this work (or
these works) have come down to. us; they greatly add to the
popularity. of the Book of Jeremiah. Strict historical truth we
must not ask of them, but they do give us what was believed
concerning Jeremiah in the following age, and we must believe
that the personality so .honoured was an extraordinary one,
We have also a number of genuine prophecies which admit
us into Jeremiah's inner nature. These are our best authorities,
but they are deficient in concrete facts. By birth Jeremiah was
a countryman; he came of a priestly family whose estate lay at
Anathoth " in the land of Benjamin " (xxxii: 3; cL.i. x). H«
came forward as < a prophet in the thirteenth year of Josiah
(626 B.c.)vStill yotag but irresistibly impelled. Unfortunately the
account of the call and of the object of the divine caller come to
us from a later hand (ch..i.), but we cah well believe that the
concrete fact which the prophetic call illuminated was an impend-
ing blow to the state <i. 13-167 cf. cb. iv.). What the blow,
exactly was is disputed, 1 but it is certain that Jeremiah saw the
gathering storm and anticipated its result, while the statesmen
were still wrapped in a false security. Five years later came
the reform movement produced by the "finding" of the " book
of the law " in the Temple in war B.C. (2 Kings xxii. 8), and some
critics have -gathered from J ex. ri. 1*8 that Jeremiah joined the
ranks of those who publicly supported this book in Jerusalem
and elsewhere. To others this view appears in itself intprob*
able. How can a man like 1 Jeremiah have advocated any such
panacea? He was indeed not at first a complete pessimist,
but to be a preacher of Deuteronomy required a sanguine temper
which a prophet of the school of Isaiah could not possess. Be-
sides, there is a famous passage (vn'L 8, see R.V.) in which
Jeremiah delivers a vehement attack upon the " scribes " (or,
as we might render, " bookmen ") and their " false pen." If,
as Wellhausen and Duhm suppose, this refers to Deuteronomy
(Lb. the original Deuteronomy), the incorrectness of the theory
referred to is proved. And even if we think that the phraseology
of viii. 8 applies rather to a body of writings than to a single book,
yet there fa no good ground (ai. 1-8 and xxxiv. ia being of doubt-
ful origin) for supposing that Jeremiah would have excepted
Deuteronomy from his condemnation*
Stages of his Development.— At first our prophet was not alto-
gether a pessimist. He aspired to convince the better minds
that the only hope for Israelites, as well as- for Israel, lay in
"• returning " to the true Yahweb, a deity who was no mere
national god, and was not to be cajoled by the punctual offering
of costi/ sacrifices. When Jeremiah wrote iv. 1-4 he evidently
considered that the judgment could even then be averted. After-
wards be became less hopeful, and it was perhaps a closer
acquaintance with the manners of the capital that sewed to
disillusionize him. He began his work at Anathoth, but v. r-5
(as Duhm points out) seems to come from one who has just now
for the first lime "run to and fro in the streets of Jerusalem,"
observing and observed. And what is the result of his expedi-
tion? That he cannot find a single just and honest man; that
high and low, rich and poor, are all ignorant of the true method
of worshipping God (" the way of Yahweb," v. 4). It would
seem as if Anathoth were less corrupt than the capital, the moral-
state of which so shocked Jeremiah. And yet he does not really
go beyond the great city-prophet Isaiah who caUs the men of
Jerusalem " a people of Gomorrah " (i. ro). With all reverence,
an historical student has to deduct something from both these
statements. It is true that commercial prosperity had put a
severe strain on the old morality, and that contact with other
1 Davidson (Hast., D.B., it. 570 b) mentions two views. (1) The
foe might be " a creation of his moral presentiment and assigned
to the north as the cloudy region of mystery." (2) The more usual
view is that the Scythians (see Herod. 1. 76, 103-106; iv. 1) are meant.
Neither of these views is satisfactory. The passage v. 15-17 is too
definite for (1 ), and as for (2). the idea of a threatened Scythian inva-
sion lacks a sufficient basis. Those who hold (2) have to suppose that
original references to the Scythians were retouched under the impres-
j sion of Chaldean invasions. Hence Cheyne's theory of a north Arabian
invasion from the land of Zaphon = Zibeon (Gen. xxxvi. 2, 14).
i.e. Ishmael. Cf. N. Schmidt, Eney. Bib., Zibeon, "Scythians,
1 8 ; Chey ne, Critica Biblica, part i, (Isaiah and Jeremiah).
J1RIMIAM
^ * mm m Ttiynr? W i n-j Vat! trrprarrd
^Z*^.+ v^vvx »wsr« Hi wist** to other gods.
m *^* ^ ♦ w ** ■ «» i i i .«n> ososnl and retfetous
w jmf^' m ^«**<m. <j«fc **> v*t* mm to be found
H-* *■"* ^*w»«* W •* * rile in coteries which
in sorrowful
»** -*'
"*,-*' # .*■*»»> -****nJMjr, Ms even In the highest
""._--- *-" ^ » »+ >** * *— *> ap athy with Jeremiah ;
"'..-- .-*-""**«> *.vv«« *» t kecotteatsof Deuteronomy,
_^ - " fc _ - ' 2f cm ^ * * »** Tfcsnpss at mil resembled the
3 v* " *: "**"** *** (Nmirnswisny. And the assumption
— -* , *»* •* «** iwpectful attitude oC certain
>. - *. -"~T **»«- U*qq., and of the 44 princes "in
^ ". **■ * ^J**" 4 ^*^ nay, at any rate in part,
" ".» - ** ^ .** ****** refenn movement. If therefore
^ ^- **" ^ ty » wt»ao m y in the severe language of viii.8,
v \w^ --*~° ****«■? * B0W * lnml °ook religion has special
^^ -^^"^.sO Nevertheless the same mcorruptible
„^- **~ !2rf** **** bopk rdi « ion n^y be necessary as an
^ A . ->^ ~~"jjs»rr' and » compromise between the two
* ^- %***" jV^ # without historical precedent.
.h* ^ ^*$ZLs*i*» * Jvcmiak.— This, however, could not
V^****** vl^d by the friends of prophecy, even though it
^ w* *■ **** JST as if the claims of book religion were rebuffed
^v*~>j> **■* t^ death of the pious king Josiah at Mtgiddo in
** •»**- > j |C 4 the high hopes of the ** book-men," but meant no
*s>*»^ f\ t^remiah. Its only resuk for the majority was a
\ ^^^J^I Jn the earlier popular cultus of the Baals, and on the
»*«*«* Customs introduced, or reintroduced, by Josiah's grand-
W*^ ^inasseh. WouW that we possessed the section of the
****Il/r bioctaphy whicn de5crib «d h» attitude immediately
I f H> \he ne«B of the battle of Megiddol Let us, however, be
»| ler . rj? iot w hat we have, and notably for the detailed narra-
in ebs- xxvi ' uni ^ xxzv ^< T** former is dated in the
JJ^^-jng of t »« f*^ °* Jeooiakim, though Wellhausen suspects
tkft the d*»e is a mistake, and that .the real occasion was the
|f~- 4 josiah. The one clearsighted patriot saw the full
meaning of the tragedy of Megiddo, and for " prophesying against
thst city "—secured, as men thought, by the Temple (vii. 4)— he
was accused by " the priests, the prophets, and all the people" of
wh treason. But the divinity which hedged a prophet saved
fen. The " princes," supported by certain u elders " and by
u toe people " (quick to change their leaders), succeeded in
quashing the accusation and setting the prophet free. No king,
be it observed, is mentioned. The latter narrative is still more
eaotSng. In the fourth year of Jeooiakim (- the first of
Nebuchadrezzar, xxv. t) Jeremiah was bidden to write down " all
the words that Yahweh had spoken to him against Jerusalem
(so LXX.), Judah and all the nations from the days of Josiah
onwards" (xxxvi. s). So at least the authors of Jeremiah's
biography tell us. They add that in the next year Jeremiah's
scribe Baruch read the prophecies of Jeremiah first to the people
assembled in the Temple, then to the " princes," and then to the
king, who decided his own future policy by burning Baruch 's
roll in the brazier. We cannot, however, bind ourselves to this
tradition, Much more probably the prophecy was virtually a
new one (i*. even if some old passages were repeated yet the
setting was new), and the burden of the prophecy was " The
king of Babylon shall come and destroy this land." s We cannot
therefore assent to the judgment taat " we have, at least as
regards (the) oldest portions [of the book] information con-
siderably move specific than is usual in the case of the writings
of the prophets."*
Fail of Ike Stole.— Under Zedekiah the prophet was less fortu-
nate. Such was the tension of feeling that the " princes," who
1 Cf. Ewald. The Prophets. Eng. trans,. Hi. 63, 64.
» Cheyne. Ency. BnL (otb ed.). " Jeremiah." suggests after Grata
that the roll simply contained ch. xxv.. omitting the roost obvious
interpolations. Against this view we N. Schmidt. Ency. Bib. t
•• Jeremiah (Book)." f 8, who, however, accept* the negative part
of Cheync'i arguments.
• Driver. Imirod. to the LQ. of the O.T. (o), p. 140.
were formerly friendly to Jeremiah, now" took up an attitude of
decided hostility to him. At last they had him consigned to a
miry dungeon, and h was the king who (at the instance of the
Cushke Ebed-melech) intervened for his relief, though be re-
mained a prisoner in other quarters till the fall of Jerusalem
(586 B.C.). Nebuchadrezzar, who is assumed to have heard of
Jeremiah's constant recommendations of submission, gave him
the choice either of going to Babylon or of remaining fn the
country (chs. xxxviii. seq.). He chose the latter and resided
with Gedaliah, the native governor, at Mizpah. On the murder
of Gedaliah he was carried to Mizraim or Egypt, or perhaps
to the land of Mizrim in north Arabia—against his will
(chs. xt-xllii.). How far all this » correct we know not. The
graphic style of a narrative » no sufficient proof of its truth.
Conceivably enough the story of Jeremiah's journey to Egypt
(or Mizrim) may have been imagined to supply a background for
the artificial prophecies ascribed to Jeremiah in chs. ahri.-B.
A legend in Jerome and Epiphanius states that he was stoned
to death at Daphnae, but the biography, though not averse
from horrors, does not mention this.
A Patriot?— W&s Jeremiah really a patriot? The question
has been variously answered. He was not a Phocion, for he
never became the tool of a foreign power. To say with Winckler 4
that he was " a decided adherent of the Chaldean party " is to go
beyond the evidence. He did indeed counsel submission, but
only because his detachment from p^rty gave him a clearness
of vision (cf. xxxviii. 17, 18) which the politicians lacked. How
he suffered in his uphill course he has told us himself (xv. 10-21).
In after ages the oppressed people saw in his love for Israel and
his patient resignation their own realized ideal. " And Onias
said, This is the lover of the brethren, he who prayeth much
for the people and the holy city, Jeremiah the prophet of God "
(2 Mace. xv. 14). And in proportion as the popular belief in
Jeremiah rose, fresh prophecies were added to the book (notably
those of the new covenant and of the restoration of the people
after seventy years) to justify it. Professor N. Schmidt has gone
further into the character of this sympathetic prophet, Ency. Bib,
44 Jeremiah," I 5.
Jeremiah's Prophecies.— It has been said above that our best
authorities are Jeremiah's own propfocats. -Which may these her
Before answering we must again point out (see also Isaiah) that the
j^ -t ^. !n c prophet* came d^ : ~ * '———•—■
ments needed much
records of the pre-exilic prophet* came down in a fragmentary
form, and that these fragments needed much supplementing to adapt
them to the use of post -exilic readers. In Jeremiah, as In IssJm.
we must constantly ask to what age do the pJiraseobgy, the ideas
and the implied circumstances most naturally point? AccordW
to Duhm there are many passages in which metre (see also Alios)
may also be a factor in our critical conclusions. Jeremiah, he thinks,
always uses the same metre. Giesebrecht, on the other hand,
maintains that there are passages which are certainly Jeremiah a>
but which are not in what Duhm calls Jeremiah's metre ; Gies<^recht
also, himself rather conservative, considers Duhm remarkably free
with his emendations. There has also to be considered whether
the text of the poetical passages has not often become corrupt, not
only from ordioary causes but through the misunderstanding and
misreading of north Arabian names on the part of late scribes and
editors, the danger to Judah from north Arabia being (it is held)
not less in pre-cxilic tfmes than the danger from Assyria and Baby-
lonia, so that references to north Arabia are only to be expected.
To bring educated readers into touch witfa critical workers it is
needful to acquaint them with these various points, the neglect of
any one of which may to some extent injure the results of criticism.
It is a new stage of criticism on which we have entered, so that no
single critic can be reckoned as the authority on Jeremiah. But
since the results of the higher criticism depend on the soundness and
thoroughness of the criticism called " lower," and since Duhm has
the advantage of being exceptionally free from that exaggerated
respect for the letters 01 the traditional text which has survived the
destruction of the old superstitious veneration for the vowel-points,
it may be best to give the student his " higher critical " mults.
Let us premise, however* that the portions mem
in the 9th edition of the Ency.BrH. as having been " entirely or
dated 1901.
in part denied," to Jeremiah, vix. x. 1-16: xxx.: xxxiH.; l.-U. and
Hi., are still regarded in their present form as non-Jeremiaajc.
The question which next awaits decision is whether any part of the
booklet on foreign nations (xxv.. xrvi.-li.) can safely be regarded as
Jeremianic. Giesebrecht still asserts the genuineness of xxv. 15-24
(apart from glosses), xlvii. (in the main) and xlix. 7, f, 10, 11.
Against these views see N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., col. 1384.
* In Helmolt's Weitgeschichte, in. an.
JEREMY— JERICHO
3*5
Let m now listen to Duhsn, who _
■ of passages. These are (a) i.-xxv.,
the book into six
ie " words of Jeremiah.'
ft. i ) ; (b) xxvi.-xxix.. passages from Baruch's biography of Jeremiah ;
(c) xxx.-xxxi., the* book of the future of Israel and Judah; (d)
xsorii-xtv., from Baruch ; (e) xlvij-li., the prophecies M concerning
the nations" ; l (f ) lii., historical appendix. Upon examining these
groups we find that besides a prose letter (ch. xxix.), about
sixty poetical pieces may be Jereiriiah's. A: Anathoth passages
before 621. (a) ti. 7b. 3. 14-2)8*. u. 29-37; >'i. 1-5; iii. 12b. 13. 19. 20;
Ui. 21-25; rv. 1,3. 4; these form a cycle, (b) xxxi. 2-6; 15-20: 21,
12; another cycle, (c) iv. 5-^j 1 ib, 12a, is, 19-17*; t9-ai : 23-26;
19-31; visions and " a u ditions " of the impending invasion.
B: Jerusalem passages, (d) v. l-6aj, 60-9; 10-17; vi. 1-5; 60-8;
9-14; 16. t7, 20; 22-26a; 27*^0; vii. 28, 29; viii. 4-7^; 8. 9, 13:
14-17; viii. 18-23; **• **"•? 9 (snort song); 16-18; 19-21 ; x. 19. 20,
12 : reign of Josiah, strong personal element, (ej xxii. 10 (Jehoahax}.
xxii. 13-17; probably too xi. 15, 16; xii. 7*12 (Jehoiabra}. xxii.
t8, 19, perhaps too xxii. 6b, 7; 20-23; and the cycle xiii. 15, 16;
17; 18, 19; 20. 21a, 22-253, 26, 27 (later, Jehoiakim). xxii 2^;
xxtk 28 (JehdUchin). (f) Later poems, xiv. 2-10; xv. 5-9; xvt.
5-7; xviii. 13-17; xxiii. 9-12; 13-15; xi. 18-20: xv. 10-12; is-toa,
and 20. 21 : xvu. 9. 10, 14, 16, 17; xviii. 18-20: xx. 7-1 1 : xx. 14-18;
xiv. 17, 18; xviL 1-4 ;x« viii. 24; assigned to the dose of Zedekiah s
time.
Two Recensions of the Ttxt.— It has often been said that we have
virtually two recensions of the text, that represented by the Septua-
gint and the Massoretic text, and critics have taken different sides,
some for one and some for the other. " Recension," however, is
a bad term; it implies that the two texts which undeniably exist
were the result of revising and editing according to definite critical
principles. Such, however, is not the case. It is true that " there are
(in the LXX.) many omissions of words, sentences, verses and whole
passages, in fact, that altogether about 2700 words are wanting,
or the eighth part of the Massoretic text *' (Bleek). It may also be
admitted that the scribes who produced the Hebrew basis of the
Septuagint version, conscious of the unsettled state of the text,
did not shrink from what they considered a justifiable simplification.
But we must also grant that those from whom the written "
Hebrew text proceeds allowed themselves to fill up and to repeat
without any sufficient warrant. In each case in which there is a
genuine difference of reading between the two texts, it is for the
critic to decide; often, however, he will have to seek to go behind
what both the texts present in order to constitute a truer text than
either. Here is the great difficulty of the future. We may add to
the credit of the Septuagint that the position given to the prophecies
on " the nations " (chs. xtviv-li m our Bible) in the Septuagint is
probably more original than that in the Massoretic text* On this
point see especially Schmidt, Ency. Bib. " Jeremiah (Book) " (§ 6
and 21; Davidson, Hastings's Diet, Bibb, ii. 5730-575; Driver,
Introduction (8th ed.) t pp. 2*9. 270.
The ftest German commentary is that of Coraill (1905). A skilful
translation by Driver, with notes Intended for ordinary students
(1906) should also be mentioned. (T. K. C.)
. JEREMY, EPISTLE OF, an apocryphal book of the Old
Testament. This letter purports to have been written by
Jeremiah to the exiles who were already in Babylon or on the
way thither. The author waa- a Hellenistic Jew, and not im-
probably a Jew of Alexandria, His work, which shows little
literary skill, was written with a serious practical purpose
He veiled his fierce attack on the idol gods of Egypt by holding
Dp to derision the idolatry of Babylon. The fact that Jeremiah
(xxix. x sqq.) was known to have written a letter of this nature
naturally suggested to a Hellenist, possibly of the 1st century
ax. or earlier, the idea ol a second epistolary undertaking, and
other passages of Jeremiah's prophecy (x. 1-12; xxix. 4-23)
may have determined also its general character and contents.
The writer warned the exiles that they were to remain in
captivity for seven generations; that they would there see the
worship paid to idols, from all participation in which they were
to hold aloof; for that idols were nothing save the work of men's
hands, without the powers of speech, hearing or self-preserve*
tiotk They could not bless their worshippers even in the smallest
concerns ol life; they were indifferent to moral qualities, and
were of less value than the commonest household objects, and
finally, " with rare irony, the author compared an idol to a
scarecrow (v. 70), impotent to protect, but df'uding to the
imagination" (Marshall).
The date of the epistle is uncertain. It ie beKeved by some
scholars to be referred to in 2 Mace. ii. 2, which says that Jeremiah
charged the exiles " not to forget the statutes of the Lord, neither
1 U. 59-64a, however, is a specimen of imaginative " Midrashic *
history. See Gieeebrecbt s monograph.
to be led astray la their minds when they saw Images of gold aad
silver and the adornment thereof." But the reference is disputed
by Fritrachc. Cifford, Shurer and others. Toe epistle was in-
cluded in the Greek canon. There was no question of its canonictty
till the time of Jerome, who termed it a pseudepigraph.
See Fritssche, Uondb. a* den Apok^ 1851; Cifford, in Speaker's
Apoc. ii. 286-303; Marshall, in Hastings' Out. Bible, ii. 578-579.
(R. H. C)
JERBZ DE LA PRONTBRA (formerly Xbrbs), a town of
southern Spain, tn tht province of Cadiz, near the right bank
of the river Guadalete, and on the Seville-Cadiz railway, about
7 m. from the Atlantic coast. Pop. (1900), 63,473. Jerez is
built in the midst of an undulating plain of great fertility. Its
whitewashed houses, clean, broad streets, and squares planted
with trees extend fartjeyond the limits formerly enclosed by the
Moorish wails, almost entirely demolished. The principal
buildings are the 15th-century church of San Miguel, the 17th-
century collegiate church with its lofty bell-tower, the 16th-
century town-hall, superseded, for official purposes, by a modern
edifice, the bull-ring, and many hospitals, charitable institutions
and schools, including academies of law, medicine and com-
merce. But the most characteristic features of Jerez are the
huge bode tat, or wine-lodges, for the manufacture and storage of
sherry, aad the vineyards, covering more than 150,000 acres,
which surround it on all sides. The town b an important
market for grain, fruit and livestock, but its staple trade is in
wine. Sherry is also produced in other districts, but takes
its name, formerly written in English as sfterrU or teres, from
Jerez. The demand for sherry diminished very greatly during
the last quarter of the 19th century, especially in England,
which had been the chief consumer. In 1872 the sherry shipped
from Cadiz to Great Britain alone was valued at £2,500,000;
in 1002 the total export hardly amounted to one-fifth of this
sum. The wine trade, however, still brings a considerable
profit, and few towns of southern Spain display greater commer-
cial activity than Jerez. In the earlier part of the 18th century
the neighbourhood suffered severely from yellow fever; but it
was rendered comparatively healthy when in 1869 an aqueduct
was opened to supply pure water. Strikes and revolutionary
disturbances have frequently retarded business in more recent*
years.
Jerez has been variously identified with the Roman Munici-
pium Seriense; with Asido, perhaps the original of the Moorish
Sherish; and with Hasta Regis, a name which may survive in
the designation of La Mesa de Asta, a neighbouring hUl. Jerez was
taken from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile (1 217-1252);
but it was twice recaptured before Alphonso X. finally occupied
it m 1264. Towards the close of the 14th century it received
the title de la Prontera, i.e. "of the frontier," common to
several towns on the Moorish border.
JERfe DE LOS CABALLEROS, a town of south-western
Spain, in the province of Badajoz, picturesquely situated on
two heights overlooking the river Ardila, a tributary of the
Ouadiana, 12 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier. Pop. (1000),
10,271. The old town is surrounded by a Moorish wall with six
gates; the newer portion is well and regularly built, and planted
with numerous orange and other fruit trees. Owing to the lack
of railway communication Jerez js of little commercial impor-
tance; its staple trade is in agricultural prefduce, especially in
ham and bacon from the large herds of swine which are reared
in the surrounding oak forests. The town is said to have been
founded by Alphonso IX. of Leon in 1229; In 1232 it was ex-
tended by his son St Ferdinand, who gave it to the knights
templar. Hence the name. J era de los CeboMeros, " Jerez of
the knights."
JEftlCHO (T, Vrt, once *n!, a word of disputed
meaning, whether " fragrant " or M moon (-god) city "), an
important town in the Jordan valley some 5 m. N. of the Dead
Sea. The references to it in the Pentateuch are -confined to
rough geographical indications of the latitude of the trans-
Jordank camp of the Israelites in Moab before their crossing of
the river. This was the' first Canaanite city to be attacked and
reduced by the victorious Israelites. The story of its conquest If
,3* 6
JERKIN—JEROME, ST
fully narrated in the first seven chapters of Joshua. There must
be some little exaggeration in the statement that Jericho was
totally destroyed; a hamlet large enough to be enumerated
among the to was of Benjamin (Josh. xviii. ai) must have re-
mained; but that it was small b shown by the fact that it was
deemed a suitable place for David's ambassadors to retire to
after the indignities put upon them by Hanun (2 Sam. x. 5;
1 Cam*, xix. 5). Its refortification ins due to a Bethelite named
Hid, who endeavoured to avert the curse of Joshua by offering
his sons as sacrifices at certain stages of the work (1 Kings zvi.
34)- After this event it grew again into importance and became
the site of a college of prophets (2 Kings u. 4 sqq.) for whom
Eiisha " healed ** its poisonous waters. The principal spring
in the neighbourhood of Jericho still bears (among the foreign
resident*) the name of Elisha; the natives call it, Ain es-Sultan,
or "Sultan's spring." To Jericho the victorious Israelite
saarauders magnanimously returned their Judahite captives at
the bidding of the prophet Oded (2 Chron. xxviii. 15). Here
was fought the last fight between the Babylonians and Zede-
kiah» wherein the kingdom of Judah came to an end (a Kings
«**♦ S; Jer. xxxix. 5, lii. 8). In the New Testament Jericho
is connected with the well-known stories of Bar-Timacus
tMatt. xx. *>; Mark x. 46; Luke zviiL 35) and Zacchaeus
lLak* six. 1) and with the good Samaritan (Luke x. 30).
TV* «sws>BibKtal history of Jericho is as disastrous as are the
«cvv\*. fwtrsOTvca in the Scriptures. Bact hides, the geoeral of the
>\ -***» earn wrcd and fortified it (1. Mace. ix. 50), Aristobulus
v •>* *** \l\ i. 4) «U> took it. Pompey (ib. XIV. iv. 1) encamped
K** ,•*► >r» «« v to Jerusalem. Before Herod its inhabitants ran
*%*» v ^ \l\ \>\ <0 as they did before Vespasian (Wars, IV. viii. 2).
V>* <v*«.>ift *| t fc rt Ik^ ^ xK^rhice quality was no doubt the enervating
**»\\ .* , W jpr*t **s* ol the depression in which the city lies, which
■*«.. Vvi*, <^v^ v> * j^ handful of degraded humanity that stfll
'^ ***»&*» ¥* r*W«i»t are more fertile. It was the city of
^*»j» nvi^il* aacwwi record of the Israelite invasion preserved
*' ^' N * , ; ' vj * *- **; and Josephus speaks of iu fruitfulness
„ :> ,«.. 1 ,*ivh v n * # j IV. 8^ 3). Even now with every possible
v "nv • v>* *ay of cultivation it is an important Centre of
i-k «vw* tf*RS**ba poorsquali jd,
.^>" **v 'Vjkiviu***, It is not built te.
. . *w. .v *.' v y d Jericho has shifted nd
„.. ' ■■ "'•N.^a »<ar " EHsha's Foui m
„.".«**» kk <X*)fe4 wwres the Canaanite ter
^.».«. v* Kvttkta >* rfcteodian date, one 1 is.
., **» #*vns*S<\ ts» crusaders who e te.
y » «s»> .•»%« *iti\tmt?d to them is to I in
v ^- .»;. vs. K^''st mountains sre many n m.
^ ^ ,v>» nn% iviwed •hcai" mills, and othe :ry
^.Ki w* <W sw^hbourhood. The 1 tte
*^ s ^vv\ v* ih*»uluno( Turkey. In 1 ho
£ k . » v *\nUv\1 uinkt the direction of Pi ... _ . _«_
>.v ' IV iVrman Excavations at Jericho," Pal. Explor. Fund,
V >a**«k VWto*. pp. 54-0*.
JERKIN* a short dose-fitting jacket, made usually of leather,
^X without sleeve*, the typical male upper garment of the
v ^h A4ul 17th centuries. The origin of the word is unknown.
Tb< IVHch word jurk, a child's frock, often taken as the source,
i» **vkra, snd represents neither the sound nor the sense of the
£ng!i>* word. In architecture the term " jerkin-roofed " is
t^xiwd. probably with some obscure connexion with the gar-
ment* to a paiticuUr form of gable end, the gable being cut
vol boM * ay up the roof and sloping back like a " hipped roof '*"
w tW c\lg««
jUtOKUH (Heb. ydr^'dss, apparently " Am fthe dan/
sa-k ^rhaps a divine name] contends "; LXX. upo/Soau), the
ju»iw w4 two kings in the Bible.
i The hnt king of (north) Israel after the disruption (see
>ouvvkv<V According to the traditions of his early hie (1 Kings
sv -<> *r* *>>d LXX.), he was an Ephraimite who for his ability
«m l^liu-d o\xr the forced levy of Ephraim and Manasseh.
H4v»,v< ^tvx^ueotly incurred Solomon's suspicions he fled to
VK'iNA* tiag of Egypt, and remained with him until Reho-
^v»u»S aw^mk^ When the latter came to be made king at
NWhMM. the *hl religious centre (see Abimeiech), hopes were
«tkt<ttlMW«4 thai a more lenient policy would be introduced.
But Reboboam refused to depart from Solomon's despotic rale,
and was tactless enough to send Adonlram, the overseer of the
corvlt. He was stoned to death, and Reboboam realizing
the temper of the people fled to Jerusalem and prepared fox
war. Jeroboam became the recognized leader of the northern
tribes. 1 Conflicts occurred (1 Kings xiv. 30), but no details are
preserved except the late story of Rehoboam's son Abijah
in 2 Chron. xiii. Jeroboam's chief achievement was the forti-
fication of Shechem (his new capital) and of Penuei in east
Jordan. To counteract the influence of Jerusalem he established
golden calves at Dan and Bethel, an act which to later ages was
as gross a piece of wickedness as his rebellion against the legiti-
mate dynasty of Judah. No notice has survived of Shishak's
invasion of Israel (see Rehoboam), and after a reign of twenty-two
years Jeroboam was succeeded by Nadab, whose violent death
two years later brought the whole house oi Jeroboam to an end.
In the 10th
ce dpoint at a
da it of Ahijah
to iding of the
ki h Jeroboam
" an account,
nc v. 40) is the
na it feroboam
(c of the same
na 10 reference
to the prophet
is ion (xii. 24)
th emaiah and
pi; the prophet
wl 24); the in-
ju d to explain
K< . R. Smith,
01 r, AUe Test.
V\ >p- 443 sqq)
2. Jexoboam, son of Joash (2) a contemporary of Axariah
king of Judah. He was one of the greatest of the kings of
Israel. He succeeded in breaking the power of Damascus,
which had long been devastating his land, and extended hit
kingdom from Hamath on the Orontes to the Dead Sea. The
brief summary of his achievements preserved in 2 Kings xiv. 23
sqq. may be supplemented by the original writings of Amos and
Hosea.* There appears to be an allusion in Amos vi. 13 to
the recovery of Ashteroth-Karnaim and Lodebar in E. Jordan,
and the conquest of Moab (Isa. xv. seq.) is often ascribed to
this reign. After a period of prosperity, internal disturbances
broke out and the northern kingdom hastened to its fall. Jero-
boam was succeeded by bis son Zecharfah, who after six months
was killed at Ibleam (so read in 2 Kings xv. to; cp. ix. 27,
murder of Ahaziah) by Shallum the son of Jabesh — i.e. possibly
of Jabesh-Oilead— who a month later fell to Menahem (?.».).
(S. A. C.)
See, further, Jews || 7, 9 and || 12, 13.
JEROMB, ST (HmoNYurjs, in full EvsxBitrs Sopsxomrjt
Hiexonymus) (<. 340-420), was born at Strido (modern
Strigan?), a town on the border of Dalmatia fronting Pannonia,
destroyed by the Goths in ad. 377. What is known of Jerome
has mostly been recovered from his own writings. He appears to
have been born about 340; his parents were Christians, orthodox
though living among people mostly Arians and wealthy.
He was at first educated at home, Bonosus, a life-long friend,
sharing his youthful studies, and was afterwards sent to Rome.
Donatus taught him grammar and explained the Latin poets.
Victorinus taught him rhetoric He attended the law-courts,
and listened to the Roman advocates pleading in the Forum.
He went to the schools of philosophy, and heard lectures on
Plato, Diogenes, Clitomachus and Carneades; the conjunction
of names show how philosophy had become a dead tradition.
1 On the variant traditions in the Hebrew text and the Septuagint,
see the commentaries on Kings.
'See also Jew ah. In 2 Kings xiv. 38. "Hamath, which had
belonged to Judah " (R.V.) is incorrect; Winckler (Keilinxhift. tu
Alte Test,, 2nd ed., 262) suspects a reference to Israel's overlorashin
in Judah ; Burney (Heb. Text of Kings) reads: " how he fought with
Damascus and how he turned away the wrath of Yahweh from
Israel " ; see also Ency. Bib. coL 2406 n. 4, and the commentaries.
JEROME, ST .'
Hit Sundayt were spent in the catacombs in discovering graves
erf the martyrs and deciphering inscriptions. Pope Liberius
baptised him in 360; three years later the news of the death of
the emperor Julian came to Rome, and Christians felt relieved
from a great dread.
When his student days were over Jerome returned to Strido v
but did not stay there long. His character was formed. He was
a scholar, with a scholar's tastes and cravings for knowledge,
easily excited, bent on scholarly discoveries. From Strido he
went to Aquilcia, where he formed some friendships among
the monks of the large monastery, notably with Rufinus, with
whom he was destined to quarrel bitterly over the question of
Origen's orthodoxy and worth as a commentator; for Jerome was
a man who always sacrificed a friend to an opinion, and when he
changed sides in a controversy expected his acquaintances to
follow him. From Aquilcia he went to Gaul (366-370), visiting
in turn the principal places in that country, from Narbonne
and Toulouse in the south to Treves on the north-east frontier.
He stayed some time at Treves studying and observing, and it
was there that he first began to think seriously upon sacred
things. From Treves he returned to Strido, and from Strido
to Aquilcia. He settled down to literary work in Aquileia
(370-375) and composed there his first original tract, De muliere
septus pcrcussa, in the form of a letter to his friend Innocentius.
Some dispute caused him to leave Aquilcia suddenly; and with a
few companions, Innocentius, Evagrius, and Heliodorus being
among them, he started for a long tour in the East. The epistle
to Rufinus (3rd in Vallarsi's enumeration) tells us the route.
They went through Thrace, visiting Athens, Bithynia, Galatia,
Pont us, Cappadocia and CUicia, to Antioch, Jerome observing
and making notes as they went. He was interested in the
theological disputes and schisms |n Galatia, in the two lan-
guages spoken in Cflicia, &c. At Antioch the party remained
some time. Innocentius died of a fever, and Jerome was
dangerously ill. This illness induced a spiritual change, and he
resolved to renounce whatever kept him back from God. His
greatest temptation was the study of the literature of pagan
Rome. In a dream Christ reproached him with caring more
to be a Ciceronian than a Christian. He disliked the Uncouth
style of the Scriptures. " O Lord," he prayed, M thou knowest
that whenever I have and study secular MSS. I deny thee,"
and he made a resolve henceforth to devote his scholarship to
the Holy Scripture. " David was to be henceforth his Simonides,
Pindar and Alcaeus, his Flaccus, Catullus and Scverus."
Fortified by these resolves he betook himself to a hermit life in
the wastes of Chalcis, S.E. from Antioch (373-370). Chalcis
was the Thcbaid of Syria. Great numbers of monks, each in
solitary cell, spent lonely lives, scorched by the sun, ill-clad and
scantily fed, pondering on portions of Scripture or copying MSS.
to serve as objects of meditation. Jerome at once set himself
to such scholarly work as the place afforded. He discovered and
copied MSS., and began to study Hebrew. There also he wrote
the life of St Paul of Thebes, probably an imaginary tale embody-
ing the facts of the monkish life around him. Just then the
Meletian schism, which arose over the relation of the orthodox
to Arian bishops and to those baptized by Arians, distressed
the church at Antioch (see Meletius op Antioch), and Jerome as
usual eagerly joined the fray. Here as elsewhere he had but one
rule to guide him in matters of doctrine and discipline— the
practice of Rome and the West; for it is. singular to see how
Jerome, who is daringly original in points of scholarly criticism,
was a ruthless partisan in all other matters; and, having dis-
covered what was the Western practice, he set tongue and pen
to work with his usual bitterness (Allcrcatio luciferiani et
orthodox!).
At Antioch in 379 he was ordained presbyter. From there he
went to Constantinople, where he met with the great Eastern
scholar and theologian Gregory of Nazianzus, and with his aid
tried to perfect himself in Greek. The result of his studies there
was the translation of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a con-
tinuation l of twenty-eight homilies of Ongen 00 Jeremiah and
• a. Sdtaene'scrfekal edition (Berlin. 1M6, 1875%
3*7
Ezekiel, and of nine homilies of Origen on the visions of
. In 381 Meletius died, and Pope Damasus interfered in the
dispute at Antioch, hoping to end it. Jerome was called to
Rome in 382 to give help in the matter, and was made secretary
during the investigation. His work brought him into inter-
course with this great pontiff, who soon saw what he could best
do, and how his vast scholarship might be made of use to the
church. Damasus suggested to him to revise the " Old Latin "
translation of the Bible; and to this task he henceforth devoted
his great abilities. At Rome were published the Gospels (with
a dedication to Pope Damasus, an explanatory introduction,
and the canons of Eusebius), the rest of the New Testament
and the version of the Psalms from the Septuagint known as the
P sailer ium rxmanum, which was followed (c. 388) by the Pud-
Urium gaUi^aHum, based on the Hexaplar Greek text. These
scholarly labours, however, did not take up his whole time, and
it was almost impossible for Jerome to be long anywhere without
getting into, a dispute. He was a zealous defender of that
monastic life which was beginning to take such a large place
in the church of the 4th century, and he found enthusiastic
disciples among the Roman ladies. A number of widows and
maidens met together in the house of Marcella to study the
Scriptures with him; he taught them Hebrew, and preached the
virtues of the celibate life. His arguments and exhortations may
be gathered from many of his epistles and from his tract Adtersts
Hehidium, in which be defends the perpetual virginity of Mary
against Helvidius, who maintained that she bore children to
Joseph His influence over these ladies alarmed their relatives
and excited the suspicions of the regular priesthood and of the
populace, but while Pope Damasus lived Jerome remained secure.
Damasus died, however, in 384, and was succeeded by Siricius,
who did not show much friendship for Jerome. He found it
expedient to leave Rome, and set out for the East in 385. His
letters (especially Ep. 45) are full of outcries against his enemies
and of indignant protestations that he had done nothing un-
becoming a Christian, that he had taken no money, nor gifts
great nor small, that be had no delight in silken attire, sparkling
gems or gold ornaments, that no matron moved him unless by
penitence and fasting, &c His route is given in the third book In
Rufinum; he went by Rhegium and Cyprus, where he was enter-
tained by Bishop Epiphanius, to Antioch. There he was joined
by two wealthy Roman ladies, Paula, a widow, and Eustochium,
her daughter, one of Jerome's Hebrew students. They came
accompanied by a band of Roman maidens vowed to live a
celibate life in a nunnery in Palestine. Accompanied by these
ladies Jerome made the tour of Palestine, carefully noting with
a scholar's keenness the various places mentioned in Holy
Scripture. The results of this journey may be traced in his
translation with emendations of the book of Eusebius on the
situation and names of Hebrew places, written probably three
years afterwards, when he had settled down at Bethlehem.
From Palestine Jerome and his companions went to Egypt,
remaining some time in Alexandria, and they visited the con-
vents of the Kitrian desert. Jerome's mind was evidently full
of anxiety about his translation of the Old Testament, for we find
him in his letters recording the conversations he had with learned
men about disputed readings and doubtful renderings; the blind
EHdymus of Alexandria, whom he heard interpreting Hoses,
appears to have been most useful. When they returned to
Palestine they all settled at Bethlehem, where Paula built four
monasteries, three for nuns and one for monks. She was at the
head of the nunneries until her death In 404, when Eustochium
succeeded her; Jerome presided over the fourth monastery.
Here he did most of his literary work and, throwing aside his
unfinished plan of a translation from Origen's Hexaplar text,
translated the Old Testament directly from the Hebrew, with
the aid of Jewish scholars. He mentions a rabbi from Lydda,
a rabbi from Tiberias, and aU've all rabbi Ben Anina, who
came to him by night secretly for fear of the Jews. Jerome
was not familiar enough with Hebrew to be able to dispense with
such assistance, and he makes the synagogue responsible for **•*
JEROME, J. K;— JEROME OF PRAGUE
3*8
accuracy of his version: M Let him who would challenge aught
in this translation," he says, " ask the Jews." The result of all
this labour was the Latin translation of the Scriptures which,
in spite of much opposition from the more conservative party in
the church, afterwards became the Vulgate or authorized ver-
sion; but the Vulgate as we have it now is not exactly Jerome's ,
Vulgate, for it suffered a good deal from changes made under the
influence of the older translations; the text became very corrupt
during the middle ages, and in particular all the Apocrypha,
except Tobit and Judith, which Jerome translated from the
Chaldee, were added from the older versions. (See Bible:
0.7*. Versions.)
Notwithstanding the labour involved In translating the
Scriptures, Jerome found time to do a great deal of literary work,
and also to indulge in violent controversy. Earlier in life he
had a great admiration for Origen, and translated many of his
works, and this lasted after he had settled at Bethlehem, for in
389 he translated Origen's homilies on Luke; but he came to
change his opinion and wrote violently against two admirers of
the great Alexandrian scholar, John, bishop of Jerusalem, and
his own former friend Rufinus.
At Bethlehem also he found time to finish Didymi despirilu
soneto liber, a translation begun at Rome at the request of Pope
Damasus, to denounce the revival of Gnostic heresies by Jovin-
ianus and Vigilantius {Ait. Jovinianum lib. II. and Contra
Vigilanlium liber), and to repeat his admiration of the hermit
life in his Vila S. Hilar ionis eremitae, in his Vita Malchi monachi
captM, in bis translations of the Rule of Si Pachomius (the
Benedict of Egypt), and in his S. Pachomii et S. Thcodorici
epistelae et verba mystka. He also wrote at Bethlehem De viris
illustrious she de scriptoribus ecclesiastkis t a church history in
biographies, ending with the life of the author; De nominibus
Hebrakis, compiled from Philoand Origen; and De situ et nomini-
bus locorum Hebrakomm. 1 At the same place, too, he wrote
Quaestiones HtbraUae on Genesis,' and a series of commentaries
on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the Twelve Minor Prophets,
Matthew and the Epistles of St Paul. About 304 Jerome came
to know Augustine, for whom he held a high regard. He
engaged in the Pelagian controversy with more than even his
usual bitterness (Dialogi contra pelagianos); and it is said that
the violence of his invective so provoked his opponents that an
armed mob attacked the monastery, and that Jerome was forced
to flee and to remain in concealment for nearly two years. He
returned to Bethlehem in 4x8, and after a lingering illness died
on the 30th of September 420.
Jerome " is one of the few Fathers to whom the title of Saint
appears to have been given in recognition of services rendered to
the Church rather than for eminent sanctity. He is the great
Christian scholar of his age, rather than the profound theologian
or the wise guide of souls." His great work was the Vulgate,
but his achievements in other fields would have sufficed to dis-
tinguish him. His commentaries are valuable because of his
knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, his varied interests, and his
comparative freedom from allegory. To him we owe the dis-
tinction between canonical and apocryphal writings; in the
Prologus Caieatms prefixed to his version of Samuel and Kings, he
says thai the church reads the Apocrypha " for the edification of
the people, not for confirming the authority of ecclesiastical doc-
trines." He was a pioneer in the fields of patrology and of bib-
lical archaeology. In controversy he was too food of mingling
personal abuse with legitimate argument, a*nd this weaknes
mars his letters, whkh were held in high admiration in the early
middle ages, and are valuable for their history of the man and
his times. Luther in his Table Talk condemns them as dealing
only with fasting, meats, virginity, ore. " If he only had insisted
upon the works of faith and performed them I But he teaches
nothing either about faith, or love, or hope, or the works of
faith."
* Compare the critical edition of these two works in Lagarde's
- - — ■« (Gduing. 1870). gi^^i. /-— , n .;«.;•
e* a edition appended to his Cemstu Crmea (Letptig,
Editions of th
1530); Mar. Vict
F. Calixtus and
1684-1690); J.
Pans, 1 693-1 70«
Pal
, Basel, 1510-
e. 1565-1^7*);
1 and Leipzig,
e ed..
, the
rnedictine >
nru illust. '
translation by
ccoe Fathers,
are prefixed to
>Ilombct (Parb
:utu (London,
, 1898); F.W.
burgh, 1880).
Realencyh. fur
best; Migne.
edited by Herdii
W.H.Frcmantlc,
2nd series, vol. ^
most of the abov
and Lyons, 1844
1878); C Martu
Farrar, Lives c
Additional liter;
proL Theol. viii. +*.
JEROME, JEROME KLAPKA (1859- ), English author,
was born on the and of May 1859. He was educated at the
philological school, Marylcbonc, London; and was by turns
clerk, schoolmaster and actor, before he settled down to journal-
ism. He made his reputation as a humorist in 1889 with IdU
Thoughts oj an Idle Fellow and Three Men in a Boat, and
from 1892 to 1897 he was co-editor of the Idler with Robert
Barr. At the same time he was also the editor of To-Day. A
one-act play of his, Barbara, was produced at the Globe theatre
in 1886, and was followed by many others, among them Sunset
(1888), Wood Barrow Farm (1891), The Passing of the Third Floor
Back (1907). Among his later books are Letters to Clorinda
(1898), The Second Thoughts of an Idle Fellow (1898), Three Mem
on the Bummel (1000), Tommy and Co. (1904), They and! (1009).
JEROME OP PRAGUE (d. 1416), an early Bohemian church-
reformer and friend of John Hus, - Jerome's part in the Hussite
movement was formerly much overrated. Very little is known
of his early years. He is stated to have belonged to a noble
Bohemian family 1 and to have been a few years younger than
Hus. After beginning his studies at the university of Prague,
where he never attempted to obtain any ecclesiastical office,
Jerome proceeded to Oxford in 1398. There he became greatly
impressed by the writings of Wycliffe, of whose Dialogus and
Trialogus he made copies. Always inclined to a roving life, he
soon proceeded to the university of Paris and afterwards con-
tinued his studies at Cologne and Heidelberg, returning to
Prague in 1407. In 1403 he is stated to have undertaken a
journey to Jerusalem, At Paris his open advocacy of the views
of Wycliffe brought him into conflict with John Gerson, chan-
cellor of the university. In Prague Jerome soon attracted
attention by his advanced and outspoken opinions. He gave
great offence also by exhibiting a portrait of Wycliffe in his room.
Jerome was soon on terms of friendship with Hus, and took part
in all the controversies of the university. When in 1408 a
French embassy arrived at Kutna Hora, the residence of King
Wenceslaus of Bohemia, and proposed that the papal schism
should be terminated by the refusal of the temporal authorities
further to recognize cither of the rival popes, Wenceslaus sum-
moned to Kutna Hora the members of the university. The
Bohemian magistri spoke strongly in favour of the French pro-
posals, while the Germans maintained their allegiance to the
Roman pope, Gregory XII. The re-organixation of the univer-
sity was also discussed, and as Wenceslaus for a time favoured
the Germans, Hus and Jerome, as leaders of the Bohemians,
incurred the anger of the king, who threatened them with death
by fire should they oppose his will.
In 1410 Jerome, who had incurred the hostility of the arch-
bishop of Prague by his speeches in favour of Wycliffc's teaching,
went to Ofen, where King Sigismund of Hungary resided, and,
though a layman, preached before the king denouncing strongly
the rapacity and immorality of the clergy. Sigismund shortly
afterwards received a letter from the archbishop of Prague con-
taining accusations against Jerome. He was imprisoned by
order of the king, but does not appear to have been detained
long in Hungary. Appearing at Vienna, he was again brought
• The statement that Jerome's family name was Faulfiss. is
founded on a misunderstood passage of Aeneas Sylvius. //«/<*!<*
Bokemica. Aeneas Sylvius names as one of the early •tJonemtan
1 a man - tentTt nobUis, ex domo $**m Putrid* Pucu
Tb* v«*«rQneattaly beUevad W.reUr.10 Jerome.
before the ecclesiastical authorities. Ht Ms accused of spreading
Wydiffe's doctrines, and his general conduct at Oxford, Paris,
Cologne, Prague and Ofen was censured. Jerome vowed that
he would not leave Vienna till be had cleared himself from the
accusation of heresy. Shortly afterwards he secretly kft Vienna,
declaring that this promise had been forced on him. He went
first to V&ttau in Moravia, and then to Prague. In 141 2 the
representatives of Pope Gregory XII. publicly offered indul-
gences for sale at Prague, wishing to raise money for the pope's
campaign against King Ladislaus of Naples, an adherent of the
antipope of Avignon, Contrary to the wishes of the archbishop
of Prague a meeting of the members of the university took place,
at which both Hus and Jerome spoke strongly against the sale
of indulgences. The fiery eloquence of Jerome, which is noted
by all contemporary writers, obtained for him greater success
even than that of Hus, particularly among the younger students,
who conducted him in triumph to his dwelling-place. Shortly
afterwards Jerome proceeded to Poland — it is said on the invita-
tion of King Wladislaus. His courtly manners and his eloquence
here also caused him to become very popular, but he again met
with strong opposition from the Roman Church. While travel-
Bog with the grand-duke Lithold of Lithuania Jerome look part
in the religious services of the Creek Orthodox Church.
During his stay in northern Europe Jerome received the news
that Hus had been summoned to appear before the council of
Constance. He wrote to his friend advising him to do so and
adding that he would also proceed there to afford him assistance.
Contrary to the advice of Hus he amved at Constance on the
4th of April 1415. Advised to fly immediately to Bohemia, he
succeeded in reaching Hirschau, only 25 m. from the Bohemian
frontier. He was here arrested and brought back in chains to
Constance* where he was examined by judges appointed by the
council. His courage failed him in prison and, to regain his
freedom, he renounced the doctrines of Wycliffe and Hus He
declared that Hus had been justly executed and stated in a letter
addressed on the 12th of August 141 5 to Lacek, lord of Krav&f—
the only literary document of Jerome that has been preserved 4 —
that " the dead man (Hus) had written many false and harmful
things." Full confidence was not placed in Jerome's recantation.
He elaimed to be heard at a general meeting of the council, and
this was granted to him. He now again maintained all the theo-
ries which he had formerly advocated, and, after a trial that
lasted only one day, he was condemned to be burnt as a heretic.
The sentence was immediately carried out on the 30th of May
1416, and he met his death with fortitude. As Poggio Bracrio-
lini writes, " none of the Stoics with so constant and brave a soul
endured death) which he (Jerome) seemed rather to long for."
The eloquence of the It ah" an humanist has bestowed a not
entirely merited aureole on the memory of Jerome of Prague.
See all works dealing with Hus ; and indeed all histories of Bohemia
contain detailed accounts of the career of Jerome. The Lines of
John Widiffc, Lord Cob ham, John IIuss, Jerome of Prague and Zilka
by William Gilpin (London, 1 765) still has a certain value. (L.)
JBRROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM (1803-1857), English
dramatist and man of letters, was born in London on the 3rd
of January 1803. His father, Samuel Jerrold, actor, was at that
time lessee of the little theatre of Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent,
but in 1807 he removed to Sheerness. There, among the blue-
jackets who swarmed in the port during the war with France,
Douglas grew into boyhood. He occasionally took a child's
part on the stage, but his father's profession had little attraction
for the boy. In December 18 13 he joined the guardship
" Namur," where he had Jane Austen's brother as captain.and he
served as a midshipman until the peace of 181 5. He saw nothing
of the war save a number of wounded soldiers from Waterloo,
but till his dying day there lingered traces of his early passion for
the sea. The peace of 181 5 ruined Samuel Jerrold, there was
no more prize money. On the 1st of January 181 6 he removed
with his family to London, where the ex-midshipman began the
world again as a printer's apprentice, and in 1810 became a com-
positor in the printing-office of the Sunday Monitor. Several
short papers and copies of verses by him had already appeared
JERROLD 339
in the sixpenny magazines, and one evening he dropped Into the
editor's box a criticism of the opera Der PreUchUt*. Next
morning he received his own copy to set up, together with a
flattering note from the editor, requesting further contributions
from the anonymous author. Thenceforward Jerrold was en-
gaged in journalism. In i8ai a comedy that he had composed
in his fifteenth year was brought out at Sadler's Wells theatre,
under the title More Frightened than Hurt. Other pieces
followed, and in 2825 he was engaged for a few pounds weekly
to produce dramas and farces to the order of Davidge of the
Coburg theatre. In the autumn of 1824 the "little Shake-
speare in a camlet cloak," as he was called,married Mary Swann;
and, while he was engaged with the drama at night, he was
steadily pushing his way as a journalist. For a short while he
was part proprietor of a small Sunday newspaper. In 1829,
through a quarrel with the exacting Davidge, Jerrold left the
Coburg; and his three-act melodrama, Black-eyed Susan; or, AU
in the Downs, was brought out by R. W. Elliston at the Surrey
theatre. The success of the piece was enormous. With its
free gallant sea-flavour, it took the town by storm, and " all
London went over the water to see it." Elliston made a fortune
by the piece; T. P. Cooke, who played William, made his repu-
tation; Jerrold received about £60 and was engaged as dramatic
author at five pounds a week. But his fame as a dramatist
was achieved. In 1830 it was proposed that he should adapt
something from the French for Drury Lane. " No," was his
reply, " I shall come into this theatre as an original dramatist
or not at all." The Bride of Ludgaie (December 8, 183 1)
was the first of a number of his plays produced at Drvry Lane.
The other patent houses threw their doors open to him also (the
Adelphi had already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co-
manager of the Strand theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother-
in-law The venture was not successful, and the partnership
was dissolved While it lasted Jerrold wrote his only tragedy,
The Painter of Ghent, and himself appeared in the title-role, with-
out any very marked success. He continued to write sparkling
comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, 7*e Heart of Cold.
Meanwhile he had won his way to the pages of numerous
periodicals— before 1830 of the second-rate magazines only, but
after that to those of more importance. He was a contributor
to the Monthly Magazine, Blackwood's, the New Monthly, and
the Athenaeum. To Punch, the publication which of all others
is associated with his name, he contributed from its second
number in 1841 till within a few days of his death. He founded
and edited for some time, though with indifferent success, the
Illuminated Magazine, Jcrrold's Shilling Magazine, and Douglas
J err old's Weekly Newspaper; and under his editorship Lloyd's
Weekly Newspaper rose from almost nonentity to a circulation of
182,000. The history of his later years is little more than a
catalogue of his literary productions, interrupted now and again
by brief visits to the Continent or to the country. Douglas
Jerrold died at his house, Kilburn Priory, in London, on the
8th of June 1857.
Jerrold's figure was small and spare, and in later years bowed
almost to deformity. His features were strongly marked and
expressive from the thin humorous lips to the keen blue eyes
gleaming from beneath the shaggy eyebrows. He was brisk and
active, with the careless bluff ness of a sailor. Open and sincere,
he concealed neither his anger nor his pleasure; to his simple
frankness all polite duplicity was distasteful. The cynical side
of his nature he kept for his writings, in privaje life his hand was
always open. In politics Jerrold was a Liberal.and he gave eager
sympathy to Kossuth, Mazzini and Louis Blanc. In social
politics espedally he took an eager part, he never tired of de-
claiming against the horrors of war, the luxury of bishops, and
the iniquity of capital punishment.
Douglas Jerrold is now perhaps better known from his reputa-
tion as a brilliant wit in conversation than from his writings. As
a dramatist he was very popular, though his plays have not kept
the stage. He dealt with rather humbler forms of social life
than had commonly been represented on the boards. He was
one of the first and certainly one of the most successful of those
•33°
who in defence of the native English drama endeavoured to
stem the tide of translation from the French, which threatened
early in the 19th century altogether to drown original native
talent. His skill in construction and his mastery of epigram
and brilliant dialogue are well exemplified in his comedy, Time
Works Wonders (Haymarket, April 26, 1845)* The tales and
sketches which form the bulk of Jerrold's collected works
vary much in skill and interest; but, although there are
evident traces of their having been composed from week to
week, they arc always marked by keen satirical observation
and pungent wit.
I of
JERRY— JERSEY
i
His eldest son, William Blanchard Jerrold (1826-1884),
English journalist and author, was born in London on the 23rd
of December 1826, and abandoning the artistic career for which
he was educated, began newspaper work at an early age there.
He was appointed Crystal Palace commissioner to Sweden in
1853, and wrote A Bray-Beaker with the Swedes (1854) on his
return. In 185s he was sent to the Paris exhibition as corre-
spondent for several London papers, and from that time he lived
much in Paris. In 1857 he succeeded bis father as editor of
Lloyd's Weekly Newspaper, a post which he held for twenty-six
years. During the Civil War in America he strongly supported
the North, and several of his leading articles were reprinted and
placarded in New York by the federal government. He was the
founder and president of the English branch of the international
literary association for the assimilation of copyright laws.
Four of his plays were successfully produced on the London stage,
the popular farce Cool as a Cucumber (Lyceum 1851) being the
best known. His French experiences resulted in a number of
books, most important of which is his Life of Napoleon III.
(1874). He was occupied in writing the biography of Gustave
.Dore, who had illustrated several of his books, when be died on
the 10th of March 1884.
Among hit books are A Story of Social Distinction (1848), Life and
Remains of Douglas Jerrold (1850), Upand Down in the World (1863),
The Children ofLutetia (1864). Cent per Cent (1871). At Home tn Parts
(1871), The Best of all Good Company (1 871-1873), and The Life of
Ceorgo Cruikshank (1882).
JERRY, a short form of the name Jeremiah, applied to various
common objects, and more particularly to a machine for finishing
cloth. The expression " jerry-built " is applied to houses built
badly and of inferior materials, and run up by a speculative
builder. There seems to be no foundation for the assertion that
this expression was occasioned by the work of a firm of Liverpool
builders named Jerry.
JERSEY, EARLS OF. Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1656-1711),
son of Sir Edward Villiers (1 620-1689), of Richmond, Surrey,
was created Baron Villiers and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and earl
of Jersey in 1697. His grandfather. Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1585-
1626), master of the mint and president of Munster, was half-
broiher of George Villiers, 1st duke of Buckingham, and
of Christopher Villiers, 1st earl of Anglesey; his sister was
Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of William III., and after-
wards countess of Orkney. Villiers was knight- marshal of
the royal household in succession to his father; master of the
horse to Queen Mary; and lord chamberlain to William III. and
Queen Anne. In 1606 he represented his country at the congress
of Ryswick; he was ambassador at the Hague, and after becoming
an earl was ambassador in Paris. In 1609 he was made secretary
of state for the southern department, and on three occasions be
was one of the lords justices of England. In 1704 he was dis-
missed from office by Anne, and after this event he was concerned
in some of the Jacobite schemes. He died on the 25th of August
171 r. The 2nd earl was his son William (c. 1 682-1 721), an
adherent of the exited house of Stuart, and the 3rd earl was the
latter'* son William (d. 1769), who succeeded his kinsman John
Fitzgerald (c. 1692-1766) as 6th Viscount Grandison. The 3rd
earl's son, George Bussy, the 4th earl (1735-1805), held several
positions at the court of George III., and on account of his
courtly manners was called the " prince of Maccaronies." The
4th earl's son, George, 5th earl of Jersey (1 773-1859), one of the
most celebrated fox-hunters of his time and a successful owner
of racehorses, married Sarah Sophia (1 785-1867), daughter of
John Fane, roth earl of Westmorland, and granddaughter of
Robert Child, the banker. She inherited her grandfather's
great wealth, including his interest in Child's bank, and with her
husband took the name of Child-Villiers. Since this time the
connexions of the earls of Jersey with Child's bank has been main-
tained. Victor Albert George Child-Villiers (b. 1845) succeeded
his father George Augustus (1808-1859), 6th earl, who had only
held the title for three weeks, as 7th earl of Jersey in 1859.
This nobleman was governor of New South Wales from 1800
to 1893.
JERSEY, the largest of the Channel Islands, belonging to
Great Britain. Its chief town, St Helier, on the south coast of
the island, is in 49 12' N., 2 7' W., 105 m. S. by E. of Portland
Bill on the English coast, and 24 m. from the French coast to the
east. Jersey is the southernmost of the more important islands
of the group. It is of oblong form with a length of 10 m. from
east to west and an extreme breadth of 6\ m. The area is 28,717
acres, or 45 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 52,576.
The island reaches its greatest elevation (nearly 500 ft.) in the
north, the land rising sharply from the north coast, and displaying
bold and picturesque cliffs towards the sea. The east, south
and west coasts consist of a succession of large open bays, shallow
and rocky, with marshy or sandy shores separated by rocky head-
lands. The principal bays are Greve au Lancons, Greve de
Lecq, St John's and Bouley Bays on the north coast; St Cathe-
rine's and Grouville Bays on the east; St Clement's, St Aubin's
and St Brelade's Bays on the south; and St Ouen's Bay, the wide
sweep of which occupies nearly the whole of the west coast.
The sea in many places has encroached greatly on the land, and
sand drifts have been found troublesome, especially on the west
coast. The surface of the country is broken by winding valleys
having a general direction from north to south, and as they
approacn the south uniting so as to form small plains. The
lofty hedges which bound the small enclosures into which Jersey
is divided, the trees and shrubberies which line the roads and
cluster round the uplands and in almost every nook of the valleys
unutilized for pasturage or tillage, give the island a luxuriant
appearance, neutralising the bare effect of the few sandy plains
and sand-covered hills. Fruits and flowers indigenous to warm
climates grow freely in the open air. The land, under careful
cultivation, is rich and productive, the soil being generally a
deep loam, especially in the valleys, but in the west shallow, light
and sandy. The subsoil is usually gravel, but in some parts an
unfertile clay. Some two-thirds of the total area is under
cultivation, great numbers of cattle being pastured, and much
market gardening practised. The potato crop is very large.
The peasants take advantage of every bit of wall and wtry
isolated nook of ground for growing fruit trees. Grapes are
ripened under glass; oranges can be grown in sheltered situations,
but the most common fruits are apples, which arc used for cider,
and pears. A manure of burnt sea-weed (vraic) is generally
used. The pasturage is very rich, and is much improved by the
application of this manure to the surface. The breed of cattle
is kept pure by stringent laws against the importation of foreign
animals. The milk is used almost exclusively to manufacture
butter. . The cattle are always housed in winter, but remain out
JERSEY CITY^JERJUSALEM
s* nigit from May tin October. There was formerly a small
Mack breed of horses peculiar to the island, but horses are now
chiefly imported from France or England. Pigs are kept
principally for local consumption, and only a few sheep are
reared. Fish are not so plentiful as round the shores of Guernsey,
but mackerel, turbot, cod, mullet and especially the conger eel
are abundant at the Minqiriera. There is a large oyster bed
between Jersey and France, but partly on account of over-
dredgfng the supply is not so abundant as formerly. There is
a gtieat variety of Other shell fish. The fisheries, ship-building
and boatbuilding employ many of the inhabitants. Kelp and
iodine are manufactured from sea- weed. The principal exports
are granite, fruit and vegetables (especially potatoes), butter
and cattle; and the chief imports coal and articles of human con-
sumption. Communications with England are maintained prin-
cipally from Southampton and Weymouth, and there are regular
steamship services from Granville and St Malo oa the French
coast. The Jersey railway runs west from St Helier round St
Aubin's Bay to St Aubin, and continues to Corbiereat the south-
western extremity of the island; and the Jersey eastern railway
follows the southern and eastern coasts to Gorey. -.The island is
intersected with a network of good roads.
t Jersey is under a distinct and in several respects different form
of administrative government from Guernsey and the smaller
islands included in the bailiwick of Guernsey. For its peculiar
constitution, system of justice, ecclesiastical arrangements and
finance, see Channel Islands. There are twelve parishes,
namely St Helier, Grouville, St Brelade, St Clement, St John,
St Laurence, St Martin, St Mary, St Ouen, St Peter, St Saviour
and Trinity. The population of the island nearly doubled
between iter and loox, but decreased from 54i5«* to 53,576
between 1891 and root.
The history of Jersey is treated under Channel Islands.
Among objects of antiquarian interest, a cromlech near Mont
Orgueil is the finest of several examples. St Bretade's church,
probably the oldest in the island, dates from the rath century;
among the later churches St Heller's, of the 14th century, may
be mentioned. There are also some very early chapels, con-
sidered to date from the 10th century or earlier; among these
may be noted the Cbapclle-eVPecbenrs at St Brelade's, and the
picturesque chapel m the grounds of the manor of Rouel. The
castle of Mont Orgueil, of which there are considerable remains,
b believed to be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold,
and a " Caesar's fort " still forms a part of it.
JBRSBT CITY, a city and the county-seat of Hudson county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., on a peninsula between' the Hudson and
Hackensack rivers at the N. and between New York and Newark
bays at the S., opposite lower Manhattan Island. Pop. (1800),
163,003; (1000), 206,433, of whom 58,4*4 were foreign-born
(10,314 Irish, 17,375 German, 464a English, 3832 Italian, 1694
Russian, 1600 Scottish, 1645 Russian Poles, 1445 Austrian) and
3704 were negroes; (19x0 census) 267,770- It is the eastern
terminus of the Pennsylvania, the Lehigh Valley, the West Shore,
the Central of New Jersey, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Northern
of New Jersey (operated by the Erie), the Erie, the New York,
Susquehanna & Western, and the New Jersey & New York
(controlled by the, Erie) railways, the first three using the
Pennsylvania station; and of the little-used Morris canal.
Jersey City is served by several inter-urban electric railways and
by the tunnels of the Hudson & Manhattan railroad company to
Dey St. and to 33rd St. and 6th Ave., New York City, and it also
has docks of several lines of Transatlantic and coast steamers.
The city occupies a land area of 14-3 sq. m. and has a water-front
of about 13 m. Bergen Hill, a southerly extension of the Pali-
sades, extends longitudinally through it from north to south.
At the north end this hill rises on the east side precipitously
to a height of nearly 300 ft.; on the west and south sides
the slope is gradual. On the crest of the hill is the fine
Hudson County Boulevard, about 19 m. long and 100 ft.
wide, extending through the city and county from north
to south and passing through West Side Park, a splendid
eotmty park containing lakes and a 70-acre playground. The
33*
water-front, especially on the east side, is given up to manu-
facturing and shipping establishments. In the hill section
are the better residences, most of which axe woodea and
detached.
In 1908 the assessed valuation of the city was $267,039,754.
The city is governed by a board of aldermen and a mayor (elected
biennially), who appoints most of the official*, the street and
water board being the principal exception.
Jersey City when first incorporated was a small sandy penin-
sula (an island at high tide) known as Paulus Hook, directly
opposite the lower end of Manhattan Island. It had been a part
of the Dutch patroonship of Pavonia granted to Michael Pauw
in 1630. In 1633 the first buildings were erected, and for more
than a century the Hook was occupied by a small agricultural
and trading community. In 1764 a new post route between
New York and Philadelphia passed through what is now the city,
and direct ferry communication began with New York. Early
in the War of Independence Paulus Hook was fortified by the
Americans, but soon after the battle of Long Island they aban-
doned it, and on the 33rd of September 1776 it was occupied by
the British. On the morning of the 19th of August 1779 the
British garrison was surprised by Major Henry Lee (" Light
Horse Harry "), who with about 500 men took 159 prisoners and
lost only 3 killed and 3 wounded, one of the most brilliant ex-
ploits during the War of Independence. In 1804 Paulus Hook,
containing 1x7 acres and having about 15 inhabitants, passed
into the possession of three enterprising New York lawyers, who
laid it out as a town and formed an association for its government,
which was incorporated as the " associates of the Jersey com-
pany." In 1830 the town was incorporated as the City of Jersey,
but it remained a part of the township of Bergen until 1838, when
it was reincorporated as a distinct municipality. In 1851 the
township of Van Vorst, founded in 1804 between Paulus Hook
and Hoboken, was annexed. In 1870 there were two annexa-
tions: to the south, the town Of Bergen, the county-seat, which
was founded in 1660; to the north-west, Hudson City, 'which
had been separated from the township of North Bergen in 1853
and incorporated as a city in 1855. The town of Greenville, to
the south, was annexed in 1873.
JERUSALEM (Heb. efcn;, Yentskdalm, pronounced as
a dual), the chief city of Palestine. Letters found at Tell el-
Amarna in Egypt, written by an early ruler of Jerusalem,
show that the name existed under the form Urusolim, i.e.
" City of Salim " or " City of Peace," many years before the
Israelites under Joshua entered Canaan. The emperor Hadrian,
when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to AeUa Cajpftolina.
The Arabs usually designate Jerusalem by names expressive <*
32*
JJEB^USALEM
. nek an Beit eiMakd* and EJ sfakaeVik or briefly El
» u. the Sanctuary.
Th aysfcy .— Jernaafawis skwated m 31 ^47^ N. and 35 *
he Ut coaatry of soot kern Palestine, close to the watershed.
_>-fT_iaibe .
5^ average akkade of a$» It. above the Mediterranean, and 3800
* ^5>o«e the lew! of the Dead Sea. The city stands on a rocky
which projects southwards from the main line of hills. On
^ ^^ the vanry of the Kidron separates this plateau from the
*r-^^— . of «he Moes* of Olives, which » 100 to aoo ft. highf r, while the
% >V*X Er Raba&« aowads JerusaVn on the west and south, meeting the
*%^ *£* «f Kafcoa sear the bw pool of Siloam. Both valleys fall
"•*~-*^3< as thej approach the point of junction, which lies at a depth
nT=»*2S* :haa *» It below the raeral valley of the plateau. The
^£ TT**k* ccvers aa area of aboat 1000 acres, has at thepsesent
■V»-g*r\ U. *** •aSSarm asrCace and slopes gradually from the north to
-cue* x*i en*. On(iaattv. however, its formation was very
,Tj-* as it was i nt e rse ct ed by a deep valley, called Tyropoeon
! *J^ e *W which, starring ttam a potnt N.W. of the Damascus
«. m - ^^Oc^ed a coarse ant sooth-east and then west of south,
«np* x ^r^* *** IWO •*** T » Blf >' $ ©* Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam:
^ «*-* -i^er Jh««f *»** bctaa near the present Jaffa gate and,
■w*~-~I^*a eattert? avectioa. joined the Tyropoeon; while a third
•-***"' rf ***ed **r*» what b mow the northern part of the Haram
— ""^reaadtcC aw iV vaney of the Kidron. The exact form of
C V« t«rrior ralVys. which had an important influence on
*~«ra)a aad history of the city, is still imperfectly known.
ii* «* a gnat extent obliterated by vast accumulations of
«fec* has InVd thesn up in some places to a depth of more
> TVeir approswaat* form was only arrived at by excava-
_ w :t ***"* the later >eaxs of the loth century. The limited
^— *** J^e wAAA ** P"* 8 "* ** *»* original features of the ground
■^ — ~ ~7\* J*** ** *•* c * y ° ttk ** * reconstruction of the topo-
«. ****** v^u^***** 1 *™** adiftctih task; and. as a natural result,
— -aa^^.T^K^ioX*** thrones have been suggested. The difficulty
wW»*^ -«*i ** *** t* 01 l ** 1 ,n * rcotraphical descriptions given in
w~ •"•tTT T******* *•* Apotrvpha aad the writings of Josephus
a** "^ «■* she** **d. haxtac been written for those who were
**■* _ZSe<rf w*h *** P***** convey insufficient information to his-
a ^ * C ^Tl cV W M« at an*, when the site* are sp greatly altered. Alf
** 1 » * j^ #,•** » «* Hwa a continuous account in accord with the
Ss?L
*a»f
^**2*
,_ -^ **d atth the onpaal formation of the ground.
*»^^**^>5*. has Ken fckntited by modern exploration. But the
^ *»' z: -» 4 ^ m *aewi aad excavation may render this subject to
•^ »M««t«M of the plateau consists of thin beds of
k ^h»V Ky*2\ called must, which overlie a thick bed of
»r*-»*, h»>«a by the name of melekt. Both descrip-
^, ■ ^rfaVd iwdjaateeial for building; while in the soft
w*^ * ,Vfr amfcef^aanni chaambers, tombs, o\c„ were easily
■ ■ * *7 >» aac«a* baan a brook flowed down the valley of the
— * — la* £ o- r^^ l ** 1 * stream flowed also through the
*» -***V^>**^ TV cal>( known sprino existing at present
- - ■" '^T fc.,^ ft ihe cwv «s the ** fountain of the Virgin." on
w ** JT. >«* *( the Kafcaa vahVy. but there may have been
*h ***^T« •» •** t ** K « * b i d by the accumulations of rubbUh,
„**"* '~7 m M m>* w*4 *«* *be stacage of rain water, and aqueducts,
^ -" <w ^ ijrafr ♦» rmt (ste Aqueducts ad imt.), were
-*- * M -^ae -« >M>ai of water from a disunce. Speaking
«ri ■* *". ^ nmMMt that the ^ahtraupolv of Jerusalem iaancieot
*" _« Oi i»|i ahrirr tJ JmriTrnn h -ny rhunirt
* P ^\* LI| -^ **»** »*•« that, loot before the invasio
m^ «^^«et£ W the Etyptian^.and was prot
**at
The
invasion by
Egyptians*, and was probably
isaportance, as k formed a good
a\ *W hat ctamtiy of southern Palestine,
*" j j- «isa aW fipfAataa were forced to abandon
^*" ^ ♦ *a- Mae of ike Israelite conquest, it was
*" , .a aa*a\«t aV Jebttsites, the native inhabitants
""^L^ "at oaax aasitwo of the Jebusite city is un?
st oa late western hill, now known
_ hat. atlfnraids occupied by the
* ?a*W» white others consider it was a
ksaafOft the western, and the othef
swaa oat another by the Tyropoeon
to be the most probable, as,
^ was partly in J udah
a\ Sat afliaMiFilinn between the two
* Jty. hnEOtaW to bis theory, the
m ^ «,«« was skoated on the western
p ..jgoa^oaT eastern hill. The men
' , j^ letting full possession
aalk * when David became
David succeeded
after some difficulty in taking Jerusalem; Hr established his
royal city on the eastern hill close to the site of the Jebusite Zion,
while Jebus, the town on the western side of the Tyropoeon
valley, became the civil city, of which Joab, David's leading
general, was appointed governor. David surrounded the royal
city with a wall and built a citadel, probably on the she of the
Jebusite fort of Zion, while Joab fortified the western town*
North of the city of David, the king, acting under divine guid+
ance, chose a site for the Temple of Jehovah, which was erected
with great magnificence by Solomon. The actual site occupied
by this building has given rise to much controversy, though all
authorities are agreed that it must have stood on some part of
the area now known, as the Haram. James Fergusson was of
opinion that the Temple stood near the south-western corner.
As, however, it was proved by the explorations of Sir Charles
Warren in 1869-1870 that the Tyropoeon valley passed under this
corner, and that the foundations must have been of enormous
depth, Fergusson's theory must be regarded .as untenable (sea
also Sbpulchub, Holy). On the whole it is most likely that
the Temple was erected by Solomon on the same spot as is now
occupied by the Dome of the Rock, commonly known as the
Mosque of Omar, and, regard being had to the levels of the
ground, it is possible that the Holy of Holies, the most sacred
chamber of the Temple, stood over the rock which is still re-
garded with veneration by the Mahommedans. Solomon greatly
strengthened the fortifications of Jerusalem, and was probably
the builder of the line of defence, called by Josephus the first Off
old wall, which united the cities on the eastern and western hills.
The kingdom reached its highest point of importance during the
reign of Solomon, but, shortly after his death, it was broken «p
by the rebellion of Jeroboam, who founded the separate kingdom
of Israel with its capital at Shechem. Two. tribes only, Judaht
aad Benjamin, with the descendants of Levi, remained faithful
to Rehoboam, the son of Solomon. Jerusalem thus lost much
of its importance, especially after it was forced to surrender to
Shishakt king of Egypt, who carried off a great part of the riches
which had been accumulated by Solomon. The history of
Jerusalem during the succeeding three centuries consists for the
most part of a succession of wars against the kingdom of Israel,
the Moabites and the Syrians. Joash, king of Israel, captured
the city from Amaaiah, king of Judah, and destroyed part of the
fortifications, but these were rebuilt by Uzxiah, the son of
Anuziah, who did much to restore the city to its original pros-
perity. In the reign of Hezekiah, the kingdom of Judah became
tributary to the Assyrians, who attempted the capture of
Jerusalem. Hezekiah improved the defences and arranged for
a good water supply, preparatory to the siege by Sennacherib^
the Assyrian general. The siege failed and the Assyrians retired.
Some years later Syria was again invaded by the Egyptians, who
reduced Judah to the position of a tributary state. In the reign
of Zcdekiah, the last of the line of kings, Jerusalem was captured
by Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon, who pillaged the city,
destroyed the Temple, and ruined the fortifications (see Jews,
I 17). A number of the principal inhabitants were carried
captive to Babylon, and Jerusalem was reduced to the position
of an insignincaot town. Nebucbadrezsar placed in (he city a
garrison which appears to have been quartered on the western
hill, while the eastern hill on which were the Temple and the city
of David was left more or less desolate. We have no information
regarding Jerusalem during the period of the captivity, but
fortunately Nehemiah, who was permitted to return and rebuild
the defences about 445 B.C., has given a fairly clear description
of the line of the wall which enables us to obtain a good idea of
the extent of the city at this period. The Temple had already
been partially rebuilt by Zcdekiah and his companions, but on
a scale far inferior to the magnificent building of King Solomon,
and Nehemiah devoted his attention to the reconstruction of the
walls. Before beginning the work, he made a preliminary recon-
naissance of the fortifications on the south of the town from the
Valley Gate, which was near the S.E. comer, to the pool of
Siloam and valley of the Kidron, He then allotted the recon-
••""-'""* -f wall and gates to (liferent parties of workmen, and
JERUSALEM
hh narrative describes the portion of wall Upon which each of
theae was employed. 1
It is clear from his account that the lines of fortificarionsindudftd
both the eastern and western hill*.' North of the Temple enclosure
there was a gate* known as the Sheep Gate, which must have opened
Into the third valley mentioned above, and stood somewhere near
what is now the north ride of the Harare enclosure, but considerably
south of the present north wall of the fatter. To the west of the
Sheep Cote there w>ere two important towers in the wall, catted respec-
tively Mean and Hananeel, The tower Hananeel is specially worthy
of notice as. it, stood N.W. of the Temple and probably formed the
basis of the citadel built by Simon Maccabaeus, which again was
succeeded by the fortaeaset Antonia. constructed by Herod the Great,
and one of the most important positions at the time of the siege by
Titus. At or near the tower Hananeel the wall turned south along
the east side of .the Tyroposoo valley, and then again westward,
crossing the valley at a point probably near the remarkable construe*
tion known aa Wilson's arch. A gate in the valley, known as the
Fish Gate, opened on a road Which, leading from the north, went
down the T ympo e u i i valley to the southern part of the city. West*
ward of this aste the wall followed the sooth side of the valley which
joined the Tytopoeon from the west as far as the north-westers
comer of the city at the site of the present Jaffa Gate and the so-
called tower of David, in this part of ti>e want here were apparently
two gates facing north. sVs. the Old Gate and the Gate of EparaJm,
400 cubits from the corner,* At the comer stood the residence of
the Babylonian gc u - ~ us -» King Herod
afterwards built hi comer at the
go v ernor's house, t ion and turned
south-east to the ere discovered
bv F. j. Bliss and I n Straws** in
1894-189?. From easterly course
for a distance of i< r which on the
east was the Fount pool of Siloam.
Here was the most 1 be wall turning
hence to the north I of the Kidron,
enclosing the dty ire, and finally
turning west at sot en Gate joined
the wall, already oV miah mentions
a number of places omb of David,
the positions of wh rledge be fixed
with aay certainty.
After the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem by Nehemiah,
a considerable number of Jews returned to the city, but we know
practically nothing of its history for more than a century until,
in 332 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered Syria. The gates of
Jerusalem were opened to him and he left the Jews in peaceful
occupation. But his successors did not act with similar leniency;
when the dty was captured by Ptolemy I., king of Egypt, twelve
years later, the fortifications were partially demolished and
apparently not again restored until the period of the high priest
Simon II., who repaired the defences and also the Temple build-
ings. In 168 B.C. Antiochus Epfphanes captured Jerusalem,
destroyed the walls, and devastated the Temple, reducing the
city to a worse position than it had occupied since the time of the
captivity. He built a citadel called the Acra to dominate the
town and placed in it a'strong garrison of Greeks. The position
of the Acra is doubtful, but it appears most probable that it
stood on the eastern hill between the Temple and the city of
David, both of which it commanded. Some writers place it
north of the Temple on the site afterwards occupied by the
fortress of Antonia, but such a position is not in accord with the
descriptions either in Josephus or in the books of the Maccabees,
which are quite consistent with each other. Other writers again
have placed the Acra on the eastern side of the bill upon which
the church of the Holy Sepulchre now stands, but as this point
was probably quite outside the city at the time of Antiochus
Epiphanes, and is at too great a distance from the Temple, it
can hardly be accepted. But the site which has been already
indicated at the N.E. corner of the present Mosque el Aksa meets
the accounts of the ancient authorities better than any other.
At this point in the Haram enclosure there is an enormous under-
ground cistern, known as the Great Sea, and this may possibly
have been the source of water supply for the Greek garrison.
The oppression of Antiochus led to a revolt of the Jews under the
leadership of the Maccabees, and Judas Maccabaeus succeeded
in capturing Jerusalem after severe fighting, but could not get
l The shea shown on the plan are tentative, and cannot be re-
garded as certain; see Nehemiah ii. ia-15, ii>» 1-J*. **♦ 37-J9*
•See a Rings xiv. 13.
2ZZ
possession of the Acra, wifldi canted much trouble to the Jews,
who erected a wall between it and the Temple, and another wall
to cut it off from the city. The Greeks held out for a consider-
able time, but had finally to stnrender; probably from want of
food, to Simon Maccabaeus, who demolished the Acra *n& cut
down the hill upon which it stood so that it might no longer be
higher Chan the Temple, and that there should be no separation
between the latter and the dty. Simon then constructed a new
citadel, north of the Temple, to take the place of the Acra, and
established in Judaea the Asmonean dynasty, whkb lasted for
nearly a century, when the Roman republic began to make its
influence felt in Syria. In 65 B.C. Jerusalem was captured by
Pompey after a difficult siege. The Asmonean dynasty lasted
a few years longer, but finally came to an end when Herod the
Great, with the aid of the Romans, took possession of Jerusalem
and became the first king of the ldumaean dynasty. Herod
again raised the city to the position of an Important capital,
restoring the fortifications, and rebuilding the Temple from its
foundations. He also built the great fortress of Antonia, N.W.
of the Temple, on the site of the citadel of the Asmoneans, and
constructed a magnificent palace for himself on the western hill,
defended by three great towers, which he named Mariamne,
Hippicns and Phasaelus. At some period between the time of
the Maccabees and of Herod, a second or outer wall had been
built outside and north of the first wall, but it is not possible
to fix an accurate date to this line of defence, as the references
to ft in Josephus are obscure. Herod adorned the town wfth
other buildings and constructed a theatre and gymnasium. He
doubled the area of the enclosure round the Temple, and there
can be little doubt that a great part of the walls of the Haram
area date from the time of Herod, while probably the tower of
David, which still exists near the Jaffa Gate, is on the same foun-
dation as one of the towers adjoining his palace. Archelaus,
Herod's successor, bad far less authority than Herod, and the
real power of government at Jerusalem was assumed by the
Roman procurators, in the time of one of whom, Pontius Pilate,
Jesus Christ was condemned to death and crucified outside
Jerusalem. The places of his execution and burial are not
certainly known (see Sepulchre, Holy).
Herod Agrippa, who succeeded to the kingdom, buflt a third
or outer wall on the north side of Jerusalem in order to enclose
and defend the buildings which had gradually been constructed
outside the old fortifications. The exact line of this third wall
is not known with certainty, but it probably followed approxi-
mately the same line as the existing north wall of Jerusalem.
Some writers have considered that it extended a considerable
distance farther to the north, but of this there is no proof, and
no remains have as yet been fourid which would support the
opinion. The wall of Herod Agrippa was planned on a grand
scale, but its execution was stopped by the Romans, so that ft
was not completed at the time of the siege of Jerusalem by Titus.
The writings of Josephus give a good idea of the fortifications
and buildings of Jerusalem at the time of the siege, and his
accurate personal knowledge .makes his accouit worthy of the
most careful perusal. He explains clearly how Titus, beginning
his attack from the north, captured the third or outer wall, then
the second wall, and finally the fortress of Antonia, the Temple,
and the upper city. After the capture, Titus ordered the Temple
to be demolished and the fortifications to "be levelled, with the
exception of the three great towers at Herod's palace. It is,
however, uncertain how far the order was carried out, and it is
probable that the outer walls of the Temple enclosure were left
partially standing and that the defences on the west and south
of the city were not completely levelled. When Titus and bis
army withdrew from Jerusalem, the 10th legion was left as a
permanent Roman garrison, and a fortified camp for their
occupation was established on the western hill. We have do
account of the size or position of this camp, but a consideration
of the site, and a comparison with other Roman camps in various
parts of Europe, make it probable that it occupied an area of
about 50 acres, extending over what is now known as the Armenian
quarter of the town, and that it was bounded on the north by the
334
old or first wall* oa the west also by the old wall, on the south by
a line of defence somewhat in the same position as the present
south wall where it passes the Zion Gate, and on the east by as
entrenchment running north and south parallel to the existing
thoroughfare known as David Street. For sixty yean the
Roman garrison were left in undisturbed occupation, but -in i tx
the Jews rose in revolt under the leadership of Bar-Cocbehaa or
Barcochba, and took possession of Jerusalem-* After a severe
struggle, the revolt was suppressed by Lhe Jtornan general, Julius
Severus, and Jerusalem was recaptured and again destroyed.
According to some writers, this devastation was even more^ com-
plete than after the siege by Titus. About ijo the emperor
Hadrian decided to rebuild Jerusalem, and make it a Roman
colony. The new city was called Aelia Capitolina, The exact
size of the city is not known, but it probably extended as far as
the present north wall of Jerusalem and included the northern
part of toe western hill, A temple dedicated to Jupiter Capitol-
inus was erected on the rite oi the Temple, and other buildings
were constructed, known as the Theatre, the Demosia, the
Tetranymphon, the Dodecapylon and the Codra. The Jews
were forbidden to reside in the city, but Christians were freely
admitted. The history of Jerusalem during the period between
the foundation of the city of Aclia by the emperor Hadrian and
the accession of Constantine the Great in 306 is obscure, but no
important change appears to have been made in the size or
fortifications of the city, which continued as a Roman colony.
In 326 Constantine, after his conversion to Christianity, issued
orders to the bishop Macarius to recover the site of the cruci-
fixion of Jesus Christ, and the tomb in which his body was laid
(see Sepulchre, Holy). After the holy sites had been deter-
mined, Constantine gave orders for the construction of two
magnificent churches, the one over the tomb and the other over
the place where the cross was discovered. The present church
of the Holy Sepulchre stands on the site upon which one of the
churches oi Constantine was built, but the second church, the
Basilica of the Cross, has completely disappeared. The next
important epoch in building construction at Jerusalem was about
460, when the empress Eudocia visited Palestine and expended
large sums on the improvement of the city. The walls were
repaired by her orders, and the line of fortifications appears to
have been extended on the south so as to include the pool of
Si loam. A church was built above the pool, probably at the
same time, and, after having completely disappeared for many
centuries, it was recovered by F. J. Bliss when making his
exploration of Jerusalem. The empress also erected a large church
in honour of St Stephen north of the Damascus Gate, and is
believed to have been buried therein. The site of this church was
discovered in 1874, and it has since been rebuilt., In the 6th
century the emperor Justinian erected a magnificent basilica
at Jerusalem, in honour of the Virgin Mary, and attached to it
two hospitals, one for the reception of pilgrims and one for the
accommodation of the sick poor. The description given by
Procopius does not indicate clearly where this church was
situated. A theory frequently put forward is that It stood
within the Haram area near the Mosque or el Aksa, but it is more
probable that it was on Zion, near the traditional place of the
Coenaculum or last supper, where the Mahommcdan building
known as the tomb of David now stands. In 614 Chosrocs II.,
the king of Persia, captured Jerusalem, devastated many of the
buildings, and massacred a great number of the inhabitants.
The churches at the Hofy Sepulchre were much damaged, but
were partially restored by the monk Modcslus, who devoted
himself with great energy to the work. After a severe struggle
the Persians were defeated by the emperor Heradrus, who entered
Jerusalem in triumph in 629 bringing with him the holy cross,
which had been carried off by Chosrocs. At this period the
religion of Mahomet was spreading over the east, and in 637 the
caliph Omar marched ori Jerusalem, which capitulated after a
siege of four months. Omar behaved with great moderation,
test raining his troops from pillage and leaving the Christians ill
possession of their churches. A wooden mOsqtie was erected
wear the she of the Temple, which was replaced by the Mosque
JERUSALEM
JERUSALEM— JESSE
$35
Th« climate is natarauV good, but con ti n u e d neglect of sanitary
precautions has made the city unhealthy. Dunng the summer
months the heat is tempered by a fresh sea-breeze, and there is
usually a sharp fall of temperature at night; but in spring and
is
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JERUSALEM, SYNOD OF (1672). By far the most important
of the many synods held at Jerusalem (see Wetzer and Welte,
Kirchenlcxikon, and ed., vi. 1357 sqq.) is thai of 1672; and its
confession is the most vital statement of faith made in the Creek
Church during the past thousand years. It refutes article by
article the confession of Cyril Lucaris, which appeared in Latin
at Geneva in 1629, and in Greek, with the addition of four
" questions," in 1633. Lucaris, who died in 1638 as patriarch
of Constantinople, had corresponded with Western scholars and
had imbibed Calvinistic views. The great opposition which
arose during his lifetime continued after his death, and found
classic expression in the highly venerated confession of Petrus
Mogilas, metropolitan of Kiev (1643). Though this was intended
as a barrier against Calvinistic influences, certain Reformed
writers, as well as Roman Catholics, persisted in claiming the
support of the Greek Church for sundry of their own positions.
Against the Calvinists the synod of 1672 therefore aimed its
rejection of unconditional predestination and of justification by
faith alone, also its advocacy of what are substantially the
Roman doctrines of transubstantiation and of purgatory, the
Oriental hostility to Calvinism had been fanned by the Jesuits.
Against the Church of Rome, however, there was directed the
affirmation that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father and
not from both Father and Son; this rejection of ihcfilioque was
not unwelcome to the Turks. Curiously enough, the synod re-
fused to believe that the heretical confession it refuted was
actually by a former patriarch of Constantinople; yet the proofs
of its genuineness seem to most scholars overwhelming. In
negotiations between Anglican and Russian churchmen the con-
fession of Dosithcus 1 usually comes to the front.
Texts.— The confession of Dosirheus. or the eighteen decrees of
the Synod of Jerusalem, appeared in 1676 at Paris as Synodus
1 Patriarch of Jerusalem (1669-1707), who presided over the
synod.
BfikkhmitiWi a revised tent in 167ft as Symvdus Jorosoiymitamm:
Hardouin, Acta eanciliorum, vol. xi.; Kimmel. Monumenta fidti
ecclesiae orienlalis (Jena, i8$6: critical edition); P. Schaff, The
Creeds of Christendom, vol. it. (text after Hardouin and Kimmel.
with Latin translation) ; The Acts and Burets of the Synod of Jerusalem
translated from the Greek, wiik notes, by J. N, W. B. Robertson
(London. 1899) ". J* Michalcescu, Die Bekenntnisst und die xoickligsten
Glaubenszeugnisse der gritchisch-orienlalischen Kirche (Leipzig, 1904;
Kimmel's text with introductions). Literature.— The Doctrine of
the Russian Chunk . . . translated by R. W. Blackmore (Aberdeen.
4845), p. xxv, sqq.; Schaff, L 1 17 dWetxar and Welte, KtrckenUxtkon
(2nd cd.)( vi. 1359 seq.; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopad'e (jrd ed.),
viii. 703-705 ; Mjchalcescu, 123 sqq. (Sec Councils.) (W. W. R.*)
JSSI (anc. Aesis), a town and episcopal see of the March**,
Italy, in the province of Ancona, from which it is 17 m. W. by S.
by rail, j 18 ft- above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 23,285. The place
took its ancient name from the river Aesis (mod. Esiao), upon the
left bank of which it lies. It still retains its picturesque medieval
town walls. The Palazzo del Comune is a fine, simple, early
Renaissance building (1487-1503) by Francesco di Giorgio
Martini-, the walls are of brick and the window and door-frames
of stone, with severely restrained ornamentation. The court-
yard with its loggie was built by Andrea Sansovino in 1 510. The
library contains soma good pictures by Lorenzo Lotto. The
castle was buiit by Baccio Pontclli (1488), designer of the castle
at Cstia (1483-14B6). Jesi was the birthplace of the emperor
Frederic II. (1 104), and also of the musical composer, Giovanni
Battista Pergolesi (1710-1736). The river Aesis formed the
boundary of Italy proper from about 250 B.C. to the time of
Sulla (c, 82 B.C.); and, in Augustus' division of Italy, that
between Umbria (the 6th region) and Picenum (the 5th). The
town itself was a colony, of little importance, except, apparently,
as a recruiting ground for the Roman army.
JESSE, in the Bible, the father of David (f.v ), and as such
often regarded as the first in, the genealogy of Jesus Christ (cf .
Isa. xi. 1, 10). Hence the phrase " tree of Jesse " is applied to
a design representing the descent of Jesus from the royal line of
David, formerly a favourite ecclesiastical ornament. From a
lecumbcnt figure of Jesse springs a tree bearing in its branches
the chief figures in the line of descent, and terminating in the
figure of Jesus, or of the Virgin and Child. There are remains of
such a tree in the church of St Mary at Abergavenny, carved in
wood, and supposed to have once stood behind the high altar.
Jesse candelabra were also made. At Laon and Amiens there
are sculptured Jesses over the central west doorways of the
cathedrals. The design was chiefly used in windows. The
great east window at Wells and the window at th< west end of
the nave at Cbaxtres are fine examples. There is a 16th-century
Jesse window from Mechlin in St. George's, Hanover Square,
London. The Jesse window in the choir of Dorchester Abbey,
Oxfordshire, is remarkable in that the tree forms the central
mullion, and many of the figures are represented as statuettes
on the branches of the upper tracery; other figures are in the
stained glass; the whole gives a beautiful example of the com-
bination of glass and carved stonework in one design.
JESSE, EDWARD (1780-1868). English writer on natural
history, was bom on the 14th of January 1780, at Hutton Crans-
wkk. Yorkshire, where his father was vicar of the parish. He
became clerk, in a government office in 1708, and for a time was
secretary to Lord Dartmouth, when president of the Board of
Control. In 1812 he was appointed commissioner of hackney
coaches, and later he became deputy surveyor-general of the
royal parks and palaces. On the abolition of this office be
retired on a pension, and be died at Brighton on the 28th of
March 1868.
The result of his interest in the habits and characteristics of
animals was a scries of pleasant and popular books on natural
history, the principal of which are Gleanings in Natural History
(1832-1835); An Angler's Rambles (1836); Anecdotes of Dogs (1846);
and Lectures on Natural History (1863). He also edited Izaak
Walton's CombUai Angter. Gilbert White v s SetborHg.and L. Ritchie s
Windsor Castle, and wrote a number of handbooks to places of
interest, including Windsor and Hampton Court.
JESSE. JOHN HBHBAQB (1815-1874). English historian,
son of .Edward Jesse, was educated at Eton, and afterwards
33*
'JESSEL— -JES80RE
s a derk in the secretary's department of the admiralty.
He died in London on the 7th of July 1874. His poem on Mary
Queen of Scots was published about 1831, and was followed by
a collection of poems entitled Tales of the Dead. He also wrote
a drama, Richard ///., and a fragmentary poem entitled London.
None of these ventures achieved any success, but his numerous
historical works are written with vivacity and interest, and', in
their own style, are an important contribution to the history of
England. They include Memoirs of Ike Court of England during
Ike Reign of Ike Stuarts (1840), Memoirs of Ike Court of England
from Ike Revolution of 1688 to Ike Death of George II ( 1843), George
Sehryn and kit Contemporaries (1843, new ed. 1882), Memoirs of
Ike Pretenders and their Adherents (1845), Memoirs of Richard the
Third and his Contemporaries (1861), and Memoirs of the Life and
Reign of King George the Tkird (1867). The titles of these works
are sufficiently indicative of their character. They are sketches
of the principal personages and of the social details of various
periods in the history of England rather than complete and com-
prehensive historical narratives. In addition to these works
Jesse wrote Literary and Historical Memorials of London (1847)*
London and its Celebrities (1850), and a new edition of this work as
London: its Celebrated Characters and Remarkable Places (1871).
His Memoirs of Celebrated Etonians appeared in 1875.
A collected edition containing moat of his works in thirty volumes
was published in London in 1901.
JESSEL, SIR GEORGE (1824-1883), English judge, was born
in London on the 13th of February 1824. He was the son of
Zadok Aaron Jessel, a Jewish coral merchant. George Jessel
was educated at a school for Jews at Kew, and being prevented by
then existing religious disabilities from proceeding to Oxford or
Cambridge, went to University College, London. He entered as a
student at Lincoln's Inn in 1842, and a year later took his B.A.
degree at the university of London, becoming M.A. and gold
medallist in mathematics and natural philosophy in 1*44. In
1846 he became a fellow of University College, and in 1847 he was
called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn. His earnings during his first
three years at the bar were 52,346, and 705 guineas, from which
ft will be seen that his rise to a tolerably large practice was rapid.
Hb work, however, was mainly conveyancing, and for long his
income remained almost stationary. By degrees, however, he
got more work, and was called within the bar in 1865, becoming a
bencher of his Inn in the same year and practising in the Rolb
Court. • Jessel entered parliament as Liberal member for 'Dover
in 1868, and although neither his intellect nor his oratory was of a
diss likely to commend itself to his fellow-members, he attracted
Gladstone's attention by two learned speeches on the Bankruptcy
Bill which was before the house In 1869, with the result that in
1871 he was appointed solicitor-general. His reputation at this
time stood high in the chancery courts; on the common law side he
was unknown, and on the first occasion upon which he came into
the court of Queen's bench to move on behalf of the Crown, there
was very nearly a collision between him and the bench. His force-
ful and direct method of bringing his arguments home to the
bench was not modified in his subsequent practice before it. Hb
|rt«t powers were fully recognised; his business in addition to that
** behaU of the Crown became very large, and hb income for three
years before he was raised to the bench amounted to nearly
( it.ee© per annum. In 1873 Jessel succeeded Lord Romilly as
t**%t*f of the roils. From 1873 to iS8t Jessel sat as a judge
«4 tat instance in the rolb court, being also a member of the
cv*tt *t appeal. In November 1874 the first Judicature Act came
*** tied, snd in 188 1 the Judicature Act of that year made the
•Mksctf «4 the rolls the ordinary president of the first court of
S v«*l fttftWag hire of hb duties as a judge of first instance. In
i*K vv*rt of tppttl Jessel presided almost to the day of hb
*ku; !k fv* some time before 1883 he suffered from diabetes with
sWh*. vWr\Wt of the heart and liver, but struggled against it;
v* tt* i<ttfc *l March 1883 he sat in court for the last time, and
\M \(k n*t *f Mirth he died at hb residence in London, the
*u*wm» <.**» of death being cardiac syncope.
V* h iw*sg* tft nrst Instance Jessel was a revelation to those
wv^v^vU m the proverbial slowness of the chancery courts
and of the master of the roDs who preceded him. He disposed of
the business before him with rapidity combined with correctness
of judgment, and he not only had no arrears himself, but waa
frequently able to help other judges to dear their lists. Hb
knowledge of law and equity was wide and accurate, and hb
memory for cases and command of the principles laid down in
them extraordinary. In the rolb court he never reserved *
judgment, not even in the Epping Forest case (Commissioners of
Sewers v. Glasse, L.R. to Eq., The Timet, nth November 1874),
in which the evidence and arguments lasted twenty-two days
(150 witnesses being examined in court, while the documents went
back to the days of King John), and in the court of appeal he
did so only twice, and then in deference to the wishes of hb
colleagues. The second of these two occasions was the case of
Roberts v. Tke Corporation of London (40 Law Times 455, The
Times, xoth March 1883), and those who may read Jessel's judg-
ment should remember that, reviewing as it does the law and cus-
tom on the subject, and the records of the dty with regard to the
appointment of a remembrancer from the 16th century, together
with the facts of the case before the court, it occupied nearly
an hour to deliver, but was nevertheless delivered without notes—
this, too, on the 9th of March 1883, when the judge who uttered
it was within a fortnight of hb death. Never during the 10th
century was the business of any court performed so rapidly,
punctually, and satisfactorily as it was when Jessel presided.
He was master of the rolb at a momentous period of legal history.
The Judicature Acts, completing the fusion of law and equity,
were passed while he was judge of first instance, and were still new
to the courts when he died. Hb knowledge and power of assimi-
lating knowledge of aH subjects, hb mastery of every branch of
law with which be had to concern himself, as well as of equity,
together with hb willingness to give effect to the new system,
caused it to be said when be cSed that the success of the Judi-
cature Acts would have been impossible without him. Hb
faults as a judge lay in bis disposition to be intolerant of those
who, not able to follow the rapidity of hb judgment, endeavoured
to persist in argument after he had made up hb mind; but
though be was peremptory with the most eminent counsel, young
men had no cause to complain of hb treatment of them.
Jessd sat on the royal commission for the amendment of the
Medical Acts, taking an active part in the preparation of its
report. He actively interested himself in the management of Lon-
don University, of which he was a fellow from 1861, and of which
he was elected vice-chancellor in x88o. He was one of the
commissioners of patents, and trustee of the British Museum,
He was also chairman of the committee of judges which drafted
the new rules rendered necessary by the Judicature Acts. He
was treasurer of Lincoln's Inn in 1883, and vice-president of the
council of legal education. He was also a fellow of the Royal
Society. Jessel's career marks an epoch on the bench, owing to
the active part taken by him in rendering the Judicature Arts
effective, and also because he was the last judge capable of
sitting in the House of Commons, a privilege of which he did not
avail himself. He was the first Jew who, as solicitor-general,
took a share in the executive government of hb country, the
first Jew who was sworn a regular member of the privy council,
and the first Jew who took a seat on the judicial bench of Great
Britain; he was also, for many years after being called to the
bar, so situated that any one might have driven him from it,
because, being a Jew, he was not qualified to be a member of the
bar. In person Jessel was a stoutish, square-built man of
middle height, with dark hair, somewhat heavy features, a fresh
ruddy complexion, and a large mouth. He married in 18 $6
Amelia, daughter of Joseph Moses, who survived him together
with three daughters and two sons, the elder of whom, Charles
James (b. i860), was made a baronet shortly after the death
of his distinguished father and in recognition of hb services.
See Tke Times, March 23, 1883; E. Manson, Builders of our Law
(1004).
JBS30RE, a town and district of British India, In the Presi-
dency division of Bengal. The town b on the Bhairab river*
with a railway station 75 m. N.E-of Calcutta. Pop. (1000,8054
JESTER— JESUITS
Hie Dtrntic* or Jessobe has an aita of 392s *q- m - P°P-
(1901), 1,813,155, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade. The
district forms the central portion of the delta between the Hugli
and the united Ganges and Brahmaputra. It is a vast alluvial
plain intersected by rivers and watercourses, which in the
southern portion spread out into large marshes. The northern
part is verdant, with extensive groves of date-palms; villages
are numerous and large; and the people are prosperous. In the
central portion the population U sparse, the only part suitable
for dwellings being the high land on the banks of rivers.
The principal rivers are the Madhumati or Haringhata (which
forms the eastern boundary of the district), with its tributaries
the Nabaganga, Chitra, and fihairab; the Kumar, Kabadak,
Katki, Harihar, fihadra and Atharabanka. Within the last
century the rivers in the interior of Jessore have ceased to be
true deltaic rivers; and, whereas the northern portion of the
district formerly lay under water for several months every year,
it is now reached only by unusual inundations. The tide
reaches as far north as the latitude of Jessore town. Jessore
is the centre of sugar manufacture from date palms. The exports
are sugar, rice, pulse, timber, honey, shells, &c; the imports
are salt, English goods* and cloth. The district is crossed by
the Eastern Bengal railway, but the chief means of communi-
cation are waterways.
British administration was completely established in the
district in 1781, when the governor-general ordered the opening
of a court at Murali near Jessore. Before that, however, the
fiscal administration had been in the hands of the English, having
been transferred to the East India company with that of the rest
of Bengal in 1765. The changes in jurisdiction in Jessore have
been very numerous After many transfers and recti6cations,
the district was in 1863 finally constituted as it at present stands.
The rajas of Jessore or Chanchra trace their origin to Bhabeswar
Raj. a soldier in the*army of Khan-i-Aaam, an imperial general,
who deprived Raja Pratapaditya, the popular hero of the Sundar-
bans, of several fiscal divisions, and conferred them on Bhabeswar.
But Manohar Rai (1640- 1705) is regarded as the principal
founder of the family. The estate when he inherited it was of
moderate size, but he acquired one pargana after another, until,
at his death, the property was by far the largest in the neighbour-
hood.
JESTER, a provider of " jests " or amusements, a buffoon,
especially a professional fool at a royal court or in a nobleman's
household (see Fool). The word " jest," from which " jester "
is formed, is used from the 16th century for the earlier " gest,"
Lat. gala, or res gestae, things done, from gcrere, to do, hence
deeds, exploits, especially as told in history, and so used of the
metrical and prose romances and chronicles of the middle ages
The word became applied to satirical writings and to any long-
winded empty tale, and thence to a joke or piece of fun, the
current meaning of the word.
JESUAT1, a religious order founded by Giovanni Colombini of
Siena in 1360 Colombini had been a prosperous merchant and a
senator in his native city, but, coming under ecstatic religious
influences, abandoned secular affairs and his- wife and daughter
(after making provision for them), and with a friend of bke
temperament, Francesco Miani, gave himself to a life of apostolic
poverty, penitential discipline, hospital service and public
preaching. The name Jcsuati was given to Colombini and his
disciples from the habit of calling loudly on the name of Jesus at
the beginning and end of their ecstatic sermons. The senate
banished Colombini from Siena for imparting foolish ideas to the
young men of the city, and he continued his mission in Arexxo
and other places, only to be honourably recalled home on the
outbreak of a devastating pestilence. He went out to meet
Urban V. on his return from Avignon to Rome in 1367, ami craved
his sanction for the new order and a distinctive habit Before
this was granted Colombini had to clear the movement of a sus-
picion that it was connected with the heretical sect of Fraticelli,
and he died on the 31st of July ij67,soon after the papal approval
had been given. The guidance of the new order, whose members
(all lay brothers) gave themselves entirely to works of mercy,
XV 6*
337
devolved upon Wfani. Theirtofe of life, originally a compound
of Benedictine and Franciscan elements, was later modified
on Augustinian lines, but traces of the early penitential idea
persisted, e.g. the wearing of sandals and a daily flagellation!
Paul V.in ioooarranged for a small proportion of clerical members,
and later in the 17th century the Jesuati became so secularized
that the members were. known as the Aquavitae Fathers, and the
order was dissolved by Clement IX. in 1668. The female branch
of the order, the Jesuati sisters, founded by Caterina Colombini
(d. 1387) in Siena, and thence widely dispersed, more consistently
maintained the primitive strictness of the society and survived
the male branch by too years, existing until 187a in small com-
munities in Italy.
JESUITS, the name generally given to the members of the
Society of Jesus, a religious order in the Roman Catholic Church,
founded in 1539. Tins Society may be defined, in its original
conception and well-avowed object, as a body of highly
trained religious men of various degrees, bound by the three
personal vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, together with,
in some cases, a special vow to the pope's service, with the object
of labouring for the spirit uat good of themselves and their
neighbours. They are declared to be mendicants and enjoy
all the privileges of the other mendicant orders. They are
governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up
by their founder, St Ignatius of Loyola, and approved by the
popes. Their proper title is " Clerks Regulars of the Society of
Jesus," the word SocUtas being taken as synonymous with the
original Spanish term, Compa*ia\ perhaps the military term
Cohen might more fully have expressed the original idea of a
band of spiritual soldiers living under martial law and discipline.
The ordinary term " Jesuit " was given to the Society by H*
avowed opponents; it is first found in the writings of Calvin and
in the registers of the Parlemcnt of Paris as early as 1552.
Constitution and Character.— The formation of the Society was
a masterpiece of genius on the part of a man (see Loyola) who
was quick to realize the necessity of the moment. Just before
Ignatius was experiencing the call to conversion, Luther had
begun his revolt against the Roman Church by burning the papal
bull of excommunication on the totb of December 152a But
while Luther's most formidable opponent was thus being
prepared in Spain, the actual formation of the Society was
not to take place for eighteen years. Its conception seems
to have developed very slowly in the mind of Ignatius.
It introduced a new idea into the Church. Hitherto all
regulars made a point of the choral office in choir. But as
Ignatius conceived the Church to be in a state of war, what was
desirable in days of peace ceased when the life of the cloister
had to be exchanged for the discipline of the camp; so in the
sketch of the new society which he laid before Paul III., Ignatius
laid down the principle that the obligation of the breviary
should be fulfilled privately and separately and not in choir,
The other orders, too, were bound by the idea of a constitu-
tional monarchy based on the democratic spirit. Not so with
the Society. The founder placed the general for life in an almost
uncontrolled position of authority, giving him the faculty of
dispensing individuals from the decrees of the highest legislative
body, the general congregations. Thus the principle of military
obedience was exalted to a degree higher than that existing in
the older orders, which preserved to their members certain,
constitutional rights.
The soldier-mind of Ignatius can be seen throughout the constitu-
tion*. Even in the spiritual labours which the Society shares with
the other orders, its own ways of dealing with persons and things
result from the system of training which succeeds in forming men
to a type that is considered desirable. But it must not be thought
that in practice the rule of the Society and the high degree of obedi-
ence demanded result in mere mechanism. By a system of check
and counter check devised in the constitutions the power of local
superiors is modified, so that in practice (he working is smooth.
Ignatius knew that while a high ideal was necessary for every
society, his followers were flesh and blood, not machines. He made
it clear from the first that the Society was everything and the
individual nothing, except so far as he might prove a useM instru-
ment for carrying out the Society's objects. Ignatius said to his
338 JESUITS
to study it both in speaking and writing till entire mattery 61 U
had been acquired— thus by degrees making all the parts of h»
system mutually interchangeable, and so largely increasing the
number of persons eligible to fill any given post without reference
to locality. But subsequent experience has, in practice, modified
this interchange, as far as local government goes, though the centra!
government of the Society is always cosmopolitan.
Next we most consider the machinery by which the Society
is constituted and governed so as to make its spirit a living energy
and not a mere abstract, theory. The Society is distributed
into six grades: novices, scholastics, temporal coadjutors (lay
brothers), spiritual coadjutors, professed of the three vows,
and professed of the four vows. No one can become a postulant
for admission to the Society until fourteen years old, unless
by special dispensation. The novice is classified according as has
destination is the priesthood or lay brotherhood, while a third
class of " indifferents " receives such as are reserved for further
inquiry before a decision of this kind is made. The novice has
first to undergo a strict retreat, practically in solitary con-
finement, during which he receives from a director the Spiritual
Exercises and makes a general confession of his whole life; after
which the first novitiate of two years' duration begins. In this
period of trial the real character of the man is discerned, baa
weak points are noted and his will is tested. Prayer and the
practices of asceticism, as means to an end, are the chief occu-
pations of the novice. He may leave or be dismissed at any
time during the two years; but at the end of the period if he fc
spproved and destined for the priesthood, he is advanced to
the grade of scholastic and takes the following simple vows in the
presence of certain witnesses, but not to any person:—-
" Almighty Everlasting God, albeit everyway most unworthy in
Thy holy sight, yet relying on Thine infinite kindness and mercy
md impelled by the desire of serving Thee, before the Most Holy
Virgin Mary and all Thy heavenly host, I, N., vow to Thy divine
Majesty Poverty, Chastity and Perpetual Obedience to the Society
»f Jesus, and promise that I will enter the saifte Society to live in it
perpetually, understanding all things according to the Constitutions
sf the Society, I humbly pray from Thine immense goodness and
:lemcncy, through the Blood of Jesus Christ, that Thou wilt deign
to accept this sacrifice in the odour of sweetness; and as Thou hast
granted me to desire and to offer this, so wilt Thou bestow abundant
grace to fulfil it."
The scholastic then follows the ordinary course of an under-
graduate at a university. After passing five years in arts he has,
while still keeping up his own studies, to devote five or six years
more to teaching the junior classes in various Jesuit schools or
zolleges. About this period he takes his simple vows in the
following terms: —
" I. N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and
he whole heavenly host, and to thee. Reverend Father General
>f the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy succes-
sors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of the General of the
society of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Per-
petual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience ; and according toita peculiar
:arc in the education of boys, according to the manner expressed in
he Apostolic Letter and Constitutions of the said Society."
The lay brothers leave out the clause concerning education.
The scholastic does not begin the study of theology until he is
twenty-eight or thirty, and then passes through a four or six
gears' course. Only when be is thirty-four or thirty-six can he
* ordained a priest and enter on the grade of a spiritual co-
idjutor. A lay brother, before he can become a temporal
roadjutor for the discharge of domestic duties, must pass ten
rears before he is admitted to vows. Sometimes after ordina-
ion the priest, in the midst of his work, is again called away'
o a third year's novitiate, called the tertianship, as a prepara-
ion for his solemn profession of the three vows. His former
rows were simple and the Society was at liberty to dismiss him
lor any canonical reason. The formula of the famous Jesuit
.row b as follows: —
" I. A/., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and
he whole heavenly host, and to all standing by ; and to thee. Reverend
rather General of the Society of lesus, holding the place of God.
md to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father if. in place of
he General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the
>lace of God). Perpetual Poverty. Chastity and Obedience; and
according to it a peculiar care in the education of boys according to
the form of life contained in the- Apostolic Letters of ike Society *f
Jesus and io its Constitutions.';
Immediately alter the vows the Jesuit adds the following
simple vows: (i), that he will never act nor consent that the
provisions in the constitutions concerning poverty should -be
changed; (2) that he will not directry nor indirectly procure
election or promotion for himself to any prelacy or dignity
in the Society; (3) that be will not accept or consent to his
ejection to any dignity or prelacy outside the Society. unless
forced thereunto by obedience; U> that if he knows of -others
doing these things he will denounce them to the superiors;
(5) that if elected to a bishopric be will, never refuse to hear
such advice as the general may deign to send him and will
follow it if he judges it is better than his own opinion, The
professed is now eligible to certain office* in the Society, and he
may remain as a professed father of the three vows for the rest
of bis life. The highest class, who constitute the real core of the
Society, whence an its chief officers axe taken, are the professed
of the four vows. This giade can seldom be reached until
the candidate is in his forty-fifth year, which involves a proba-
tion of thirty-one years in the case of those who have entered on
the novitiate at the earliest legal age. The number of these
select members is small in comparison with the whole Society;
the exact proportion varies from time to time, the present ten-
dency being to increase the number. The vows of this grade
are the same as the last formula, with the addition of the follow-
ing important clause —
" Moreover I promise the special obedience to the Sovereign
Pontiff concerning missions, as is contained in the same Apostokc
Letter and Constitutions."
These various members of the Society are distributed m its
novitiate houses, n* colleges, its professed houses and its mis-
sion residences. 7 be question has been hotly debated whether,
tn addition to these six grades, there be not a seventh answering
in some degree to the tertianesof the Franciscan and Dominican
orders, but secretly affiliated to the Society and acting as its
emissaries in various lay positions The class was styled in
France " Jesuits of the short robe," and there is some evidence
in support of its actual existence under Louis XV. The Jesuits
themselves deny the existence of any suth body, and are able to
adduce the negative disproof that no provision for it is to be
found in their constitutions. On the other hand there are
clauses therein which make the creation of such a class perfectly
feasible if thought expedient. An admitted instance is the case of
Francisco Borgia, who in 1548, while still duke of Gandia, was
received into the Society. What has given colour to the idea is
that certain persons have made vows of obedience to individual
Jesuits; as Thomas Worthington, rector of the Douai seminary,
to Father Robert Parsons; Ann Vaux to Fr. Henry Garnet,
who told her that he was not indeed allowed to receive her vows,
but that she might make them if she wished and then receive his
direction. The archaeologist George Oliver of Exeter was,
according to Foley's Records ol the English Province, the last
of the secular priests of England who vowed obedience to the
Society before its suppression.
The general lives permanently at Rome and holds in his hands
the right to appoint, not only to the office of provincial over each
of the head districts into which the Society is mapped, but to
the offices of each house in particular. There is no standard of
electoral right in the Society except in the election of the general
hi msclf. By a minut e and frequent system of official and private
reports he is informed of the doings and progress of every
member of the Society and of everything that concerns it
throughout the world. Every Jesuit has not only the right
but the duty in certain cases of communicating, directly and
privately, with his general. While the general thus controls
everything, he himself is not exempt from supervision on the
part of the Society. A consultative council is imposed upon him
by the general congregation, consisting of the assistants of the
various nations, a socius, or adviser, to warn him of mistakes, and
a confessor. These he cannot remove nor select ; and he is bound,
in certain circumstances, \o listen to, their ad vice, although
JESUITS 339
he is not obliged to follow ft. Once elected the general may
not refuse the office, nor abdicate, nor accept any dignity
or office outside of the Society, on the other hand, for certain
definite reasons, be may be suspended or even deposed by the
authority of the Society, which can thus preserve itself from
destruction. No such instance has occurred, although steps
were once taken in this direction in the case of a general who
had set himself against the current feeling.
It is said that the general of the Jesuits is independent of the
pope; and his popular name, ** the black pope," has gone to confirm
this idea. But it is based on art entirely wrong conception of the
two offices. The suppression of the Society by Clement XIV. in
1773 was an object-lesson, in the supremacy of the pope. The
Society became very numerous and, from time to time, received
extraordinary privileges from popes, who were warranted by the
necessities of the times in granting them. A great bomber of
influential friends, also, gathered round the fathers who, naturally,
sought in every way to retain what had been granted. Popes who
thought it well to bring about certain changes, or to withdraw
privileges that were found to have passed their intentions or (o
interfere anduty with the rights of other bodies, often met with
loyal resistances against their proposed measures. Resistance up
to a certain point is lawful and 15 not disobedience, for every society
has the right of self-preservation. In cases where the popes insisted,
in spite Ot the representations of the Jesuits, rheir commands were
obeyed. Many of the popes were distinctly unfavourable to the
Society, while others were as friendly, and often what one pope did
against them the next pope withdrew. Whatever was done in times
when strong divergence of opinion existed, and whatever may have
been the actions of individuals who, even in so highly organized
a body as the Society of Jesus, cannot always be successfully
controlled by their superiors, yet the ultimate result an the part of
the Society nas always been obedience to the pope, who authorized,
protected and privileged them, and on whpm they ultimately
depend for then* very existence.
Thus constituted, with a skilful onion of strictness and
freedom, of complex organisation with a minimum of friction
in working, the Society was admirably devised for its purpose
of introducing a. new power into the Church and the world.
Its immediate services to the Church were great. The Society
did much, single-handed, to roll back the tide of Protestant
advance when half of Europe, which had not already shaken
off its allegiance to the papacy, was threatening to do so The
honours of the reaction belong to the Jesuits, and the reactionary
spirit has become their tradition. They had the wisdom to see
and to admit, in their correspondence with their superiors,
that the real cause of the Reformation was the ignorance,
neglect and vicious lives of so many priests. They recognized,
as most earnest men did, that the difficulty was in the higher
places, and that these could best be touched by indirect methods.
At a time when primary or even secondary education had m
most places become a mere effete and pedantic adherence to
obsolete methods, they were bold enough to innovate, both in
syst em and material. Put ting fresh spirit and devot ion into the
work, they not merely taught and catechized m a new, fresh
and attractive manner, besides establishing free schools of
good quality, but provided new school books for their pupils
which were an enormous advance on those they found in use;
so thai for nearly tkree centuries the Jesuits were accounted
the best schoolmasters in Europe, as they were, till their forcible
suppression in ioor, confessedly the best in France. The Jesuit
teachers conciliated the goodwill of their pupils by mingled
firmness and gentleness. Although the method of the Ratio
Studiorum has ceased to be acceptable, yet it played in its time as
serious a part in the intellectual development of Europe as did
the method of Frederick the Great in modern warfare. Bacon
succinctly gives his opinion of the Jesuit teaching in these
words: " As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule would
be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has
been put in practice" (Dt Augme*du, vi. 4). In instruction
they were excellent; but in education, or formation of character,
deficient. Again, when most of the continental dergy had
sunk, more or less, into the moral and intellectual slough which
is pictured for us in the writings of Erasmus and the Bpistoiot
ebuwontM tiromm (see Hotten, Ulwch von}, the Jesuits won
back respect for the clerical calling by their personal culture
34°
JESUITS
-^ ^aimpeftChable pvrity of their torn. These qualities they
and t _^fuHy maintained; and prohahly no large body of men
hsvtf ca ^ r j«i has been so free from the reproach of discreditable
in th« ^ or has kept up, oa the whole, an equally high average
memt^f^^j^ and conduct. As preachers, too, they delivered
of intel*'*^ fxora the bondage of an effete scholasticism and
the P ^| P \ o»ce a clearness and simplicity of treatment such as
reach*** • h pulpit scarcely begins to exhibit till after the days
the *^ n ^i £> n; while in literature and theology they count a far
f T»H ol5 *Lt^r of respectable writers than any other religious
larger ** u ^oast. It is in the mission field, however, that the»r
tocicty C ^-iis have been most remarkable. Whether toiling
achtc vel ^T t eermng millions in Hindustan and China, labouring
amorig * the Hurons and Iroquois of North America, govcrn-
amongsjt \ -|jjj n g the natives of Brazil and Paraguay in the
ing *°^ C lnd " reductions," or ministering, at the hourly risk
*-—* M \o W' fellow-Catholics in England under Elizabeth
the Jesuit appears alike devoted, indefatigable,
olHi»
Hfe
gtuarts.
. meet the
and the d worthy of hearty admiration and respect.
cheerful *!-$*, two startling and indisputable facts
N« vert J J^TpU r5ue5 lhc n,5t0l 7 of lhc Society. The f
tt«dm l w nicioO and hostility it has incurred— not merely
-fiiversa' 5U ;Lf *nts whose avowed foe it has been, not yet from
IT
dt
tii
su
wh
Revert 'J^pyrsues the history of the Society. The first is the
^gfil who j\ c - 00 a nd hostility it has incurred— not merely
universal 5US ( [l s i*nts whose avowed foe it has been, not yet f ron
(rata lb* T t0 gJ »11 clericalism and dogma, but from every Catholic
A+<0 lfB '* e * *\oti » n lne wor ^* Ils cme ' enemies have been
^ and M household of the Roman Catholic faith. The
ttooie °* ***:* the ultimate failure which seems to dog all
~&vA fa* 1 *ising schemes and efforts. These two results
. A**! ^Served a l»ke in the provinces of morals and
•ft to ** °^ftrst cause °f lnc opposition indeed redounds
j^jjj. **"?'# credit, for it was largely due to their success.
tothe J* 5 *?* 15 r«nC ***" * 8 tudied eloquence, their churches.
The* l^* , * C ^Jimt trart^e** were crowded, and in the confes-
\0p0G **\A*& *** eagerly sought in all kinds of
'"^T tWfr j^ wert the fashionable professors of the art
Sadw^ ^stuU ^ enthusiasm and zeal, devoted whoHy to
*r^5n- \!L were able to bring in numbers of rich and
*. c^oety- *^to lh« r ranks, for, with a clear understanding
r^iilpego^Hh. they became, of set purpose, the apostles
yrTj^ei ©* tSueaual The Jesuits felt that they were the
• y^fr a»^ ^ ^ the time; so with a perfect confidence in
dc-
rho
om
ted
all
Or*
the
*it
ant
loo
ife,
old
up-
ivc
tic,
pal
con
clca
life.
nod
and
epwc
ad vie
matte
The
direct
perfect
to Ig>u
brought
from th
for latci
prime d>
peculian
His folio
the mon
introduce
Friars.
Mobility
As Ignai
■ ' »trv<
MtM
on the t
S&
an]
f«
Jesuit he
favarlabi
ngs
ny.
ie*.
led
Wy
mis
hey
. m
dso
alt,
not
H was no wonder that, when opportunity served, the train that
had been heedlessly laid by speculative professors was fired by
rash hands. What professors like Suarez taught in the calm
atmosphere of the lecture hatl, what writers like Mariana upheld
and praised, practical men took as justification for deeds of
blood. There is no evidence that any Jesuit took a direct part
in political assassinations; however, indirectly, they may have
been morally responsible. They were playing with edged tools
and often got wounded through their own carelessness. Other
grievances were raised by their perpetual meddling in politics,
e.g. their large share in fanning the flames of political hatred
against the Huguenots under the last two Valois kings; their
perpetual plotting against England in the reign of Elizabeth;
their share in the Thirty Years* War and in the religious miseries
of Bohemia; their decisive influence in causing the revocation
of the edict of Nantes and the expulsion of the Protestants from
Prance; the ruin of the Stuart cause under James II., and the
establishment of the Protestant succession. In a number of
cases where the evidence against them is defective, it is at least
an unfortunate coincidence that there is always direct proof of
some Jesuit having been in communication with the actual agents
engaged. They were the stormy petrels of politics. Yet the
Jesuits, as a body, should not be made responsible for the doings
of men who, in their political intrigues, were going directly
against the distinct taw of the Society, which in strict terms, and
under heavy penalties, forbade them to have anything to do
with such matters. The politicians were comparatively few
in number, though unfortunately they held high rank; and their
disobedience to the rule besmirched the name of the society and
destroyed the good work of the other Jesuits who were faithfully
carrying out their own proper duties.
A far graver cause for uneasiness was given by the Jesuits*
activity in the region of doctrine and morals. Here the charges
against them are precise, early, numerous and weighty. Their
founder himself was arrested, more than once, by the Inquisition
and required to give account of his belief and conduct. But
St Ignatius, with all hfe powerful gifts of intellect, was entirely
practical and ethical in his range, and had no turn whatever for
speculation, nor desire to discuss, much less to question, any of
the received dogmas of the Church. He gives it as a rule of
orthodoxy to be ready to say that black is white if the Church
says so. He was therefore acquitted on every occasion, and
applied each time for a formally attested certificate of his ortho-
doxy, knowing well that, in default of such documents, the fact
of his arrest as a suspected heretic would be more distinctly
recollected by opponents than that of his honourable dismissal
from custody. His followers, however, have not been so for-
lunate. On doctrinal questions indeed, though their teaching
on grace, especially in the form given to it by Molina (o.»), ran
contrary to the accepted teaching on the subject by the Augus-
tin tans, Dominicans and other representative schools; yet by
iherr pertinacity they gained for their views a recognized and
established position. A special congregation of cardinals and
theologians known as it auxiliis was summoned by the pope to
settle the dispute, for the odium tkedogitum had risen to a
desperate height between the representatives of the old and the
new theology; but after many years they failed to arrive at any
satisfactory conclusion, and the pope, instead of settling the
dispute, was only able to impose mutual silence on all opponents.'
Among those who held out stiffly against the Jesuits on the
subject of grace were the Jansenists, who held that they were
following the special teaching of St Augustine, known par
txcdlnut as the doctor of grace. The Jesuits and the Jansenists
soon became deadly enemies; and in the ensuing conflict both
parties accused each other of flinging scruples to the wind. (See
Jansenism.)
But the accusations against the Jesuit system of moral theo-
logy and their action as guides of conduct have had a more serious
effect on their reputation. It is undeniable that some of their
moral writers were lax in their teaching; and conscience was
strained to the snapping point. The Society was trying to
•take itself all things to all men. Propositions extracted from
Jesuit moral theologiftos j»ve again and again bee* condemned
by the pope and declared untenable. Many of these can be
•found in Viva's Condemned Propositions. , As early as, 1554 the
Jesuits were censured by the Sorbonne, chiefly at the instance
of Eustache de Bellay, bishop oi Paris, as, being dangerous in
mailers of faith; Melchor Cano, a Dominican, one of the ablest
divines of the 16th century, never ceased to lift up his testimony
Against them, irons their first beginnings till his own death in
1560; and, unmollined by the bribe. of the bishopric of the
Canaries, which their interest procured for him, he succeeded
in banishing them from the university of Salamanca. Carlo
Borromeo, to whose original advocacy they owed much, especially
in the council of Trent, found himself attacked in his own cathe-
dral pulpit and interfered with in his jurisdiction. He withdrew
his protection and expelled them from his colleges and churches;
and he was followed in 1604 in this policy by his cousin and
successor Cardinal Federigo Borromeo. St Theresa learnt,
In after years, to mistrust their methods, although she was grate-
ful lo them for much assistance in the first years of her work.
The credit of the Society was seriously damaged by the publica-
tion, at Cracow, in 1612, of the Monita Secrete. This book,
which is undoubtedly a forgery, professes to contain the authori-
tative secret instructions drawn up by the general Acqua viva and
given by the superiors of the Society to its various officers and
members. A bold caricature of Jesuit methods, the book has
been ascribed to Jqhn ^orowsky or to Cambilohe and Schloss,
all ex-Jesuits, and it is stated to have been discovered in manu-
script by Christian of Brunswick in the Jesuit college at Prague.
It consists of suggestions and methods for extending the influence
of the Jesuits in various ways, for securing a footing in fresh
places, for acquiring wealth, for creeping into households and
leading silly rich widows captive and so forth, all marked with
ambition, craft and unscrupufousness. It had a wide success
and' popularity, passing through several editions, and even to
this day it is used by controversialists as unscrupulous as the
original writers. It may, perhaps, represent the actions of some
individuals who allowed their seal to outrun their discretion,
but surely no society which exists for good and is marked by so
many worthy men could systematically have conducted its
operations in such a manner. Later on a formidable assault
was made on Jesuit moral theology in the famous Provincial
Letters of Blaise Pascal (q.v.), eighteen in number, issued under
the pen-name of Louis de Montaltc, from January 1656 to March
1657. Their wit, irony, eloquence and finished style have kept
them alive as one of the great French classics— a destiny more
fortunate than* that of the kindred works by Antoine Arnauld,
Tkiologie morale des Jisuilcs, consisting of extracts from writings
of members of the Society, and Morale pratique its J t suites,
made up of narratives professing to set forth the manner in
which* they carried out their own maxims. But, like most
controversial writers, the authors were not scrupulous in their
quotations, and by giving passages divorced from their contexts
often entirely misrepresented their opponents. The immediate
reply on the part of the Jesuits, The Discourses of Cleander and
Eudozus by Perc Daniel, could not compete with Pascal's work
in brilliancy, wit or style; moreover, it was unfortunate enough
to be put upon the Index of prohibited books in 1701. The
reply on behalf of the Society to Pascal's charges of lax
morality, apart fp
(1) St Ignatius 1 1
aversion from un ;.
equivocation or ev e
contrary to the spii s
for his followers
practised equivoQ
(2) Several of the c i
many of them now >.
but having no prs
belong to the spin t>
spiritual physician d
were never intend e
general public. I *
latter purpose and y
becomes more un y
U insisted on. bee •
JESUITS 'J4T1
themselves have been singularly free from personal, as distinguished
from corporate, evil repute; and no one pretends that the large num-
ber of lay-folk whom they have educated or influenced exhibit
greater moral inferiority than others.
The third of these replies is the most cogent as regards Pascal,
but the real weakness of his attack lies in that nervous dread of
appeal to first principles and their logical result which has been
the besetting snare of Gallicanism. Pascal, at his best, has mis-
taken the part for the whole; he charges to the Society what,
at the most, are the doings of individuals; and from these he
asserts the degeneration of the body from its original standard;
whereas the stronger the life and the more extensive the natural
development, side by side will exist marks of degeneration; and a
society like the Jesuits has no difficulty in asserting its life inde-
pendently of such excrescences or, in time, in freeing itself from
them.
Two causes have been at work to produce the universal
failure of the great Society in all its plans and efforts. First
stands its lack of really great intellects. It has had its golden
age. No society can keep up lo its highest leveL Nothing can
be wider of the truth than the popular conception of the ordinary
Jesuit as a being of almost superhuman abilities and universal
knowledge. The Society, numbering as it does so many thou-
sands, and with abundant means of devoting men to special
branches of study, has, without doubt, produced men of great
intelligence and solid learning. The average member, too. on
account of his long and systematic training, is always equal
and often superior to the average member of any other equally
large body, besides being disciplined by a far more perfect drill.
But it takes great men to carry out great plans; and of really
great men, as the outside world knows and judges, the Society
has been markedly barren from almost the first. Apart from
its founder and his early companion, St Francis Xavier, there is
none who stands in the very first rank. Laynea and Acquavtta
were able administrators and politicians; the BoUandists (?.*.)
were industrious workers and have developed a critical spirit
from which much good can be expected; Francisco Snares,
JESUITS
I Lessios and Cardinal Fraiudin were some of the leading
— ^ ni t theologians; Cornelius a Lapide (1567-1637) represents
Jff^ir °ld s^ 00 * ©» scriptural studies, while their new German
*-**^er* are the most advanced of all orthodox higher critics;'
< ^ r ^* f^Ttnch Louis Bourdaloue (q.v.), the Italian Paolo Segneri
«^"Jf ^a~t°v4)» and the Portuguese Antonio Vieyra (1608-1697)
sf * ^^sctx their best pulpit orators; while of the many mathema-
f<^-5 and astronomers produced by the Society Angelo Secchi,
**^^Z*g\Ctt Giuseppe Boscovich and G.B. Beccaria arc conspicuous,
s^**jin modern times Stephen Joseph Perry (1833-1889), director
^f^^jc Stonyhurst College observatory, took a high rank among
€y § * o* science. Their boldest and most original thinker, Denis
^*^** u# so many years neglected. Is now, by inspiring Cardinal
^nT % ^*n*n' 5 £** av on the Development of Christian Doclri/ie, pro-
■m&a?'^ ~ a permanent influence over the current of human thought.
«Sr"fe
mils have produced no Aquinas, no Ansclm, no Bacon,
^gp, ^^heir teaching. Pascal, Descartes, Voltaire, have powcr-
J^>r** ^ifected the philosophical and religious beliefs of great
J^liy f mankind, but respectable mediocrity is the brand on
*^3^^ list ©f Jesuit names in the catalogues of Alcgambe and
^U?**%cr Thisisdo ■ ' •
a**
<**
s doubtless due in great measure to the destruc-
V^ess of scooping out ike will of the Jesuit novice, to replace
Ctbat of his superior (as a watchmaker might fit a -new
.grt into a case), and thereby tending, in most cases, to
- . ' te those subtle qualities of individuality and originality
IM*^^ essential to genius. Men of the higher stamp will
**^^** ^liise l0 8tt0<ml lo lne P"** 55 **** lexvt the Society, or
^j^T r \|aager of coining forth from the mill with their finest
**^ k***1 perverised and useless- In accordance with the spirit
c*^~, iufcr. who wished to secure uniformity in the judgment
j^ ^jlawen even in points left open by the Church (" Let us
^L^5^^-j. the Society has shown itself to be impatient of those
way, let us aU speak in the same manner if
acty has shown itself to be impatient of those
i*>*f_s/o* *»** ** * *** different from what is current in its
rivaand
is which
er forms
I side of
ipics are
nions or
cite the
ar suffer
icknow-
opinions
>jcctions
result is
lowledgc
ore have
I ways to
narginal
far as it
ate. In
Thomas
> of hiro
stoma ry
De vera
s. It is
has been
t highly
1? result;
inant in
doom of
* higher
le. The
tits have
consider
direction
it me of
Society
king its
li places.
Deration
idirectry
found in
of St
Francis Xavfar (q*X But he quitted Europe in 1 541 before the
new society, especially under Laynea, had hardened into hs final
mould; and he never returned. His work, so far as can be
gathered from contemporary accounts, was not done on true
Jesuit lines as they afterwards developed, though the Society
has reaped all the credit; and it is even possible that, bad be
succeeded the founder as general, the institute might not have
received that political and self-seeking turn tducb Laynez, ae
second general, gave at the critical moment.
It would almost seem that careful selection was made of the men
of the greatest piety and enthusiasm, whose unworldliness made
them less apt for diplomatic intrigues, to break new around m the
various missions where their success would throw lustre on the
Society and their scruples need never come into play. But such
men are not to be found easily ; and, as they died off, the tendency
was to fill their places with more ordinary characters, whoseaim was
to increase the power aad resources of the body. Hence the conde-
scension to heathen rites in Hindustan and China, and the attempted
subjugation of the English Catholic clergy. The first successes of
the Indian mission were entirely among the lower classes; but when
in Madura, in 1606. Robert de Nobili, a nephew of Beflarmtne, to
win the Brahmins, adopted their dress and mode of life— a step
sanctioned by Gregory XV. in 16*3 and by Clement XI. in 1707— the
fathers who followed his example pushed the new caste-feeling so far
as absolutely to refuse the ministrations and sacraments to the
pariahs, lest the Brahmin converts should take offence a n attempt
which was reported to Rome and was vainly censured by the breves
of Innocent X. in 1645, Clement IX. in 1669, Clement XII. in 173a
and 1739. and Benedict XIV. in 1745. The Chinese rites, assaued
with equal unsuccess by one pope after another, were not finally
put down until 1744 by a bull of Benedict XIV. For Japan, where
their side of the story it that best known* we have a remarkable
letter, printed by Lucas Wadding in the Annates minorum, addressed
il V. by bolcto. a Franciscan missionary, who was martyred
ich he complains to the pope that the Jesuits system-
atically postponed the spiritual welfare of the native Christum te
to Paul V. by :
in 1624, in wnic
their own convenience and advantage; while as regards the rest of
martyrdom, no such result had followed on their teaching, but only
on that of the other orders who had undertaken missionary work
in Japan. Yet soon many Jesuit martyrs in Japan were to shed a
the Society (see J a paw: For ' . . ...
even in Paraguay, the 1
new glory on the Society (see Japan: Foreign Intercourse). Again,
even in Paraguay, the most promising of all Jesuit undertaking*,
the evidence shows that the lathers, though civilizing the Cuarani
population just sufficiently to make them useful and docile servants*
happier no doubt than they were before or after, stopped there.
While the mission was begun on the rational principle 01 governing
races still in their childhood by methods adapted to that stage in
their mental development, yet for one hundred and fifty years the
" reductions " were conducted in the same manner, and when the
hour of trial came the Jesuit civilization fell like a house of cards.
These examples are sufficient to explain the final collapse of so
many promising efforts. The individual Jesuit might be, and
often was, a hero, saint and martyr, but the system which he
was obliged to administer was foredoomed to failure; and the
suppression which came in 1773 was the natural result of forces
and elements they had set in antagonism without the power of
controlling.
The influence of the Society since its restoration in 1814 has
not been marked with greater success than in its previous rnatoryi
It was natural after the restoration that an attempt should be
made to pick up again the threads that were dropped; bat soon
they came to realise the truth of the saying of St Ignatius*
M The Society shall adapt itself to the times and not the times
to the Society." The political conditions of Europe have com*
pletely changed, and constitutionalism is unfavourable to that
personal influence which, informer times. the Jesuits were able
to bring to bear upon the beads of states. In Europe they
confine themselves mainly to educational and ecclesiastical
politics, although both Germany and France have followed the
example of Portugal and refuse, on political grounds, to allow
them to be in these countries. It would appear as though
some of the Jesuits had not, even yet, learnt the lesson that
meddling with politics has always been their ruin. The main
cause of any difficulty that may exist to-day with the Society is
that the Jesuits are true to the teaching of that remarkable
panegyric, the Imago primi soexuii Soeittatis (probably written
by John ToUenarius in 1640), by identifying the Church with their
own body, and being intolerant of all who will not share this view.
Their power is still large in certain sections of the ecclesiastical
world, but fn secular affaii
church itself there is t sti
interests of Catholicism n
suppression of the Society.
of times and influent**, was
was the work of God: an
But, if this come, it will tx
governments, as in the i8tl
Church itsdf . The very nat
have shown no disposition to
it with the Church, while t
depending upon the Societ>
been what the Janissaries w
Its defenders and its champi
History. — The separate i
yean, his conversion, and h
was not unto November 153
Land was given up, that an
these companions into an c
of their going to Rome, foi
met Ignatius at Vicenza am
mon rule and, at the suggi
Company of Jesus. What?
and intentions, it was not 1
Lefevre), in the name of the
services at the feet of the f
really begins.
On their arrival at Rome
ceived by Paul III., who at
scripture and Laynez to that <
of the Sapienza. But they e
even charged with heresy ; wl
of. there were still difficulties
Despite the approval of Card
pope (who is said to have <
Ignatius, " The ringer of Go
general feeling that the regufc
not be wisely developed fartl
commission of three appoint*
was known to advocate the at
which were to be remodelled
'very year, i^«, a commis*
Pole, Contanni, Sadolct, Ca
and others, had reported that
to deal with, had drifted intc
abolished. Nat only so, but,
enclosure seemed the most no
become too secular in tone, t
first principle that the memtx
the world and be as little marl
lar clerical life and usages, ran
save that Caraffa's then recer
analogy with the proposed Soc
direction.
Ignatius and his companto
ultimate success, and so bonne
to obey any superior chosen
on the 4th of May certain otl
was a vow of special allcgiam
be taken by all the members
careful study of the papers, ch
cause of this change was in la
new scheme exhibited by John
his ambassador to press it on
some priests of his Society f
Indian possessions. Francis
sent to the king in March 1
Paul III., on the 27th of Sep
militantis cccksiae, by which h
•• order "docs not belong to i
a restriction which was rem
Injunction nobis of the 14th
Che pope gives the text of the
scheme of the proposed soci
own ideas: " This Soc
namely,' to offer spiritual con
4n life and Christian doctrine
public preaching and the mi
exercises and works of charii
of children and ignorant peop!
consolation of the faithful in
In this original scheme it is 1
JESUITS 34.3
Society and all its members fight for God under the faithful obedience
of the most sacred lord, the pope, and the other Roman pontiffs his
successors "; and Ignatius makes particular mention that each mem-
ber should "be bound by a special vow," beyond that formal
obligation under which all Christians are of obeying the pope, " so
that whatsoever the present and other Roman pontiffs for the time
being shall ordain, pertaining to the advancement of souls and the
propagation of the faith, to whatever provinces he shall resolve to
send us, we are straightway bound to obey, as far as in us lies, without
any tergiversation or excuse, whether he send us among the Turks
or to any other unbelievers in being, even to those parts called India,
or to any heretics or schismatics or likewise to any believers."
Obedience to the general is enjoined " in all things pertaining to the
institute of the Society . . . and in him they shall acknowledge
Christ as though present, and as far as is becoming shall venerate
him " ; poverty is enjoined, and this rule affects not only the indi-
vidual but the common sustentation or care of the Society, except
that in the case of colleges revenues are allowed " to be applied to
the wants and necessities of the students "; and the private recita-
tion of the Office is distinctly mentioned. On the other hand, the
perpetuity of the general's office during his life was no part of the
original scheme.
On the 7th of April 1541, Ignatius was unanimously chosen
general. His refusal of this post was overruled, so he entered
on his office on the 13th of April, and two days after, the newly
constituted Society took its formal corporate vows in the basilica
of San Paolo fuori U mura. Scarcely was the Society launched
when its members dispersed in various directions to their new
tasks. Alfonso Salmeron and Pasquier-Brouet, as papal dele-
gates, were sent on a secret mission to Ireland to encourage the
native clergy and people to resist the religious changes introduced
by Henry VIII., Nicholas Bo bad ilia went to Naples; Faber, 6rst
to the diet of Worms and then to Spain; Laynez and Claude le Jay
to Germany, while Ignatius busied himself at Rome in good works
and in drawing up the constitutions and completing the Spiritual
Exercises. Success crowned these first efforts; and the Society
began to win golden opinions. The first college was founded at
Coimbra in 1542 by John III. of Portugal and pat under the
rectorship of Rodriguez. It was designed as a training school to
feed the Indian mission of which Francis Xavier had already
taken the oversight, while a seminary at Goa was the second
institution founded outside Rome ia connexion with the Society.
Both from the original scheme and from the foundation at
Coimbra it is clear that the original idea of the colleges was to
provide for the education of future Jesuits. In Spain, national
pride m the founder aided the Society's cause almost as much as
royal patronage did in Portugal; and the third house was opened
in Gandia under the protection of its duke, Francisco Borgia, a
grandson of Alexander VI. In Germany, the Jesuits were
eagerly welcomed as the only persons able to meet the Lutherans
on equal terms. Only in France, among the countries which
still were united with the Roman Church, was their advance
checked, owing to political distrust of their Spanish origin, to-
gether with the hostility of the Sorbonne and the bishop of Paris.
However, after many difficulties, they succeeded in getting a
fooling through the help of Guillaumc du Prat, bishop of
Clermont (d 1 560), who founded a college for them in 1545 in the
town of Billom, besides making over to them his house at Paris,
the h6tel de Clermont, which became the nucleus of the after-
wards famous college of Louis-le-Grand, while a formal legaliza-
tion was granted to them by the states-general at Poissy in 1 561.
In Rome, Paul Ill's favour did not lessen. He bestowed on
them the church of St Andrea and conferred at the same lime
the valuable privilege of making and altering their own statutes;
besides the other points, in 1546, which Ignatius had still more at
heart, as touching the very essence of his institute, namely,
exemption from ecclesiastical offices and dignities and from the
task of acting as directors and confessors to convents of women.
The former of these measures effectually stopped any drain of
the best members away from the society and limited their hopes
within its bounds, by putting them more freely at the general's
disposal, especially as it was provided that the final vows could
not be annulled, nor could a professed member be dismissed, save
by the joint action of the general and the pope. The regulation
as to convents seems partly due to a desire to avoid the worry
and expenditure of lime involved in the discharge of such offices
342
Leonhar
Jesuit ih
their old
writers ar
the Prcnc,
(1624-160^
represent ti
tidans and
RuggieroGi
and in mode:
of the Stony;
men of scienc
Petau, so ma,
Newman's £5
during a pernu
The Jesuits ha
no Richelieu,
from their tea*
fully affected t
masses of manki
the long list of J
De Backer. This
live process of sco
it with that of h
movement into a
annihilate those s
which arc esse mi
either refuse to su
run the danger of
qualities pulverize
of its founder, who
of his followers eve
all think the same
possible "), the So
who think ox write
JESUITS
fcfttg
in en** 8 *
— — ^^J do effective a*
to:bf
-■i'jsiS
m -*-':-» V* «***
woeo of W. *?.* hi
ibuined m lent footing from the states-general for coBef*
? Society in France. He died in 1564. leaving the Society
sed to eighteen provinces with a hundred and thirty colleges,
Nor is this all. T
•till obligatory in tht
are incompatible wit
of education. True
the founder's mind, if
not in question, the
discussions to be mo
opinions of an authoi
to be taught anything
ledged doctors currcr
arc not to be mention
to received teaching
that the Jesuit emerg
of any other method"
instilled into him. T
support and defend tl
readings from the Hel
is incorrupt, is to be I
philosophy Aristotle
Aquinas generally, ca
even when abandonin
for the Jesuit teachers
mtntt D Thomas is no
not wonderful, under st
in minute detail for ir
cultivated commonplac
and that in proportion
Christendom, especially
intellectual sterility and
and thoughtful classes, h
initial mistake in the for
aimed at educating lay
advisable tor their own
is the one thing nccessar
liberty and initiative are
The second cause wh
is the lesson, too faithf
corporate interests the
Men were qtuck to see
with the other members
at mattery. The most b
tome of the motions of
utoun trui had beta or might afterwards be granted to such mendi-
^ voexo w uj- u^ |, j^,^ Jt wa$ a trifling set-off that in 1567 the pope again
^ ibe yew ! 5J\Vj ^ in ; ^*d the fathers to keep choir and to admit only the professed
-<*-** 4
**"£«*-
and obtained 1
of the f - ,
increased to eighteen provinces 1 . . .
and »as succeeded by Francisco Borgia. Dunng the third general-
it* Pius V. confirmed all the (ormer privileges, and in the amplest
t«w extended to the Society, as being a mendicant institute, all
■ ' * *- '- L * afterwards be granted to such mendi-
> set-off that in 1567 the pope again
rJ x .„. „ hoir and to admit only the professed
1 j- vwts' oroVrs. eapecially as Gregory XIII. rescinded both these
' ,i.«a<«s m 15:3, and indeed, as regards the hours, all that
-.<» \ »** aSjc to obtain was the nominal concession that the bro-
il* ' vis-> sVOJ i* rtvued in choir in the professed houses only, and
►\.-r ve .v *vr«v*t> by more than two persons at a time. Everard
V>v. -ox * rV-ag, and a subject of Spain, succeeded Borgia in
lV - n^v **^ **• the Society by the pope, in preference to
*V.x\\ - u>«->* secretary ana the vicar-general, who was re-
o v »\*. '. * *> * SiMniard and still more because he was a ** New
;*,-^u' 0* *»*t>h origin and therefore objected to in Spain
soi i\*-^: w term ol office there took place the troubles in
t.s*t » >v »^ l "* **** English college and the subsequent Jesuit
■■ — '—> and in 1580 the first Jesuit mts**oa,
Robert Parsons and the saintly Edmund
This mission, on ooe side, carried
against Elizabeth in favour o! Spam ; xad
missionaries, was marked *ka cfc^uted
ghastly death of traitors. Ca«jde
Id office from 15S1 to 16:5. a -i=e
tide of the successful rearrie«. c*j*-fy
naa. aac cr^stted
ia* c«j-^5 :^»
or «' ibn Ui^ccs
t-5 trri~^e 7^ Ar
conf«5«J trvti* ttxar tie
CC X2T!?SC i=ju^
varices ptir-rs -^ .. g
v . v .Nr <\'aivvm of the novices" aad st^irrts, tae sett i
N v ^ v * "vi i V possr<*i>>ns oi the Socwrr ; tbe *c ~^f r-^r-ai.
, ■ v ^ -» -^-' to S? earned so far tSit. it rte gncn, * irzs- «
< w >-v^ «v* Nr «arc K od. not cse Jesuit $ ciinct=r vr-^tr 3e
^ v . o*. v IV ••'rorc'v .'/ tSe ^ ^ ier c^ors ^ a s-=i_: -^:
^ v ' ^ -v* o* 4U coccunieaaest aad reccs^ease "kt at aat
3t •** c-V^N 1 J-jr^ tbe f tMia !?JLy rf . Vym.'u tiar tSr
^ v > Ni % '-\CiJt: e^- : ! rrp^:it3c= w^_^ eclpsrf 15 -xi
v nx» U ^* 2 *<* :S: J«^is voei / lies i^i a:c j ---~- -,
v v ^*.v *K- =^< Hrr-v « Ni-Mrre. A^tstj^^utt ms-. — « -^4
v, k»«« -^ -V*3« *K> wvw*i 5«?c x>c a Lie .^w -^ne— s» a<
w v .. * ^ i ^ vi "^ ^jit t^e-i t? st^c ties. *r.ir a * ^.!f T^e
^.w K.s v*.i **. ' ; * ^ 111 la lie jiurrscs it lie 'jt\ca s=i je
% .^.^ ^ ^ hk-r ^ I* Jt 15-=* f* Cbj^ia. a ?^r^ a -a-r\
,^» V v. >c j ■ ^rf t'ta: r>e * >.-*e 5vxx*/» wxs -inrr =r r» at
^ xw> , S.« «v: i .c»T?i rj "-.ATI S- H^rr- 7 cr^ir r^i-
^,» c -v.t-^'
K ^»-n »T.
&<
*?*>
^—t v ~t >, -;r*- •- :
JESUITS
England, was implicated. That the Jesuit* were the instigators
of the plot there is no evidence, but they were in dose touch with
the conspirators, of whose designs Garnet had a general know-
ledge. There is now no reasonable doubt that he and other
Jesuits were legally accessories, and that the condemnation of
" " &
< im
ere
a
cai
?7-
in-
len
of
1st.
<«kV|«UB.«»<« ami* %f%. »A|/UWiUM «M v»«fc jcwwu t.vru* ivhiu. • >• aOOO
for siding with Paul V. when he placed the republic under interdict,
bat did not live to see their recall, which took place at the inter-
cession of Louis XI V. in 1657. He also had to banish Parsons from
Rpme, by order of Clement VIII., who was wearied with the per*
petual complaints made against that intriguer. Gregory XIV., by
the bull Ecclcsiae Ckristx (July 28, 15Q1), again confirmed the
Society, and granted that Jesuits might, for true cause, be expelled
from the body without any form of trial or even documentary pro-
cedure, besides denouncing excommunications against every one,
save the pope or his legates, who directly or indirectly infringed the
constitutions of the Society or attempted to oring about any change
therein.
Under Vitelleschi, the next general, the Society celebrated its
first centenary on the 25th of September 1639, the hundredth anni-
versary of the verbal approbation given to the scheme by Paul III.
During this hundred years the Society had grown to thirty-six
provinces, with eight hundred houses containing some fifteen
thousand members. In 1640 broke out the great Jansenist contro-
versy, in which the Society took the leading part on one side
and finally secured the victory. In this same year, considering
themselves Ill-used by Olivarcz, prime minister of Philip IV. of
Spain, the Jesuits powerfully aided the revolution which placed the
duke of Braganza on the throne of Portugal: and their services were
rewarded for nearly one hundred years with the practical control
of ecclesiastical and almost of civil affairs in that kingdom.
The Society also gained ground steadily in France; for, though
held in check by Richelieu and little more favoured by Mazarin,
yet from the moment that Louis XIV. took the reins, their star
was in the ascendant, and Jesuit confessors, the most celebrated of
whom were Francois de La Chaise (f .».) and Michel Le Tellier (1643-
1719)* guided the policy of the king, not hesitating to take his side
in his quarrel with the Holy Sec, wnich nearly resulted in a schism,
nor to sign the Gallican articles. Their hostility to the Huguenots
forced on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685. and their
war against their Jansenist opponents did not* cease till the very
walls of Port Royal were demolished in 1710, even to the very abbey
church itself, and the bodies of the dead taken with every mark of
insult from their graves and literally flung to the dogs to devour.
Dot while thus gaining power in one direction, the Society was losing
it in another. The Japanese mission had vanished in blood in 1651 ;
and though many Jesuits died with their converts bravely as martyrs
for the faith, yet it is impossible to acquit them of a large share in the
causes of that overthrow. It was also about this same period that
the grave scandal of the Chinese and Malabar rites began to attract
attention in Europe, and to make 1 thinking men ask seriously
whether the Jesuit missionaries in those parts taught anything which
could fairly be called Christianity at all. When it was remembered,
too, that they had decided, at a council held at Lima, that it was
inexpedient to impose any act of Christian devotion except baptism
on the South American converts, without the greatest precautions,
on the ground of intellectual difficulties, it is not wonderful that this
doubt was not satisfactorily cleared up, notably in face of the
charges brought against the Society by Bernard in de Cardonas,
bishop of Paraguay, and the saintly Juan de Palafox (?.».), bishop
of Angelopoiis in Mexico. • -
But B
and tl k
compli i
apxwtc J
ineyits ,,
after t e
by the «
the gl<
eleven
righti
thegei
him t<
attem
who*
3+5
of the Jesuits. Though the political weight of the Society continued
to increase in the cabinets of Europe, it was being steadily weakened
internally. The Jesuits abandoned the system of free education
which had won them so much influence and honour; by attaching
themselves exclusively to the interests of courts, they lost favour
with the middle and lower classes; and above all. their monopoly
of power and patronage in France, with the fatal use they had made 01
it, drew down the bitterest hostility upon them. It was to their credit,
indeed, that the encyclopaedists attacked them as the foremost
representatives of Christianity, but they are accountable in no small
degree in France, as in England, for alienating the minds of men
from the religion for which they profesacd to work.
But the most fatal part of the policy of the Society was its
activity, wealth and importance as a great trading firm with
branch houses scattered over the richest countries of the world.
Its founder, with a wise instinct, had forbidden the accumulation
of wealth; its own constitutions, as revised in the 84th decree of
the sixth general congregation, had forbidden all pursuits of a
commercial nature, as also had various popes; but nevertheless
the trade went on unceasingly, necessarily with the full know*
ledge of the general, unless it be pleaded that the system of
obligatory espionage had completely broken down. The first
muttering of the storm which was soon to break was heard in a
breve issued in 1741 by Benedict XIV., wherein be denounced
the Jesuit offenders as " disobedient, contumacious, captious and
reprobate persons," and enacted many stringent regulations for
their better government. The first serious attack came from a
country where they had been long dominant. In 1753 Spain
and Portugal exchanged certain American provinces with each
other, which involved a transfer of sovereign rights over Para-
guay; but it was also provided that the populations should
severally migrate also, that the subjects of each crown might
remain the same as before. The inhabitants of the " reductions,"
whom the Jesuits had trained in the use of European arms and
discipline, naturally rose in defence of their homes, and attacked
the troops and authorities. Their previous docility and their
entire submission to the Jesuits left no possible doubt as to the
source of the rebellion, and gave the enemies of the Jesuits a
handle against them that was not forgotten. In 1757 Carvalho,
marquis of Pombal, prime minister of Joseph L of Portugal, and
an old pupil of the Jesuits at Coimbra, dismissed the three Jesuit
chaplains of the king and named three secular priests in their
stead. He next complained to Benedict XIV. that the trading
operations of the Society hampered the commercial prosperity
of the nation, and asked for remedial measures. The pope, who
knew the situation, committed a visitation of the Society to
Cardinal Said a aha, an intimate friend of Pombal, who issued a
severe decree against the Jesuits and ordered the confiscation
of all their merchandise. Bui at this juncture Benedict XIV.,
the most learned and able pope of the period, was succeeded by
a pope strongly in favour of the Jesuits, Clement XIII. Pombal,
finding no help from Rome, adopted other means. The king was
fired at and wounded on returning from a visit to his mistress
on the 3rd of September 1758. The duke of Aveiro and other
high personages were tried and executed for conspiracy; while,
some of the Jesuits, who had undoubtedly been in communica-
tion with them, were charged, on doubtful evidence, with
complicity In the attempted assassination. Pombal charged the
whole Society with the possible guilt of a few, and, unwilling to
wait the dubious issue of an application to the pope for licence
to try them in the civil courts, whence they were exempt, issued
on the tsi of September 1759 a decree ordering the immediate
deportation of every Jesuit from Portugal and all its dependencies
and their suppression by the bishops in the schools and universi-
ties. Those in Portugal were at once shipped, in great misery, to
the papal states, and were soon followed by those in the colonics.
In France, Madame de Pompadour was their enemy because they
had refused her absolution while she remained the king's mistress;
but the immediate cause of tfieir ruin was the bankruptcy of
Father Lavalette, the Jesuit superior in Martinique, a daring
speculator, who failed, after trading for some years, for 2,400,000
francs and brought ruin upon some French commercial houses
of note. Lorenzo Ricci, then general of the Society, repudiated
the debt, alleging .lack oi authority on LavaleUe'apart to pledge,
346
JESUITS
the credit of the Society, and he was sued by the creditors. Losing
his catisc, he appealed to the parlemcnt of Paris, and it, to
decide the issue raised by Ricci, required the constitutions of the
Jesuits to be produced in evidence, and affirmed the judgment of
the courts below But the publicity given to a document scarcely
blown till then raised thcutmost indignation against the Society.
A royal commission, appointed by the due de Choiseul to examine
the constitutions, convoked a private assembly of fifty-one arch-
bishops and bishops under the presidency of Cardinal de Luynes,
all of whom except six voted that the unlimited authority of the
general was incompatible with the laws of France, and that the
appointment of a resident vicar, subject to those laws, was the
only solution of the question fair on all sides. Ricci replied with
the historical answer, Sint ut sunt, ant non si tit; and after some
further delay, during which much interest was exerted in their
favour, the Jesuits were suppressed by an edict in November
1764, but suffered to remain on the footing of secular priests,
a trace withdrawn in 1767, when they were expelled from the
kingdom* In the very same year, Charles IIL of Spam, a
monarch known for personal devoutness, convinced, on evidence
not now forthcoming, that the Jesuits were plotting against his
authority, prepared, through his minister D'Aranda, a decree
suppressing the Society in every part of his dominions. Scaled
despatches were sent to every Spanish colony, to be opened on
the same day, the ind of April 1767, when the measure was to
take effect in Spain itself, and the expulsion was relentlessly
carried out, nearly six thousand priests being deported from
Spain alone, and sent to the Italian coast, whence, however, they
were repelled by the orders of the pope and Ricci himself, finding
a refuge at Corte In Corsica, after some months' suffering in over-
crowded vessels at sea. The general's object may probably have
teen to accentuate the harshness with which the fathers had been
treated, and so to increase public sympathy, but the actual result
of hit policy was blame for the cruelty with which he enhanced
thrir misfortunes, for the poverty of Corsica made even a bare
subsistence scarcely procurable for them there. The Bourbon
courts of Naples and Parma followed the example of France and
Spain; Clement X11I. retorted with a bull launched at the
weakest adversary, and declaring the rank and title of the duke
ef r*rma forfeit. The Bourbon sovereigns threatened to make
w*r on the pope in return (France, indeed, seizing on the county
ttf Avignon*, and a joint note demanding a retractation, and the
aevfeitoft of the Jesuits, was presented by the French ambassador
st Itame on the toth of December 1768 in the name of France,
fexuft and the two Sicilies. The pope, a man of eighty-two, died
^ avofdevv, brought on by the shock, early in 1760. Cardinal
t.*«o*> Gangnnelll, a conventual Franciscan, was chosen to
i*xv<«J him» and took the name of Clement XIV. He endea-
wof*J lo avert the decision forced upon him, but, as Portugal
v ^ H ^i tt* y»uf bon league, and Maria Theresa with her son the
>*uK«ve toocfh U. ceased to protect the Jesuits, there remained
\ t .\ ' to pet* v kingdom of Sardinia in their favour, though the fall
si V***« »u »>*ttce raised the hopes of the Society for a time.
•V v#* b<<** *i*h • oroc prelirmn*^ measures, permitting
h wttc*al «>< lawsuits against the Society, which had been
* ^ -li Sv m**) authority, and whkh, indeed, had in no case
^%v^ •* Romc - Hc thcn d08ed the Co" 6 **
^"^J^ ^ »nv p&« of itf insolvency, seised the houses at
us
of
ics
>ly
hc
of
KTtt
to
eir
eir
es,
ed
en
obliged to punish them. Seeing then that the Catholic sove-
reigns had been forced to expel them, that many bishops and other
eminent persons demanded their extinction, and that the Society
had ceased to fulfil the intention of its institute, the pope declares
it necessary for the peace of the Church that it should be sup-
pressed, extinguished, abolished and abrogated for ever, with
all its nouses, colleges, schools and hospitals; transfers all the
authority of its general or officers to the local ordinaries; forbids
the reception of any more novices, directing that such as were
actually in probation should be dismissed, and declaring that
profession in the Society should not serve as a title to holy orders.
Priests of the Society are given the option of either joining other
orders or remaining as secular clergy, under obedience to the
ordinaries, who are empowered to grant or withhold from them
licences to hear confessions. Such of the fathers as are engaged
in the work of education are permitted to continue, on condition
of abstaining from lax and questionable doctrines apt to cause
strife and trouble. The question of missions is reserved, and t he
relaxations granted to the Society in such, matters as fasting,
reciting the hours and reading heretical books, are withdrawn;
while the breve ends with clauses carefully drawn to bar any
legal exceptions that might be taken against its full validity and
obligation. It has been necessary to cite these heads of the breve
because the apologists of the Society allege that no motive
influenced the pope save the desire of peace at arty price, and that
be did not believe in the culpability of the fathers. The catego-
rical charges made in the document rebut this plea. The pope
followed up this breve by appointing a congregation of cardinals
to take possession of the temporalities of the Society, and armed
it with summary powers against all who should attempt to
retain or conceal any of the property. He also threw Lorenzo
Ricci, the general, into prison, first in the English college and
then in the castle of St Angelo, where he died in 1775, under the
pontificate of Pius VI., who, though not unfavourable to the
Society, and owing his own advancement to it, dared not release
him, probably because his continued imprisonment was made a
condition by the powers who enjoyed a right of veto in papal
elections. In September 1774 Clement XIV. died after much
suffering, and the question has been hotly debated ever since
whether poison was the cause of his death. But the latest re-
searches have shown that there is no evidence to support the
theory of poison. Salicetti, the pope's physician, denied that
the body showed signs of poisoning, and Tanucci, Neapolitan
ambassador at Rome, who had a large share in procuring
the breve of suppression, entirely acquits the Jesuits, while
F. Thciner, no friend to the Society, docs the like.
At the date of this suppression, the Society had 41 provinces
and 22,580 members, of whom 11,295 w «re priests. Far from
submitting to the papal breve, the ex- Jesuits, after some in-
effectual attempts at direct resistance, withdrew into the terri-
tories of the free-thinking sovereigns of Russia and Prussia,
Frederick II. and Catherine II., who became their active friends
and protectors; and the fathers alleged as a principle, in so far as
their theology is concerned, that no papal bull is binding in a
state whose sovereign has not approved and authorized its publi-
cation and execution. Russia formed the headquarters of the
Society, and two forged breves were speedily circulated, being
dated June 9 and June 29, 1774, approving their establishment
in Russia, and implying the repeal of the breve of suppression.
But these are contradicted by the tenor of five genuine breves
issued in September 1774 to the archbishop of Gnescn, and making
certain assurances to the ex- Jesuits, on condition of their complete
obedience to the injunctions already laid on them. The Jesuits
also pleaded a verbal approbation by Pius VI., technically known
as an Oraeulvm vivae vocis, but this is invalid for purposes of law
unless reduced to writing and duly authenticated.
They elected three Poles successively as generals, taking, how-
ever, only the title of vicars, till on the 7th of March iSot Pius
VII. granted them liberty to reconstitute themselves in north
Russia, and permitted Karcu, then vicar, to exercise full authority
as general. On the 30th of July 1804 a similar breve restored the
Jesuits in the Two Sicilies, at the express desire of Ferdinand IV ,
"JKSUP "'
^47
khepope thus anticipating the further action of 1814, when, by
the constitution Sollicltvdo omniwm Bcckriomm, he revoked the
action of dement XIV., and formally restored the Society to
corporate legal existence, yet not only omitted any censure of his
predecessor's conduct, but all vindication of the Jesuits from the
heavy charges in the breve Dominus ac RuUmftor. In France,
even after their expulsion in 1765, they had maintained a pre*
carious footing in the country under the partial disguise and
namesof " Fathers of the Faith " or " Clerks of the Sacred Heart,"
but were obliged by Napoleon I. to retire in 1604. They re-
appeared under their true name in 18*4, and obtained formal
licence in 1*22, but became the objects of so much hostility
that Charles X. deprived them by ordinance of the right of in-
struction, and obliged all applicants for licences as teachers to
make oath that they did not belong to any community unrecog-
nised by the laws. They were dispersed again by the revolution of
July 1830, but soon reappeared and, though put to much incon-
venience during the latter years of Louis Philppe's reign, notably
in 1845, maintained their footing, recovered the right to teach
freely after the revolution of 1*48, and gradually became the
leading educational and ecclesiastical power in France, notably
under the Second Empire, till they?*vere once more expelled by
the Ferry laws of 1880, though they quietly returned since the
execution of those measures. They were again expelled by the
Law of Associations of toot. In Spain they came back with
Ferdinand VII., but were expelled at the constitutional rising in
1820, returning in 1895, when the duke of Angouleme's army
replaced Ferdinand on his throne; they were driven out once
more by Espartero in 1855, and have had no legal position since,
though their presence is openly tolerated. In Portugal, ranging
themselves on the side of Dom Miguel, they feU with his cause,
and were exiled in 1834. There are some to this day in Lisbon
under the name of " Fathers of the Faith." Russia* which had
been their warmest patron, drove them from St Petersburg and
Moscow in 1813, and from the whole empire in 1820, mainly
on the plea of. attempted proselytizing in the imperial army.
Holland drove them out in 1816, and, by giving them thus a
valid excuse for aiding the Belgian revolution of 1830, secured
them the strong position they have ever since held in Belgium;
but they have succeeded in returning to Holland. They were
expelled from Switzerland in 1847-184* for the part they were
charged with in exciting the war of the Sonderbund. In south
Germany, inclusive of Austria and Bavaria, their annals since
their restoration have been uneventful* but in north Germany,
owing to the footing Frederick II. had given them in. Prussia,
they became very powerful, especially in the Rhine provinces,
and, gradually moulding the younger generation of clergy after
the close of the War of Liberation, succeeded in spreading Ultra-
montane views amongst them, and so leading up to the difficul-
ties with the civil government which Issued in the Falk laws,
and their own expulsion by decree of the German parliament
(June re/, 1872). Since then many attempts have been made to
procure the recall of the Society to the German Empire, but
without success, although as individuals they are now allowed in
the country. In Great Britain, whither they began to straggle
over during the revolutionary troubles at the close of the 18th
century, and where, practically unaffected by the clause directed
against them m the Emancipation Act of 1820. their chief settle-
ment has been at Stony hurst in Lancashire, an' estate conferred
on them by Thomas Wctd in 1705, they have been unmolested;
but there has been little affinity to the order in the British
temperament, and the English province *has consequently never
risen to numerical or intellectual importance in the Society. Iri
Rome itself, its progress after the restoration wasat first slow, and
It was not till the reign of Leo XII. (18*3-1810) that it recovered
its place as the chief educational body there. It advanced
steadily under Gregory XVI'., and, though it was at first shunned
by Pius IX., it secured his entire confidence after his return
from Gaeta in 1849, and obtained from him a special breve erect-
ing the staff of its literary journal, the Crtiltd Co/Wf ice, into a
perpetual college under the general of the Jesuits, for the purpose
Of teaching and propagating the faith in its pages. How, with
this pope's support throughout his long reign, the gradual filling
of nearly all the sees of Latin Christendom wkh bishops of their
own selection, and their practical capture, directly or indirectly,
of the education of the clergy in seminaries, they contrived to
stamp out the last remains of independence everywhere, and to
crown the Ultramontane triumph with the Vatican Decrees, is
matter of familiar knowledge. Leo XIII , while favouring them
somewhat, never gave them his full confidence; and by his* ad-
hesion to the Thorn is t philosophy and theology, and his active
work for the regeneration and progress of the older orders, he
made another suppression possible by destroying much of their
prestige. But the Usual sequence has been observed under 1
Pius X., who appeared to be greatly in favour of the Society and
to rely upon them for many of the measures of his pontificate.
The Society has been ruled by twenty-five generals and four
vicars from its foundation to the present day (1910). Of all the
various nationalities represented in the Society, neither France,
its original cradle, nor England, has e\er given it a head, while
Spain, Italy, Holland, Belgium, Germany and Poland, were all
represented. The numbers of the Society are not accurately
known, but are estimated at about 20,000, in all parts of the
world; and of these the English, Irish and American Jesuits are
under 3000.
The
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8. Fr
9. Al
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vicar-gcncral
e), (general in
19. TI
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22. F<
23- Ai
24. Li
25. Fi
I54J-I55*
I558-»56S
'5*5-157*
J573-»580
1581-1615
1615-1645
1646-1649
1640-1651'
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1652-1664
1664-1681
I68at-1686
1687-1705
1 706- 1 730
17JO-1750
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1755-1757,
1758-1775
1782-1785
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1 802- 1 805
1805-1820
1820-1829
1829- 1 853
1853-1884
1884-1892
1892-1906
1906-
JBSUP, MORRIS KFTCmm (1830*1008), American banker
and philanthropist, was born at Westport, Connecticut, on the
9 1 st of June 1830. In 1842 he went to New York City, where
after some experience m business he established a banking house
JESUS CHRIST
a aw Jetn, to Judge by their salutation of
icir mention of " God the Father," and of tba
. as being " in " Him. But what is this new
ed side by side with the Divine Name — " in
"] ad the Lord Jesus Christ "? An educated
omtthing (as many at that time did) of the
>f the ancient Hebrew Scriptures, if he had
r before be had ever heard the name of Jesus
e been deeply interested in these opening
have known that " Jesus " was the Greek
iat " Christ " was the Greek rendering of
* ed, the title of the great King for whom the
; he might further have remembered that '
" expression which the Greek Old Testament
cad of the ineffable name cf God, which we |
k " (?.».). Who, then, he might well ask
it who is lifted to this unexampled height? ;
Jesus Christ stands in some dose relation to j
1 and that on the ground of that relation a
lilt up, apparently by Jews, in a Greek city
destine. He would learn something as he
ter maker a passing, reference to the founda~
and to the expansion of its influence in other
the conversion of its members from faeatben-
Misequent sufferings at the hands of their
-s. The writers speak of themselves as
sscngcrs, of Christ; they refer to similar
Jesus," which they call " churches of God/'
y say that these also suffer from the Jews
killed the Lord Jesus" some time before.
peak of Jesus as "raised from the dead,"
be belief which they had led the society to
would come again " from heaven to deliver
ming wrath." Moreover, they urge them
ertain members of the society who have al-
thal, " if we believe that Jesus died and
iy also be assured that " the dead in Christ
I I live foi.ever with Him. Thus the letter
i »ders already have considerable knowledge
\ sus Christ," and as to His relation to ** God
| • Pledge derived from, teaching given in person
tJ The purpose of the letter is not to give in-
£ r past, but to stimulate its readers to perse*
fresh teaching as to the future. Historically
y e as showing how widely within twenty or
: the Crucifixion a religion which proclaimed
:al teaching as to " the Lord Jesus Christ "
] oman Empire. We may draw a further con*
s nd other letters of St Paul before we go on.
v y work must have created a demand. Those
j« n and read his letters would want to know
ci I told them of the earthly life of the Lord
or d wish to be able to picture Him to their
of dly to understand what could have led to
Xb -» lB by the Romans at the requisition of the
firs'. d not been one of his personal disciples in
susr ,ja > be had no memories to relate of His
been ing. Some written account of these was an
Rom d we may be sure that any sucb narrative
Prase 10 was so deeply reverenced would be most
and tl d at a time when many were still living whose
breve k to the period of Our Lord's public ministry.
Jesus. we now proceed to describe,
of pre £•*•— - The Gospel according to St Mark was
See, sen years or the first letter of St Paul to the
Temp about 65. It seems designed to meet the
the J< ristiaas living far away from Palestine. The
consti eye-witness of what be relates, but he writes
snedd urity of a man who has the best authority
quart characteristics of his work confirm the early
condc wrote this Gospel for the Christians of Rome
result of St Peter* It is of the fust importance that
op o
JESUS GHRBT
wetbotidendetvourtosecftfcisbook as mwnoIe;togaintbetotal
impression which ft. makes on the mind; to look at the picture of
Jesus Christ which it offers. That picture must Inevitably be
an incomplete representation of Him; it will need to be supple-
mented by other pictures which other writers have drawn.
Bat H is important to consider it by itself, as showing us what im-
press the Master had made on the memory of one dbtipk who
bad been almost constantly by His side.
The book opens thus) " The beginning of the Gospel of
Jesus Christ." This " beginning " Is shown to be itself rooted
BLgimmtrng in the past. Hebrew prophets had foretold that
•rcfthw* God would ' send a " messenger "; that a voice
**■*•* would be heard saying, " Prepare the way of the
Lord;" And so, in fact, John came, baptizing in the wilderness
and turning the heart of the nation back to God. But John was
only a forerunner. He was himself a prophet, and his prophecy
Was this, ** He that is stronger than I am is coming after me."
Then, we read, " Jesus came." St Mark introduces Him quite
abruptly, just as he had introduced John; for he Is writing
for those who already know the outlines of the story. " Jesus
came from Nazareth of Galilee." He was baptized by John, and
as He came out of the water He had a vsion of the opened
heavens and the Holy Spirit, like a dove, descending upon
Him; and He heard a Yoke saying, "Thott art My Son, the
Beloved: in Thee I am well pleased." He then passed a way
into the wilderness, where He was tempted by Satan and fed
by angels. Then He begins His work; and from thevety
first we feci that He fulfils John's sign: He is strong. His first
Words are words of strength; " the time is fulfilled "—that is to
say, all the past has been leading up to this great moment;
" the kingdom of God is at hand "—that is to say, all your
best hopes are on the point of being fulfilled; " repent, and
believe the Gospel "—that is to say, turn from your Sins and
accept the tidings which I bring you. It is but a brief summary
of what He must have said; but we feel its strength. He does
not hesitate to fix all eyes upon Himself. Then we see Him call
two brothers who art fishermen, M Come after Me," He says,
•* and I will make you fishers of men." They dropped their nets
and went after Him, and so did two other brothers, their partners;
for they all feh the power of this Master of men: He was strong.
He began to teach in the synagogue; they were astonished at His
teaching, for be spoke with authority. He was interrupted
by a demoniac, but He quelled the evil spirit by a word; He was
stronger than the power of evil. When the sun set the Sabbath
was at an end, and the people could carry out their sick into
the street where He was; and Re came forth and healed there
all. The demoniacs showed a strange faculty of recognition,
and cried that He was" the holy one of God," and " the Christ,"
ljut He silenced them at once. The next morning He was
gone. He had Sought a quiet spot for prayer. Peter, one Of
those fishermen whom He had called, whose whVs mother had
been healed the day before, found Him and tried to bring
Him back. ° All men are seeking Thee," he pleaded. " Let
us go elsewhere " was the quiet reply of one who could not
be moved by popular enthusiasm. Once again, we observe, He
fulfils John's sign: He is strong. This b our first sight of
Jesus Christ. The next shows us that this great strength is
united to a most tender sympathy. To touch a leper was
forbidden, and the offence involved ceremonial defilement. Yet
when a leper declared that Jesus could heal him, if only He
would, * He put forth His hand and touched him." The act
perfected the leper's faith, and he was healed immediately.
But he disobeyed the command to be silent about the matter,
and the result was that Jesus could not openly enter mto the
town, but remained outside in the country. It is the first shadow
that falls across His path; His power finds a cheek fn human
wilfulness. Presently He is in Capernaum again. He heals a
paralysed man, but not until' He has come mto touch, as we
say, with him also, by reaching his deepest need and declaring the
forgiveness of his sins. This declaration disturbs the rabbis,
who regard it as a blasphemous usurpation of Divine authority.
But He claims that " the Son of Man hath authority on earth to
3*9
forgive sue." The tide wKcfc He thus adopts must be con-
sidered later.
We may note, as we pass on, that He has again, in the
excrdse of His power and His sympathy, come into conflict
With the established religions tradition. This free- lftWi ^
dom from the trammels of convention appears yet tawmda
again when he claims asa new disciple a publican, a £*2J£*
man whose calling as a tax-gatherer for the Roman "** Mb *»
government made him odious to every patriotic Jew. Publicans
were classed with open sinners; and when Jesus went to this
main's house and met a company of bis fellows the rabbis were
scandalized: " Why eatcth your Master with publicans and
sinners?" The gentle a nswer of Jesus showed His aympat by even
with those who opposed Him: " The doctor," He said, " must go
to the sick." And again, when they challenged His disciples fos
not observing the regular fasts, He gently reminded them that
they themselves relaxed the discipline of fasting for a bride*
groom's friends. And He added, in picturesque and pregnant
sayings, that an old garment could not bear a new patch, and
that old wine-skins could not take new wine. Such language was
at once gentle and strong; without condemning the old, it
claimed liberty for the new. To what lengths would this
liberty go ? The sacred badge of the Jews' religion, which
marked them off from other men all the world over, was their
observance of the Sabbath. It was a national emblem, the test
of rcKgion and patriotism. The rabbis had fenced the Sabbath
round with minute commands, lest any Jews should even seem
to work on the Sabbath day. Thus, plucking and rubbing the
ears of corn was counted a form of reaping and threshing. The
hungry disciples had so transgressed as they walked through the
fields of ripe corn. Jesus defended them by the example of
David, who had eaten the shewbread, wbiqh only priests might
eat, and had given it to his hungry men. Necessity absolves
from ritual restrictions. And he went farther, and proclaimed
a principle: " The Sabbath was made for man, and not man
for the Sabbath, so that the Son of Man is lord even of the
Sabbath." For a second time, in justifying His position. He
used the expression " the Son of Man." The words, might sound
to Jewish ears merely as a synonym for " man." For Himself,
and possibly for some others, they involved a reference, as
appears later, to the u one like to a son of man " in Daniel's
prophecy of the coming kingdom. They emphasized His relation
to humanity as a whole, in contrast to such narrower titles as
* Son of Abraham " -or M Son of David." They were fitted to
express a wider mission than that of a merely Jewish Messiah:
He stood and spoke for mankind. The controversy was renewed
when a man with a withered hand appeared in the synagogue
on the Sabbath, and the rabbis watched to see whether Jesus
would heal him. For the first time, we read that Jesus was
angry. They were wilfully blind, and tbey would rather not
see good done than see it done in a way that contradicted their
teachings and undermined their influence. After a sharp frraoa*
strance, He healed the man by a mere word. And they went
out to make a compact with the followers of the worldly Herod
to kitt Him, and so to stave off a religious revolution which
might easily have been followed by political trouble.
Up to this point what have we seen? On the stage of Palestine,
an outlying district of the Roman Empire, the home of the
Jewish nation, now subject but still fired with the Rmaptt*
hope of freedom and even of universal domination *sfl§»
under the leadership of a divinely anointed King, a new figure
has appeared. His appearance has been announced by a
reforming prophet, who has summoned the nation to return
to its God, and promised that a stronger than, himself is to
follow. In fulfilment of this promise, Who is it that has come ?
Not a rough prophet in the desert like John, not a leaderstriking
for political freedom, not a pretender aiming at the petty throne
oftheHerods.noteven a great rabbi, building on the patriotic
foundation of the Pharisees who had secured the national lifo
by a new devotion to the ancient law. None of these, but, on the
contrary, an unknown figure from the remote hills of Galilee;
standing on the populous shores of its lake, proclaim** as
IS
t
3f * JESUS CHRIST
"^*^Uori^S <M '^ l&ri ^ lsotollcl - When they
•UlMat hJT^T" Hb question as to the authority of John the
*****t 4 ^^Kil Ur tt w. ? ! fttsed to leU thcm «* wn - But He
•< tb* viiJv.ir* T . more than aMw ered them. The owner
«*, wouldS^ had sent to »*»▼*»* and last of all hb only
Ku*Un4n*L A lh 2f ejection and murder on the wicked
buddtra w5w~i ldded ft rcminder that the stone which the
rtnrVl^iS!! 1 WM » ?*" *"• ^ Divinc «W«. They were
K »21£?S *™«ng Him by fear of the people, t7whom
Joltt dmutl* **! par * bk WM P 1 *^ T ^ therefore sent a
^th a ^f tl0tt ° f Phtri8e " •"■* Herodiam to entrap Him
must eiilwl E? ^L 10 the Roma11 tribute, in answering which He
teU o£n £ ^^ >«*«*» with the people or else lay Him-
Saddi^IL . 5*^ of treason. When they were baffled, the
vain to^l! !? 105 * party ^ chicf P*** 913 ^longed, so"* 111 to
dead- ».£« ** m ^^ * Problem as to the resurrection of the
SSitillSi? that a morc honcst ""H* confessed the truth
•11 thJ ^ C ™« as to the supremacy of love to God and man over
Xt K. Cnficial ^"Wp °f the Temple, and w# told in reply
in« nc was not far from the kingdom of God. Jesus Himself
JwJtZ. * <* u «tion as to the teaching of the scribes which
Wenutied the Messiah with " the Son of David "; and then
rJn^° ttnCed thosc 9CTihts whosc P ride and extortion and
i frth nS 5 r . Wer * Prep*" * *°* them a terrible doom. Before He
•i tt* J* 11 *^* n « v «r to return, one incident gave Him pure
nu 1 IDs OWQ teaching that all must be given for God
was illustrated by the devotion of a poor widow who cast into
the treasury the two tiny coins which were all that she had.
As He passed Out He foretold, in words which corresponded to
the doom of the fig-tree, the utter demolition of the imposing
but profitless Temple; and presently He opened up to four of
His disciples a vision of the future, warning them against false
Christs, bidding them expect great sorrows, national and
personal, declaring that the gospel must be proclaimed to all
the nations, and that after a great tribulation the Son of Man
should appear, " coming with the clouds of heaven." The day
and the hour none knew, neither the angels nor the Son, but
only the Father: it was the duty of all to watch.
We now come to the final scenes. The passover was approach-
ing, and plots were being laid for His destruction. He Himself
rtmtt spoke mysteriously of His burial, when a woman
■»■■■» poured a vase of costly ointment upon His head.
To some this seemed a wasteful act; but He accepted it as
a token of the love which gave all that was in its power, and
He promised that it should never cease to illustrate His Gospel.
Two of the disciples were sent into Jerusalem to prepare the
Passover meal During the meal Jesus declared that He should
be betrayed by one of their number. Later in the evening He
gave them bread and wine, proclaiming that these were His body
and His blood—the tokens of His giving Himself to them, and
Of a new covenant with God through His death. As they with-
drew to the Mount of Olives He foretold their general flight, but
promised that when He was risen He would go before them into
Galilee. Peter protested faithfulness unto death, but was told
that he would deny his Master three times that very night.
Then coming to a place called Gethsemane, He bade the disciples
wait while He should pray; and taking the three who had been
with Him at the Transfiguration He told them to tarry near
Him and to watch. He went forward, and fell on the ground,
praying that " the cup might be taken away " from Him, but
resigning Himself to His Father's will. Presently Judas arrived
with a band of armed men, and greeted his Master with a ki6S—
the signal for His arrest. The disciples fled in panic, after one
Of them had wounded the high priest's servant. Only a nameless
young man tried to follow, but he too fled when hands were laid
upon him. Before the high priest Jesus was charged, among
other accusations, with threatening to destroy the Temple; but
the matter was brought to an issue when He was plainly asked
if He were " the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One." He
answered that He was, and He predicted that they should see
the fulfilment of Daniel's vision of the Son of Man sitting on the
right hand of power. Thereupon He was condemned to death
for manifest blasphemy, and a scene of cruel mockery followed.
Meanwhile Peter in the court below had been sitting with the
servants, and in his aniiety to escape recognition had thrice
declared that he did not know Jesus. Thus the night passed,
and in the morning Jesus was laken to Pilate, for the Jewish
council had no power to execute their decree of death. Pilate's
question, " Art Thou the King of the Jews?" shows the nature
of the accusation which was thought likely to tell with the
Roman governor. He had already in bonds one leader of
revolution, whose hands were stained with blood— a striking
contrast to the calm and silent figure who stood before him. At
this moment a crowd came up to ask the fulfilment of his annual
act of grace, the pardon of a prisoner at the Passover. Pilate,
discerning that it was the envy of the rulers which sought to
destroy an inconvenient rival, offered " the King of the Jews "
as the prisoner to be released. But the chief priests succeeded
in making the people ask for Barabbas and demand the cruci-
fixion of Jesus. Pilate fulfilled his pledge by giving them the
man of their choice, and Jesus, whom he had vainly hoped to
release on a satisfactory pretext, he now condemned to the
shameful punishments of scourging and crucifixion; for the
cross, as Jesus had foreseen, was the inevitable fate of a Jewish
pretender to sovereignty. The 'Roman soldiers mocked " the
King of the Jews " with a purple robe and a crown of thorns.
As they led Him out they forced the cross, which the sufferer
commonly carried, upon the shoulders of one Simon of Cyrene,
whose sons Alexander and Rufus are here mentioned— probably
as being known to St Mark's readers; at any rate, it is interesting
to note that, in writing to the Christians at Rome, St Paul a
few years earlier had sent a greeting to" Rufus and his mother.**
Over the cross, which stood between two others, was the con-
demnatory inscription, '• The King of the Jews." This was the
Roman designation of Him whom the Jewish rulers tauntingly
addressed as " the King of Israel." The same revilers, with a'
deeper truth than they knew, summed up the mystery of His
life and death when they said, " He saved others, Himself He
cannot save."
A great darkness shrouded the scene for three hours, and then,
in His native Aramaic, Jesus cried in the words of toe Psalm,
" My God, My God, why has Thou forsaken Me?" One other
cry He uttered, and the end came, and at that moment the veil
of the Temple was rent from top to bottom— an omen of fearful
import to those who had mocked Him, even on the cross, as the
destroyer of the Temple, who in three days should build it anew.
The disciples of Jesus do not appear as spectators of the end, but
only a group of women who had ministered to His needs in
Galilee, and had followed Him up to Jerusalem. These women
watched His burial, which was performed by a Jewish councillor,
to whom Pilate had granted the body after the centurion had
certified the reality of the unexpectedly early death. The body
was placed in a rock-hewn tomb, and a great stone was rolled
against the entrance. Sunset brought on the Jewish sabbath,
but the next evening the women brought spices to anoint the
body, and at sunrise on the third day they arrived at the tomb,
and saw that the stone was rolled away. They entered and
found a young man in a while robe, who said, " He is risen, He
is not here." and bade them say to His disciples and Peter, " He
goeth before you into Galilee; there ye shall see Him, as He said
unto you," In terror they fled from the tomb, " and they said
nothing to any man, for they feared . . "
So with a broken sentence the narrative ends. The document
is imperfect, owing probably to the accidental loss of its last
leaf. la very early times attempts were made to furnish it with
a fitting close; but neither of the supplements which we find in
manuscripts can be regarded as coming from the original writer.
IX we ask what must, on grounds of literary probability, have
been added before the record was dosed, we may content our-
selves here with saying that some incident must certainly have
been narrated which should have realized the twice-repeated
promise that Jesus would be seen by His disciples in Galilee.
3. Document used by St Matthew and St Luke— \ft pass on now
to compare with this narrative of St Mark another very early
jesus CHRisrr
document which no loofer exists in an independent form, but
which can be partially reconstructed from the portions of it
which have bees embodied in the Gospcb of St Matthew and
St Luke.
When we review St Mark's narrative as a whole we are struck,
first of all, with its directness and simplicity. It moves straight-
forward upon a weU-defin«d path. It shows us the Lord Jesus
entering on the mission predicted by the Baptist without de-
claring Himself to be the Messiah; attracting the multitudes
in Galilee by His healing power and His unbounded sympathy,
and at the same time awakening the envy and suspicion of the
leaders of religion; training a few disciples till they reach the
conviction that He is the Christ, and then, but not till then,
admitting them into the secret of His coming sufferings, and
preparing them for a mission in which they also must sacrifice
themselves; then journeying to Jerusalem to fulfil the destiny
which He foresaw, accepting the responsibility of the Messianic
title, only to be condemned by the religious authorities as a
blasphemer and handed over to the Roman power as a pretender
to the Jcwifh throne. That is the story in Us barest outline.
It is adequate to its presumed purpose of offering to distant
Gentile converts a clear account of their Master's earthly -work,
and of the causes which led to His rejection by His own people
and to His death by Roman crucifixion. The writer makes no
comment on the wonderful story which he tdls. Allusions to
Jewish customs are, indeed, explained as they occur, but apart
from this the narrative appears to be a mere transcript of
remembered facts. The actors are never characterized; their
actions arc simply noted down; there is no praise and no blame.
To this simplicity and directness of narrative we may in large
measure attribute the fact that when two later evangelists
desired to give fuller accounts of our Lord's life they both
made this early book the basis of their work. In those days
there was no sense of unfairness in using up existing materials
in ofder to make a more complete treatise. Accordingly so
much of St Mark's Gospel has been taken over word for word in
the Gospels of St Luke and St Matthew that , if every copy of it
had perished, we could still reconstruct large portions of it by
carefully comparing their narratives. They did not hesitate,
however, to alter St Mark's language where it seemed to them
rough or obscure, for each of them had a distinctive style of his
own, and St Luke wasa literary artist of a high order Moreover,
though they both accepted the general scheme of St Mark's
narrative, each of them was obbged to omit many incidents in
order to find room for other material which was at their disposal,
by which they were able to supplement the deficiencies of the
earlier book. The most conspicuous deficiency was in regard
to our Lord's teaching, of which, as we have seen, St Mark had
given surprisingly little. Here they were happily m a position
to make a very important contribution. .
For side by side with St Mark's Gospel there was current in
the earliest tiroes another account of the doings and sayings of
Jesus Christ. Our knowledge of it to-day is entirely derived
from a comparison of the two later evangelists who embodied
large portions of it, working it in and out of the general scheme
which they derived from St Mark, according as each of them
thought most appropriate. St Luke appears to have taken it
over in sections for the most part without much modification,
but in St Matthew's Gospel its incidents seldom find an indepen-
dent place; the sayings to which they gave rise are often detached
from their context and grouped with sayingsofa similar character
so as to form considerable discourses, or else they are linked on
to sayings which were uttered on other occasions recorded by
St Mark. It is probable that many passages of St Luke's Gospel
which have no parallel in St Matthew were also derived from
this early source; but this is not easily capable of distinct proof;
and, therefore, in order to gain a secure conception of the docu-
ment we must confine ourselves at first to those pans of it which
were borrowed by both writers We shall, however, look to
St Luke in the main as preserving for us the more nearly its
original form.
We proceed now to give aa outline of the content* of this
353
document. To fegfh with, if contained a fuller account of the
leaching of John the Baptist. St Mark tells us only his message
of hope, but here we read the severer language with which he
called men to repentance. We hear his warning of " the coming
wrath ": his mighty Successor will baptize with fire; the fruitless
tree will be cast into the fire; the chaff wiH be separated from the
wheat and burned with unquenchable fire; the claim to be
children of Abraham will not avail, for God can raise up other
children to Abraham, if it be from the stones of the desert.
Next, we have a narrative of the Temptation, of which St Mark
had but recorded the bare fact. It was grounded on the
Divine sonshlp, which we already know was proclaimed at the
Baptism. In a threefold vision Jesus is invited to enter upon
His inheritance at once; to satisfy His own needs, to accept of
earthly dominion, to presume on the Divine protection. The
passage stands almost alone as a revelation of inner conflict in a
Kfe which outwardly was marked by unusual calm.
Not far from the beginning of the document there stood a
remarkable discourse delivered among the hills above the lake.
It opens with a startling reversal of the common esti- TbtSermma
males of happiness and misery. In the fight of the •* **•
coming kingdom it proclaims the blessedness of the Mommt
poor, the hungry, the sad and the maligned; and the wofulness
1 of the rich, the full, the merry and the popular. It goes on to
reverse the ordinary maxims of conduct. Enemies are to be
loved, helped, blessed, prayed for. No blow is to be returned;
every demand, just or unjust, is to be granted: in short, "as
ye desire that men should do to you, do in like manner to them."
Then the motive and the model of this conduct are adduced;
" Love your enemies . . . and ye shall be sons of the Highest;
for He is kind to the thankless and wicked. Be merciful, as
your Father is merciful, and judge not, and ye shall not be"
judged." We note in passing that this is the first introduction
of our Lord's teaching of the fatherhood of God. God is your
Father, He says in effect , you will be His sons if like Him you
will refuse to make distinctions, loving without looking for a
return, sure that m the end love will not be wholly lost. Then
foHow grave warnings —generous towards others, you must be
stria with yourselves, only the good can truly do good, hearers
of these words must be doers also, if they would build on the
rock and not on the sand So, with the parable of the two
builders, the discourse reached its formal dose.
It was followed by the entry of Jesus into Capernaum, where
He was asked to heal the servant of a Roman officer. This
man's unusual faith, based on his soldierly sense of discipline,
surprised the Lord, who declared that It had no equal in Israel
itself. Somewhat later messengers arrived from the imprisoned
Baptist, who asked if Jesus were indeed " the coming One "
of whom he had spoken. Jesus pointed to His acts of healing
thesick, raising the dead and proclaiming good news for the poor;
thereby suggesting to those who could understand that He ful-
filled the ancient prophecy of the Messiah. He then declared
t he greatness of John in exalted terms, adding, however, that the
least in the kingdom of God was John's superior. Then He
complained of the unreasonableness of an age which refused
John as too austere and Himself as too lax and as being " the
friend of publicans and sinners." This narrative clearly pre-
supposes a series of miracles already performed, and also such a
conflict with the Pharisees as we have seen recorded by St Mark.
Presently we find an offer of disdpieship met by the warning
that " the Son of Man " is a homeless wanderer; and then the
stern refusal of a request for leave to perform a father's funeral
rites.
Close upon these incidents follows a special mission of disciples,
introduced by the saying: "The harvest is great, but the
labourers are few." The disciples as they journey other
are to take no provisions, but to throw themselves Sayimgft
on the bounty of their hearers; they are td heal the jMmM *
sick and to proclaim the nearness of the kingdom of God.
The city that rejects them shall have a less lenient judgment
than Sodom; Tyre and Stdon shall be better off than cities
like Choraain and Bethsaida which have seen His miracles;
pssirs CHRIST
35;
deroa
refuse
Bapti
utter*
oftbt
son,
husbi
build
restr.
the »
joint
with
must
•elf
Sadt
vain
deac
ofH
that
now
idea
He «
hype
left 1
satis
was
the t
AsH
thed
but t
His<!
Chris
perso
then
shoul
and t
only 1
We
ins, a
w. «twvo»> **» *"
►»v *» V*W***««t*»
^ % \v *» V» **.*e, wd
v. -k is* ** *»« •*» ***
. »*«* to >*• vMastth to
v**%w> • *«r»*t «*d hearing
* »" % ^ v* *•*• * *•*>**» desired
.%-• ". -. - v . ^ **a* v. ****** Cod as
, * * --^ v » ..o***. a cfce F-athet's name,
v v * . - •• ^ %gK .k« «*• «he*4**y food, for
* * '~ ♦ - * * tv .www* *•*• mpution. It
... • *• , ~ *\ v * k- *«* ■»<* b* iroe. to the
^ * v ~ * \ ,v *>*v »** they *<«* further
\ ..*■ \. >.• ** v •••*■> **** •■d y c sna ^
V K "".#-** C*** ******- " . N» the heavenly
^ v ,*. w * %w ««*«*n*^ father would do for
*" v N ^ * ■**> ^ „* ** * *•»* demon, some said
li*"** * ** *vi**** He accordingly asked
^"Tiw* Vl^ v~**— ** ?* * mDn V « n * Hc
** t &" l J^ *£ ^*~~ <Ml . au J k
&*1 l**"*Z** «V .l** 4 * 41 *? W[rom heaven,
iW 1 ** u\ ** * * * . -»t ;V "«• of Jonah, explaining
rofl* «<*^ ^ •* *** **•■** condemn the present
if^ l * , Li»^ ,fcf ? V«° w MNf «* Sheba, for that which
*>***
****
iW kingdom of Cod was
once might
«••£*-:
To sc
a tok
He pi
Two
Passo
bebet
gavet
and r
of am
drewt
promt
Galilee
that h
Then*
wait w
with H
Hun ar
praying
resignir
with a I
the sign
of them
young r
upon hi
other at
the mat>
if He w
answer*
the fulfil
light ha
^-J* ,** than Jonah and more than
•** : — -hen a Pharisee
hat He did not
kf externals and
/e usurped the
is pronounced
i murderers of
Chronicles, the
ilc, He declared
it of Zachariah
lis the disciples
>poncnts. The
II they be; the
he Son of Man
[ore men. For
birds and the
uty. God will
; His kingdom,
range for the
of Man come;
appointed task.
I to a mustard-
saved shall be
Then, changing
ilrance in vain;
ze them. But
quarters of the
Jacob, and the
:e the prophets,
1 have I desired
Kid beneath her
nil ye shall say,
d. M After this
abbath, with a
parable of the
places from the
which it will be
> remembrance,
ber and mother
be a disciple, nor he who does not bear his cross. Savour-
less salt is fit for nothing. The lost sheep is brought home with
a special joy. " Ye cannot serve God and Mammon/* Scandab
must arise, but woe to him through whom they arise. The Son
of Man will come with the suddenness of lightning, the days of
Noah and the days of Lot will find a parallel in their blind gaiety
and their inevitable disaster. He who seeks to gain his life will
lose it. "One shall be taken, and the other left." "Where
the carcase is, the vultures will gather." Then, lastly, we have
a parable of the servant who failed to employ the money en-
trusted to him; and a promise that the disciples shall sit on
twelve thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. We cannot
say by our present method of determination, how this document
closed; for in the narratives of the Passion and the Resurrection
St Matthew and St Luke only coincide in passages which they
have taken from St Mark.
Now that we have reconstructed in outline this early account
of the Lord Jesus, so far as it has been used by both the later
evangelists, we may attempt to compare the picture CnmpvHxm
which it presents to us with that which was offered ***
by St Mark. But in doing so we must remember * *****
that we know it only in fragments. There can be little doubt
that much more of it is embedded in St Luke's Gospel, and
something more also in St Matthew's; but in order to stand on
firm ground we have considered thus far only those portions
which both of these writers elected to use in composing
their later narratives. To go beyond this is a work of delicate
discrimination. It can only be effected by a close examination
of the style and language of the document, which may enable us
in some instances to identify with comparative security certain
passages which are found in St Luke, but which St Matthew did
not regard as suitable for his purpose. Among these we may
venture, quite tentatively, to mention the sermon at Nazareth
which opened with a passage from the Book of Isaiah, the raising
of the widow's son at Nain, and the parable of the good Samari-
tan. These are found in St Luke, but not in St Matthew On
the other hand, it is not improbable that the wonderful words
which begin, •* Come unto Me all ye that labour," were drawn
by St Matthew from the same document, though they are not
recorded by St Luke. But here we have entered upon a region
of less certainty, in which critical scholarship has stiUmuchtodo;
and these passages are mentioned here only as a reminder that
the document must have contained more than what St Matthew
and St Luke each independently determined to borrow from it.
Looking, then, at the portions which we have indicated as having
this two-fold testimony, we see that in their fragmentary con-
dition we cannot trace the clear historical development which
was so conspicuous a feature of St Mark's Gospel, yet we need
not conclude that in its complete form it failed to present an
orderly narrative. Next, we see that wherever we are able to
observe its method of relating an incident, as in the case of the
healing of the centurion's servant, we have the same charac-
teristics of brevity and simplicity which we admired in St Mark.
No comment is made by the narrator; he tells his tale in the
fewest words and passes on. Again, we note that it supplies
just what we feel we most need when we have reached the end
of St Mark's story, a fuller account of the teaching which Jesus
gave to His disciples and to the people at large. And we see
that the substance of that teaching is in complete harmony
with the scattered hints that we found in St Mark. If the father-
hood of God stands out clearly, we may remember a passage of
St Mark also which speaks of " the Heavenly Father " as for-
giving those who forgive. If prayer is encouraged, we may also
remember that the same passage of St Mark records the saying:
" All things whatsoever ye pray for and ask, believe that ye
have received them and ye shall have them." If m one myste-
rious passage Jesus speaks of ** the Father " and " the Son "—
terms with which the Gospel of St John has made us familiar
—St Mark also in one passage uses the same impressive terms
— " the Son " and " the Father." There are, of course, many
other parallels with St Mark, and at some points the two docu-
ments seem to overlap and to relate the same incidents in
JESUS XHEJST
somewhat different forms. There is 4ht. saint use of - parables
from nature, the simc InasivencsS' of speech and employment of
paradox, the urn demand to sacrifice all to Hem and for His
cause, the same importunate claim made by Him on the human
SMl. ; .. .
But the contrast between the two writers is even more impor-
tant for our purpose. No one can read tbroagh the passages lo
which we have pointed without feeding the solemn
™ wlnta* *******&* of tfcegntat Teacher, a sternness which caa
Indeed be traced here and there in Si Mark, bat which
does not give- Us tone to the whole of his picture. Here
we see Christ standing forth in solitary grandeur, looking
with the eyes of another world on a society which is buacfly
hastening' to its dissolution, it may fee that if this document
had come' down lo us in Us entirety, we should have gathered
from it an exaggerated idea of the severity of our Lord's Charac-
ter* Certain it is that as wo read over these fragments we are
somewhat startled by the predominance of the element of warn-
ing, and by the assertion of rales of •conduct which seem almost
inconsistent with a normal condition, of settled social life. The
warning to the nation sounded by the Baptist, that God could
raise wp a new family ior Abraham, is heard again and again m
oar Lord's teaching; Gentile faith puts Israel to shame. The
sons of the kingdom will be left outside, while strangers feast
with Abraham. Capernaum shall go to perdition, Jerusalem
ihaU be a desolate ruin. The doom et the nation is pronounced;
its fate is imminent; there is no ray of hope for the existing con-
stitution i of religion and society. As to individuals ^within the
nation, the despised pubttcans and sinriers will find Cod's favour
before the self-satisfied representatives of the national religion.
In soch a condition of affairs it is hardly surprising to find that
she great and stem Teacher congratulates the poor and has
wofhing 1 but pity for the rich; that He has no interest at all m
comfort oi p w pei t y. If a man asks you fof anything, grvcU-fcim;
if he takes it without asking, do not seek to recover it. Nothing
material is worth a thought; anxiety is folly, your Father, who
feeds His birds and clothes His flowers, will feed and clothe you.
Rise to the height of your sonsbip to God; love your enemies even
as God loves His, and if they kill you, God will car* for you still;
lear them not, fear only Him who loves you siL
Here is a new philosophy of 'life, offering solid consolation
amid the rum of a world. We) have no idea who the, disciple
may have been who thus seized upon the sadder elements of
the teaching of Jesus; but we may well think oi him as one of
those who were living in Palestine in the dark and threatening
years of internecine strife, when the Roman eagles were gathering
round their prey, and the first thunder was muttering of the
storm which was to leave Jennalenra heap of stones. At such a
moment the warnings of our Lord. would claim a targe place In a
record of His teaching, and the strange comfort which He had
offered would be the only hope tablta it would seem possible to
entertain. > '
•■ 4. Atditions by tkcCespd accertfng «# St MaUkcw.-~Vtc have
now examined in turn the two earliest pictures which have been
o-rfto, pf«***v** to us of the Hfc< of Jesus Chrfcr. The first
2ij£2vj£ portrays Him chiefly by a record of His actions,
and illustrates His- strength, His sympathy, and His
freedom from conventional restraints. It shows the disturbing
forces of these characteristics, which aroused theenvy and appre-
hension of the leaders of religion. The first bright days of wel-
come and popularity are soon clouded: the storm begins to lower.
More and more the Master devotes Himself lo the little drele
of Ws disciples, who are taught that they, as well as He, can only
triumph through defeat, succeed by failure, and find their life in
giving it away. At length, In fear of religious innovations and
pretending that He is a political usurper, the Jews deliver Him
up to die on a Roman cross. The last page of the story is torn
away,- just at the point when ft has been declared that He is
alive again and about to show Himself to rtfs disciples. The;
second picture has a somewhat different tone. It >5 mainly a
record of teaching, and the* teaching Is for the most part stern
and paradoxical. It might be described as revolutionary. It is
goodtidihgs to the poor: it sets nostorconproperty and material
comfort: it pities the wealthy and congratulates the needy. It
reverses ordinary judgments and conventional maxima of con-
duct. 1 1 proclaims the downfall of instil at ions, and compares the
present blind security to the days of Noah and of Lot : a few only
shall escape the coming overthrow. Yet even in this sterner
setting the figure portrayed is unmistakably the same. There b
the same strength, the same tender sympathy, the same freedom
scorn convention .*• there is the same promise to fulfil the highest
hopes, the same surrender of life, and the same imperious demand
on the lives of others. ~ No* tikoughfiul man who examines and
compares these pictures can doubt that they arc genuine historical
portraits of a figure wholly different from any which had hitherto
appeared on the world's stage. They are beyond the power
of human invention. They axe drawn with a simplicity which is
their own guarantee. If we had t hese, and these only, we should
have an adequate explanation of the beginnings of Christianity.
There would still be a great gap to be filled before we reached the
earliest letters of St Paul; but yet we should know what the
Apostle meant when he wrote to "the Church of thcThcssalo-
ruaas in God the Father and the Lord Jesus Christ ," and reminded
them how they had " turned from idols to serve the Irving and
true God; and to waft for His Sort from heaven, whom He raised
from the dead, even Jesus who ddivercth us from the wrath to
come."
If these two narratives served the first needs of- Christian
believers, it is easy to see that they would presently stimulate
further activity in the same direction. For, to begin with, they
were obviously incomplete; many incidents and teachings known
to the earliest disciples found no -place in them; and they con-
tained no account of the life of Jesus Christ before His public
ministry, no record of His pedigree, His birth or His childhood.
Secondly, their form left much to be desired; for one of them at
least was rude m style, sometimes needlessly repetitive and some-
times brief to obscurity. Moreover the very fact that there were
two challenged a new and combined work which perhaps should
supersede both.
Accordingly, some years after the fail of Jerusalem— we
cannot tell the exact date or the author's name— the book
which- we call the Gospei' according to St Matthew ra»o~Mp*#
was written to give the Palestinian Christiana a. oi St
full account of Jesus Christ, which should present *****■"•.
Him as the promised Messiah, fulfilling the ancient Hebrew
prophecies, proclaiming the kingdom of heaven, and founding
the Christian society. The writer takes St Mark as his
basis, but he incorporates into the story large portions: of
the teaching which he has found in the other document. He
groups his materials with small regard to chronological order;
and he fashions out. of the many scattered sayings of our Lord
continuous discourses, everywhere bringing like to like, with
considerable literary art. A wide lumwledgeof the Old Testament
supplies him with a text to illustrate one incident after another;
and so deeply is he impressed with the correspondence between
the life of Christ and the words of ancient prophecy, that he does
hot hesitate to Introduce his quotations by jthe formula " that it
might be fulfilled which was spoken by the prophet."
His Hebrew instinct leads him to begin with a table of genea-
logy, artificially constructed in gsoops-of fourteen generations—
from Abraham to David, from David to the Captivity, and from
the Captivity to the Christ. The royal descent of the Messiah is
thus declared, and from the outset His figure is set against the
background of the Old Testarhenu He then proceeds to show
than, though His lineage is traced through Joseph'* ancestors,
He was but the adopted son of Joseph, and he tells the story of
the Virgin-birth. The coming of the Child draws Eastern sages
to his cradle and fills the court of -Herod with suspicious fears.
The cruel tyrant kills the babes of Bethlehem, but the Child has
been withdrawn by a secret light into Egypt , whence he presently
returns to the family home at Nazareth in Galilee. AH this is
necessarily fresh materioJ, 4©r the other records had dealt only
wrth the period of pibrJoainistry. We have no knowledge of the
^source from which It was drawn. From to* historical standpoint
35*
JESUS CHRIST
.1
i *
fJ
t:
y
*«l»e awxt be mnahil by the e*hn**t which h fanned of
*!L writer's general irentwoiehmess ** * narrator, and by the
*!_r^»t to which the inckstnts receive costurmation from other
^rtU H* centre! feet of iKe Ylrg»4*th % as we shall
**Xrt*«tly *•♦ *» **■• n****** * inm M***** «riy **ftw-
■Trji next addition whkh Si Matthew's Gospel makes to oar
jjrttito* i> of a different kind. Il consists of various important
' saying* of our Lord, whkh are combined with dis-
^^"~~ course* found in the second document and ere worked
j£jmT-~ up into the treat utterance which we call the Sermon
lb« htoaat Such grouping of materials is a feature of this
*^pel t and was possibly designed for purposes of public in-
•trv^tion . *o that continuous passages might be read aloud in the
^rrvnrs"
fcoow
of the Church* just as passages from the Old Testament
T^rV read in the Jewish synagogues. This motive would account
Xoi oatv lv>t the arrangement of the material, but also for certain
^Kai^rt* »• the language whkh seem intended to remove difficul- .
t kflk *** *° interpret what is ambiguous or obscure. An example
ll *ux h interpret***** meets us at the outset. The startling saying,
»• |Mrt«*t are ye poor." lollowcd by the woe pronounced upon the
rt«K nught ***» hke a condemnation of the very principle of
rtrv*w*tv; and* hen I he Christian Church had come tobeorgan-
T^l a% a society containing rich and poor, the heart of the saying
^^ let* to he more truly and clearly etpressed in the words,
•• Hk***^ •*• lne P°° r m spirit." Th>» interpretative process
-tAV be traced again and again in this Gospel, whkh frequently
!«<ro* to ttffect the definite tradition of a settled Church.
Apart from the important parables of the tares, the pearl and
tfc« net, the writer adds little to his sources until we come to the
rtniaiUbk passage in ch. xvi., in which Peter the Rock is
glared to be the foundation of the future Church, and is en-
trusted with the keys of the kingdom of heaven. The function
^1 »* binding and loosing," here assigned to him, is in identi-
fy! itrm* assigned to the disciples generally in a passage in
tli &v4ti. in which for the second time we meet with the word
** Church "~« word not fourid elsewhere in the Gospels. There
b no tufttiient ground for denying that these sayings were uttered
fcy our Lofd, but the fact that they were now first placed upon
t«cord harmonises with what has been said already as to the
pure settled condition of the Christian society which this Gospel
ai»l**i* to reflect.
The pa rabies of the two debtors, the labourers m the vineyard,
{he two sons, the ten virgins, the sheep and goats, are recorded
only by this evangelist. But by way of incident he has almost
nothing to add till we come to the closing scenes. The earth-
quake at the moment of our Lord's death and the subsequent
apt**rauce of departed saints are strange traditions unattested
by other writers. The same is to be said of the soldiers placed to
guard the tomb, and of the story that they had been bribed to
tay that the sacred body had been stolen while they slept. Ob
the other hand, the appearance of the risen Christ to the women
may have been taken from the lost pages of St Mark, being the
ttouel to the narrative which is broken off abruptly in this Gospel :
i»d u fc not improbable that St Mark's Gospel was the source
ol the great commission to preach and baptize with which
$1 Matthew closes, though the wording of it has probably
tr+a modiAed in accordance with a settled tradition.
N» work whkh the writer of this Gospel thus performed
teveived the immediate sanction of a wide acceptance, It met
a <Jw***e spirit ual need. It presented the Gospel in a suitable
tM«a tot the education of the Church; and H confirmed its truth
^ sv****** appeals to the Old Testament scriptures, thus mant-
***** «t wttmate relation with the past as the outcome cjf a
a^4 im«v*ui*m and as the fulfilment of a Divine purpose. No
^•^ ***lre«uentrY quoted by the early post -apoatolk writers:
»*« tut tWwed a greater intuence upon Christianity, and
„*-*^«m!> **» the history of the world.
W **» *W purely historical point of view its evidential
**m *>** va^aaantaathatof St Mark. lu facta for the most
,»* ** ^**t> ***** e*te from the earlier evangelist, and the
^ M . fc , r ^4 *t*«Mtabr prefer the primarv •«»• Us true
«_._* .*•.* *aeMtaut*on of the gr <ier
portraits to which it has so little to add* in its recognition of the
relation of Christ to the whole purpose of God as revealed in the
Old Testament* end in its interpretation of the Gospel message
in its bearing on the living Church of the primitive days.
$. Additions by St Luke.— While the needs of Jewish be-
lievers were amply met by St Matthew's Gospel, a like service
was rendered to Gentile converts by a very different writer.
St Luke was a physician who bad accompanied St Paul on his
missionary journeys. He undertook a history of the beginnings
of Christianity, two volumes of which have come down to us,
entitled the Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles. His Gospel.
like St Matthew's, is founded on St Mack, with the incorporation
of large portions of the second document of which we have
spoken above. But the way in which the two writers have used
the same materials is strikingly different. In St Matthew's
Gospel the original sources are frequently blended: the incidents
of St Mark are rearranged and often grouped afresh according
to subject matter: harsh and ambiguous sentences of both
documents are toned down or interpreted. St Luke, on the
contrary, chooses between parallel stories of bis two sources,
preferring neither to duplicate nor to combine: be incorporates
St Mark in continuous sections, following him alone for * time,
then leaving him entirely, and then returning to introduce a new
block of his narrative. He modifies St Mark's style very freely*
but he makes less change in the recorded words of our Lord, and
he adheres more closely U> the original language of the second
document.
In his first two chapters he gives an account of the birth and
childhood of St John the Baptist and of our Lord Himself,
gathered perhaps directly from the traditions of the Holy Family,
and written in dose imitation of the sacred stories of the OM
Testament which were familiar to him in their Greek translation.
The whole series of incidents differ from that whkh we find an
St Matthew's Gospel, but there is no direct variance b etween
them. The t wo aajratives are in agrecmetn as to the central fact
of the Virgin-birth. St Luke gives a table of genealogy which is
irreconcilable with the artificial table of St Matthew's Gospel,
and whkh traces our Lord's ancestry up to Adam, " whkh wan
the son of God."
The opening scene of the Galilean ministry ia the discourse at
Nazareth, in which our Lord claims to fulfil Isaiah's prophecy
of the proclamation of good tsdmgs to the poor. The same
prophecy is alluded to in His reply to the Baptist's messengers
which is incorporated subsequently from the second document.
The scene ends with the rejection of Christ by His own townsfolk,
as in the parallel story of St Mark which St Luke does not give.
It is probable that St Luke found this narrative in the second
document, and chose it after bis manner in preference to the leas
instructive story in St Mark. He similarly omits the Marcan
account of the call of the fishermen, substituting the story of the
miraculous draught. After that he follows St Mark alone, until
he introduces after the call of the twelve apostles the sermon
whkh begins with the beatitudes and woe* This ia from the
second document, which- he continues to use, and that without
interruption (if we may venture to assign to k the raising of the
widow's son at Nain and the anointing by the sinful woman &
the Pharisee's house), until he returns to- incorporate another
section from St Mark,
This in turn is followed by the most chnrectcristk section of
his Gospel (it. 51-iviii. 14), a long series of incidents wholly
independent of St Mark, and introduced as belonging c
to the period of the final journey from Galilee toawkSwanav
Jerusalem. Much of this material is demonstrably JJ*JfW
derived. from the second document; and it is quite °—* tL
possible that the whole of it may come from that source.
There are special reasons for thinking so in regard- to certain
passage* as for example the mission of the seventy disciples
and the parable of the good Samaritan, although they axe not
contained in St Matthew's Gospel.
For the closing scenes at Jerusalem St Luke nukes considerable
additions to St Mark's narrative: he gives a different account of
the Last Supper, and bo adda the trial before Herc«d and the
JESUS iCHRIST
incident of the penitent robber. He tppetrt to have had no
information as to the appearance of the risen Lord in Galilee,
gad he accordingly omits frotn his reproduction of St Mark's*
narrative the twice-repeated promise of a meeting with the
disciple* there. He supplies, however, an account of the
appearance to the two disciple* at Emmaus and to the whole
body of the apostle* in Jerusalem.
St Luke's use of his two main sources has preserved the
characteristic* of both of them. The sternness of certain passages,
which has led some critks to imagine that be was an Eblonite,
is mainly, if not entirety, due to his faithful reproduction of the
language of the second document. The key-note of his Gospel
is universality: the mission of the Christ embraces the poor, the
weak, the despised, the hereticand the sinful: it is good tidings
to all mankind. He tells of the devotion of Mary and Martha,
and of the band of women who ministered to our Lord's needs
and followed Him to Jerusalem: he tells also of His kindness to <
snore than one sinful woman, Zacchaeus the publican and the
grateful Samaritan leper further illustrate this characteristic.
Writing as he does for Gentile believers be omits many details
which from their strongly Jewish 'cast might be unintelligible or
msmtereeting. He also modifies the harshness of St Mark's
style, andfrequently recasts his language in reference to diseases.
From an historical point of view his Gospel is of high value.
The proved accuracy of detail ebewhere r as in his narration of
events which he witnessed in company with St Paul, enhances
oar general estimation of his work. A trustworthy observer and a
literary artist, the one non- Jewish evangelist has given us—to use
M. Renan's words—" the most beautiful book in toe world."
& Additim* by St JoMm.-Wo come lastly to consider what
addition to our knowledge of Christ's life and work is made by
the Fourth Gospel. St Mark's narrative of our Lord's ministry
and passion is so simple and straightforward that it satisfies our
historic*! sense. We trace a iiatoml development In it: we seem
to see why with such power and such sympathy He necessarily
came into conflict with the religious leaders of the people,
who were jealous of the influence which He gained and were scan-
dalized by His refusal to be hindered in His mission of mercy
by rules and conventions to which they attached the highest
importance. Tbe iasiieafoughtoutra Galilee, and whenour Lord
finally Journeys to Jerusalem He knows that He goes there to
die. The story is so plain and convincing in itself that it gives
at first sight an impression Of completeness. This impression
is confirmed by the Gospels of St Matthew and St Luke, which
though they add much fresh material' do not disturb the general
scheme presented by St Mark. But on reflection we are led to
question the sufficiency of the account terns offered to us. Is it
probable, we ask, that our Lord should have neglected the sacred
custom in accordance with, which the pious Jew visited Jerusalem
several times each year for the observance of the divinely
appointed feasts? It is true that St Mark does not break his
narrative of the Galilean ministry to record such visits: but this
does not prove that such visits were not made. Again, is it
probable that He should have so far neglected Jerusalem as to
give it no opportunity of seeing Hhn and hearing His message
until the last week of His Hf e ? If the writers of the other two
Gospels had no means at their disposal for enlarging the narrow
framework of St Mark's narrative by recording definite visits to
Jerusalem, at least they preserve to us. words from the second
document which seem to imply such visits:, for bow else are we
to explain the pathetic complaint, "Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how
often would I have gathered thee, as a hen gatbereth her chickens
under her wings; but ye would not"?
. St John's .Gospel meets our questionings by a wholly new
series of incidents and by an account of a ministry which is con-
cerned mainly not with Galileans but with Judaeans, and which
centres in Jerusalem. It is carried on to a large extent con-
currently with the Galilean ministry : it is not continuous, but is
taken up from feast to feast as our Lord visits the sacred city
at the times of its greatest religious activity. It differs in
character from the Galilean ministry: for among the simple,
unsophisticated folk of Galilee Jesus presents Himself a* a healer
31*
and helper and teacher, keeping In the background as far as
possible His claim to be the Messiah 1 ; whereas in Jerusalem Hb
authority is challenged at His first appearance, the element of
controversy is never absent, IBs relation to God is from the out*
set the vital issue, land consequently His Divine claim is of neces-
sity made explicit. Time after time His life is threatened before
the feast is ended, and when the last passover has come we can
well understand, what was not made sufficiently dear in the
brief Marean narrative, why Jerusalem proved so fatally hostile
to IBs Messianic claim.
The Fourth Gospel thus offers us a most important supplement'
to the limited sketch of our Lord's life which we find in the
Synoptic Gospels. Yet this was not the purpose which TiMParpoM*
led to its composition. That purpose is plainly stated •/»* &*'«
by the author himself: «' These things have' been ***
written that ye may believe that Jesus Christ is the Son of
God, And that betieving ye may have life in His name." His
avowed aim is, not to write history, but to produce conviction.
He desires to interpret tbe coming of Jesus Christ into the world,
to declare whence and why He came, and to explain how His
coming, as light in the midst of darkness, brought a crisis into
tbelrves of all with whom He came in contact. The issue of this
-crisis m His rejection by the Jews at Jerusalem is the mam theme
of the book.
St John's prologue prepares us to find that be is not writing
for persons who require a succinct narrative of facts, but for
those who having such already in familiar use are asking deep
questions as to our Lord's mission. It goes back far behind
hitman birth or fines of ancestry. II begins, like the sacred story
Of creation, " In the beginning." The Book of Genesis had told
how aH things were called into existence by a Divine utterance?
" God said, Let there be . . . and there was." The creative
Word had been long personified by Jewish thought, especially
in connexion with the prophets to whom " the Word of the Lord "
came. u In the beginning," then, St John tells us, the Word
was— was with God—yea, was God. He' was the medium' of
creation, the source of its light and its life — especially of that
higher life which finds its manifestation In men. So He was in
the world, and the world was made by Him, and yet the world
knew Him not. At length He came, came to the home which
had been prepared for Him, but His own people rejected Him.
But such as did receive Him found a new bjrth, beyond their
birth of flesh and blood: they became children of God, werv
born of God. In order thus to manifest Himself He had under-
gone a human birth : " the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among
us, and we beheld His glory " — the glory, as the evangelist hat
learned to see, of the Father's only-begotten Son, who baa
come Into the world to reveal to men that God whom " no man
hath ever seem" In these opening words we are invited to study
the life of Christ from a new point of view, to observe His self*
manifestation and its issue. The evangelist looks back across
a period of half a century, and writes of Christ not merely as he*
saw Him fn those far-off days, but as he has come by long expert
ence to think and speak of Hhn. The past is now filled with a
glory which could not be so fully perceived at the time, but
which, as St John .tells, it was the function of the Holy Spirit to-
reveal to Christ's disciples.
The first name which occurs in this Gospel is that of John the
Baptist. He is even introduced into the prologue which sketches
in general terms the manifestation of tbe Divine Word: " There
was a man sent from God, whose name was John: be came for
witness, to witness to the Light, 'that through him all might
believe.". This witness of John holds a position of high impor-
tance In this GospeL His mission is described as running on for
a while concurrently with that of our Lord, whereas in the other
Gospels we have no record of our Lord's work until John is cast
into prison. It is among the disciples of the Baptist on the
banks of the Jordan that Jesus finds His first disciples. The
Baptist has pointed Him out to them m striking language, which
recalls at once tbe symbolic ritual of the law and the spiritual
lessons of the prophets: " Behold, the Lamb of God, which taketb
away the sin of the world." '
15*
JET
Soon afterwards at Caoa of Galilee Jcsuagives His first " sign,"
a* the evangelist calls it, in the change of water into wine to
supply the deficiency *t a marriage (east. This scene has all the
happy brightness of the early Galflrun ministry which St Mark
records, It stands in sharp contrast with the subsequent appear-
ance of Jesus in Jerusalem at the Passover, when His first act is
^o drive the traders from the Temple courts. In this He seems
to be carrying the Baptist's stern mission of purification from the
desert into the heart of the sacred city, and so fulfilling, perhaps
consciously, the solemn prophecy of Malachi which opens with
the words: " Behold, I will send My Messenger, and He shall
prepare the way before Me; and the Lord whom ye seek shall
suddenly come to His Temple " (MaL iii. 1-5). This significant
action provokes a challenge of His authority, which is answered
by a mysterious saying, not understood at the time, but interpreted '
afterwards as referring to the Resurrection. After this our Lord
was visited secretly by a Pharisee named Nicodemus, whose
advances were severely met by the words, " Except a man be
born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God." When Nico-
demut objected that this was to demand a physical impossibility,
he was answered that the new birth was " of water and spirit " —
words which doubtless contained a reference to the mission of the
Baptist and to his prophecy of One who should baptise with the
Holy Spirit. Towards the end of this conversation the evangelist
passes imperceptibly from reporting the words of the Lord into
an interpretation or amplification of them, and in language which
recalls the prologue be unfolds the meaning of Christ's mission
and indicates the crisis of self-judgment which necessarily ac-
companies the manifestation of the Light to each individual
When he resumes his narrative the Lord has left Jerusalem, and
is found baptising disciples, in even greater numbers than the
Baptist himself. Though Jesus did not personally perform the
rite, it is plain once again that in this early period He closely
Hnked His own. mission with that of John the Baptist. When
men hinted at a rivalry between them, John plainly declared
« He must increase, and J must decrease": and the reply of Jesus
was to leave Judaea for Galilee.
Away from the atmosphere of contention we find Him mani-
lesting the same broad sympathy and freedom from convention
which we have acted in the other Gospels, especially in that of
$t Luke. He converses with a woman, with a woman moreover
who is a Samaritan, and who is of unchaste life. He offers her
the " living water " which shall supply all her needs: she readily
accepts Him as the expected Messiah, and He receives a welcome
from the Samaritans. He passes on to Galilee, where also He
» welcomed, and where He performs His second " sign," healing
the son of one of Herod's courtiers.
But St John's interest does not lie in Galilee, and he soon brings
our Lord back to Jerusalem on the occasion of a feast. The
rs*ju*> ^Baptist's work is now ended; and, though Jesus still
svy* appeals to the testimony of John, the new conflict
>**•**•• jrftQ t h c Jewish authorities shews that He * moving
now on His own independent and characteristic lines. In
cleansing the Temple He had given offence by what might seem
an excess of rigour: now, by healing a sick man and bidding htm
carry his bed on the Sabbath, He offended by His laxity. He
answered His accusers by the brief but pregnant sentence: " My
Fsthei worketh even until now, and I work." They at once
understood that He thus claimed a unique relation to God, and
their antagonism became the more intense: " the Jews therefore
sought the more to kill Him, because He had not only broken the
Sabbath, but bad also said that God was His own Father, making
Himself equal to God." His first reply is then expanded to
cover the whole region of life. The Son beholds the Father at
work, and works concurrently, doing nothing of Himself. He
does the Father's will. The very principle of life is en trusted to
Him. He quickens, and He judges. As Son of Man He judges
man.
The next incident is the feeding of the fivs thousand, which
belongs to the Galilean ministry and is recorded by the three
other evangelist*. St John's purpose in introducing it is not his-
torical but didactic It is made the occasion of instruction as to
the heavenly- feed, the flesh and bland of Bum who ome down
from heaven. XbU teaching leads to a conflict wish certain
Judaeans who seem to have come from Jerusalem, and it p so wa
a severe test even to the faith of d i soipke.
The feast of tabernacles brings freak disputes in Jerusalem,
and an attempt is made to arrest Jesus, Adttna* of indignation
is reached when a blind man is healed at the pool oiSilotai on the
sabbath day. At the feast of the. dedication a fresh effort at
arrest was made, and Jesus then withdrew beyond the Jordan.
Here He learned of the sickness of L e tups , and psesently He
returned and came to Bethany to cats* him from the dead. The
excitement produced by this miracle led to yet another attack*
destined this time to be successful, on the life of Jews* The
Passover was at hand, and the last supper of our Lord with His
disciples an the evening before the Passover lamb was killed is
made the occasion of the most inspiring consolations. Our Lord
interprets His relation to the disciples by tjie figure of a tme and
its branches— He is the whole of which they are the parts; Ho
promises the mission of the Holy Spirit to co nti n ue Hit work
in the world; and He solemnly commends to His Father the dis-
ciples whom He is about to leave.
The account of the trial and the crucifixion differs considerably
from the accounts given in the other Gospel*. St John's nana*
tives are in large part personal memories, and in more than one
incident he himself figures as the unnamed disciple " whom Jesus
loved." In the Resurrection scenes be also gives incidents in
which be has played a part; and the appearances of the risen
Lord are not confined either to Jerusalem or to Galilee, but occur
in both localities.
If we ask what is the special contribution to history, apart
from theology, which St John's Gospel make*, the answer would
seem to be this— that beside the Galilean ministry seponed by
St Mark there was a ministry to '* Jews " (Judaeans) in Jeru-
salem, not continuous, but occasional, taken up from time to time
as the great feasts came round; that its teaching was widely
different from that which was given to Galileans, and that the
situation created was wholly unlike that which arose out of the
Galilean ministry. The Galilean ministry opens with enthu-
siasm, ripening into a popularity which even endangers a satis-
factory result. Where opposition manifests itself, it is not
native opposition, but comes' from religious t e ach er s who are
parts of a system which centres in Jerusalem, and who are some-
times expressly noted as having come from Jerusalem. The
Jerusalem ministry on the contrary is never welcomed with
enthusiasm. It has to do with those who challenge it from the
first. There is no atmosphere of simplicity and trarhahlmrss
which rejoice* in the manifestation of power and sympathy and
liberty. It is a witness delivered to a hostile audience, whether
they will hear or no. Ultimate issues are quickly raised: keen
critics see at once the chums which underlie deeds and words,
and the claims in consequence become explicit: the relation of
the teacher to God Himself is the vital interest. The conflict
which thus arose explains what St Mark's succinct narrative had
left unexplained— the fatal hostility of Jerusalem. It may have
been a part of St John's purpose to give this explanation, and to
make other supplements or corrections where earner narratives
appeared to him incomplete or misleading. But be says nothing
to indicate this, while on the other hand he distinctly proclaims
that his purposeis to produce and confirm convriction of the divine
chums of Jesus Christ.
Forbibtiography see Bible ;Ch wstiantty ; Church History :and
the articles on the separate Gospels. (J. A. R.)
JET (Fr. jais, Ger. Cogat), a substance which seems to be
a peculiar kind of hgnite or anthracite; often cut and polished
for ornaments. The word *' jet " probably comes, through O. Fr.
/«M from the classical gagotes, a word which was derived,
according to Pliny, from Gagas, in Lycia, where jet, or a stmhar
snostance, was originally found. Jet was used in Britain la
prehistoric times; many round barrows of the Bronze age have
yielded jet beads, buttons, rings, armlets and other ornament*.
The abundance of jet in Britain is alluded to by Cains Julius
JETHRO— JETT*
Solinus (fl. 3rd century) aod jet ornaments are found with Roman
relics in Britain. Probably the supply was obtained from the
coast of Yorkshire, especially near Whitby, where nodules of jet
were formerly picked up on the shore. Caedmon refers to this
jet, and at a later date it was used for rotary beads by the monks
of Whitby Abbey.
The Whitby jet occurs in irregular masses, ilar
shape, embedded in hard shales (mown as jet- xk
aeries belongs to that division of the Upper Li led
the aone of Ammonites serpentinm. Microscc of
jet occasionally reveals the structure of conii ich
A. C. Seward has shown to be arancarian. 1 of
wood were brought down by a river, and drifte ere
becoming water-logged they sank, and became in
a deposit of fine mud, which eventually hardens der
pressure, perhaps assisted by heat, and with c the
wood suffered a peculiar kind of decomposition ied
by the presence of salt water, as suggested by 1 on.
Scales of fish and other fossils of the let-rock an eg-
nated with bituminous products, which may 1 nal
tissues. Drops of liquid bitumen occur in tl me
fossils, whilst inflammable gas is not uncommon igs,
and petroleum may be detected by its smell. 1 ten
associated with the jet.
Formerly sufficient jet was found in loose pieces on the shore, set
free by the disintegration of the cliffs, or washed up from a submarine
source. When this supply became insufficient, the rock was attacked
by the jet-workers; ultimately the workings took the form of true
mines, levels being driven into the shales not only at their outcrop
in the cliffs but in some of the inland dales of the Yorkshire moor-
lands, such as Eskdale. The best jet has a uniform black colour,
and is hard, compact and homogeneous in texture, breaking with a
coochoidal fracture. It must be tough enough to be readily carved
or turned on the lathe, and sufficiently compact in texture to receive
a high polish. The final polish was formerly given by means of
rouge, which produces a beautiful velvety surface, but rotten-stone
and lampblack are often employed instead. The softer kinds, not
capable of being freely worked, are known as bastard jet. A soft
jet is obtained from the estuarine series of the Lower Oolites of
Yorkshire.
Much jet is imported from S
lustrous than true Whitby ;
Villaviciosa, in the province
especially in the department ol
the Lias of Wflrttcmberg, and
utilization. In the United St
bot is* not systematically t
however, has been occasional!;
manner Scotch cannd coal hi
Imitations of iet, or substitute
fleas, black obsidian and Mac
is sometimes improperly term*
though in less degree, it becora
, See P. E. Spielmann, " On
(Dec 14. ioo6>; C Fox-Str
Britain, Vol. I. Yorkshire," M
" Whitby Jet and its Manufai
xxii. p. 80).
JETHRO (or Jethek, Exod. iv. 18) , the priest of Midian, in the
Bible, whose daughter Zipporah became the wife of Moses. He is
known as Hobab the son of Reuel the Kenite (Num. z. 29; Judg.
Iv. 1 1 ), and once as Reuel (Exod. if. 1 8) ; and if Zipporah is the wife
of Moses referred to in Num. xii. 1, the family could be regarded
as Cushite (see Cush). Jethro was the priest of Yahwch, and
resided at the sacred mountain where the deity commissioned
Moses to deliver the Israelites from Egypt, Subsequently
Jethro came to Moses (probably at Kadesh), a great sacrificial
feast was held, and the priest instructed Moses in legislative
procedure; Exod. xviii. 27 (sec Exodus) and Num. x. 30 imply
that the scene was not Sinai. Jethro was invited to accompany
the people into the promised land, and later, we find his clan
settling in the south of Judah (Judg. i. 16); see Kenites. The
traditions agree in representing the kin of Moses as related to
the mixed tribes of the south of Palestine (see Edom) and in
ascribing to the family an important share in the early develop-
ment of the worship of Yahweh. Cheyne suggests that the
names of Hobab and of Jonadab the father of the Rechabite?
(q.v .) wer e originally identical (Ency. Bib. ii. col. aioi).
JETTY. The term jetty, derived from Fr. jetie, and therefore
signifying something " thrown out," is applied to a variety of
structures employed in river, dock and maritime works* which
359
are generally earned out » pairs from river banks, or in continua-
tion of river channels at their outlets into deep water; or Out into
docks, and outside their entrances; or for forming basins along
the sea-coast for ports in tideless seas. The forms and construe-
tion of these jetties axe as varied as their uses; for though they
invariably extend out into water, and serve cither for directing
a current or for accommodating vessels,- they are sometimes
formed of high open timber-work, sometimes of low solid pro-
jections, and occasionally only differ from breakwaters in their
object.
Jetties for regulating Ruers.-Fonnetiy jetties of timber-work were
very commonly extended out, opposite one another, from each bank
of a river, at intervals, to contract a wide channel, and by concentra-
tion of the current to produce a deepening of the central channel ; or
sometimes mounds of rubble stone, stretching down the foreshore
from each bank, served the same purpose. As, however, this system
occasioned a greater scour between the ends of the jetties than in
the intervening channels, and consequently prodaccd an irregular
depth, it has to a great extent been superseded by longitudinal
training works, or by dipping cross dikes pointing somewhat up-
stream (see River Enwnbbmng).
Jettios at Docks.— when docks are given sloping sides, openwork
timber jetties are generally carried across the slope, at the ends of
which vessels can he in deep water (fig. 1) ; or more solid structures
Fxc. 1.— Timber Jetty across Dock Slope.
are erected over the slope for supporting coal-tips. PUework jetties
are also constructed in the water outside the entrances to docks on
each side, so as to form an enlarging trumpet-*haped channel
between the entrance, lock or tidal basin and the approach channel,
in order to guide vessels in entering or leaving the docks. Solid
jetties, moreover, lined with quay walls, are sometimes carried out
into a wide dock, at right angles to the line of quays at the side, to
enlarge the accommodation; and they also serve, when extended on
a large scale from the coast of a tideless sea under shelter of an out-
lying breakwater, to form the basins in which vessels lie when
discharging and taking in cargoes in such a port as Marseilles (see
Dock).
Jetties at Entrances to Jetty Harbours.— The approach channel to
some ports situated on sandy coasts is guided and protected across
the beach by parallel jetties, made solid up to a little above low water
of neap tides, on which open timber-work is erected, provided with
a planked platform at the top raised above the highest tides. The
channel between the jetties was originally maintained by tidal scour
from low-lying" areas close to the coast, and subsequently by the
current from sluicing basins; but it is now often considerably
deepened by sand-pump dredging. It is protected to some extent
by the solid portion of the jetties from the inroad of sand from the
adjacent beach, and from the levelling action of the waves; whilst
the upper open portion serves to indicate the channel, and to guide
the vessels if necessary (see Hauouk). The bottom part of the
older Jetties, in such long-established jetty ports as Calais, Dunkirk
and Ostend, was composed of cby or nibble stone, covered on the
top by fascine-work or pitching; but the deepening of the jetty
channel by dredging, and the need which arose for its enlargement,
led to the reconstruction of the jetties at these ports. The new
jetties at Dunkirk were founded in the sandy beach* by the aid of
compressed air, at a depth of «J ft. below low water of spring
tides; and their solid masonry portion, on a concrete foundation,
was raised 5! ft. above Jow water of neap tides (fig. a).
Jetties at Lagoon Outlets.— A small tidal rise spreading tidal water
over a large expanse of lagoon or inland back-water causes the influx
nod efflux of the tide to maintain a deep channel through a narrow
outlet; but the issuing current on emerging from the outlet, being
3**
JEWEOIY
k\Y <0k Tt.jmd, Tr>fi99B t perhaps tnmjtb, Joy;
, „ Ifcsrni retranslated into Low Lat jocale, a toy, from
Jtomf, by ss*s*f>prehaasioa of the origin of the word), a collective
teres for jewels, or tbc art connected with them— jewels being
personal ornaments, usually mr<Je of gems, precious stones, &c,
with a setting of pfftdous metal; in a restricted sense it is also
common to speak of a gem-stone itself as a jewel, when utilized
la this way. Personal ornaments appear to have been among
the very first objects on which the invention and ingenuity of
Man were exercised; and there Ss no record of any people so rude
as not to employ some kind of perftmal decoration. Natural
objects, such as small shells, dried berries, small perforated
stones, feathers of variegated colours, were combined by stringing
or tying together to ornament the head, neck, arms and legs, the
fingers, and even the toes, whilst the cartilages of the nose and
ears were frequently perforated for the more ready sus pen sion
of suitable ornaments.
' Amongst modem Oriental nations we find almost every kind
of personal decoration, from the simple caste mark on the fore-
head of the Hindu to the gorgeous examples of beaten gold and
silver work of the various cities and provinces of India. Nor
ire such decorations mere ornaments without use or meaning.
The hook with its corresponding perforation or eye, the clasp,
the buckle, the button, grew step by step into s special ornament,
according to the rank, means, taste and wants of the wearer, or
became an evidence of the dignity of office. Nor was the jewel
deemed to have served its purpose with the death of its owner,
for it is to the tombs of ancient peoples that we must, look for
evidence of the early existence of the jeweller's ait.
The jewelry of the ancient Egyptians has been preserved for
us in their tombs, sometimes in, and sometimes near the sarco-
phagi which contained the embalmed bodies of the wearers.
An amazing series of finds of the intact jewels of five princesses
of the Xllth Dynasty (c. 2400 B.C.) was the result of threxcava-
tions of J. de Morgan at Dahshur in 1894-1895. The treasure
of Princess Hathor-Set contained jewels with the names of
Senwosri (Usertesen) II. snd III., one of whom was probably her
father. The treasure of Princess Merit contained the names of
the same two monarchs, and also that of Amenemhft III., to
whose family Princess Nebhotp may have belonged. The two
remaining princesses were Its and KJmumit.
r e presente d ■ i ncluding chkelKag, soldering, inlaying with coloured
stones, moulding and working with twisted wires and filigree.
Here also occurs the earliest instance of granulated work, with small
grains of gold, soldered on a flat surface (fig. t). The principal
items in this daxzling group are the following*. Three gold pectorals
(fie. 2 and Plate 1. figs, ^5, 36) worked a jour (with the interstices
left open) ; on the front side they are inlaid with coloured" stones, the
fine chisons being the only portion of the gold that b visible; on the
back, the gold surfaces are most delicately carved, in low relief.
Two gold crowns (Plate I. figs. 32, 34), found together, ate curiously
contrasted in character. The one. (fig. 32) is of a formal design, of
gold, inlaid (the plume, Plate 1, ' -......«.-.
contrasted in character. The one (.. ft . o-, «. «,• ~ .v.u.. »»%•■, «■
;old, inlaid (the plume, Plate 1. fig 33. was attached to it) ; the other
.f>K- $4) has a multitude of star-like flowers, embodied in a filigree
of daintily twisted wires. A dagger with inlaid patterns on the
handle shows extraordinary perfection of finish*
Fie. 2.
Nearly a thousand years later we have another remarkable
collection of Egyptian art in the jewelry taken from the coffin of
Queen Aah-hotp, discovered in 1859 by Mariette in the entrance
to the valley of the tombs of the kings and now preserved in
the Cairo museum. Compared with the Dahshur treasure the
jewelry of Aah-hotp is in parts rough and coarse, but none the
less it is marked by the ingenuity and mastery of the materials
that characterize all the work of the Egyptians. Hammered
work, incised and chased work, the evidence of soldering, the
combinations of layers of gold plates, together with coloured
stones, are all present, and the handicraft is complete in every
respect.
A diadem of gold and
enamel, found at the back
of the head of the mummy
of the Queen (fig. 3), was
fixed in the back hair, show-
the cartouche in front.
ing the cartouche in iront.
The box holding this car-
touche has on the upper
upper
surface the titles of the
king, " the son of the sun,
Aahmes, living for ever and
ever," in gold on a ground
of topis lazuli, with a
chequered ornament in blue
and red pastes, and a sphinx fjc. r,
couchant on each side. A
necklace with three pendant Hies (fig. 4) b entirely of gold, having
a hook and loop to fasten it round the neck. Fig, 5 is a gold drop.
* * -•— i of a fig.
mlaid with turquoise or blue paste* in the shape <
A gold
A&4*
Fig. 5.
JEWELRY
3*5
chain (tig. v ) is forme* of wires closely plaited and vesy flexible,
the end* terminating in the heads of water fowl, and having small
rings to secure the collar behind. To the centre is suspended by a
Fig. 6.
entail ring a scarebaeus oF solid gold inlaid with lapis lazuli. We
have aa example of a bracelet, similar to those in modern use (fig. 7),
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
and worn by all persons of rank. It is formed of two pieces joined
by a hinge, and Is decorated with figures in repousse on a ground
inlaid with lapis lazuli.
That the Assyrians used personal decorations of a very dis-
tinct character, and no doubt made of precious materials, is
proved by the bas-re-
liefs from which a con-
\ siderable collection of
f jewels could be gather-
ed, such as bracelets,
ear-rings and necklaces.
Thus, for example, in
the British Museum
we have representa-
tions of Assac-nazir-
psl, - king of Assyria
(c . 885-860 B.c), wear-
ing a cross (fig. 8) very
similar to the Maltese
cross of modern times.
' It happens, however,
that the excavations
have not hitherto been
fertile in actual re-
mains of gold work
from Assyria. Chance
also has so far ordained
that the excavations
in Crete should not be
particularly rich in
ornaments of gold. A
few isolated objects have been found, such as a duck and
other pendants, and also several necklaces with beads of
the Argonaut shell-fish pattern. More striking than these is a
short bronze sword. The handle has an agate pommel, and is
Covered with gold plates, engraved with spirited scenes of lions
and wild goats (fig. 9, A. J. Evans in Ardiaeologia, 59, 447).
In general, however, the gold jewelry of the later Mlnoan periods
is more brilliantly represented by the finds made on the main-
land of Greece and at Enkomi in Cyprus. Among the former
the gold ornaments found by Heinrich Scbliemann in the graves
of Mycenae are pre-eminent.
The objects found ranged over most of the personal ornaments
still in use; necklaces with gold beads and pendants/ butterflies
(fig. 10). cuttlefish (fig. II). single and concentric circles, rosettes
and leafage, with perforations for attachment to clothing, crosses
FIG. o.— From Archaeolegta. vol. 59,
p. 447. by permission of the Society of
Antiquaries of London.
and stats formed of oombined crosses, with, crosses Id the centre
forming spikes—all elaborately ornamented in detail. The spiral
forms aa incessant decoration from its facile production and repeti-
tion by means, of twisted gold wire. Grasshoppers or tree crickets
in gold repousse suspended by chains and probably used for the
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
decoration of the hair, arid a griffin (fig. 12), having the upper par)
of the body of an eagle and the lower parts of a lion, with wings
decorated with spirals, are among the more remarkable examples
of perforated ornaments for
attachment to the clothing.
There are also perforated
ornaments belonging to neck-
laces, with intaglio engravings/
of such subjects a* a contest*
of a man and lion, and a duel
of two warriors; one of whom p IG l2
stabs his antagonist ia the
throat There are also pinheads and brooches formed of two
stags lying down (fig. J3). the bodies and necks crossing each other,
and the horns meeting symmetrically above the heads, forming a finiaL
The heads of these ornaments were of gold,
with silver blades or pointed pins inserted for
use. The bodies of the two stags rest on
fronds of the date-palm growing out of the stem
which receives the pin. Another remarkable
series .is composed of figures of women with
dc— - ■
he
he
ar
etl
Tl
«N
th
th
C~— - I.-.— ~_~ A~.~
fa
t of the
nilar to
*ld-like
mt per*
saves of
perfec-
may be
nping "
Fig. 14.
at the back to sustain it; but in general the repousse examples have
a piping of copper wire,
The admirable inlaid daggers of the IVth grave at Mycenae are
unique in their kind, with their subjects of a lion hunt, of a lion
chasing a herd of antelopes, of running lions, of cats hunting wild
duck, of inlaid lilies, and of geometric patterns. The subjects are
inlaid in gold of various tints., and silver, in bronze plates which are
inserted in the flat surfaces of the dagger-blades. In part also the
subjects are rendered in relief and gilded. The whole is executed
with marvellous precision and vivid representation of motion. To a
certain limited extent these daggers are paralleled by a dagger and
hatchet found in the treasure ot Queen Aah-hotp mentioned above,
bat in their most characteristic features there is little resemblance.
The gold ornaments found by Schliemann at Hissarlik. the supposed
site of Troy, divide themselves, generally speaking, into two groups,
one being the " great treasure " of diadems, ear-rings, beads, brace-
lets. &c, which seem the product of a local and uncultured art.
The other group, which were found in smaller "treasures." have
spirals and rosettes similar to those of Mycenae. The discovery,
however* of the gold treasures of the Artemision at Ephesus has
brought out points of affinity between the Hissarlik treasures and
those of Ephesus, and has made any reasoning difficult, in view of
the uncertainties surrounding the Hissarlik finds. The group with
366
Mycenaeta Affifiitieft (fig. f 5) v
(t), hair-pins <«), ear-rings (f,ii,/), with and without pendants,
beads ana twisted wire drops. The majority el these are ornamented
with spirals of twisted wire, or small rosettes, with fragments of
stones in the centres. The twisted wice ornaments were evidently
portions of necklaces A circular plaque decorated with a rosette
JBWELRT
Fig. 15.
(•) is very similar to those found at Mycenae, and a conventionaHxed
eagle (*) is characteristic of much of the detail found at that place
as well as at Hissariik. They were all of pun* gold, and the wire
must have been drawn through a plate of harder metal— probably
bronze. The principal ornaments differing from those found at
Mycenae are diadems or head fillets of pare hammered gold 0)
cut into thin plates, attached to rings by double gold wires, and
fastened together at the back with thin twisted wire. To these
pendants (0? which those at the two ends are nearly three times the
length of those forming the central portions) are attached small
figures, probably of idols. It has been assumed that these were
worn across the forehead by women,' the long pendants falling on
tach side of the lace.
The jewelry of the dose of the Mycenaean period is best
represented by the rich finds of the cemetery of Enkomi near
Salami*, in Cyprus. This field was excavated by the British
Museum in 1896, and a considerable portion of the finds is
now at Bloomsbury. It was rich in all forms of jewelry, but
especially in pins, rings and diadems with pauerns in relief. In
Us geometric patterns the art oi Enkomi ii entirety Mycenaean,
but special stress Is laid on the mythical forms that were in-
herited by Greek art, such as the sphinx, and the gryphon. ,
Figs, 37-48 (Plate I.) are examples of the late Mycenaean
.. 37. 38
39 ,. d. The
repeated
„ 40,41,46 „ sd form
ral form
rns (figs,
head.
„ 42 „ n with a
nine.
„ 43 !• ululated
worn
» 44* 45 n Pins as No. 43. The beads are of vitreous
paste.
,. 46 (See above.)
47 ,, Pendant ornament, in lotus-form, of a
pectoral, inlaid with coloured pastes.
48 ,. Small slate cylinder, set in filigree.
Another find of importance was that of a collection of gold
ornaments from one of the Greek islands (said to be Aegina)
which also found its way to the British. Museum. Here we
find the themes of archaic Greek art, such as a figure holding up
two water4>irds, in immediate connexion with Mycenaean gold
patterns.
Figs. 40-53 <Plate I.) are specimens from this treasure.
m 49 „ Plate with rcpoiisss ornament for sewing on
a dress.
M So „ Pendant. Figure with two water-birds, on
a lotus base, and having serpents issuing
from near his middle, modified from
Egyptian forma,
Fig. 5» (Plate!.)
..5*
Ring, with cut btue glass-pastes in rbe
grooves.
Pendant or na ment, repousse, and originally
inlaid with pieces of cut glass-paste.
S3 .. Pendant ornament, with dogs and apes,
modified from Egyptian forms.
For the beginnings of
Greek art proper, the
most striking series of
personal jewels is the
great deposit of orna-
ments which was found
in 1005 by D. G. Hogarth
to. the soil^ beneath the
central basis of the ar-
chaic temple of Artemis
of Ephesus. The gold
ornaments in question
(amounting in alt to about
1000 pieces) were mingled
with the closely packed
earth, and must necos-
* sarfly, it would seem, have
been in the nature of vo-
tive offerings, made at the end of the 7th or the beginning of the
6th century B.C. The hoard was rich in pins, brooches, beads and
stamped disks of gold. The greater part of the find is at Con-
stantinople, but a portion was assigned to the British Museum,
which had undertaken the excavations.
Figs. 54-58 (Plate II.) Examples of the Ephesus hoard.
..54 m Electrum pin, with pomegranate head.
55 n Hawk ornament.
,. 5° »• Electrum pin.
.. 57.58 ., Electrum ornaments for sewing on drapery.
The cemeteries of Cypres have yielded a rich harvest of
jewelry of Graeco- Phoenician style of" the* 7th and following
centuries b c Figs. 16 and 17 are typical examples of a ring and
ear-ring from Cyprus.
Fig. 16. Fig.' 17.
Greek, Etruscan and Roman ornaments partake of very
similar characteristics. Of course there is variety in design and
sometimes in treatment, but it does not rise to any special
individuality Fretwork is a distinguishing feature of all,
together with the wave ornament, the guillochc. and the
occasional use of the human figure. The workmanship is often
of a character which modern gold-workers can only rival with
their best skill, and can never surpass.
I
1
FlO. 18.
JEWELRY
367
The Greek jewelry of the beat period is of extraordinary
delicacy and beauty. Fine examples are shown in the British
Museum from Melos and elsewhere. Undoubtedly, however, the
most brilliant collection of such ornaments is that of the Hermi-
tage, which was derived from the tombs of Kerch and the Crimea.
It contains examples of the purest Greek work, together with
objects which must have been of local origin, as is shown by the
themes which the artist has chosen for his reliefs. Fig. 18
illustrates the jewelry of the Hermitage (see also Ear-Rinc).
As further examples of Greek jewelry see the pendant oblong
ornament for containing a scroll (fig. 19).
Fio. 21,
Fig. 19. Fie. 20.
The ear-rings (figs. 20, 21) are also characteristic.
Figs. 59-70 (Plate If.) Examples of fine Greek jewelry, in the
British Museum.
•• 59~6o „ Pair of ear-rings, from a grave at Cyme in
Aeolis, with filigree work and pendant
Erotes.
„ 01 ., Small bracelet.
„ 62-63 * Small gold reel with repousse figures of
Nereid with helmet of Achilles, aad Eros.
From Cameiros (Rhodes).
„ 64 ,, Filigree ornament (tar»riag?) with Eros
in centre. From Syria.
„ 65 M Medallion ornament with repousse" bead of
Dionysos and filigree work. (Blacas
coM.)
„ 66 „ Stud, with filigree work.
„ 67-68 „ Pair of ear-rings, of gold, with filigree and
enamel, from Eretna.
„ 69 .4 Diadem, with filigree, and enamel scales,
from Tarquinii.
„ 70 „ Necklace pendants.
Etruscan jewlery at its best is not easily distinguished from
the Greek, but it tends in its later forms to become florid
and diffuse, without precision of design. The granulation of
surfaces practised with the highest degree of refinement by the
Etruscans was long a puzzle and a problem to the modem
jeweller, until Castellani of Rome discovered gold-workers in
the Abruzzi to whom the method had descended through many
generations. He induced some of these men to go to Naples,
and so revived the art, of which he contributed examples to the
London Exhibition of 1872 (see Filigree).
Figs. 71-77 (Plate II.) are well-marked examples of Etruscan
work, in the British Museum.
,,71 „ Pair of sirens, repousse, forming a hook
and eye fastening. From Chiusi (?).
„ 72 „ Early fibula. Horse and chimaer*. (Blacas
coll.)
,. 74 ,, Medallion-shaped fibula, of fine granulated
work, with figures of sirens In relief, and
set with dark blue pastes. (Bale coll.)
•• 73t 75 m Pair of late Etruscan ear-rings.
7<>. 77 .. Pair of late Etruscan ear-nngs, In the
.florid style.
The jewels of the Roman empire are marked by a greater use
of large cut stones in combination with the gold, and by larger
tvrfaces of plain and undecorated metal. The adaptation of
Imperial gold coins 10 the purposes of the jeweller is also not
uncommon.
Figs. 78-82 (Plate II.) Late Roman imperial jewelry, in the
British Museum.
78
79
80
81
*»
Large pendant ear-ring, set with stones
and pearls. From Tunis, 4th century.
Pierced- work pendant, set with a coin of
the emperor Philip.
Ear-ring, roughly set with garnets.
Bracelet, with a winged cornucopia as
central ornament, set with plasmas, and
with filigree and leaf work.
Bracelet, roughly set with pearls and
stooes. From Tunis, 4tb ooBtary. , .
.With the decay of the Roman empire, and the approach of the
barbarian tribes, a new Teutonic style was developed. An
important example of this style is the remarkable gold treasure,
discovered at Petrossa in Transylvanian Alps in 1837, and
now preserved, as far as it survives, in the museum of Bucharest.
A runic inscription shows that it belonged to the Goths. Its
style is in part the classical tradition, debased and modified; in
part it is a singularly rude and vigorous form of barbaric art.
Its chief characteristics are a free use of strongly conventional-
ized animal forms, such as great bird-shaped fibulae, and an
ornamentation consisting of pierced gold work, combined with
a free use of stones cut to special shapes, and inlaid either
cloisonne-fashion or in a perforated gold plate. This part of the
hoard has its affinities in objects found over a wide field from
Siberia to Spain. Its rudest and most naturalistic forms occur
in the East in uncouth objects from Siberian tombs, whose
lineage however has been traced to Pcrsepolis, Assyria and
Egypt. In its later and more refined forms the style is known
by the name, now somewhat out of favour (except as applied to
a limited number of finds), of Merovingian.
The so-called Merovingian jewelry of the 5th century, and the
Anglo-Saxon of a later date, have as their distinctive feature
thin plates of gold, decorated with thin slabs of garnet, set in
walls of gold soldered vertically like the lines of cloisonne enamel,
with the addition of very decorative details of filigree work,
beading and twisted gold. The typical group are the contents
of the tomb of King Childeric (a.d. 481) now in the Bibliotheque
Nationale at Paris. In Figs. 22 and 23 we have examples of
Anglo-Saxon fibulae, the first being decorated with a species
Fio. 22. Fig. 23. Fig. 24.
of doisonn*, in which garnets are inserted, while the other is in
hammered work in relief. A pendant (fig. 24) is also set with
garnets... The buckles (figs. 25, 26, 27) are remarkably charac-
Fig. 25. Fio. 26. Fig. 27.
teristic examples, and very elegant in design. A girdle ornament
in gold, set with garnets (fig. 28), is an example of Carolingian
design of a high class. Another remarkable
group of barbaric jewelry, dated by coins as of 1
the beginning of the 7th century, was excavated '
at Castel Trosino near the Piccnian Ascoli, and
is attributed to the Lombards. See Monumcuti
antichi (Accadcmia dei Lincei), xii. 145.
We turn now to the Celtic group of jewelled
ornaments, which has an equally long and inde-
pendent line of descent. The characteristic
Celtic ornaments are of hammered work with
details in repousse' , having fiitimjs-in of vitreous
paste, coloured enamels, amber, and in tbe later examples rock
crystal with, a smooth rounded surface cut en cabochon. The
Fig. 28.
368
JKWBERY
whole group Is a special development within the British Isles
of the art of the mid-European Early boo age, whkh in its
torn had been considerably influenced by early Mediterranean
culture. In its early stages its special marks are combinations
of curves, with peculiar central thickenings which give a quasi-
naturalistic effect; a skilful use of inlaid enamels, and the
chased line. After the introduction of Christianity, a con-
tinuous tradition combined the old system with the interlaced
winding scrolls and Other new forms of decoration, and so led
ap to the extreme complexity of early Irish illumination and
metal work.
A remarkable group of gold ornaments of the pre-Christian
rime (probably of the xst century) was discovered about 1896,
in the north-west of Ireland, and acquired by the British Museum.
It was subsequently claimed by the Crown as treasure trove, and
after litigation was transferred to Dublin (see Arckatolctfo, lv. t
pit*).
Figs, ao and 30 are illustrations of two brooches of the latest
Fig. 29.
period in this class of work. The first is 13th century; the latter
is probably 12th century, and is set with paste, amber and
blue.
Rings are the chief specimens now seen of medieval jewelry
from the 10th to the 13th century. They are generally massive
and simple. Through the x6th century a variety of changes
arose; in the tradition* and designs of the dmqucctitU we have
plenty of evidence that the workmen used their own designs,
and the results culminated in the triumphs of Albert DOrer,
Benvenuto Cellini and Hans Holbein. The goldsmiths of the
Fio. 30.
Italian republics most have produced works of sorpatsfng
excellence in workmanship, and reaching the highest point in
design as applied to handicrafts of any kind. The use of
enamels, precious stones, niello work and engraving, in combina-
tion with skilful execution of the human figure and animal Kfe,
produced effects which modern art in this direction is not likely
to approach, still less to rival
In fig. 31 illustrations are given of various characteristic specimens
of the Renaissance and later forms of jewelry. A crystal cross set
in enamelled gold (a) is German work of the 10th century. The
pendant reliquary (*), enamelled and jewelled, is of 16th century
kalian work, and so probably is the jewel (f) of gold set with dia-
monds and rubies. The Damley or Lennox jewel (J), now io the
possession of the king, was made about l57*-«577 fbrljtdy Margaret
Douglas, countess of Lennox, the mother of Henry Darntey. It la
a pendant golden heart set with a heart-shaped sapphire, richly
jewelled and enamelled with emblematic figures and devices. It
also has Scottish mottoes around and within it. The ear-ring (e) of
gold, enamelled, hung with small pearls, b an example of 17th can*
tmiy Russian work* and another (/) is Italian of the same period.
being of gold and filigree with enamel, also with pendant pearls.
A Spanish ear-ring, of 18th century work (r), is a combination of
ribbon, cord and filigree in gold; and another (A) is Flemish, of
probably the same period; it is of gold open work set with diassonds
in projecting collets. The old French-Normandy pendant cross and
locket (/) presents a characteristic example of peasant Jewelry; it la
of branched open work set with bosses and ridged ornaments of
crystal. The ear-ring (J) is French of 17th century, also of gold open
work set with crystals. A small pendant locket (*) is of rock
crystal, with the cross of Santiago in gold and translucent crimson
enamel; it is 16th or 17th century Spanish work. A pretty ear-ring
of gold open scroll work («), set with minute diamonds and three
pendant pearls, is Portuguese of 17th century, and another ear-ring
(a) of gold circular open work, set also with minute diamonds, u
Portuguese work of 10th century. These examples fairly Illustrate
the general features of the most characteristic jewelry of the dates
quoted.
During the 17th and x8th centuries we see only a mechanical
kind of excellence, the results of the mere tradition of the work-
shop—the lingering of the power whkh when wisely directed
had done so much and so well, but now simply living on tra-
ditional forms, often combined in a most incongruous fashion.
Gorgeous effects were aimed at by massing the gold, and intro-
ducing stones elaborately cut in themselves or. clustered in
groups. Thus diamonds were clustered in rosettes and bou-
quets; rubies, pearls, emeralds and other coloured special stones
were brought together for little other purpose than to get them
into a given space in conjunction with a certain quantity of gold.
The question was not of design in its relation to use as personal
decoration, but of the value which could be got into a given space
to produce the most striking effect.
The traditions of Oriental design as they had come down
through the various periods quoted, were comparatively lost
in the wretched results of the rococo of Louis XIV. and the
inanities of what modern revivalists of the Anglo-Dutch call
" Queen Anne. 11 In the London exhibition of 2851, the ex-
travagances of modern jewelry had to stand comparison with
the Oriental examples contributed from India. Since then we
have learnt more about these works, and have been compelled
to acknowledge, in spite of what is sometimes called inferiority
of workmanship, how completely the Oriental jeweller under-
stood his work, and with what singular simplicity of method
he carried it out. The combinations are always harmonious,
the result aimed at is always achieved, and if in attempting
to work to European ideas the jeweller failed, this was rather
the fault of the forms he bad to follow, than due to any want
of skill in making the most of a subject in which half the thought
and the Intended use were foreign to his experience,
A collection of peasant jewelry got together by Castellan! for
the Paris exhibition of 1867, and now in the Victoria and Albert
Museum* illustrates in an admirable manner the traditional
jewelry and personal ornaments of a wide range of peoples in
Europe. This collection, and the additions made to it since
its acquisition by the nation, show the forms in which these
objects existed over several generations among the peasantry
of France (chiefly Normandy), Spain, Portugal, Holland, Den-
Mark, Germany and Switzerland, and also show how the forma
popular in one country are followed and adopted in another,
almost invariably because of their perfect adaptation to the
purpose for which they were designed.
Apart from these humbler branches tif the subject, in the
middle of the 19th century the production of jewelry, regarded
as a personal art, and not as a commercial and anonymous
industry, was almost extinct. Its revival must be associated
with the artistic movement which marked the dose of that
century, and which found emphatic expression in the Paris
International exhibition of 1000. For many years before 1895
this industry, though prosperous from the commercial point of
view, and always remarkable from that of technical finish,
remained stationary as an art. French jewelry rested on its
JEWELRY
Plate I.
Early Egyptian.
(From Enkomi.)
Late Mycenaean.
(From the Greek Islands.)
l\u« II
JEWELRY
& *,.
\>t
ft
t>4
03
65
06
W 67 68
^flS^
Greek.
—m
<js
iJQp&f*
Roman.
JEWELRY
369
reputation. The traditions were maintained of either the 17th
and 1 8th centuries or the style affected at the close of the second
empire — light pierced work and design borrowed from natural
Bowers. The last type, introduced by Massin f had exercised,
indeed, a revolutionary influence on the treatment of jewelry.
This clever artist, not less skilful as a craftsman, produced a new
genre by copying the grace and lightness of living blossoms, thus
introducing a perfectly fresh element into the limited variety of
traditional style, and by the use of filigree gold work altering
its character and giving it greater elegance. Massin still held
the first rank in the exhibition of 1878; he had a marked
influence on his contemporaries, and his name will be remem-
bered in the history of the goldsmith's art to designate a style
further confirmed in his remarkable position by the exhibition of
1900. What specially sumps the works of Lalique is their
striking originality. His wprk may be considered from the point
of view of design and from that of execution. As an artist he
has completely reconstructed from the foundation the scheme
of design which had fed the poverty-stricken imagination of the
last generation of goldsmiths. He had recourse to the art of
the past, but to the spirit rather than the letter, and to nature
for many new elements of design — free double curves, suave or'
soft; opalescent harmonies of colouring; reminiscences, with quite
a new feeling, of Egypt, Chaldea, Greece and the East, or of the
art of the Renaissance; and infinite variety of floral forms even
of the humblest. He introduces also the female nude in the
1
Fio. 31.
Kqp&
and a period. Throughout these years the craft was exclusively
devoted to perfection of workmanship. The utmost finish was
aimed at in the mounting and setting of gems; jewelry was, in
fact, not so much an art as a high-class industry; individual
effort and purpose were absent.
Up to that time precious stones bad been of such intrinsic
value that the jeweller's chief skill lay in displaying these costly
stones to the best advantage; the mounting was a secondary
consideration. The settings were seldom long preserved in
their original condition, but in the case of family jewels were
renewed with each generation and each change of fashion, a
state of things which could not be favourable to any truly artistic
development of taste, since the work was doomed, sooner or
later, to destruction. However, the evil led to its own remedy.
As soon as diamonds fell in value they lost at the same time
their overwhelming prestige, and refined taste could give a
preference to trinkets which derived their value and character
from artistic design. This revolutionized the jeweller's craft,
and revived the simple ornament of gold or silver, which came
forward but timidly at first, till, in the Salon of 1895, it burst
upon the world in the exhibits of Rene Lalique, an artist who was
xv 7
form of sirens and sphinxes. As a craftsman he has effected a
radical change, breaking through old routine, combining all
the processes of the goldsmith, the chaser, the enameller and the
gem-setter, and freeing himself from the narrow lines in which
the art had been confined. He ignores the hierarchy of gems,
caring no more on occasion for a diamond than for a flint, since,
in his view, no stone, whatever its original estimation, has any
value beyond the characteristic expression he lends it as a means
to his end. Thus, while he sometimes uses diamonds, rubies,
sapphires or emeralds as a background, he will, on the other
hand, give a conspicuous position to common stones — camelian,
agate, malachite, jasper, coral, and even materials of no intrinsic
value, such as horn. One of his favourite stones is the opal,
which lends itself to his arrangements of colour, and which has
in consequence become a fashionable stone in French jewelry.
In criticism of the art of Lalique and his school it should be
observed that the works of the school are apt to be unsuited to the
wear and tear of actual use, and inconveniently eccentric in their
details. Moreover, the preciousness of the material is an almost
inevitable consideration in the jeweller's craft, and cannot be set
at naught by the artist without violating the canons of his art.
2a
37°
JEWELRY
The movement which took its rise in France spread in due
course to other countries. In England the movement con-
venicntly described as the " arts and crafts movement " affected
the design of jewelry. A group of designers has aimed at purg-
ing tne J cw eller's craft of its character of mere gem-mounting in
conventional forms (of which the more unimaginative, represent-
ing stars, bows, flowers and the like, are varied by such absurdi-
ties as insects, birds, animals, figures of men and objects made
up simply of stones clustered together). Their work is often
excellently and fancifully designed, but it lacks that exquisite
perfection of execution achieved by the incomparable craftsmen
f France. At the same time English sculptor-decorators —
such as Alfred Gilbert, R.A., and George J. Frampton, A.R.A.—
have produced objects of a still higher class, but it is usually the
work of the goldsmith rather than of the jeweller. Examples
may be seen in the badge executed by Gilbert for the president
of the Institute of Painters in Water Colours and in the mayoral
chain for Preston. Symbolism here enters into the design,
which has not only an ornamental but a didactic purpose.
The movement was represented in other countries also. In
the United States it was led by L. C. Tiffany, in Belgium by
Philippe Wolfers, who occupies in Belgium the position which in
France is held by Rene Lalique. If his design is a little heavier,
it is not less beautiful in imagination or less masterly in execu-
tion. Graceful, ingenious, fanciful, elegant, fantastic by turns,
his objects of jewelry and goldsmithery have a solid claim to
be considered creations d'art. It has also been felt in Germany,
Austria, Russia and Switzerland. It must be admitted that many
of the best artists who have devoted themselves to jewelry have
been more successful in design than in securing the lightness
and strength which are required by the wearer, and which were a
characteristic in the works of the Italian craftsmen of the Renais-
sance. For this reason many of their masterpieces are more
beautiful in the case than upon the person.
Modern Jewelry.— So far we have gone over the progress and
results of the jeweller's art. We have now to speak of the pro-
duction of jewelry as a modern art industry, in which large
numbers of men and women are employed in the larger cities
of Europe. Paris, Vienna, London and Birmingham are the
most important centres. An illustration of the manufacture as
carried on in London and Birmingham will be sufficient to give
an insight into the technique and artistic manipulation of this
branch of art industry; but, by way of contrast, it may be inter-
esting to give in the first place a description of the native working
jeweller of Hindustan.
He travels very much after the fashion of a tinker in England ;
his budget contains tools, materials, fire pots, and all the requisites
of his handicraft. The gold to be used is generally supplied by
the patron or employer, and is frequently in gold coin, which the
travelling jeweller undertakes to convert into the ornaments required.
He squats down in the corner of a courtyard, or under cover of a
veranda, lights his fire, cuts up the gold pieces entrusted to him,
hammers, cuts, shapes, drills, solders with the blow-pipe, files,
scrapes and burnishes until he has produced the desired effect.
If he has stones to set or coloured enamels to introduce, he never
seems to make a mistake; his instinct for harmony of colour, like
that of his brother craftsman the weaver, is as unerring as that of
the bird in the construction of its nest. Whether the materials
are common or rich and rare, he invariably does the very best possible
with them, according to native ideas of beauty in design and com-
bination. It is onfy when he is interfered with by European
dictation that he ever vulgarizes his art or makes a mistake. The
result may appear rude in its finish, but the design and the thought
are invariably right. We thus see how a trade in the working of
which the " plant " is so simple and wants are so readily met could
spread itself, as in years past it did at Clerkenwell and at Birmingham
before gigantic factories were invented for producing everything
under the sun.
% It is impossible to find any date at which the systematic pro-
duction of jewelry was introduced into England. Probably
the Clerkenwell trade dates its origin from the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, as the skilled artisans in the jewelry, dock
and watch, and trinket trades appear to have been descendants
vi the emigrant Huguenots. The Birmingham trade would
•IMHHir to have had its origin in the skill to which the workers
ii» uae sttd bad attained towards the middle and end of the iSth
JEWETT— -JEWS
the beauty of design or perfection of workmanship could be obtained
by hand at, probably, any cost. The question therefore in relation
to chains is not the mode of manufacture, but the quality of the metal.
Eighteen carat gold is of course: preferred by those who wear chains,
but this is only gold in the proportion, of 1 8 to 24, pure gold being
represented by 24. The gold coin of the realm is 22 carat ; that is,
it contains one-twelfth olalloy to harden it to stand wear and tear.
Thus 18 carat gold has one-fourth of alloy, and so on with lower
?ualities down to 12. which is in reality only gold by courtesy,
t must be remembered that the alloys are made by weight, and as
?;old is nearly twice as heavy as the metal it is mixed with, it only
orms a third of the bulk of a \2 carat mixture.
The application of machinery to the production of personal
ornaments in gold and silver can only be economically and success*
fully carried on when there is a large demand for similar objects,
that is to say. objects of precisely the same design and decoration
throughout. In machine-made jewelry everything is stereotyped,
so to speak, and the only work required tor the hand is to fit the parts
together— in some instances scarcely that. A design is made, and
from it steel dies are sunk for stamping out as rapidly as possible
from a plate of rolled metal the portion represented by each die.
It U in these steel dies that the skill of the artist die-sinker is mani-
fested. Brooches, ear-rings, pinheads, bracelets, lockets, pendants,
Ac , are struck out by the gross. This Is more especially the case
in silver and in plated work — that is, imitation jewelry—the base
of which is an alloy, afterwards gilt by electro-plating. With these
ornaments imitation stones in paste and glass, pearls, &c, are used,
and it is remarkable that of late years some of the best designs, the
most simple, appropriate and artistic, have appeared in imitation
Jewelry- It is only just to those engaged in this manufacture to
state distinctly that their work is never sold wholesale for anything
else than what it is. The worker in gold only makes gold or real
jewelry, and he only makes of a quality well known to his customers.
The producer of silver work only manufactures silver ornaments,
and so on throughout the whole class of plated goods.
It is the retailer who, if he is unprincipled, takes advantage of the
ignorance of the buyer and sells for gold that which is in reality an
imitation, and which he bought as such. The imitations of old
styles of jewelry which are largely sold in curiosity shops at foreign
places of fashionable resort are said to be made in Germany, especially
at Munich.
Bibliography. — For the Dahshur jewels, see J. de Morgan and
others: Fouittes a Dahchour, Mars-Juin 1894 (Vienna, 1895) and
FouilUs £ Dahchour en 1894-189$ (Vienna, 1903). For the Aah-hotp
jewels, see Marictte, Album de Must* de Boulaq* pis. 30-31 ; Birch,
Facsimiles of the Egyptian Relics discovered in the Tomb of Queen Aah-
hotep ( 1 863) . For Cretan excavations, see A. J . Eva ns.inA nnual of
the British School at A thens, Nos. 7 to 1 1 ;A rchaeologia, vol. lix. For
excavations at Enkomi, see Excavations in Cyprus, by A. S. Murray
and others (1900). For Schliemann's excavations, see Schliemann s
works; also Schuchhardt, Schliemann's Excavations; Perrot &
Cbipicz, Histoire de I' Art, vt. For the Greek Island treasure, see
A. J. Evans, Journal of Hellenic Studies, xiii. For Ephcsus gold
treasure, see D. G. Hogarth, British Museum Excavations at Ephesus ;
The Archaic Artemisia. For the Hermitage Collection from South
Russia, see Gille\ AntiquiUs du Bosphore Cimmkrien (reissued by
S. Reinach), and the Comptes rendus of the Russian Archaeological
Commission (St Petersburg). For later jewelry, Pollak, Gold-
schmiedcarbeU. For Treasure of Petrossa, A. Odobesco, Le Tresor
de PUrossa. For the European and west Asiatic barbaric jewelry,
see O. M. Dalton, in Archaeologia, lviii. 237. and the Treasure of
the Oxus (British Museum, 1905). For the whole history, G.
Fontenay, Les Bijoux ancient et modernes (Paris IQuantin), 1887).
For the recent movement, Leonce Benedite. " La Bijouterie ct la
joaillerie, a l'exposition uiuverselle; Rene* Lalique," in the Revue des
oris (tecoratifs, 1900 (July, August). (A. H. Sm.)
, JBWBTT, 3ARAH ORNE (1849-1909), American novelist,
was bom in South Berwick, Maine, on the 3rd of September 1849.
She was a daughter of the physician Theodore H. Jewett (1815-
1878), by whom she was greatly influenced, and whom she has
drawn in A Country Doctor (1884). She studied at the Berwick
Academy, and began her literary career in 1809, when she con-
tributed her first story to the Atlantic Monthly. Her best work
consists of short stories and. sketches, such as those in The
Country of the fainted Firs (1896). The People of Maine,, with
their characteristic speech, manners and traditions, she describes
with peculiar charm and realism, often recalling the work of
Hawthorne. . She died at South Berwick, Maine, on the 24th of
June 1909.
Among her publications are: Deefhaven (1877), a series of
sketches: Old Friends and New (1879): Country By-ways (1881);
A Country Doctor (1884), a novel; A Marsh Island (1885), a novel:
A White Heron and other Stories (1886) ; The King of Folly Island and
other People (1888); Strangers and Wayfarers (1890); A Native of
Winby and other Tales (1893); The Queen's Twin and ' L ~ *"--'
(1899), and The Tory Lover (1901), an historical novel
37*
JEWS (Heb. Y&tQdl, man. of Judah; Gr. 'buoatbt; Ut.
Judaet), the general name for the Semitic people which inhabited
Palestine from early times, and is known in various connexions
as " the Hebrews," " the Jews," and " Israel V (see §5 below).
Their history may be divided into three great periods: (x) That
covered by the Old Testament to the foundation of Judaism in
the Persian age, (2) that of the Greek and Roman domination
to the destruction of Jerusalem, and (3) that of the Diaspora or
Dispersion to the present day
I.— Old Testament History
1. The Land and the People.— For the first two periods the
history of the Jews is mainly that of Palestine. It begins among
those peoples which occupied the area lying between the Kile
on the one side and the Tigris and the Euphrates on the other.
Surrounded by ancient seats of culture in Egypt and Baby-
lonia, by the mysterious deserts of Arabia, and by the highlands
of Asia Minor, Palestine, with Syria on the north, was the
high road of civilization, trade and warlike enterprise, and
the meeting-place of religions. Its small principalities were
entirely dominated by the great Powers, whose weakness or
acquiescence alone enabled them to rise above dependence or
vassalage. The land was traversed by old-established trade
routes and possessed important harbours on the Gulf of 'Akaba
and on the Mediterranean coast, the latter exposing it to the
influence of the Levantine culture. It was " the physical centre
of those movements of history from which the world has
grown." The portion of this district abutting upon the Mediter-
ranean may be divided into two main parts: — Syria (from the
Taurus to Hermon) and Palestine (southward to the desert
bordering upon Egypt). The latter is about 150 m. from
north to south (the proverbial " Dan to Beershcba ")» with a
breadth varying from 25 to 80 m., ix. about 6040 sq. m.
This excludes the land east of the Jordan, on which see
Palestine.
From time to time streams of migration swept into Palestine
and Syria. Semitic tribes wandered northwards from their home
in Arabia to seek sustenance in its more fertile fields, to plunder,
or to escape the pressure of tribes in the rear. The course leads
naturally into either Palestine or Babylonia, and, following the
Euphrates, northern Syria is eventually reached. Tribes also
moved down from the north: nomads, or offshoots from the
powerful states which stretch into Asia Minor. Such frequently
recurring movements introduced new blood. Tribes, chiefly of
pastoral habits, settled down among others who were so nearly
of their own type that a complete amalgamation could be
effected, and this without any marked modification of the
general characteristics of the earlier inhabitants. It is from
such a fusion as this that the ancestors of the Jews were
descended, and both the history and the genius of this people
can be properly understood only by taking into account the
physical features of their land and the characteristics of the
Semitic races in general (see Palestine, Semitic Languages).
t. Society and Religion. — The similarity uniting the peoples
of the East in respect of racial and social characteristics is
accompanied by a striking similarity of mental outlook which
has survived to modern times. Palestine, in spite of the numer-
ous vicissitudes to which it has been subjected, has not lost
its fundamental characteristics. The political changes involved
in the Babylonian, Assyrian, Egyptian or Persian conquests
surely affected it as little as the subsequent waves of Greek,
Roman and other European invasions. Even during the tem-
porary Hellcnization in the second great period the character
of the people as a whole was untouched by the various external
influences which produced so great an effect on the upper classes.
When the foreign civilization perished, the old culture once more
came to the surface. Hence it is possible, by a comprehensive
comparative study of Eastern peoples, in both ancient and
modern times, to supplement and illustrate within certain
limits our direct knowledge of the early Jewish people, and
thus to understand more clearly those characteristics which were
n JEWS
* *> ** *W «• ****» t* *o» which they shared with
(OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
^c^ v^» *w* »*t >***** h^t*rv begins, the elements of religion
. **wt> »*vi ilieM^ cmtalhatd into a solid coherent struc-
*m ***"■ "^>vJi *%s t* r*«*^* without essential modification. Rell-
x *' : ^* ^** r««p*raM* tnxo ordinary life, and, like that of all
^ — ^"Lv* w**> «♦ vVp«*dent on the fruits of the earth, was a
#-*"*„ . ^ «vrv\ *v tw» tie between deities and worshippers
*• * T " j^i.AnI a* ph>*so*l and entailed mutual obligations. The
^ ** ;x o* t>* \i*a$r»up as an organization is as instructive
♦ l -'^ +% rt other Mds. The members of each group lived on
*~* ..»* ^ equality-, the families forming a society of worship
o4 *tu\h were conducted by the head. Such groups
*'*" f '^ ^ with ft* Kxal deity) would combine for definite purposes
<*^*J V , the impuls« of external needs, but owing to inevitable
* % *^ciw*l jeaVwue* and the incessant feuds among a people
*"* ^t*c fr^ discipline and authority, the unions were not
*^* v *anly luting. The elders of these groups possessed some
^■tvvc*^'. * m * tended to form an aristocracy, which took the
w- k a »* **"*** Ufc » ^tnougn their authority generally depended
*»ivW "P 011 custom.
Individual leaders in times of stress
*vM* iaxH * * recognized supremacy, and, once a tribe outstripped
ttw tv*t. the opportunities for continued advance gave further
..*» to their authority. "The interminable feuds of tribes,
\uuU»clcd on the theory of blood-revenge, ... can seldom
i^ durably healed without the intervention of a third party
«*ho 1* callw * in . M arbiter, and in this way an impartial and
(W npwcr acquires of necessity a great and beneficent influence
y, v *r »H Around it " (W. R. Smith). In time, notwithstanding a
-trtain inherent individualism and impatience of control, veri-
table despotisms arose in the Semitic world, although such
* ga ni*at» on8 were invariably liable to sudden collapse as the old
faint* of life broke down with changing conditions. 1
v £ jr ' y f^ry.*— Already in the 15th century B.C. Palestine
wat inhabited by a settled people whose language, thought and
K Ugto n xvere not radica Ny different several hundred years later.
Small native princes ruled as vassals of Egypt which, after
ixpeNing the Hyksos from its borders, had entered upon a series
0j conquests as far as the Euphrates. Some centuries pre-
viously, however, Babylonia had laid claim to the western states,
and the Babylonian {i.e. Assyrian) script and language were now
wed, not merely in the diplomatic correspondence between
Fgvpt and Asia, but also for matters of private and everyday
life among the Palestinian princes themselves. To what extent
Specific Babylonian influence showed itself in other directions
U not completely known. Canaan (Palestine and the south
Phoenician coast land) and Amor (Lebanon district and beyond)
were under the constant supervision of Egypt, and Egyptian
official* journeyed round to collect tribute, to attend to com-
phint*, and to assure themselves of the allegiance of the vassals.
The Amarna tablets and those more recently found at Taannek
(blbl. Taanach), together with the contemporary archaeological
evidence (from Lachish, Gezer, Mcgiddo, Jericho, &c), represent
Advanced conditions of life and culture, the precise chronological
limits of which cannot be determined with certainty. This
age, with its regular maritime intercourse between the Aegean
tctllrmtnts, Phoenicia and the Delta, and with lines of caravans
connecting Babylonia, North Syria, Arabia and Egypt, presents
1 remarkable picture of life and activity, in the centre of which
lie* Palestine, with here and there Egyptian colonies and some
tiace* of Egyptian cults. The history of this, the " Amarna "
a^ v tweak a state of anarchy in Palestine for which the weak-
ikw i< Kgypt and the downward pressure of north Syrian
4 0» iW hoiaewaeltv of the population, see further. W. R. Smith.
*..v* * •** wuim (and ed.. chaps, nu.); T. Ndkleke, Skekkts
• J ^ -»*'« ttufevw pfe t-ao (p n "Some Characteristics of the
V v \ w* " » *%dr**wci*Ny E. Meyer. Gesck. d. AlUrlums (2nd ed.,
. v -v *• » \ > w the relation between the geographical character-
s'* ^w*Vhi*ory . »ec C. A. SaMKHis^ricai Gtorraphy
in. 4*<*m*tic* <m» thU section tec Palestine: History,
. ».vsi jv4V».n«i ^ BaavLWiiA ako Assyria. Ecvrr.
peoples were responsible. Subdivided into a number of little
local principalities, Palestine was suffering both from interna]
intrigues and from the designs of this northern power. It is
now that we find the restless Qabiru, a name which is commonly
identified with that of the " Hebrews " ('i/wim). They offer
themselves where necessary to either party, and some at least
perhaps belonged to the settled population. The growing
prominence of the new northern group of " Hittite " states con-
tinued to occupy the energies of Egypt, and when again we have
more external light upon Palestinian history, the Hittites (?.t.)
are found strongly entrenched in the land. But by the end of
the first quarter of the 13th century B.C. Egypt had recovered its
province (precise boundary uncertain), leaving its rivals in pos-
session of Syria. Towards the close of the 13th century the
Egyptian king Merneptah (Mineptah) records a successful cam-
paign in Palestine, and alludes to the defeat of Canaan, Ascalon,
Gezer, Yenuam (in Lebanon) and (the people or tribe) Israel*
Bodies of aliens from the Levantine coast had previously
threatened Egypt and Syria, and at the beginning of the 1 2th
century they formed a coalition on land and sea which taxed
all the resources of Rameses III. In the Purasati, apparently
the most influential of these peoples, may be recognized the origin
of the name " Philistine." The Hittite power became weaker,
and the invaders, in spite of defeat, appear to have succeeded
in maintaining themselves on the sea coast. External history,
however, is very fragmentary just at the age when its evidence
would be most welcome. For a time the fate of Syria and Pales-
tine seems to have been no longer controlled by the great powers.
When the curtain rises again we enter upon the historical
traditions of the Old Testament.
4. Biblical History.— Tot the rest of the first period the Old
Testament forms the main source. It contains in fact the
history itself in two forms: (a) from the creation of man to
the fall of Judah (Genesis- 2 Kings), which is supplemented and
continued further — (b) to the foundation of Judaism in the
5th century B.C. (Chronicles— Ezra-Nehemiah). In the light of
contemporary monuments, archaeological evidence, the progress
of scientific knowledge and the recognized methods of modern
historical criticism, the representation of the origin of mankind
and of the history of the Jews in the Old Testament can no longer
be implicitly accepted. Written by an Oriental people and
clothed in an Oriental dress, the Old Testament docs not contain
objective records, but subjective history written and incorporated
for specific purposes. Like many Oriental works it is a compila-
tion, as may be illustrated from a comparison of Chronicles with
Samuel-Kings, and the representation of the past in the light of
the present (as exemplified in Chronicles) is a frequently recur-
ring phenomenon. The critical examination of the nature and
growth of this compilation has removed much that had formerly
caused insuperable difficulties and had quite unnecessarily been
made an integral or a relevant part of practical religion. On
the other hand, criticism has given a deeper meaning to the Old
Testament history, and has brought into relief the central
truths which really are vital; it may be said to have replaced
a divine account of man by man's account of the divine
Scholars are now almost unanimously agreed that the internal
features are best explained by the Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis.
This involves the view that the historical traditions are mainly
due to two characteristic though very complicated recensions,
one under the influence of the teaching of Deuteronomy (Joshua
to Kings, see I 20), the other, of a more priestly character
(akin to Leviticus), of somewhat later date (Genesis to Joshua,
with traces in Judges to Kings, see I 23). There are, of course,
numerous problems relating to the nature, limits and dates
of the two recensions, of the incorporated sources, and of other
sources (whether early or late) of independent origin; and here
there b naturally room for much divergence of opinion. Older
material (often of composite origin) has been used, not so much
for the purpose of providing historical information, as with
. the object of showing the religious significance of past history;
' Or land Israel. W. Spiegelberg, Orient. Lit. ZtiL xi (1908), cola.
403-405.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY)
and the series "
," prophets " i
one may ofter
early and un
reshaping of <
building up of
and a frequen
are to be supi
and poetic lite
various intern
The invest igat
trust worthines
dates and hca
historical tradi
of material ran
their bearing <
history, which
sources, dema
had an interes
requires a sy
thought, both
sity of employ
the theological
individual rcli
Testament. 1
In view of tfc
subjects,' the \
ditional history
theology (whi<
handled scpara
ture is enormoi
is indexed ann
usefully surama
the developmei
Study oj Holy S
historical work
ed., 1864-1868
Penrhyn Stanlc
works of J. Wcl
Eng trans.. 18!
the Ency. Brit.
preted to Engl
Jewish Church.
ed. by T. K. <
ofT KCheyn
Rosters, A. Ki
though varying
by reoeat schoi
Theological Lil
most serviceabl
M Ewald M is a
scholars who h
must suffice to
for O.T. Study
For the extc
Old Testament 1
helpful ; among
Prophecy and /<
G. Maspero. //
LickU d. Allen
Texte u. Bilder
and rh Ranke
Gescn. d. A Iter L
upon the lines
what narrow 1
necessity of or.
policy, and are
Schrader's worl
instructive ace
H. F. Hclmoll
1 It is useful
where, howeve
simpler than t
greater wealth
Gray, Contemp
Biblical Essays
* See primai
tents and liter
graphical, top
treatment of tl
Sacrifice).
JEWS 373
histories of any value are necessarily compromises between the
biblical traditions and the results of recent investigation, and those
studies which appear to depart most widely from the biblical or
•canonical representation often do greater justice to the evidence as
a whole than the slighter or more conservative and apologetic
reconstructions.* Scientific biblical historical study, nevertheless,
is still in a relatively backward condition , and although the labours
of scholars since Ewald constitute a distinct epoch, the trend of
research points to the recognition of the fact that the purely subjec-
tive literary material requires a more historical treatment in the light
of our increasing knowledge of external and internal conditions in
the old Oriental world. But an inductive and deductive treatment,
both comprehensive and in due proportion, does not as yet (1910)
exist, and awaits fuller external evidence. 4
5. Traditions of Origin.— The Old Testament preserves the
remains of an extensive hterature, representing different stand*
points, which passed through several hands before it reached hs
present form. Surrounded by ancient civilizations where writing
had long been known, and enjoying, as excavation has proved, a
considerable amount of material culture, Palestine could look
back upon a lengthy and stirring history which, however, has
rarely left its mark upon our records. Whatever ancient sources
may have been accessible, whatever trustworthy traditions were
in circulation, and whatever a knowledge of the ancient Oriental
world might lead one to expect, one is naturally restricted in
the first instance to those undated records which have survived
in the form which the last editors gave to them. The critical
investigation of these records is the indispensable prelude to
all serious biblical study, and hasty or sweeping deductions
from monumental or archaeological evidence, or versions com-
piled promiscuously from materials of distinct origin, are alike
hazardous. A glimpse at Palestine in the latter half of the
second millennium B.C. (5 3) prepares us for busy scenes and
active intercourse, but it is not a history of this kind which the
biblical historians themselves transmit. At an age when— on
literary-critical grounds— the Old Testament writings were
assuming their present form, it was possible to divide the im-
mediately preceding centuries into three distinct periods, (a) The
first, that of the two rival kingdoms: Israel (Ephraim or Samaria)
in the northern half of Palestine, and Judah in the south. Then
(6) the former lost its independence towards the close of the 8th
century B.C., when a number of its inhabitants were carried
away; and the latter shared the fate of exile at the beginning of
the 6th, but succeeded in making a fresh reconstruction some fifty
or sixty years later. Finally (c), in the so-called " post -exilic "
period, religion and life were reorganized under the influence of a
new spirit; relations with Samaria were broken off, and Judaism
took its definite character, perhaps about the middle or close
of the 5th century. Throughout these vicissitudes there were
important political and religious changes which render the study
of the composite sources a work of unique difficulty. In addition
to this it should be noticed that the term " Jew " (originally
Ycliitdi), in spite of Us wider application, means properly " man
of Judah," i.e. of that small district which, with Jerusalem as
its capital, became the centre of Judaism. The favourite name
M Israel " with all its religious and national associations is some-
what ambiguous in an historical sketch, since, although it is used
as opposed to Judah (a), it ultimately came to designate the true
nucleus of the worshippers of the national god Yahweh as op-
posed to the Samaritans, the later inhabitants of Israelite territory
(c). A more general terra is " Hebrew " (see Hebrew Languace),
which, whether originally identical with the rjabiru or not (( 3),
is used in contrast to foreigners, and this non-committal ethnic
• On the bearing of external evidence upon the internal biblical
records, see especially S. R. Driver's essay in Hogarth's Authority
and Archaeology; cf. also A. A. Bevan. Critical Review (1897), o. 406
sqq., 1898, pp. 131 sqq.); G. B. Gray. Expositor, May 1898; W. G>.
Jordan, Bto. Crit. and Modern Thought (1009). PP- 4* «W» .
4 For the sections which follow the present writer may be per-
mitted to refer to his introductory contributions in the Expositor
(June. too6; "The Criticism of the O.T"): the Jewish Quarterly
Review (July loos-January 1007 - Critical Notes on O.T. History*
especially sections vii.-ix.); July and October 1907, April 1908;
Amer. Journ. Theol. (July 1909. "Simeon and Levi: the Problem
of the Old Testament"); and Swete's Cambridge Btb. Essays,
pp. 54-89 (" The Present Stage of O.T. Research ").
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
of i proved his supremacy.
- <*W
and
-vwfui*** "
*.•*<*>
Bui »
, chancier-
..J »*** lave
• ^ ..* *c* Close
* * -v ** **■ Edora,
^ „ , , v «««*d when
" * " ^."^ *- - *r hrother of
' * * \ »„iv*v*Lot. Abra-
""* , . txxium, it was
* ^ . w > a*» Babylonia,
v *>,XM*t with his
v j it fc <* (Benjamin
*. jvv^w**** changed
^j v tn^Mp are in tbcm-
/„ -AV*Kx«iihe ancestors
\.. ■ v ok>^ are inherently
fc -1 o*.*-*: v*x which the (late)
J" s x k>* vui of the second
1. .^»-.*v^* ««e life of these
" .->*» * v*mhy «f independent
u v*»*.< *v. *wat*v*r historical
'" k ^ ** -M th* remote past
„.* *» **a u*<* in a very much
ac .**^iwHa narratives as a
N s, ,,„« « to wject them a«
•"'.».* '»v* arc **rtbed. and
► v " ^ „ i. v e«*iuially historical
„si i.st th< possibility or
i >. * *v *v> *j»pcrhend historical-
. *v****t that the trust-
er \» vu* JKvrftinj the whole.
„ ^•( , ; k-avc an historical
' w , , v »v i t.Wteal history it is
* , „V-. -' *v ; »«^»n "wy he clothed
" M * \» „mt ><• motives are often
" v "* ' v *..,*. wxii. 22-$2, xxxiv.,
,, ; vt*m (in view of the
* ' " ' 'i mMv. The patriarchal
* v ' KV *..»i* »«ork of tradition of
v xvx< M-mv of the elements lie
v "*\ x ^ ^.v almost immemorial.
" v i ,V b**>k of Jubilees, in
" . \ v>"" V^°th perhaps and
' * ' \"L iSWufih in Genesis the
*■""' a ^«an*r than Jubikr>).
* x * v , W rtl» or 6th cent. This
' rtH \*l v . vV *v» alone which are of
w *jrt >**! and tribal ancestors
* x v**l ** l0 * southward move-
■ *" ^ . ,to a district under the
■ ^ $***** * numerous people
*~* * \* W«C rr individual sons of
w*"* ^ oy Moses and Aaron;
* * *I.U* *ver forty years, the
* v '* ** the books Eaoduv
" " V * wt iff** 1 * date of the
^ ^aJ often conflicting
' j^p» due to some extent
- *^ *^i o* th* " exodus " is
--?d by covenant with
•v* of penl and need
In Moses ($.».) was seen the founder of
Israel's religion and laws; in Aaron (<?.?) the prototype of the
Israelite priesthood. Although it is difficult to determine the
true historical kernel, two features are most prominent in the
narratives which the post-exilic compiler has incorporated: the
revelation of Yah wen, and t he movement into Palest me. Yahweh
had admittedly been the God of Israel's ancestors, but his name
was only now made known (Exod. iii 13 sqq., vi. 2 seq ), and this
conception of a new era in Yahweh's relations with the people
is associated with the family of Moses and with small group*
from the south of Palestine which reappear in religious move-
ments in bier history (see Kenites). Amid a great variety of
motives the prominence of Kadesh' in south Palestine is to be
recognized, but it is uncertain what clans or tribes were at
Kadesh, and it is possible that traditions, originally confined to
those with whom the new conception of Yahweh is connected,
were subsequently adopted by others who came to regard them-
selves as the worshippers of the only true Yahweh. At all
events, two quite distinct views seem to underlie the opening
books of the Old Testament. The one associates itself with the
ancestors of the Hebrews and has an ethnic character. The
other, part of the religious history of " Israel," is essentially
bound up with the religious genius of the people, and is partly
connected with clans from the south of Palestine whose influence
appears in later times. Other factors in the literary growth of
the present narratives are not excluded (see further § 8, and
Exodus, The).'
6. The Monarchy of Israel.— The book of Joshua continues the
fortunes of the " children of Israel " and describes a successful
occupation of Palestine by the united tribes This stands in
striking contrast to other records of the partial successes of
individual groups (Judg. i.). The former, however, is based
upon the account of victories by the Ephraimite Joshua over
confederations of petty kings to the south and north of central
Palestine, apparently the specific traditions of the people of
Ephraim describing from their standpoint the entire conquest
of Palestine.* The book of Judges represents a period of unrest
after the settlement of the people. External oppression and
internal rivalries rent the Israelites, and in the religious philo-
sophy of a later (Deuteronomic) age the period is represented as
one of alternate apostasy from and of penitent return to the
Yahweh of the ** exodus." Some vague recollection of known
historical events (§ 3 end) might be claimed among the traditions
ascribed to the closing centuries of the second millennium, but
the view that the prelude to the monarchy was an era when
individual leaders " judged " all Israel finds no support in the
older narratives, where the heroes of the age (whose correct
sequence is uncertain) enjoy only a local fame. The best
historical narratives belong to Israel and Gilead; Judah scarcely
appears, and in a relatively old poetical account of a great fight
of the united tribes against a northern adversary lies outside the
writer's horizon or interest (Judg. v., see DeboeahV Stories
of successful warfare and of temporary leaders (sec Abimelech;
Ehvd; Gideon; Jephthah) form an introduction to the institu-
tion of the Israelite monarchy, an epoch of supreme importance
in biblical history. The heroic figure who stands at the bead
is Saul (" asked "), and two accounts of his rise are recorded.
(1) The Philistines, a foreign people whose presence in Palestine
* The story of Joseph has distinctive internal features of its o»n,
and appears to be from an kntepemJeat cycle, which has been used
to form a connecting link between the Settlement and the Exodus;
see also Ed. Meyer, Die Israelite* a. ihrt Nfhharstamme (1906),
pp. 22%. 4A5 : B. Luther, ibid. pp. 10S seq.. 14a sqq. Neither of the
poems in Dcut. xxxiL seq. alludes to an escape tram Egypt ; Israel
ts menly a iksert tribe inspired to settle in Palestine. Apparently
even the older accounts ol the exodus are not of very great anti-
quity; according to Jeremiah u. 2, 7 (cf. Hos. ii. 1$) some traditions
of the wikkrne»s must have represented Israel in a very favourable
light ; for the " canonical " view, see Eaekiel xvi., xa_, axiaL
•The capture of central Palestine itstlf is not recorded; ac-
cording to it» own traditions the district had been seized by Jacob
(Con. xkui. 22: cf. the late form of the tradition in Jubilees xxxiv.).
This conception of a conqjering hero U entirely distinct from the
narratives of the decent ol Jacob into Eg>pt, «c (see Meyer and
Luther, cp. til. pp. 1 10, 227 seq., 415, 43j).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
has already been noticed, had oppressed Israel (cf. Samson) until
a brilliant victory was gained by the prophet Samuel, some
account of whose early history is recorded. He himself held
supreme sway over all Israel as the last of the " judges " until
compelled to accede to the popular demand for a king. The
young Saul was chosen by lot and gained unanimous recognition
by delivering Jabesh in Gilcad from the Ammonites, (a) But
other traditions represent the people scattered and in hiding;
Israel is groaning under the Philistine yoke, and the unknown
Saul is raised up by Yahweh to save his people. This he accom-
plishes with the- help of his son Jonathan. The first account,
although now essential to the canonical history, dearly gives
a less authentic account of the change from the " judges " to the
monarchy, while the second is fragmentary and can hardly be
fitted into the present historical thread (see Saul). At all events
the first of a series of annalislic notices of the kings of Israel
ascribes to Saul conquests over the surrounding peoples to an
extent which implies that the district of Judah formed part of
his kingdom (x Sam. xiv. 47 seq). His might is attested also by
the fine elegy (2 Sam. L 10 sqq.) over the death of two great
Israelite heroes, Saul and Jonathan, knit together by mutual love,
inseparable in life and death, whose unhappy end after a career
of success was a national misfortune. Disaster had come upon
the north, and the plain of Jezreel saw the total defeat of the
king and the rout of his army. The court was hastily removed
across the Jordan to Mahanaim, where Saul's son Ishbaal
(Ish-bosbeth), thanks to his general Abner, recovered some of the
lost prestige. In circumstances which are not detailed, the
kingdom seems to have regained its strength, and Ishbaal is
credited with a reign of two years over Israel and Gilead (2 Sam.
•i. 8-10; contrast v. 11). But at this point the scanty annals are
suspended and the history of the age is given in more popular
sources. Both Israel and Judah had their own annals, brief
excerpts from which appear in the books of Samuel, Kings and
Chronicles, and they are supplemented by fuller narratives of dis-
tinct and more popular origin. The writings are the result of a
continued literary process, and the Israelite national history has
come down to us through Judaean hands.wiih the result that much
of it has been coloured by late Judaean feeling. It is precisely
in Saul's time that the account of the Judaean monarchy, or
perhaps of the monarchy from the Judaean standpoint, now
begins.
7. The Monarchy of Jttdah.—Certsim traditions of Judah and
Jerusalem appear to have looked back upon a movement from
the south, traces of which underlie the present account of the
" exodus." The land was full of " sons of Anak," giants who had
terrified the scouts sent from Kadesh. Caleb (q.v.) alone had
distinguished himself by his fearlessness, and the clan Caleb
drove them out from Hebron in south Judah (Josh. xv. 14 sqq.;
cf. also xi. 21 seq.). David and his followers are found in the
south of Hebron, and as they advanced northwards tbey en-
countered wondrous heroes between Gath and Jerusalem (2 Sam.
xxi. 15 sqq.; xxiii. 8 sqq.). After strenuous fighting the district
was cleared, and Jerusalem, taken by the sword, became the
capital. History saw in David the head of a lengthy line of
kings, the founder of the Judaean monarchy, the psalmist and
the priest-king who inaugurated religious institutions now
recognized to be of a distinctly later character. As a result of
this backward projection of later conceptions, the recovery of
the true historical nucleus is difficult. The prominence of Jeru-
salem, the centre of post-exilic Judaism, necessarily invited
reflection. Israelite tradition had ascribed the conquest of
Jerusalem, Hebron and other cities of Judah to the Ephraimite
Joshua; Judaean tradition, on the other hand, relates the capture
of the sacred city from a strange and hostile people (2 Sam. v.).
The famous city, within easy reach of the southern desert and
central Palestine (to Hebron and to Samaria the distances are
about 1 8 and 35 miles respectively), had already entered into Pales-
tinian history in the " Amarna "age (} 3). Anathoth, a few miles
to the north-east, points to the cult of the goddess Anath, the
near-lying Nob has suggested the name of the Babylonian Nebo,
and the neighbouring, though unidentified, Beth-Ninib of the
JEWS 375
Amarna tablets may indicate the worship of a Babylonian war
and astral god (cf. the solar name Beth-Shcmesh). Such was the
religious environment of the ancient city which was destined to
become the centre of Judaism. Judaean tradition dated the
sanctity of Jerusalem from the installation of the ark, a sacred
movable object which symbolized the presence of Yahweh. It
is associated with the half-nomad clans in the south of Palestine,
or with the wanderings of David and his own priest Abiathar;
it is ultimately placed within the newly captured city. Quite
another body of tradition associates it with the invasion of all
the tribes of Israel from beyond the Jordan (see Ark). To
combine the heterogeneous narratives and isolated statements
into a consecutive account is impossible; to igrtore those which
conflict with the now predominating views would be unmetho-
dical. When the narratives describe the life of the young David
at the court of the first king of the northern kingdom, when the
scenes cover the district which he took with the sword, and when
the brave Saul is represented in an unfavourable light, one must
allow for the popular tendency to idealize great figures, and for
the Judaeap origin of the compilation. To David is ascribed
the sovereignty over a united people. But the stages in his
progress are not clear. After being the popular favourite of
Israel in the little district of Benjamin, he was driven away by
the jealousy and animosity of Saul. Gradually strengthening
his position by alliance with Judaean clans, he became king at
Hebron at the time when Israel suffered defeat in the north.
His subsequent advance to the kingship over Judah and Israel
at Jerusalem is represented as due to the weak condition of
Israel, facilitated by the compliance of Abner; partly, also, to
the long-expressed wish of the Israelites that their old hero should
reign over them. Yet again, Saul had been chosen by Yahweh
to free his people from the Philistines; he had been rejected for
his sins, and had suffered Continuously from this enemy; Israel
at his death was left in the unhappy state in which he had found
it ; it was the Judaean David, the faithful servant of Yahweh,
who was now chosen to deliver Israel, and to the last the people
gratefully remembered their debt. David accomplished the
conquests of Saul but on a grander scale; " Saul hath slain his
thousands and David his tens of thousands'* is the popular
couplet comparing the relative merits of the rival dynasts. A
series of campaigns against Edom, Moab, Ammon and the
Aramaean states, friendly relations with Hiram of Tyre, and
the, recognition of his sovereignty by the king of Hamath
on the Orontes, combine to portray a monarchy which was the
ideal.
But in passing from the books of Samuel, with their many rich
and vivid narratives, to the books of Kings, we enter upon
another phase of literature; it is a different atmosphere, due to
the character of the material and the aims of other compilers
(see § beginning). David, the conqueror, was followed by bis
son Solomon, famous for his wealth, wisdom and piety, above all
for the magnificent Temple which he built at Jerusalem. Phoe-
nician artificers were enlisted for t he purpose, and with Phoenician
sailors successful trading-journeys were regularly undertaken.
Commercial intercourse with Asia Minor, Arabia, Tarshish
(probably in Spain) and Ophir {q.v.) filled his cotters, and his
realm extended from the Euphrates to the border of Egypt.
Tradition depicts him as a worthy successor to his father, and
represents a state of luxury and riches impressive to all who were
familiar with the great Oriental courts. The commercial activity
of the king and the picture of intercourse and wealth are quite
in accordance with what is known of the ancient monarchies,
and could already be illustrated from the Amarna age. Judah
and Israel dwelt at ease, or held the superior position of military
officials, while the earlier inhabitants of the land were put to
forced labour. But another side of the picture shows the
domestic intrigues which darkened the last days of David. The
accession of Solomon had not been without bloodshed, and
Judah, together with David's old general Joab and his faithful
priest Abiathar, were opposed to the son of a woman who had
been the wife of a Hittitc warrior. The era of the Temple of
Jerusalem starts with a new regime, another captain of the army
37f>
JEWS
and another priest. Nevertheless, the enmity of Judah is passed
over, and when the kingdom is divided for administrative pur-
poses into twelve districts, which ignore the tribal divisions,
the centre of David's early power is exempt from the duty
of providing supplies (i Kings iv.). Yet again, the approach of
the divided monarchy is foreshadowed. The employment of
Judaeans and Israelites for Solomon's palatial buildings, and the
heavy taxation for the upkeep of a court which was the wonder
of the world, caused grave internal discontent. External rela-
tions, too, were unsatisfactory. The Edomites, who had been
almost extirpated by David in the valley of Salt, south of the Dead
Sea, were now strong enough to seek revenge; and the powerful
kingdom of Damascus, whose foundation is ascribed to this
period, began to threaten Israel on the north and north-east.
These troubles, we learn, had affected all Solomon's reign, and
even Hiram appears to have acquired a portion of Galilee. In
the approaching disruption writers saw the punishment for the
king's apostasy, and they condemn the sanctuaries in Jerusalem
which he erected to the gods of his heathen wives. Nevertheless,
these places of cult remained some 300 years until almost the
dose of the monarchy, when their destruction is attributed to
Josiah (§ 16). When at length Solomon died the opportunity
was at once seized to request from his son Rehoboam a more
generous treatment. The reply is memorable: " My little finger
is thicker than my father's loins; my father chastised you with
whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions." These words were
calculated to inflame a people whom history proves to have been
haughty and high-spirited, and the great Israel renounced its
union with the small district of Judah. Jeroboam (g.v.), once one
of Solomon's officers, became king over the north, and thus the
fe&ory of the divided monarchy begins (about 930 B.C.) with the
Israelite power 00 both sides of the Jordan and with Judah
extending southwards from a point a few miles north of Jerusalem.
y previous to
lace in current
•nt deals with
I period, from
py only about
ad over some
ivs of the later
early history
ig of national
:al treatment,
1 explanation,
ital events in
ig contrast to
od — evidence.
Where the
where external
aractcr of the
iditions up to
It is naturally
int as notion;
ihy. But the
1 a continuous
text of events
The northern
I in this, as in
le precise part
later views of
nee that the
raditions.havc
ilar authority,
irst monarchy
ig conceptions
l; Solomon).
xts, and they
• a very trust-
tough the rise
were quiescent
have appeared
probable that
wo kingdoms,
ater historical
provisionally
■es which may
1 only external
d and appear
factory sketch
tul narratives,
(OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
(b) the exodus from Egypt and the Israelite invasion, and U) the
rise of the monarchy. As regards (b), external evidence has already
suggested to scholars that there were Israelites in Palestine before
the invasion; internal historical criticism is against the view that all
the tribes entered under Joshua; and in (a) there are traces of an
actual settlement in the land, entirely distinct from the cycle of
narratives which prepare the way for (6). The various reconstruc-
tions and compromises by modern apologetic and critical writers
alike involve without exception an extremely free treatment of the
biblical sources and the rejection of many important and circum-
stantial data. 1 On the one hand, a sweeping invasion of all the
tribes of Israel moved by a common zeal may, like the conquests of
Islam, have produced permanent results. According to this view
the enervating luxury of Palestinian culture almost destroyed
the lofty ideal monotheism inculcated in the desert, and after the
fall of the northern tribes (latter part of the 8th cent.) Judah is
naturally regarded as the sole heir. But such a conquest, and all
that it signifies, conflict both with external evidence (e g . the malts
of excavation), and with any careful inspection of the narratives
themselves. On the other hand, the reconstructions which allow a
gradual settlement (perhaps of distinct groups), and an intermingling
with the earlier inhabitants, certainly find support in biblical
evidence, and they have been ingeniously built up with the help of
tribal and other data (e.g. Gen. xxxiv., xxxviii.; Judg. i. ix.). But
they imply political, sociological and religious developments which
do nnt An iustice either to the biblical evidence a* a whole Or to a
co rhus, one of
th ho had taken
pa d not. This
in of Israel and
Jt used endless
pc and of Saul
th 1 as part of
Is in (a). But
th e unification
of \ the heritage
to lean editors,
pt ' difficult to
ui attion in the
hi s a religious
tx uibsequently
le t has not the
pi ' Judah and
Jc rnt evidence
w rnal features
of naturally be
h: dered in the
lif elite exodus,
ar erned with a
cc cs (partly of
n< tive written
sc 1 mental and
at „ . . lection from
aocessibtesourccs. The true nature of this relation can be readily
observed in other fields (ancient Britain, Greece, Egypt. &c),
where, however, the native documents and sources have not that
complexity which characterises the composite biblical history. (For
the period under review, as it appears in the light of existing external
evidence, see Palestine: History.)
0. The Rival Kingdoms.— The Palestine of the Hebrews was
but part of a great area breathing the same atmosphere, and there
was little to distinguish Judah from Israel except when they were
distinct political entities. The history of the two kingdoms is
contained in Kings and the later and relatively less trustworthy
Chronicles, which deals with Judah alone. In the former a
separate history of the northern kingdom has been combined
with Judaean history by means of synchronisms in accordance
with a definite scheme. The 480 years from the foundation of the
temple of Jerusalem back to the date of the exodus (1 Kings vi. 1)
corresponds to the period forward to the return from the exile
(J 20). This falls into three equal divisions, of which the fiat
ends with Jehoash's temple-reforms and the second with Hexe-
kiah's death. The kingdom of Israel lasts exactly half the time.
1 This is especially true ol the various ingenious ai tempts to com*
bine the invasion of the Israelites with the movements of the rjabiru
in the Amarna period (5 X).
' cf. Wincklcr. Keil. *. das A lie TesL p. 21 a seq. ; also his " Der alte
Orient und dicGeschkhtsforschung " in Mttlettungtn der Vorder&sial.
Ctsellukajl (Berlin, 1906) and ReligtoHSgesckuktluher u.jteuk. Orient
(Leipzig, 1906), A. Jercmias. AlU Test, (p. 464 scq.), E. Baentsch,
Aliontnt. u. xsraet. Monothcismus (pp. 53, 79. 105. &c); also Tkeotog.
Lit. BlaU (1907) No. 19. On the reconstructions of the tribal
history, see especially T K. Cheyne, Ency. Btb. art. " Tribes." The
most suggestive study of the pre-monarchical narratives is that of
E. Meyer and B. Luther (above; see the former's criticisms on the
reconstructions, pp. 50, 251 sqq., 422, n. 1 and passim).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY!
Of the 240 years from Jeroboam I., 80 elapse before the Syrian
wars in Ahab's reign, these cover another 80; the famous king
Jeroboam II. reigns 40 years, and 40 years of decline bring the
kingdom to an end. These figures speak for themselves, and the
present chronology can be accepted only where it is indepen-
dently proved to be trustworthy (see further W. R. Smith,
Prophets of Israel, pp. 144-149). Next, the Judaean compiler
regularly finds in Israel's troubles the punishment for its schis-
matic idolatry; nor docs he spare Judah, but judges its kings by
a standard which agrees with the standpoint of Deuteronomy
and is scarcely earlier than the end of the 7th century B.C.
(§} 16, 20). But the history of (north) Israel had naturally its
own independent political backgrounds and the literary sources
contain the same internal features as the annals and prophetic
narratives which are already met with in x Samuel. Similarly
the thread of the Judaean annals in Kings is also found in
2 Samuel, although the supplementary narratives in Kings are not
so rich or varied as the marc popular records in the preceding
books. The striking differences between Samuel and Kings are
due to differences in the writing of the history; independent
Israelite records having been incorporated with those of Judah
and supplemented (with revision) from the Judaean standpoint
(see Chronicles; Kings; Samuel).
The Judaean compiler, with his history of the two kingdoms,
looks back upon the time when each laid the foundation of its
subsequent fortunes. His small kingdom of Judah enjoyed an
unbroken dynasty which survived the most serious crises, a
temple which grew in splendour and wealth under royal patron-
age, and a legitimate priesthood which owed its origin to
Zadok, the successful rival of David's priest Abiaihar. Israel,
on the other hand, had signed its death-warrant by the institu-
tion of calf-cult, a cult which, however, was scarcely recognized
as contrary to the worship of Yahwch before the denunciations
of Hosea. The scantiness of political information and the dis-
tinctive arrangement of material preclude the attempt to trace
the relative position of the two rivals. Judah had natural
connexions with Edom and southern Palestine; Israel was more
closely associated with Gilcad and the Aramaeans of the north.
That Israel was the stronger may be suggested by the acquies-
cence of Judah in the new situation. A diversion was caused
by Shishak's invasion, but of this reappearance of Egypt after
nearly three centuries of inactivity little is preserved in biblical
history. Only the Temple records recall the spoliation of the
sanctuary of Jerusalem, and traditions of Jeroboam I. show
that Shishak's prominence was well known. 1 Although both
kingdoms suffered, common misfortune did not throw them
together. On the contrary, the statement that there was con-
tinual warfare is supplemented in Chronicles by the story of a
victory over Israel by Abijah the son of Rehoboam. Jeroboam's
son Nadab perished in a conspiracy whilst besieging the Philistine
city of Gibbet hon, and Baasha of (north) Israel seized the throne.
His reign is noteworthy for the entrance of Damascus into
Palestinian politics. Its natural fertility and its commanding
position at the meeting-place of trade-routes from every quarter
made it a dominant factor until its overthrow. In the absence
of its native records -its relations with Palestine are not always
clear, but it may be supposed that amid varying political changes
it was able to play a double game. According to the annals,
incessant war prevailed between Baasha and Abijah 's successor,
Asa. It is understood that the former was in league with
Damascus, which had once been hostile to Solomon (1 Kings
xL 24 seq.) — it is not stated upon whom Asa could rely. How-
ever, Baasha at length seized Ramah about five miles north of
Jerusalem, and the very existence of Judah was threatened. Asa
utilized the treasure of the Temple and palace to induce the
Syrians to break off their relations with Baasha. These sent
troops to harry north Israel, and Baasha was compelled to retire.
Asa, it is evident, was too weak to achieve the remarkable victory
ascribed to him in 2 Chron. xiv. (see Asa). As for Baasha, his
1 2 Chron. xii. 8, which is independent of the chronicler's artificial
treatment of his material, apparently points to some tradition of
Egyptian suzerainty.
JEWS 377
short-lived dynasty resembles that of his predecessors. His son
Elah had reigned only two years (like lshbaal and Nadab) when
he was slain in the midst of a drunken carousal by bis captain
Zimri. Meanwhile the Israelite army was again besieging the
Philistines at Gibbethon, and the recurrence of these conflicts
points to a critical situation in a Danitc locality In which Judah
itself (although ignored by the writers), must have been vitally
concerned. The army preferred their general Omri, and march-
ing upon Zimri at Tirzah burnt the palace over his bead. A
fresh rival immediately appeared, the otherwise unknown Tibni,
son of Ginath. Israel was divided into two camps, until, on the
death of Tibni and his brother Joram, Omri became sole king
(c. 887 B.C.). The scanty details of these important events
must naturally be contrasted with the comparatively full
accounts of earlier Philistine wars and internal conflicts in
narratives which date from this or even a later age.
10. TIte Dynasty of Omri. — Omri (q.v.), the founder of one* of
the greatest dynasties of Israel, was contemporary with the
revival of Tyre under Itbobaal, and the relationship between
the states is seen in the marriage of Omri's son Ahab to Jezebel,
the priest-king's daughter. His most notable recorded achieve-
ment was the subjugation of Moab and the seizure of part of its
territory. The discovery of the inscription of a later king of
Moab (q.v.) has proved that the cast-Jordanic tribes were no
uncivilized or barbaric folk; material wealth, a considerable
religious and political organization, and the cultivation of
letters (as exemplified in the style of the inscription) portray
conditions which allow us to form some conception of life in
Israel itself. Moreover, Judah (now under Jehoshaphat) enjoyed
intimate relations with Israel during Omri's dynasty, and the
traditions of intermarriage, and of co-operation in commerce and
war, imply what was practically a united Palestine. Alliance
with Phoenicia gave the impulse to extended intercourse; trading
expeditions were undertaken from the Gulf of Akaba, and Ahab
built himself a palace decorated with ivory. The cult of the Baal
of Tyre followed Jezebel to the royal city Samaria and even found
its way into Jerusalem. This, the natural result of matrimonial
and political alliance, already met with under Solomon, receives
the usual denunciation. The conflict between Yahweh and Baal
and the defeat of the latter are the characteristic notes of the
religious history of the period, and they leave their impression
upon the records, which are now more abundant. Although
little is preserved of Omri's history, the fact that the northern
kingdom long continued to be called by the Assyrians after his
name is a significant indication of his great reputation. Assyria*
was now making itself felt in the west for the first time since the
days of Tiglath-Pileser I. (c. 1 100 B.C.), and external sources come
to our aid. Assur-nazir-pal III. had exacted tribute from north
Syria (c 870 B.C.), and his successor Shalmaneser II., in the
course of a scries of expeditions, succeeded in gaining the greater
part of that land. A defensive coalition was formed in which
the kings of Cilicia, Hamath, the Phoenician coast, Damascus
and Ammon, the Arabs of the Syrian desert, and " Ahabbu
Sirlai " were concerned. In the last, we must recognize the
Israelite Ahab. His own contribution of 10,000 men and 1 2,000
chariots perhaps included levies from Judah and Moab (cf. for the
number 1 Kings x. 26). In 854 the allies at least maintained
themselves at the battle of Karkar (perhaps Apamea to the north
of Hamath). In 849 and 846 other indecisive battles were fought,
but the precise constitution of the coalition is not recorded. In
842 Shalmaneser records a campaign against Hazael of Damascus;
no coalition is mentioned, although a battle was fought at Sanir
(Hermon, Deut. iii. 9), and the cities of Hauran to the south of
Damascus were spoiled. Tribute was received from Tyre and
Sidon; and Jehu, who was now king of Israel, sent his gifts of
gold, silver, &c, to the conqueror. The Assyrian inscription
(the so-called " Black Obelisk " now in the British Museum),
which records the submission of the petty kings, gives an inter-
esting representation of the humble Israelite emissaries with
their long fringed robes and strongly marked physiognomy (see
Costume, fig. 9). Yet another expedition in 839 would seem to
* Sec for chronology, Badylonia and Assyria, $$ v. and viii.
37»
JEWS
show that Damascus was neither crushed nor helpless, but thence-
forth for a number of years Assyria was fully occupied elsewhere
and the west was left to itself. The value of this external evi-
dence for the history of Israel is enhanced by the fact that biblical
tradition associates the changes in the thrones of Israel and
Damascus with the work of the prophets Elijah and Elisha, but
handles the period without a single reference to the Assyrian
Empire. Ahab, it seems, had aroused popular resentment by
encroaching upon the rights of the people to their landed posses-
sions; had it not been for Jezebel (q.v.) the tragedy of Naboth
would not have occurred. The worship of Baal of Tyre roused
a small circle of zealots, and again the Phoenician marriage was
the cause of the evil. We read the history from the point of
view of prophets. Elijah of Gilead led the revolt. To one who
favoured simplicity of cult the new worship was a desecration of
Yahweh, and, braving the anger of the king and queen, he fore-
shadowed their fate. Hostility towards the dynasty culminated
a few years later in a conspiracy which placed on the throne the
general Jehu, the son of one Jehoshaphat (or, otherwise, of
Nimshi). The work which Elijah began was completed by
Elisha, who supported Jehu and the new dynasty. A massacre
ensued in which the royal families of Israel and Judah perished.
While the extirpation of the cult of Baal was furthered in Israel
by Jonadab the Rechabitc, it was the " people of the land " who
undertook a similar reform in Judah. Jehu (q.v.) became king
as the champion of the purer worship of Yahweh. The descen-
dants of the detested Phoenician marriage were rooted out, and
unless the close intercourse between Israel and Judah had been
suddenly broken, it would be supposed that the new king at
least laid claim to the south. The events form one of the
fundamental problems of biblical history.
ii. Damascus, Israd and Judah. — The appearance of Assyria
in the Mediterranean coast-lands had produced the results
which inevitably follow when a great empire comes into contact
with minor states. It awakened fresh possibilities — successful
combination against a common foe, the sinking of petty rivalries,
the chance of gaining favour by a neutrality which was scarcely
benevolent. The alliances, counter-alliances and far-reaching
political combinations which spring up at every advance of the
greater powers are often perplexing in the absence of records of
the states concerned. Even the biblical traditions alone do not
always represent the same attitude, and our present sources pre-
serve the work of several hands. Hazael of Damascus, Jehu of
Israel and Elisha the prophet are the three men of the new age
linked together in the words of one writer as though commissioned
for like ends (i Kings xix. 15-17). Hostility to Phoenicia {i.e.
the Baal of Tyre) is as intelligible as a tendency to look to Ara-
maean neighbours. Though Elisha sent to anoint Jehu as king,
he was none the less on most intimate terms with Bar-hadad
(Old. Test. Bcn-hadad) of Damascus and recognized Hazael as
its future ruler. It is a natural assumption that Damascus
could still count upon Israel as an ally in 842; not until the with-
drawal of Assyria and the accession of Jehu did the situation
change. "In those days Yahweh began to cut short" (or.
altering the text, M to be angry with ") " Israel." This brief
notice heralds the commencement of Hazael's attack upon
Israelite territory east of the Jordan (2 Kings x. 3 2). The origin
of the outbreak is uncertain. It has been assumed that Israel
had withdrawn from the great coalition, that Jehu sent tribute
to Shalmancser to obtain that monarch's recognition, and that
Hazael consequently seized the first opportunity to retaliate.
Certain traditions, it is true, indicate that Israel had been at war
with the Aramaeans from before 854 to 842, and that Hazael
was attacking Gilead at the time when Jehu revolted; but in
the midst of these are other traditions of the dose and friendly
relations between Israel and Damascus! With these perplexing
data the position of Judah is inextricably involved.
The special points which have to be noticed in the records for
this brief period (1 Kings rvii.-a Kings xi.) concern lx>th literary
and historical criticism. 1 A number of narratives illustrate* the
•See Jew. Quart. Rev. (1908), pp. 597-630. The independent
Israelite traditions which here become more numerous have points
(OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
ical records appear
Elisha). If Elijah
lisha is no less the
rxtremely probable
ch he inaugurated.*
which he possesses
t the rise of Jehu,
h Damascus before
trate. But Ahab's
I with the Assyrian
anonymous, agree
be serious conflicts
, the account of the
I and Israel against
i death, and again
shortly before the
I they can hardly
54 and 84a or with
all the traditions
and ludah at this
r the fact that the
ainly independent.
Thus we may contrast the favourable Judaean view of Jehoshaphat
with the condemnation passed upon Ahab and Jezebej, whose
daughter Athaliah married Jehoram. son of Jehoshaphat. It is
noteworthy, also, that an Ahaziah and a Jehoram appear as kings of
Israel, and (in the reverse order) of Judah, and somewhat similar
incidents recur in the now separate histories of the two kingdoms.
The most striking is a great revolt in south Palestine. The alliance
between Jehoshaphat and Ahab doubtless continued when the latter
was succeeded by his son Ahaziah, and some disaster befell their
trading fleet in the Culf of Alcaba (1 Kings xxii. 48 seq. ; 2 Chron. xx.
J5-J7)- Next came the revolt of Moab (2 Kings i. 1). and Ahaziah,
-f. .1 u_:_r » _r : r-ii i i i~i.~-_ _u~_^ i„j— .-
bu
\'i
prophets were sent to bring 'them back But they turned a deaf ear.
The climax of iniquity was the murder of Jehoiada's son Zechariah.
Soon after, a small band of Syrians entered 'Judah, destro y ed its
princes, and sent the spoil to the king of Damascus; the disaster is
regarded asa prompt retribution (a Chron- xxiv.). The inferiority of
Chronicles as a historical source and its varied examples of " ten*
dency-writing " must be set against its possible access to traditions
of contact with those of Saul in 1 Samuel, and the relation is highly
suggestive for the study of their growth, as also for the perspective
of the various writers.
'See W. R. Smith (after Kuencn), Ency. Bib., col. 2670; also
W. E. Addis, ib, 1276, the commentaries of Bcnzinger (p. 130) and
Kittcl (pp. 153 sco,.) on Kings; J. S. Strachan, Hastings's Diet. BibU,
i. 694; G. A. Smith, Hist. Ceog. of Holy Land, p. 582; Kdnig and
Hirsch. Jew. Ency. v. 137 scq. (" legend ...as indifferent to accuracy
in dates as it is to dcfinitcnc&s of places and names ") ; W. R. Harper,
Amos and lioiea, p. xli. seq. (" the lack of chronological order ....
the result is to create a wrong impression of Elisha 's career ").
The bearing of this displacement upon the literary and historical
criticism of the narratives has never been worked out.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
as trustworthy as those in Kings. 1 In the present instance the
novel details cannot be lightly brushed aside. The position of
Judah at this period must be estimated (a) from the preceding
years of intimate relationship with Israel to the accession of Jehu, and
\b) from the calamity about half a century later when Jerusalem
was sacked by Israel. The ludaean narratives do not allow us to
fill the gap or to determine whether ludaean policy under the regent
jchoiada would be friendly or hostile to Israel, or whether Judacan
nobles may have severed the earlier bond of union. If the latter
actually occurred, the hostility of the Israelite prophets is only to be
expected. But it is to be presumed that the punishment came from
Israel— the use of Syrian mercenaries not excluded — and if. instead
of using his treasure to ward off the invasion of Syria, Jehoash bribed
Damascus to break off relations with Israel, an alternative explana-
tion of the origin of the Aramaean wars may be found."
1 2. The A ratnacan Wars. — If the records leave it uncertain (a)
whether Jehu (like Tyre and Sidon) sent tribute to Shalmancser
as a sign of submission or, while severing relations with Hazael,
sought the favour of Assyria, and (b) whether Judah only es-
caped Hazael 's vengeance by a timely bribe or, in freeing itself
from Israel, had bribed Hazael to create a diversion, it appears
that the southern kingdom suffered little in the disastrous wars
between Damascus and Israel. There were, indeed, internal
troubles, and Jehoash perished in a conspiracy. His son
Amaziah had some difficulty in gaining the kingdom and showed
unwonted leniency in sparing the children of his father's mur-
derers. This was a departure from the customs of the age, and
was perhaps influenced less by generosity than by expediency.
Israel, on the other hand, was almost annihilated. The Syrians
seized Gilead, crossed over into Palestine, and occupied the land.
Jehu's son Jehoahaz saw his army made " like the dust in thresh-
ing," and the desperate condition of the country recalls the
straits in the time of Saul (i Sam. xiii. 6, 7, 19-2 2), and the days
before the great overthrow of the northern power as described
in Judges v. 6-8. The impression left by the horrors of the
age is clear from the allusions to the barbarities committed by
Damascus and its Ammonite allies upon Cilcad (Amos i. 3, 13),
and in the account of the interview between Elisha and Hazael
(2 Kings viii. is). Several of the situations can be more vividly
realized from the narratives of Syrian wars ascribed to the time
of Omri's dynasty, even if these did not originally refer to the
later period. Under Joash, son of Jehoahaz, the tide turned.
Elisha was apparently the champion, and posterity told of his
exploits when Samaria was visited with the sword. Thrice
Joash smote the Syrians — in accordance with the last words of
the dying prophet— and Aphek in the Sharon plain, famous in
history for Israel's disasters, now witnessed three victories.
The enemy under Hazael's son Ben-hadad (properly Bar-hadad)
was driven out and Joash regained the territory which his father
had lost (3 Kings xiii. 25); it may reasonably be supposed that a
treaty was concluded (cf. x Kings xx. 34). But the peace docs
not seem to have been popular. The story of the last scene in
Elisha's life implies in Joash an easily contented disposition
which hindered him from completing his successes. Syria
had not been crushed, and the failure to utilize the opportunity
was an act of impolitic leniency for which Israel was bound to
suffer (2 Kings xiii. 19). Elisha's indignation can be illustrated
by the denunciation passed upon an anonymous king by the
prophetic party on a similar occasion (1 Kings xx. 35~43)-
At this stage it is necessary to notice the fresh invasion of Syria
by Hadad (Adad)-nirari, who besieged Man, king of Damascus,
and exacted a heavy tribute (c. 800 B.C.). A diversion of this
kind may explain the Israelite victories; the subsequent with-
drawal of Assyria may have afforded the occasion for retaliation.
Those in Israel who remembered the previous war between
1 Careful examination shows that no a priori distinction can
be drawn between "trustworthy" books of Kings and "untrust-
worthy books " of Chronicles. Although the latter have special late
and unreliable features, they agree with the former in presenting the
same general trend of past history. The "canonical " history in
Kings is further embellished in Chronicles, but the gulf between them
is not so profound as that between the former and the under-
lying and naif-suppressed historical traditions which can still be
recognized. (See also Palestine : History.)
* For the former (2 Kings xii. 17 seq.) cf. Hezekiah and Sen-
nacherib (xviii. 13-15), and for the latter, cf. Asa and Baasha
(1 Kings xv. 18-20; above).
JEWS 379
Assyria and Damascus would realize the recuperative power of
the latter, and would perceive the danger of the short-sighted
policy of Joash. It is interesting to find that Hadad-nirari
claims tribute from Tyre, Sidon and Betn-Omri (Israel), also
from Edom and Palastu (Philistia). There are no signs of an
extensive coalition as in the days of Shalmaneser; Ammon is
probably included under Damascus; the position of Moab —
which had freed itself from Jehoram of Israel — can hardly be
calculated. But the absence of Judah is surprising. Both
Jehoash (of Judah) and his son Amaziah left behind them a great
name; and the latter was comparable only to David (2 Kings
xiv. 3). He defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt, and hence it
is conceivable that Amaziah 's kingdom extended over both Edom
and Philistia. A vaunting challenge to Joash (of Israel) gave
rise to one of the two fables that are preserved in the Old Testa-
ment (Judg, ix. 8 sqq.; see Abimxlech). It was followed by
a battle at Beth-shemesh; the scene would suggest that Philistia
also was involved. The result was the route of J udah, the capture
of Amaziah, the destruction of the northern wall of Jerusalem, the
sacking of the temple and palace, and the removal of hostages to
Samaria (2 Kings xiv. is sqq.). Only a few words arc preserved,
but the details, when carefully weighed, are extremely significant.
This momentous event for the southern kingdom was scarcely
the outcome of a challenge to a trial of strength; it was rather the
sequel to a period of smouldering jealousy and hostility.
The Judacan records have obscured the history since the days of
Omri's dynasty, when Israel and Judah were as one, when they
were moved by common aims and t>y a angle reforming zeal, and
on' " the measure of the injuries she had
re< ompiler has not given fuller informa-
tic ider is that he should have given so
mi h-making facts in the light of which
th the preceding and following years
mi 1, strangely enough, from an Israelite
soi is quite dispassionate and objective.
It -ccive that tnc position of Jerusalem
an : of independence, and the conflicting
ch attempt to maintain intact the thread
of i« one hand, the year of the disaster
se< ing, and Amaziah survives for fifteen
yc inty-seven years elapse between the
Da nan, the next king of Judah.'
torical questions regarding relations
be Judah is clear. The defeat of Syria
by ., „. , final. The decisive victories were
gained by Jeroboam II. He saved Israel from being blotted out,
and through his successes " the children of Israel dwelt in their tents
as of old ' (2 Kings xiii. 5, xiv. 26 seq.). Syria must have resumed
warfare with redoubled energy, and a state of affairs is presup-
posed which can be pictured with the help of narratives that deal
with similar historical situations. In particular, the overthrow
of Israel as foreshadowed in 1 Kings xxit. implies an Aramaean
invasion (cf. vo. 17. 25), after a treaty (xx. 35 »qq-). although this
can scarcely be justified by the events which followed the death of
Ahab, in whose time they are now placed.
For the understanding of these great wars between Syria and
Israel (which the traditional chronology spreads over eighty years),
for the significance of the crushing defeats and inspiring victories,
and for the alternations of despair and hope, a careful study of all
the records of relations between Israel and the north is at least
instructive, and it is important to remember that, although the
present historical outlines are scanty and incomplete, some — if not
all— of the analogous descriptions in their present form are certainly
later than the second half ot the 9th century B.C., the period in which
these great events fall. 4
13. Political Development. — Under Jeroboam II. the borders
of Israel were restored, and in this political revival the prophets
again took part. 1 The defeat of Ben-hadad by the king of
• It is possible that Hadad-nirari's inscription refers to conditions
in the latter part of his reign (812-783 B.C.). when Judah apparently
was no longer independent and when Jeroboam II. was king of
Israel. The accession of the latter has been placed between 785 and
782. It is now known, also, that Ben-hadad and a small coalition
were defeated by the king of Hamath; but the bearing of this upon
Israelite history is uncertain.
• Cf. generally, 1 Sam. iv., xxxi.; 2 Sam. ii. 8; 1 Kings xx., xxii.;
2 Kings vi. 8-vii. 20; also Judges v. (see Deborah).
• Special mention is made of Jonah, a prophet of Zebulun in
(north) Israel (2 Kings xiv. 25). Nothing is known of him, unless
the very late prophetical writing with the account of his visit to
Nineveh rests upon some old tradition, which, however, can scarcely
be recovered (see Jonah).
3&o
JEWS
(OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
Hamath and the quiescence of Assyria may have encouraged
Israelite ambitions, but until more is known of the campaigns
of Hadad-nirari and of Shalmaneser III. (against Damascus,
773 B.C.) the situation cannot be safely gauged. Moab was
probably tributary; the position of Judah and Edom is involved
with the chronological problems. According to the Judaean
annals, the " people of Judah " set Azariah (Uzziah) upon his
father's throne; and to his long reign of fifty-two years are
ascribed conquests over Philistia and Edom, the fortification of
Jerusalem and the reorganization of the army. As the relations
with Israel are not specified, the sequel to Amaziah's defeat is a
matter for conjecture; although, when at the death of Jeroboam
Israel hastened to its end amid anarchy and dissension, it is
hardly likely that the southern kingdom was unmoved. All
that can be recognized from the biblical records, however, is
the period of internal prosperity which Israel and Judah enjoyed
under Jeroboam and Uzziah (qg.v.) respectively.
It is difficult to trace the biblical history century by century
as it reaches these last years of bitter conflict and of renewed
prosperity. The northern kingdom at the height of its power
included Judah, it extended its territory east of the Jordan
towards the north and the south, and maintained close relations
with Phoenicia and the Aramaean states. It had a national
history which left its impress upon the popular imagination,
and sundry fragments of tradition reveal the pride which the
patriot fell in the past. An original close connexion is felt with
the east of the Jordan and with Gilead; stories of invasion and
conquest express themselves in varied forms. In so far as in-
ternal wealth and luxury presuppose the control of the trade-
routes, periodical alliances are implied in which Judah, willingly
or unwillingly, was included. But the Judaean records do not
allow us to trace its independent history with confidence, and
our estimate can scarcely base itself solely upon the accidental
fulness or scantiness of political details. In the subsequent
disasters of Israel (§ 15) we may perceive the growing supremacy
of Judah, and the Assyrian inscriptions clearly indicate the
dependence of Judaean politics upon its relations with Edom and
Arab tribes on the south-east and with Philistia on the west.
Whatever had been the effect of the movement of the Purasati
some centuries previously, the Philistines (i.e. the people of
Philistia) are now found in possession of a mature organization,
and the Assyrian evidence is of considerable value for an estimate
of the stories of conflict and covenant, of hostility and friendship,
which were current in south Palestine. The extension of the
term u Judah " (cf. that of " Israel " and " Samaria ") is in-
volved with the incorporation of non-Judaean elements. The
country for ten miles north of Jerusalem was the exposed and
highly debatable district ascribed to the young tribe of Benjamin
(the favourite " brother " of both Judah and Joseph; Gen.
xxxviK, xjtxlx. sqq.); the border-line between the rival kingdoms
oscillated, and consequently the political position of the smaller
and haU-doscrt Judaean state depended upon the attitude of its
neighbours. It U possible that tradition is right in supposing
tlut ** Judah went down from his brethren " (Gen. xxxviii. x;
<i. J*d* i. 3) Its monarchy traced its origin to Hebron in
the wuth* and Its growth is contemporary with a decline in
1m M-t t5 7^ It *» ** I*** 1 probable that when Israel was supreme
A .> 'ihkiwodesU Judah would centre around a more southerly
Mte th*u Jwusaknv It Is naturally uncertain how far the
* a : tion* of l^vid emu be utilized; but they illustrate Judaean
. 1JA .\v** when thev depict intrigues with Israelite officials,
Kt «K*er PhUtoila, and friendly relations with Moab, or
"ty -uxye*t how enmity between Israel and Amnion
10 usdul account. Tradition, in fact, is
1 i f» m* of the Judaean dynasty under David,
: ncnodft before the rise of both Jehoash
•data Uto historical records maintain a
— ^ ;«hfe «*t%. political history apart
kH the same cult and custom ,
- z+l *34ge*> therefore, they can
■^t^ja^JQ ©I the monarchy
was opposed to the simpler local forms of government, and *
military regime had distinct disadvantages (cf . x Sam. viii. x 1-18).
The king stood at the head, as the court of final appeal, and upon
him and his officers depended the people's welfare. A more in-
tricate social organization caused internal weakness, and Eastern
history shows with what rapidity peoples who have become
strong by discipline and moderation pass from the height of
their glory into extreme corruption and disintegration. 1 This
was Israel's fate. Opposition to social abuses and enmity
towards religious innovations are regarded as the factors which
led to the overthrow of Omri's dynasty oy Jehu, and when
Israel seemed to be at the height of its glory under Jeroboam IX
warning voices again made themselves heard. The two factors
are inseparable, for in ancient times no sharp dividing-line was
drawn between religious and civic duties: righteousness and
equity, religious duty and national custom were one.
Elaborate legal enactments codified in Babylonia by the aotxt
century B.C. find striking parallels in Hebrew, late Jewish (Talmudic),
Syrian and Mahommcdan law, or in the unwritten usages of all ages:
for even where there were neither written laws nor duly instituted
lawgivers, there was no lawlessness, since custom and belief were,
and still are, almost inflexible. Various collections are preserved
in the Old Testament; they are attributed to the time of Moses the
lawgiver, who stands at the beginning of Israelite national and
religious history. But many 01 the laws were quite unsuitable
for the circumstances of his age, and the belief that a body of intricate
and even contradictory legislation was imposed suddenly upon a
people newly emerged from bondage in Egypt raises inaimnountable
objections, and underestimates the fact that legal usage existed in
the earliest stages of society, and therefore in pre-Mosaic times.
The more important question is the date of the laws in their pre s en t
form and content. Collections of laws are found in Deuteronomy
and in exilic and port-exilic writings; groups of a relatively earlier
type are preserved in Exod. xxxiv. 14-26, xx. 23-xxiiL, and (of an-
other stamp) in Lev.xvii.-xxvL (now in poet-exflicTorm). For a useful
conspectus of details, sec J. E.Carpenter and G. Harford- Battereby.
The Hexateuch (vol. L, appendix); C. F. Kent, Israel's Lams end
Legal Enactments (1907): and in general I. Benxinger, articles
"Government," "Family and "Law and Justice," Ency. Bib., and
G. B. Gray, " Law Literature," ib. (the literary growth of legislation).
Reference may also be made, for illustrative material, to W. R.
Smith, Kinsktp and Marriage, Religion of the Semites; to E. Day,
Social Life of the Hebrews; and, for some comparison of customary
usage in the Semitic field, to S. A. Cook, Laws of Moses and Code of
Hammurabi.
14. Religion and the Prophets.— -The elements of the thought
and religion of the Hebrews do not sever them from their
neighbours; similar features of cult are met with elsewhere
under different names. Hebrew religious institutions can be
understood from the biblical evidence studied in the light of
comparative religion; and without going afield to Babylonia,
Assyria or Egypt, valuable data are furnished by the cults of
Phoenicia, Syria and Arabia, and these in turn can be illustrated
from excavation and from modern custom. Every religion has
its customary cult and ritual, its recognized times, places and
persons for the observance. Worship is simpler at the smaller
shrines than at the more famous temples; and, as the rulers are
the patrons of the religion and are brought into contact with
the religious personnel, the character of the social organization
leaves its mark upon those who hold religious and judicial func-
tions alike. The Hebrews shared the paradoxes of Orientals,
and religious enthusiasm and ecstasy were prominent features.
Seers and prophets of all kinds ranged from those who were
consulted for daily mundane affairs to those who revealed the
oracles in times of stress, from those who haunted local holy
sites to those high in royal favour, from the quiet domestic
communities to the austere mountain recluse. Among these
were to be found the most sordid opportunism and the most
heroic self-effacement, the crassest supcrnaturalism and— the
loftiest conceptions of practical morality. A development of
ideals and a growth of spirituality can be traced which render
the biblical writings with their series of prophecies a unique
1 This is philosophically handled by the Arabian historian Ibn
KhaldQn, whose Prolegomena is well worthy of attention; see Dc
Slane, Not. el extratts, vols. xix.-xxi\, with Von Kremer's criticisms
in the Silt, d. Kais. Akod. of Vienna (vol. xciii., 1879); cf. also
R. Flint, History of the Philosophy of History, I 157 sqq.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY] JEWS 38 1
phenomenon. 1 The prophets taught that the national exis-
tence of the people was hound up with religious and social con-
ditions; they were in a sense the politicians of the age, and to
regard them simply as foretellers of the future is to limit their
sphere unduly. They took a keen interest in all the political
vicissitudes of the Oriental world. Men of all standards of
integrity, they were exposed to external influences, but whether
divided among themselves in their adherence to conflicting
parties, or isolated in their fierce denunciation of contemporary
abuses, they shared alike in the worship of Yahweh whose inspira-
tion they claimed. A recollection of the manifold forms which
religious life and thought have taken in Christendom or in Islam,
and the passions which are so easily engendered among opposing
sects, will prevent a one-sided estimate of the religious stand*
points which the writings betray; and to the recognition that
they represent lofty ideals it must be added that the great
prophets, like all great thinkers, were in advance of their age.
The prophets are thoroughly Oriental figures, and the inter-
pretation of their profound religious experiences requires a
particular sympathy which is not inherent in Western minds.
Their writings are to be understood in the light of their age- and of
the conditions which gave birth to them. With few exceptions
they are preserved in fragmentary form, with additions and ad-
justments which were necessary in order to make them applicable
to later conditions. When, as often, the great figures have been
made the spokesmen of the thought of subsequent generations,
the historical criticism of the prophecies becomes one of peculiar
difficulty. 1 According to the historical traditions it is precisely
in the age of Jeroboam IL and Uzziah that the first of the
extant prophecies begin (see Amos and Hosea). Here it is
enough to observe that the highly advanced doctrines of the dis-
tinctive character of Yahweh, as ascribed to the 8th century B.C.,
presuppose a foundation and development. But the evidence
does not allow us to trace the earlier progress of the ideas.
Yahwism presents itself under a variety of aspects, and the
history of Israel's relations to the God Yahweh (whose name is
not necessarily of Israelite origin) can hardly be disentangled
amid the complicated threads of the earlier history. The view
that the seeds of Yahwism were planted in the young Israelite
nation in the days of the " exodus " conflicts with the belief that
the worship of Yahweh began in the pre-Mosaic age. Neverthe-
less, it implies that religion passed into a new stage through
the influence of Moses, and to this we find a relatively less com-
plete analogy in the specific north Israelite traditions of the
age of Jehu. The change from the dynasty of Omri to that of
Jehu has been treated by several hands, and the writers, in their
recognition of the introduction of a new tendency, have obscured
the fact that the cult of Yahweh had flourished even under such
a king as Ahab. While the influence of the great prophets
Elijah and Elisha is clearly visible, it is instructive to find that
the south, too, has its share in the inauguration of the new era.
At Horeb, the mount of God, was located the dramatic theophany
whkh-beralded to Elijah the advent of the sword, and Jehu's
supporter in his sanguinary measures belongs to the Rcchabites,
a sect which felt itself to be the true worshipping community
of Yahweh and is closely associated with the Kenites, the kin
of Moses. It was at the holy well of Kadesh, in the sacred
mounts of Sinai and Horeb, and in the field of Edom that the
of the Hebrew type has not been limited to Israel; it is indeed a
enoa of almost world-wide occurrence; in many lands and
* Cf. J. G. Fraaer, Adonis, Attis, Osiris (1007). p., 67: '/ Prophecy
phenomeno; __ __
in many ages the wild, whirling words of frenzied men and women
have been accepted as the utterances of an in-dwelling deity. What
does distinguish Hebrew prophecy from all others is that the genius
of a few members of the profession wrested this vulgar but powerful
instrument from baser uses, and by wielding it in the interest of a
high morality rendered a service 01 incalculable value to humanity.
That is indeed the glory of Israel "
" The nsa which was made in Apocalyptic literature of the tradi-
tions of Moses, Isaiah and others finds its analogy within the Old
Testament itself; cf. the relation between the present late prophecies
of Jonah and the unknown prophet of the time of Jeroboam II.
(see 1 13, note 5). To condemn re-shaping or adaptation of this nature
from a modern Western standpoint is to misunderstand entirely
the Oriental mind and Oriental usage.
3*2
JEWS
|OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
la that craws we meet wfeh Isaiah (ft), #ae of the sssest of
Beavrw prophet*. Tbe dtsorgauzed state of Egypt aad the aa-
certaia aik g i a nrr of the aesen tribes left Jodah without direct
a#5; aa the other hand, oppocitioa to Assyria aiiwig the coa-
sset Jog interests of Palestine and Syria was rarely uaaausaoas.
Either m the aatural coarse of etats to preserve the unity of
bis empire — or influenced by the rich presents of gcid and server
with which Ahaz accoeapaakd fats appeal for help, Tigjath-
ptkser intervened with cajapasgns against Phi&stia (734 ax.) aad
Damascus (753-73*)- I***** «** punished by the ravaging
of the northern districts, aad the Ling claims to have carried
away the people of " the boose of Oatri." Pekah was slain aad
oae Hosbea (qx.) was trco g nrrd as his successor. Assyrian
officers were placed in the bad and Jodafa tins gamed its
deliverance at the expense of Israel. But the proud Israelites
did not remain submissive for long; Damascus had indeed
fallen, bat neither Pmlistia nor Edom had yet been crashed.
At this stage a new p roblem becomes argent. A number of
petty peoples, of whom little definite is known, fringed Palestine
from the sooth of Judah aad the Delta to the Syrian desert.
They belong to aa area which merges itself in the west into Egypt,
aad Egypt in fact had a hereditary daim upon it. Continued
Intercourse between Egypt, Gaza and north Arabia is natural
In view of the trade-routes which connected them, and on several
occasions joint action on the part of Edomites (with allied
tribes) and the Philistines is recorded, or may be inferred. Tbe
part played by Egypt proper in the ensuing anti-Assyrian
combinations is not clearly known; with a number of petty
dynasts fomenting discontent and revolt, there was an absence
of cohesion in that ancient empire pr e v io u s to the rise of the
Ethiopian dynasty. Consequently the references to " Egypt "
(Heb. Misroyim, Ass. iiusrt) sometimes suggest that tbe geo-
graphical term was really extended beyond the bounds of Egypt
proper towards those districts where Egyptian influence or domi-
nation was or had been recognized (see further Mxzxazm).
When Israel began to recover its prosperity and regained
confidence, its policy halted between obedience to Assyria and
reliance upon this ambiguous " Egypt." The situation is illus-
trated in the writings of Hosea (q.vj. When at length Tiglath-
pileser died, In 727, the slumbering revolt became general; Israel
refused the usual tribute to its overlord, and definitely threw in
its lot with " Egypt." In due course Samaria was besieged
for three years by Shalmaneser IV. Tbe alliance with So
(Seven, SIM) 01 " Egypt," upon whom hopes had been placed,
proved futile, and the forebodings of keen-sighted prophets were
justified. Although no evidence is at band, it is probable that
Anas of Judah rendered service to Assyria by keeping the allies
in check; possible, also, that the former enemies of Jerusalem
bad now been Induced to turn against Samaria. Tbe actual
capture of tbe Israelite capital Is claimed by Sargon (722), who
removed 27,190 of its inhabitants and fifty chariots. Other
people* were introduced, officers were placed in charge, and the
usual tribute re*imposed. Another revolt was planned in 720 in
which the province of Samaria joined with Hamath and Damas-
cus, with the Phoenician Arpad and Slmurs, and with Gaza and
" Egypt*" Two battles, one at Karkar In the north, another at
Rapio (Raphla) on the border of Egypt, sufficed to quell the
disturbance. Tbe desert peoples who paid tribute on this
occasion still continued restless, and in 71$ Sargon removed men
of TamOd, IbAdid, Marsiraan, rjaylpc, " the remote Arabs of
the desert," and placed them In the land of Beth-Omri. Sar-
fon's statement Is significant for the interna] history; but
unfortunately the biblical historians take no further interest
in tht fortunes of the northern kingdom after the fall of Samaria,
and see In Judah tbe sole survivor of the Israelite tribes (see
2 Kings xvli. 7-33). Yet the situation in this neglected district
must continue to provoke inquiry.
16. Judah and Assyria,— Amid these changes Judah was Inti-
mately connected with the south Palestinian peoples (sec further
Philistines). Abas had recognised the sovereignty of Assyria
and visited TIgiath-plleser at Damascus. The Temple records
describe the innovations be introduced on his return. Under his
begaa to take a more definite shape
asnoag the Pfcffistiae dries. "Ashdod openly revolted aad foand
sapponms«<aJa,Edo»-Jadah,tadthftyMaiabigTXKn w r^Tpc"
Thg^epgaypgaabfybecnt^rnrdwMhtheatteanptof Mardafc
(Merodach)-baladan is sooth Babylonia to form a league against
Assyria (cf. * Kings xx. 1 2 ), at afleveatsAshdod fell after a three
years' siege (711) aad for a time there was peace. But with tbe
death of Sargon hi 705 there was another great outburst;
practically the whole of Palestine and Syria was in anas, and
the iat tg iitj of Sennacherib's empire was threatened. In both
Judah aad Pmlistia the anti-Assyrian party was not withoat
oppositsoa, aad those who adhered or favoured adherence to
the great power were justified by the result. The inevitable
lack of cohesion among the petty states weakened the national
caase. At Sennacherib's approach, Ashdod, Amnion, Moab and
Edom submitted, Ekroa, Ascalon, T-artmh and Jerusalem held
oat strenuously. The southern allies (with " Egypt ") were
defeated at Ehekeh (Josh. six. 44). Hexekkh was besieged
aad compelled to submit (701). The small kings who had
remained faithful were le w ai ded by an extension of their terri-
tories, and Ashdod, Ekron and Gaza were enriched at Jodah's
rrprme, These events are related in Sennacherib's inscription;
the biblical records preserve their own traditions (see Hexexjah).
If the impression left upon current thought can be estimated
from certain of the utterances of the court-prophet Isaiah and
tbe Judaean countryman Mkah (q.v.), the light which these
throw upon internal conditions must also be used to gauge the
real extent of the religious changes ascribed to Hexekiah. A
brazen serpent, whose institution was attributed to Moses, had
not hitherto been considered out of place in the cult; its destruc-
tion was perhaps the king's most notable reform.
In the long reign of his son Manasseh later writers saw the
deathblow to the Judaean kingdom. Much is* related of his
w ickedn ess and enmity to the followers of Yahweh, but few
political details have come down. It is uncertain whether
Sennacherib invaded Judah again shortly before his death, never-
theless the land was practically under the control of Assyria.
Both Esar-haddon (6S1-668) and Assur-bani-pal (66S-*. 626)
number among their tributaries Tyre, Amnion, Moab, Edom,
Ascalon, Gaza and Manasseh himself, 1 and cuneiform dockets
unearthed at Gezer suggest the presence of Assyrian garrisons
there (and no doubt also elsewhere) to ensure allegiance. The
situation was conducive to the spread of foreign customs, and
the condemnation passed upon Manasseh thus perhaps becomes
more significant. Precisely what form his worship took is a
matter of conjecture; but it is possible that the religion must
not be judged too strictly from the standpoint of the late com-
piler, and that Manasseh merely assimilated the older Yahweh-
worship to new Assyrian forms.* Politics and religion, bow-
ever, were inseparable, and the supremacy of Assyria meant the
supremacy of the Assyrian pantheon.
If Judah was compelled to take part in the Assyrian campaigns
against Egypt, Arabia (the Syrian desert) and Tyre, this would
only be in accordance with a vassal's duty. But when tradition
preserves some recollection of an offence for which Manasseh was
taken to Babylon to explain his conduct (2 Chron. xxxiii.), also
of the settling of foreign colonists in Samaria by Esar-haddon
(Ezra iv. 2), there is just a possibility that Judah made some
attempt to gain independence. According to Assur-bani-pal all
the western lands were inflamed by the revolt of his brother
Samas-sum-ukin. What part Judah took in the Transjordanic
disturbances, in which Moab fought invading Arabian tribes on
behalf of Assyria, is unknown (see Moab) . Manasseh *s son Amon
fell in a court intrigue and " the people of the land," after avenging
the murder, set up in his place the infant Josiah (637). The
circumstances imply a regency, but the records are silent upon
1 The fact that these lists are of the Idngs of the "land rjatti *•
would suggest that the term " Hittite " had been extended to
Palestine.
'So K. Budde, Rd. of Israel to Exile, pp. 165-167. For aa
attempt to recover the character of the cults, see W. Erbt, Hebrdtr
(Leipzig. 1906), pp. 150 sqq.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY]
JEWS
3*3
the outlook. The assumption that the decay of Assyria, awdke
the national feeling of independence is perhaps justified by those
events which made the greatest impression upon the compiler,
and an account is given of Josiah's religious reforms, based upon
a source apparently identical with that which described the work
of Jehoash. In an age when the oppression and corruption of the
ruling classes had been such that those who cherished the old
worship of Yahweh dared not confide in their most intimate com-
panions (Mic vii. 5, 6), no social reform was possible; but now
the young Josiah, the popular choice, was upon the throne. A
roll, it is said, was found in the Temple, its contents struck
terror into the hearts of the priests and king, and it led to a
solemn covenant before Yahweh to observe the provisions of the
law-book which had been so opportunely recovered.
That the writer (2 Kings xxii. seq.) meant to describe the discovery
of Deuteronomy is evident from the events which followed ; and this
identification of the roll, already made by Jerome, Chrysostom
and others, has been substantiated by modern literary criticism
since De Wette (1805). (See Dbutbrovomy ; Josiab.) Some very
interesting parallels have been cited from Egyptian and Assyrian
records where religious texts, said to have been found in temples,
or oracles from the distant past, have come to light at the very tune
when " the days were fall.* * There is, however, no teal proof for
the traditional antiquity of Deuteronomy. The book forms a very
distinctive landmark in the religious history by reason of its attitude
to cult and ritual (see Hebrew Religion. | 7). In particular
ft is aimed against the worship at the numerous minor sanctuaries
and inculcates the sole pre-eminence of the one great sanctuary— the
Temple of Jerusalem, This centralieatipn involved the removal of
the local priests and a modification of ritual and legal observance.
The fall of Samaria, Sennacherib's devastation of Judah, and the
growth of Jerusalem as the capital, had tended to raise the position
of the Temple, although Israel itself, as also Judah, had famous
sanctuaries of its own. From the standpoint of the popular religion,
the removal of the local altars, like Hezekiah's destruction of the
brazen serpent, would be an act of desecration, an iconodasm which
can be partly appreciated from the sentiments of a Kings rviii. 22,
and partly also tram the modern Wahhabite reformation (of the 10th
century). But the details and success of the reforms, when viewed
in the light of the testimony of contemporary prophets, are uncer-
tain. Ttie book of Deuteronomy crystallizes a doctrine; It is the
codification of teaching which presupposes a carefully prepared soil.
The account of Josiah's work, like that of Hexelriah, is written by one
of the Deuteronomic school: that is to say, the writer describes the
promulgation of the teaching under which he lives. It is part of
the scheme which runs through the book of Kings, and its apparent
object Is to show that the Temple planned by David and founded by
Salomon ultimately gained its true position as the only sanctuary
of Yahweh to which his worshippers should repair. Accordingly,
in handling Josiah's successors the writer no longer refers to the
high places. But if Josiah carried out the reforms ascribed to him
they were of no lasting effect. This is conclusively shown by the
writings of Jeremiah (xxv. ^-7, morvi. 2 seq.) and EzekieL Jonah
himself is praised for his justice, but faithless Judah is insincere
fler. ul. 10). and those who claim to possess Yahweb's law are
denounced (viii. 8). If Israel could appear to be better than Judah
(lii. 1 1 ; Ezek. xvi., xxiii.), the religious revival was a practical failure,
and it was not until a century later that the opportunity again came
to put any new teaching into effect (J 20). On the other hand,
the book of Deuteronomy has a characteristic social-religious side;
its humanity, philanthropy and charity are the distinctive features
of its laws, and Josiah's reputation (Jer. xxii. 15 seq.) and the
circumstances in which he was chosen king may suggest that
he, like Jehoash (2 Kings xL 17 ; cf. xxiii. 3), had entered into a
reciprocal covenant with a people who, as Micah's writings would
indicate, had suffered grievous oppression and misery.*
17. The Pall of the Judaean Monarchy. — In Josiah's reign a
new era was beginning in the history of the world. Assyria was
rapidly decaying and Egypt bad recovered from the blows of
Assur-bani-pal (to which the Hebrew prophet Nahum alludes,
iii. 8-10). Psammetichus (Psamtek) I., one of the ablest of
Egyptian rulers for many centuries, threw off the Assyrian yoke
»See G. Maspero, Geseh. d. morrenUnd. Vdlker (1877), p. 446;
c NaviUe. Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archaeol. (1907), pp. 232 599., and T. K.
Cheyne, Dedine and Fall of Judah (1908), p. 13, with references.
[The genuineness of such discoveries is naturally a matter for his-
torical criticism to decide. Thus the discovery of Numa's laws in
Rome O-ryy xl. 29), upon which undue weight has sometimes been
laid (see Kfostermann, Der Pentateuch (1000), pp. 155 sqq., was not
accepted as genuine by the senate (who had the laws destroyed),
and probably not by Pliny himself. Only the later antiquaries
dung to the belief in their trustworthiness. — (Communicated, ,)]
* Both kings came to the throne after a conspiracy aimed at
existing abuses, and other parallels can be found (see Kings).
with the help «f troops from Asia Minor and employed these to
guard bis eastern frontiers at Defneh. He also revived the old
trading-connexions between Egypt and Phoenicia. A Chaldean
prince, Nabopolassar, set himself up in Babylonia, and Assyria
was compelled to invoke the aid of the A&kuza. It was perhaps
after this that an inroad of Scythians (q.v,) occurred (c. 626 bx.);
if it did not actually touch Judah, the advent of the people of
the north appears to have caused great alarm (Jer. iv.-vi.:
Zephaniah). Belhshean in Samaria has perhaps preserved in its
later (though temporary) name Scythopolis an echo of the inva-
sion.* Later, Necho, son of Psammetichus, proposed to add
to Egypt some of the Assyrian provinces, and marched through
Palestine. Josiah at once interposed; it is uncertain whether, in
spite of the power of Egypt, he had hopes of extending his king-
dom, or whether the famous reformer was, like Manasseh, a vassal
of Assyria. The book of Kings gives the standpoint of a later
Judaean writer, but Josiah's authority over a much larger area
than Judah alone is suggested by xxiii. 19 (part of an addition),
and by the references to the border at Riblah in Ezek. vi. 14,
xi. 10 seq. Be was slain at Megiddo in 608, and Egypt, as in the
long-distant past, again held Palestine and Syria. The Judaeans
made Jehoahaz (or Sballum) their king, but the Pharaoh banished
him to Egypt three months later and appointed his brother
Jehoiakim. Shortly afterwards Nineveh fell, and with it the
empire which had dominated the fortunes of Palestine for over
two centuries (see { xo). Nabonidus (Nabunaid) king of Baby-
Ionia (556 B.C.) saw in the disaster the vengeance of the gods for
the sacrilege of Sennacherib; the Hebrew prophets, for their
part, exulted over Yahweh 's far-reaching judgment. The newly
formed Chaldean power at once recognized in Necho a dangerous,
rival and Nabopolassar sent his son Nebuchadrezzar, who over-
threw the Egyptian forces at Carchemish (605). The battle was
the turning-point of the age, and with it the succession of the new
Chaldean or Babylonian kingdom was assured. But the relations
between Egypt and Judah were not broken off. The course
of events is not clear, but Jehoiakim (q.v.) at all events was in-
clined to rely upon Egypt. He died just as Nebuchadrezzar,
seeing his warnings disregarded, was preparing to lay siege to
Jerusalem. His young son Jeholachin surrendered after a
three months' reign, with his mother and the court; they were
taken away to Babylonia, together with a number of the artisan,
class (506). Jehokkim's brother, Mattaniah or Zedekiah, was
set in his place under an oath of allegiance, which he broke, pre-
ferring Hophra the new king of Egypt. A few years later the
second siege took place. It began on the tenth day of the tenth
month, January 587. The looked-for intervention of Egypt was
unavailing, although a temporary raising of the siege inspired wild
hopes. Desertion, pestilence and famine added to the usual
horrors of a siege, and at length on the ninth day of the fourth
month 586, a breach was made in the walls. Zedekiah fled
towards the Jordan valley but was seized and taken to Nebuchad-
rezzar at Riblah (45 m. south of Hamath). His sons were slain
before his eyes, and he himself was blinded and carried off to
Babylon after a reign of eleven years. The Babylonian Nebuzar-
adan was sent to take vengeance upon the rebellious city, and
on the seventh day of the fifth month 586 b.c. Jerusalem was
destroyed. The Temple, palace and city buildings were burned,
the walls broken down, the chief priest Seraiah, the second priest
Zephaniah, and other leaders were put to death, and a large body
of people was again carried away. The disaster became the
great epoch-making event for Jewish history and literature.
Throughout these stormy years the prophet Jeremiah (q.t.) had
realized that Judah 's only hope lay in submission to Babylonia,
Stigmatized as a traitor, scorned and even imprisoned, be bad not
ceased to utter his warnings to deaf ears, although Zedekiah
himself was perhaps open to persuasion. Now the penalty had
been paid, and the Babylonians, whose policy was less destructive
than that of Assyria, contented themselves with appointing as
governor a certain Gedaliah. The new centre was Mizpah, a
commanding eminence and sanctuary, about 5 m. N.W. of
Jerusalem; and here Gedaliah issued an appeal to the people to
• But sec N. Schmidt, Ency. Bib., " Scythians," $ 1.
3$4
JEWS
•OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
selves as the kernel of M IsraeL" From this point of view, the
desire to intenaif y the denudation of Palestine and the (ate of ha
remnant, and to look to the Babylonian exiles for the future, can
probably be recognized in the writings attributed to contemporary
prophets. 1
18. Interna! Conditions and the ExUfi. — Many of the exiles
accepted their lot and settled down in Babylonia (cf. Jer. xrix.
4-7); Jewish colonies, too, were being founded in Egypt. The
agriculturists and herdsmen who had been left in Palestine
formed, as always, the staple population, and it is impossible to
imagine either Judah or Israel as denuded of its inh a b i t ants.
The down-trodden peasants were left in peace to divide the land
among them, and new conditions arose as they took over the
ownerless estates. But the old continuity was not entirely
broken; there was a return to earlier conditions, and life moved
more freely in its wonted channels. The fall of the monarchy
involved a reversion to a pre-monarchical state. It had scarcely
been otherwise in Israel. The Israelites who had been carried
off by the Assyrians were also removed from the cult of the land
(cf. iSam. xxvi. io;Ruthi. isseq.). It is possible that some had
escaped by taking timely refuge among their brethren in Judah;
indeed, if national tradition availed, there were doubtless times
when Judah cast its eye upon the land with which it had been
so intimately connected. It would certainly be unwise to draw a
sharp boundary line between the two districts; kings of Judah
could be tempted to restore the kingdom of their traditional
founder, or Assyria might be complaisant towards a faithful
Judaean vassal. The character of the Assyrian domination over
Israel must not be misunderstood; the regular payment of
tribute and the provision of troops were the main requirements,
and the position of the masses underwent little change if an
Assyrian governor took the place of an unpopular native ruler.
The two sections of the Hebrews who had had so much in
common were scarcely severed by a border-line only a few miles
to the north of Jerusalem. But Israel after the fall of Samaria
is artificially excluded from the Judaean horizon, and lies as a
foreign land, although Judah itself had suffered from the intru-
sion of foreigners in the preceding centuries of war and turmoil,
and strangers had settled in her midst, had formed part of .the
royal guard, or had even served as janissaries (§ 15, end).
Samaria had experienced several changes in its original
population,' and an instructive story tells how the colonists,
in their ignorance of the religion of their new home, incurred the
divine wrath. Cujus regio ejus reWfio— settlement upon a new
soil involved dependence upon its god, and accordingly priests
were sent to instruct the Samaritans in the fear of Yahweh.
Thenceforth they continued the worship of the Israelite Yahweh
along with their own native cults (2 Kings xvii 34-28, 33).
Their descendants claimed participation in the privileges of
the Judaeans (cf . Jer. xli. 5), and must have identified themselves
with the old stock (Ezra iv. 2). Whatever recollection they
preserved of their origin and of the circumstances of their entry
would be retold from a new standpoint; the ethnological tradi-
tions would gain a new meaning; the assimilation would in
time become complete. In view of subsequent events it would
be dimcult to find a more interesting subject of inquiry than
the internal religious and sociological conditions in Samaria at
this age.
To the prophets the religious position was lower In Judah
than in Samaria, whose iniquities were less grievous (Jer. in.
11 seq., xxiii. 11 sqq.; Ezek. rvi. 51) The greater prevalence
of heathen elements in Jerusalem, as detailed in the reforms of
Josiah or in the writings of the prophets (cf Ezek. viii.), would
1 So also one can now compare the estimate taken of the Jews in
Egypt in ler. xliv. with the actual religious conditions which are
known to have prevailed later at Elephantine, where a small Jewish
colony worshipped Yahu (Yahweh) at. their own temple (see E.
Sachau, " Drei aram. Papyrusurkunde," in the Abkandlmngen of
the Prussian Academy. Berlin, 1907).
* Sargon had removed Babylonians into the land of Hattl (Syria
and Palestine), and in 715 B.C. among the colonists were tribe* appar-
ently of desert origin (Tamud. Hayapa, &c); other settlements are
ascribed to Esar-haddon and perhaps Assur-bani-pal (Ezra iv. a. 10).
See for the evidence, A. E. Cowley, Ency. Bib., col 4257; J. A.
Montgomery, The Samaritans, pp. 40-57 (Philadelphia, 1907).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY1
JEWS
385
at least suggest that the destruction of the state was not entirely
a disaster. To this catastrophe may be due the fragmentary
character of old Judaean historical traditions. Moreover, the
land was purified when it became divorced from the practices
of a luxurious court and lost many of its worst inhabitants.
In Israel as in Judah the political disasters not only. meant
a shifting of population, they also brought into prominence
the old popular and non-official religion, the character
of which is not to be condemned because of the attitude of
lofty prophets in advance of their age. When there were sects
like the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv.), when the Judaean fields could
produce a Micah or a Zephaniah, and when Israel no doubt
had men who inherited the spirit of a Hosea, the nature of the
underlying conditions can be more justly appreciated. The
writings of the prophets were cherished, not only in the un-
favourable atmosphere of courts (see Jer. xxxvi., ai sqq.), but
also in the circles of their followers (Isa. viii. 16). In the quiet
smaller sanctuaries the old-time beliefs were maintained, and the
priests, often perhaps of the older native stock (cf. a Kings
xvii. 38 and above), were the recognized guardians of the reli-
gious cults. The old stories of earlier days encircle places which,
though denounced for their corruption, were not regarded as
illegitimate, and in the form in which the dim traditions of the
past are now preserved they reveal an attempt to purify popular
belief and thought. In the domestic circles of prophetic
communities the part played by their great heads in history
did not suffer in the telling, and it is probable that some part
at least of the extant history of the Israelite kingdom passed
through the hands of men whose interest lay in the pre-eminence
of their seers and their beneficent deeds on behalf of these small
communities. This interest and the popular tone of the history
may be combined with the fact that the literature does not take
us into the midst of that world of activity in which the events
unfolded themselves.
Although the records preserve complete silence upon the period
now under review, it is necessary to free oneself from the narrow out-
. . ...... . . m .. . .? motion
aria or
the old
Titings
1 Israel
y P«>-
vcals a
nds its
eristics
ten the
astility
len the
, 6) has
1. after
ounda-
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illiance
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19. Persian Period. 1 — The course of events from the middle
of the 6th century B.C. to the close of the Persian period is
lamentably obscure, although much indirect evidence indicates
that this age holds the key to the growth of written- biblical
history. It was an age of literary activity which manifested
itself, not in contemporary historical records — only a few of
which have survived— but rather in the special treatment of
previously existing sources. The problems are of unusual
1 The growing recognition that the land was not depopulated after
586 is of fundamental significance for the criticism of " exilic "
and " post-exilic " history. G. A. Smith thus sums up a dis-
cussion of the extent of the deportations: "... A large majority
of the Jewish people femained on the land. This conclusion may
startle us with our generally received notions of the whole nation as
exiled. But there are facts which support it " (Jerusalem, ii. 268).
•On the place of Palestine in Persian history sec Persia: History*
ancient, especially i 5 ii.; also Artaxerxes; Cambyses;. Cyrus;
Darius, "
intricacy and additional light is needed from external evidence.
It will be convenient to turn to this first. Scarcely 40 years
after the destruction of Jerusalem, a new power appeared in the
cast in the person of Cyrus the Great. Babylon speedily fell
(539 B.C.) and a fresh era opened. To the petty states this meant
only a change of masters; they now became part of one of the
largest empires of antiquity. The prophets who had marked
in the past the advent of Assyrians and Chaldeans now fixed
their eyes upon the advance of Cyrus, confident that the fall
of Babylon would bring the restoration of their fortunes. Cyrus
was hailed as the divinely appointed saviour, the anointed one
of Yahweh. The poetic imagery in which the prophets clothed
the doom of Babylon, like the romantic account of Herodotus
(i. 101), falls short of the simple contemporary account of Cyrus
himself. He did not fulfil the detailed predictions, and the
events did not reach the ideals of Hebrew writers; but these
anticipations may have influenced the form which the Jewish
traditions subsequently took. .Nevertheless, if Cyrus was not
originally a Persian and was not a worshipper of Yahweh
(Isa. xli. 25), he was at least tolerant towards subject races and
their religions, and the persistent traditions unmistakably point
to the honour in which his memory was held. Throughout the
Persian supremacy Palestine was necessarily influenced by
the course of events in Phoenicia and Egypt (with which
intercourse was continual), and some light may thus be in-
directly thrown on its otherwise obscure political history. Thus,
when Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, made his great expedition
against Egypt, with the fleets of Phoenicia and Cyprus and
with the camels of the Arabians, it is highly probable that
Palestine itself was concerned. Also, the revolt which broke
out in the Persian" provinces at this juncture may have extended
to Palestine; although the usurper Darius encountered his most
serious opposition in the north and north-east of his empire. An
outburst of Jewish religious feeling is dated in the second year
of Darius (520), but whether Judah was making a bold bid for
independence or had received special favour for abstaining
from the above revolts, external evidence alone can decide.
Towards the close of the reign of Darius there was a fresh revolt
in Egypt; it was quelled by Xerxes (485-465)1 who did not
imitate the religious tolerance of his predecessors. Artaxerxes I.
Longimanus (465-425), attracts attention because the famous
Jewish reformers Ezra and Nehemiah flourished under a king
of this name. Other revolts occurred in Egypt, and for these
and also for the rebellion of the Persian satrap Megabyzos
(c. 448-447), independent evidence for the position of Judah is
needed, since a catastrophe apparently befell the unfortunate
state before Nehemiah appears upon the scene. Little is known
of the mild and indolent Artaxerxes II. Mnemon (404-350)-
With the growing weakness of the Persian empire Egypt reas-
serted its independence for a time. In the reign of Artaxerxes III.
Ochus (350-338), Egypt, Phoenicia and Cyprus were in revolt;
the rising was quelled without mercy, and the details of
the vengeance are valuable for the possible fate of Palestine
itself. The Jewish historian Josephus (Ant. xi. 7) records
the enslavement of the Jews, the pollution of the Temple by a
certain Bagoses (see Bagoas), and a seven years' punishment.
Other late sources narrate the destruction of Jericho and a
deportation of the Jews to Babylonia and to Hyrcania (on the
Caspian Sea). The evidence for the catastrophes under
Artaxerxes I. and III. (see Artaxerxes), exclusively contained
in biblical and in externa] tradition respectively, is of particular
importance, since several biblical passages refer to disasters
similar to those of 586 but presuppose different conditions and are
apparently of later origin.* The murder of Artaxerxes m. by
* The evidence for Artaxerxes III., accepted by Ewald and others
(see W. R. Smith. Old Testament in Jewish Church, p. 438 acq.; W.
Judeich, Kleinosiot. Stud., p. 170; T. K. Cheyne, Ency. Bib. t col.
2202 ; F. C. Kent, Hist. I1899I, pp. 230 sqq.) has however been ques-
tioned by Willrich, Judaica, 35-39 (sec Cheyne, Enc%. Bib., col.
3941). The account of Josephus (above) raises several difficulties,
especially the identity of Bagoses. It has been supposed that he has
placed the record too late, and that this Bagoses is the Judaean
governor who flourished about 408 B.C. (See p. 286, n. 3.)
3»6
JEWS
(OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
Bagoses gave a set-back to the revival of tbe Persian Empire.
Under Darius Codomannus (j3^S3o) the advancing Greek
power brought matters to a head* and at the battle of Issus
in 333 Alexander settled its fate*. The overthrow of Tyre
and Gaza secured the possession of the coast and the Jewish
state entered upon tbe Greek period. (See §25.)
During these two centuries the Jews in Palestine had been only
one of an aggregate of subject people* enjoying internal freedom
provided in return for a regular tribute. They lived in comparative
quietude; although Herodotus knows the Palestinian coast he does
I
r
f
to. The Restoration of Judak.— The biblical history for the
Persian period is contained in a new source — the books of
Ezra and Ncbemiah, whose standpoint and period arc that of
Chronicles, with which they are closely joined. After a brief
description of the fall of Jerusalem the "seventy years" of
the exile are passed over, and we are plunged into a history of
the return (2 Chron. xxxvi. ; Ezra i.). Although Palestine had not
been depopulated, and many of the exiled Jews remained in
Persia, the standpoint is that of those who returned from
Babylon. Settled in and around Jerusalem, they look upon
themselves as the sole community, the true Israel, even as it was
believed that once before Israel entered and developed inde-
pendently in the land of its ancestors. They look back from the
age when half-suppressed hostility with Samaria had broken
out, and when an exclusive Judaism had been formed. The
interest of the writers is as usual in the religious history; they
were indifferent to, or perhaps rather ignorant of, the strict
order of events. Their narratives can be partially supplemented
from other sources (Haggai; Zechariah i.-viii.; Isa. xl.-lxvi.;
Malachi), but a consecutive sketch is impossible. 4
inst
1 of
tha
que.
id.
hor
ous
liah
\fUr
•nee
pon
9. of
for
Icy.
ove
ncy.
ces.
Life
ftid.
teat
*);
In 561 b.c. the captive Jndaean king, Jehotachin, had rece iv ed
special marks of favour from Nebuchadrezzar's son Am3-
marduk. So little b known of this act of recognition that
its significance can only be conjectured. A little Later Tyre
received as its king Merbaal (555-55*) who had been fetched from
Babylonia. Babylonia was politically unsettled, the repre-
sentative of the Davidic dynasty had descendants; if Babylon
was assured of the allegiance of Judah further acts of clemency
may well have followed. But tbe later recension of Jodaeaa
history— -our sole source en tirely ignores the elevation of
Jehoiachin (2 Kings xxv. 27 sqq ; Jer. UL 31-34), and p ro ce ed s
at once to the first year of Cyrus, who proclaims as bis divine
mission tbe rebuilding of the Temple (538). The Judaean
Sbeshbazzar (a corruption of some Babylonian name) brought
back the Temple vessels which Nebuchadrezzar had carried
away and prepared to undertake tbe work at the expense of
the royal purse. An immense body of exiles is said to have
returned at this time to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel, who was
of Davidic descent, and the priest Jeshua or Joshua, the
grandson of tbe murdered Seraiah (Ezra i.-iii.; v. 13-vi. 5).
When these refused tbe proffered help of the people of Samaria,
men of the same faith as themselves (iv. a), their troubles began,
and the Samaritans retaliated by preventing the rebuilding. The
next historical notice b dated in the second year of Darius (5*0)
when two prophets, Haggai and Zechariah, came forward to
kindle the Judaeans to new efforts, and in spite of opposition
the work went steadily onwards, thanks to the favour of Darius,
until the Temple was completed four years later (Ezra v. », vi 13
sqq.). On the other hand, from the independent writings
ascribed to these prophets, it appears that no considerable body
of exiles could have returned — it is still an event of the future
(Zcch. ii. 7, vi. 15); little, if anything, had been done to the
Temple (Hag. ii. 15); and Zerubbabel b tbe one to take in
hand and complete the great undertaking (Zecb. iv. 9). The
prophets address themselves to men living in comfortable
abodes with olive-fields and vineyards, suffering from bad seasons
and agricultural depression, and though the country b un-
settled there is no reference to any active opposition on the
part of Samaritans. So far from drawing any lesson from
the brilliant event in the reign of Cyrus, the prophets imply
that Yahweh's wrath is still upon the unfortunate city and that
Persia is still the oppressor. Consequently, although small
bodies of individuals no doubt came back to Judah from time
to time, and some special mark of favour may have been shown
by Cyrus, the opinion has gained ground since the early arguments
of E. Schradcr (Stud. u. Krit., 1867, pp. 460-504), that the com-
piler's representation of the history b untrustworthy. His main
object b to make the new Israel, tbe post-exilic community at
Jerusalem, continuous, as a society, with the old Israel. 1 Greater
weight must be laid upon the independent evidence of the
prophetical writings, and the objection that Palestine could not
have produced the religious fervency of Haggai or Zechariah
without an initial impulse from Babylonia begs the question.
Unfortunately the internal conditions in the 6th century b.c
can be only indirectly estimated (§ 18), and the political position
must remain for the present quite uncertain. In Zerubbabel
the people beheld once more a ruler of the Davidic race. The
new temple heralded a new future; the mournful fasts com-
memorative of Jerusalem's disasters would become feasts;
Yahweh bad left the Temple at the fall of Jerusalem, but had now
returned to sanctify it with his presence; the city had purged
its iniquity and was fit once more to become the central sanc-
tuary. So Haggai sees in Zerubbabel the representative of the
* There is an obvious effort to preserve the continuity of tradition
(0) in Ezra ii. which gives a list of families who returned from exile
each to its own city, and (6) in the return of the holy vessels in the
time of Cyrus (contrast 1 Esdras iv. 43 tcq.). a view which, in spite
of Dan. i. 2, v. a seq., conflicts with 2 Kings xxiv. 13 and xxv. 13
(see, however, p. 14). That attempts have been made to adjust
contradictory representations is suggested by the prophecy ascribed
to Jeremiah (xxvii. 16 aaq.) where the restoration of the holy vessels
finds no place in the shorter text of the Septuagint (see W. R.
c m :*t. r\u r e st. and Jew. Church, pp. 104 sqq).
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY)
JEWS
387
ideal kingdom, the trusted and highly favoured minister who was
the signet-ring upon Yahweh's hand (contrast Hag. ii. 24 with Jer.
xxii. 23). Zechariah, in his turn, proclaims the overthrow of
ail difficulties in the path of the new king, who shall rule in
glory supported by the priest (Zech. vi.). What political
aspirations were revived, what other writers were inspired by
these momentous events are questions of inference.
A work which inculcates the dependence < he
purity of its ruler is the unfinished book of 1 iry
of the Davidic dynasty and the Temple, ll in
josiah (J 16, end), and there is a strong p is
intended to impress upon the new era the le he
East. Its treatment of the monarchy is only p aw
ighly complicated literary undertaking (tr >ks
Joshua to Kings), inspired with the thouf by
language characteristic of Deuteronomy (esp try
portions), which forms the necessary inu rer
reforms Josiah actually accomplished, the re he
opportunity of bringing the Deuteronomic mi;
though it is more probable that Deuteronomy is
not much earlier than the second half of the It
shows a strong nationalist feeling which is iu ah
alone, but comprises a greater Israel from K in
the north to Hebron in the south, and ever he
Jordan. Distinctive non- Judaean features at he
Samaritan liturgical office (Deut. xxvn. 14-36), and the evidence for
the conclusion that traditions originally of (north) Israelite interest
were taken over and adapted to the later standpoint of Judah and
Jerusalem (viz. in the Deuteronomic book of Kings) independently
confirms the inferences drawn from Deuteronomy itself. The ab-
sence of direct testimony can be partially supplied by later events
which presuppose the break-up of no inconsiderable state, and imply
relations with Samaria which had been by no means so unfriendly
as the historians represent. A common ground for Judaism and
Samaritanisra is obvious, and it is in this obscure age that it is to be
sought. But the curtain is raised for too brief an interval to allow
of more than a passing glimpse at the restoration of Judaean for-
tunes; not until the time of Nehcmiah, about 140 years after the
fall of Jerusalem, does the historical material become less imperfect.
Upon this blank period before the foundation of Judaism (§5 21,
23) much light is also thrown by another body of evidence. It has
long been recognized that 1 Chron. ii. and iv. represent a Judah
composed mainly of groups which had moved up from the south
(Hebron) to the vicinity 01 Jerusalem. It includes Caleb and Jerah-
meel, Kenite or Rechabite families, scribes, &c., and these, as
" sons " of Hezron, claim some relationship with Gilead. The names
point generally to an affinity with south Palestine and north Arabia
(Edom, Midian, &c; see especially the lists in Gen. xxxvi.), and
suggest that certain members of a closely related collection of
groups had separated from the main body and were ultimately
enrolled as Israelites. It b also recognized by many scholars that
in the present account of the exodus there are indications of the
original prominence of traditions of Kadcsh, and also of a journey
northwards in which Caleb, Kenites and others took part (I 5). On
these and on other grounds besides, it has long been felt that south
Palestine, with its north Arabian connexions, is of real importance in
biblical research, and for many years efforts have been made to
determine the true significance of the evidence. The usual tendency
has been to regard it in the light of the criticism of early Israelite
history, which demands some reconstruction (§ 8), and to discern
distinct tribal movements previous to the union of Judah and Israel
under David. On the other hand, the elaborate theory of T. K.
Cheyne involves the view that a history dealing with the south
actually underlies our sources and can be recovered by emendation
of the text. Against the former is the fact that although certain
groups are ultimately found in ludah (fudg. i.), the evidence for
the movement — a conquest north of Kadesh, almost at the gate of
the promised land — explicitly mentions Israel; and against the latter
the evidence again shows that this representation has been deliber-
ately subordinated to the entrance of Israel from beyond the Jordan.'
1 The view that Deuteronomy is later than the 7th century has
been suggested by M. Vernes. Noutelle hypotkese sur la camp, el
I'ongiM du Deut. (1887); Havet, Christian, et ses orients (1878);
Horst, in Rep. da I'hist. des relit., 1888; and more recently by E. Day,
Journ. Bib, Lit. (1902), pp. 202 sqq.; and R. H. Kennett, Journ.
Thedt. Stud. (1906), pp. 486 sqq. The strongest counter-arguments
(see W E. Addis, Doc. of Hexat. ii. 2-0) rely upon the historical
trustworthiness of 2 Kings xxii. seq. Weighty reasons arc brought
also by conservative writers against the theory that Deuteronomy
dates from or about the age of Josiah, and their objections to the
" discovery " of a new law-roll apply equally to the " re-discovery "
and promulgation of an old and authentic code.
' See, for Cheyne's view, his Decline and Fall of Judah. Introduction
(1908). The former tendency has many supporters; see, among
recent writers. N. Schmidt. Hibberl Journal (1908), pp. 322 sqq. ; C.F.
Burney, Journ. Thiol. Stud. (1908), pp. 321 sqq.; O. A. Tofftcen,
contents and vicissitudes of the purely ecclesiastical traditions.*
Recent .criticism goes to show that there is a very considerable
body of biblical material, more important for its attitude to the
history than for its historical accuracy, the true meaning of which
cannot as yet be clearly perceived. It raises many serious problems
which concentrate upon that age which is of the greatest importance
for the biblical and theological student. The perplexing relation
between the admittedly late compilations and the actual course
of the early history becomes still more intricate when one
observes such a feature as the late interest in the Israelite tribes. No
doubt there is much that is purely artificial and untrustworthy in
the late (post-exilic) representations of these divisions, but it is,
almost incredible that the historical foundation for their early
career is severed from the written sources by centuries of warfare,
immigration and other disturbing factors. On the one hand,
conservative scholars insist upon the close material relation between
the constituent sources; critical scholars, on the other hand, while
recognizing much that is relatively untrustworthy, refrain from
departing from the general outlines of the canonical history more
than is absolutely necessary. Hence the various reconstructions
of the earlier history, with all their inherent weaknesses. But
The Historic Exodus (1909), pp. 120 sqq.; especially Meyer and
Luther, Die Jsraeliten^ pp. 442-440, &c. For the early recognition of
the evidence in question, sec J. wellhausen, De genlibus et familiis
Judaeis (Gdtttngen, 1870); Prolegomena (Eng. trans.), pp. 216 sqq.,
342 sqq., and 441-443 (from art. Israel, ' 5 2, Ency. BrtU 9th ed.);.
also A. Kuencn. Relig. of Israel (i. 135 scq., 176-182); W. R. Smith,
Prophets of Israel, pp. 28 seq., 379.
* For the prominence of the southern " element in Judah see
E. Meyer, EntsUhungd. Judentkums (1896), pp. 119, 147, 167, 177,
183 n. 1 ; Israelite^ pp. 352 n. 5, 402, 429 scq.
* See 5 23 end, and Levites. When Edom is renowned for wis-
dom and a small Judaean family boasts of sages whose names have
south Palestinian affinity (1 Chron. ii. 6), and when such Dames as
Korah, Hcman, Ethan and O bed -edom, are associated with psalmody,
there is no inherent improbability in the conjecture that the "south-
ern " families settled around Jerusalem may have left their mark in
other parts of the Old Testament. It is another question whether
such literature can be identified (for Cheyne's views, see Ency. Bib.
" Prophetic Literature," " Psalms," and his recent studies).
3«8
JEWS
[OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY
historical criticism b faced with the established literary conclusions
which, it should be noticed, place the Deuteronomic and priestly
compilations posterior to the great changes at and after the fall of
the northern monarchy, and, to some extent, contemporary with
the equally serious changes in Judah. There were catastrophes
detrimental to the preservation of older literary records, and vicis-
situdes which, if they have not left their mark on contemporary
history — which is singularly blank — may be traced on the represen-
tations of the past. There are external historical circumstances
and internal literary features which unite to show that the application
of the literary hypotheses of the Old Testament to the course of
Israelite history is still incomplete, and they warn us that the
intrinsic value of religious and didactic writings should not depend
upon the accuracy of their history. 1 Future research may not be
able to solve the problems which arise in the studv of the period now
under discussion; it is the more necessary, therefore, that all efforts
should be tested in the light of purely external evidence (see further
| 24; and Palestine: History).
xi. Nehemiah and Ezra. — There is another remarkable gap in
the historical traditions between the time of Zcrubbabel and
the reign of Artaxerxes I. In obscure circumstances the
enthusiastic hopes have melted away, the Davidic scion has dis-
appeared, and Jerusalem has been the victim of another disaster.
The country is under Persian officials, the nobles and priests form
the local government, and the ground is being prepared for the
erection of a hierocracy. It is the work of rebuilding and re-
organization, of social and of religious reforms, which we en-
counter in the last pages of biblical history, and in the records of
Ezra and Nehemiah we stand in Jerusalem in the very centre of
epoch-making events. Nehemiah, the cup-bearer of Artaxerxes
at Susa, plunged in grief at the news of the desolation of Jerusalem ,
obtained permission from the king to rebuild the ruins. Provided
with an escort and with the right to obtain supplies of wood for
the buildings, he returned to the city of his fathers' sepulchres
(the allusion may suggest his royal ancestry). His real is repre-
sented in a twofold aspect- Having satisfied himself of the
extent of the ruins, he aroused the people to the necessity of
fortifying and rcpopulating the dty, and a vivid account is given
in his name of the many dangers which beset the rebuilding of
the walls. Sanballat of Horon, Tobjah the Ammonite, and
Gashmu the Arabian (? Edomite) unceasingly opposed him.
Tobiah and bis son Johanan were related by marriage to Judaean
secular and priestly families, and active intrigues resulted, in
which nobles and prophets took their part. It was insinuated
that Nehemiah had his prophets to proclaim that Judah had again
its own king; it was even suggested that be was intending to rebel
against Persia I Nehemiah naturally gives us only his version,
and the attitude of Haggai and Zcchariah to Zcrubbabel may
illustrate the feeling of his partisans. But Tobiah and Johanan
themselves were worshippers of Yahwcb (as their names also
show), and consequently, with prophets taking different sides
and with the Samaritan claims summarily repudiated (Neh. ii.
20; cf. Ezra iv. 3), all the facts cannot be gathered from the
narratives. Nevertheless the undaunted Judaean pressed on
unmoved by the threatening letters which were sent around,
and succeeded in completing the walls within fifty-two days.*
In the next place, Nehemiah appears as governor of the small
district of Judah and Benjamin. Famine, the avarice of the rich,
and the necessity of providing tribute had brought the humbler
classes to the lowest straits. Some had mortgaged their houses,
fields and vineyards to buy corn; others had borrowed to pay
the taxes, and bad sold their children to their richer brethren to
repay the debt. Nehemiah was faced with old abuses, and
vehemently contrasted the harshness of the nobles with the
generosity of the exiles who would redeem their poor countrymen
from slavery. He himself had always refrained from exacting
the usual provision which other governors had claimed; indeed,
he had readily entertained over 150 officials and dependants at
bis table, apart from casual refugees (Neh. v.). We hear somc-
1 One may recall. In this connexion. Caxton's very interesting
prologue to Malory's Merle f Arthur and his remarks on the per-
manent value ©I the " histories " of this British hero. [Cf. also
Horace. f>. I ii. and R. Browning , " Development ")
• It N noteworthy that Jinrphus. who has his own representation
of « he M*t-c\ihc «ge. allows two years and lour months for tN»
«v*ik {A*L «*• 5. »>•
thing of a twelve-years* governorship and of a second visit, but
the evidence does not enable us to determine the sequence (xiii. 6).
Neh. v. is placed in the middle of the building of the walls in
fifty-two days; the other reforms during the second visit are
closely connected with the dedication of the walls and with the
events which immediately follow his first arrival when be had
come to rebuHd the city. Nehemiah also turns his attention to
religious abuses. The sabbath, once a festival, had become
more strictly observed, and when be found the busy agriculturists
and traders (some of them from Tyre) pursuing their usual
labours on that day, he pointed to the disasters which had
resulted in the past from such profanation, and immediately took
measures to put down the evil (Neh. xiii. 18; cf. Jer. xviL 20 sqq.;
Ezek. xx. 13-24; Isa. lvi. 2, 6; rviii. 13). Moreover, the mainten-
ance of the Temple servants called for supervision ; the customary
allowances had not been paid to the Levites who had come to
Jerusalem after the smaller shrines had been put down, and they
had now forsaken the city. His last arts were the most conspicu-
ous of all. Some of the Jews had married women of Ashdod,
Ammon and Moab, and the impetuous governor indignantly
adjured them to desist from a practice, which was the historic
cause of national sin. Even members of the priestly families had
intermarried with Tobiah and Sanballat; the former had his own
chamber in the precincts of the Temple, the daughter of the latter
was the wife of a son of Joiada the son of the high priest Eliashib.
Again Nchcmiab's wrath was kindled. Tobiah was cast out, the
offending priest expelled, and a general purging followed, in
which all the foreign clement was removed. With this Nehemiah
brings the account of bis reforms to a conclusion, and the words
" Remember me, O my God, for good " (xiii. 31) are not meaning-
less. The incidents can be supplemented from Josephus.
According to this writer (Ant. xl 7, 2), a certain Manasseh, the
brother of Jaddua and grandson of Joiada, refused to divorce bis
wife, the daughter of Sanballat. For this he was driven out,
and, taking refuge with the Samaritans, founded a rival temple
and priesthood upon Mt Gerizim, to which repaired other
priests and Levites who had been guilty of mixed marriages.
There is little doubt that Josephus refers to the same events;
but there is considerable confusion in bis history of the
Persian age, and when he places the schism and the founda-
tion of the new Temple in the time of Alexander the Great (after
the obscure disasters of the reign of Artaxerxes III.), it is
usually supposed that he is a century too late.* At all events,
there is now a complete rupture with Samaria, and thus, in the
concluding chapter of the last of the historical books of the Old
Testament, Judah maintains its claim to the heritage of Israel
and rejects the right of the Samaritans to the title 4 (see § 5).
In this separation of the Judaeans from religious and social
intercourse with their neighbours, the work of Ezra (g.v.) re-
quires notice. The story of this scribe (now combined with the
memoirs of Nehemiah) crystallizes the new movement inaugu-
rated after a return of exiles from Babylonia. The age can also
be illustrated from Isa. Ivi.-lxvi. and Malachi (q.v.). There was
a poor and weak Jerusalem, its Temple stood in need of renovation,
its temple-service was mean, its priests unworthy of their office.
On the one side was the grinding poverty of the poor; on the
other the abuses of the governors. There were two leading
religious parties: one of oppressive formalists, exclusive, stria
e (p. 282, n. i, above) mention as
cc iest Johanan (cf. the son of Joiada
ar 22), Bagohi (Baeoas), governor of
It ah sons of Sanballat (408-407 B.C.)
T1 ions between Samaria and Judah,
ar 1 granting permission to the Jewish
cc worship. If this fixe* the date of
Sa i time of the first Artaxerxes, the
pi later written sources is enhanced
bi umes of kings, priests, Ac, in the
hi
. art. claimed the traditions of their
land and called themselves the posterity of Joseph, Ephrairn and
Manasseh. But they were ready to deny their kinship with the
Jews when the latter were in adversity, and could have replied to the
tr*AUi nn that they were foreigners with a nn cuoque Qoeephus, Ami.
8, 6; xii. 5, 5) (see Samaritans).
I
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY! JEWS 389
j and rituali
welcome t<
I: the superst
But the foi
% of maintain
. from foretj
* measures ti
, It is related
, with priesti
t Temple. ]
K dition of tl
u which he 1
l people wer
j •' book of I
J They enter
in particuh
. special ace
description
j which thre
communit)
party. Tt
foreigners 1
r an exclush
political fn
and " Israc
in tbedese
22. Post-
thc books <
is doubtful
1 the reign of
to this reigi
ported that
were rebut!
to endange
instructed f
decree, and
ii. 16 sqq. 1
7th year (»-
to promulg
service in
which far t
wide-sweep
(viL-x.) 1
permission
(Nch ii. 5
accomplish'
the present
after an in
events of 1
his twerve-
litcrary an
necessity f<
nary detail;
Nehcraiah'i
but a more
the work c
hardly be
Nehcmiah ;
Nehemiah
and schema
the two se
incline to j
That later
reforms of
extremely <
period. N
and for the
be placed 1
its allusion
of either Ej
that the 5
waited to a
interfere w
U. 7-9). *t
as now de
the piston
'TKecti
may possil
Ezra vit 2
* It mus
Cfieyne. C
Marquart,
39°
references to toe rebuftiiatg of the Temple in the reign of Artaxerxes
U Esdras iL i$, not in f«i iv u ; but both in a context relating to
the history of the lV"^*.-' .and \-> x by the otherwise inaccurate state-
ment that t t teTeaip«e»a> titaished according to the decree of " Cyrus.
Pttnu* aavl Vxaverw* k r^ o« Fersia " lEzr* vi. 14).
The ttuit u»c %vzth> iv\w u of the return in the time of Cyrus (Ezra
i s*n » ee l\in^s yi |f*irj$ iv. «q.. probably the older form) is
curK»u>l\ tuv'voted. to material which seems to ha\« belonged to the
h-<.«*\ ot the *wi o* Nehemioh ,cf. Eara iL with Neh- vii.). and
the i-u4v«tai't return m the rei^a of Artaxcrxes lEara iv 12) seems
tv be vvmtcvted with ether references to some new settlement (Neh.
io- JO. ijL ^. cspevvstl^ \uL »>. The independent testimony of the
«a ue> f* Neh u» e onanist any previous targe return from Babylon,
* ^i cWarrv illustrate* the strength of the croups of "southern "
o,n.« %h»x* presence » only to be expected (p. 285). Moreover,
tV tat* ce-i'»{*k:c of l Chronicles distinguishes a Judah composed
t' -w*t %ho:i* of " southern ** groups (1 Chron. u. and iv.) from a
v. x\^*eut sta^e when the first inhabitants of Jerusalem correspond
m tae main to the new population after Nehemiah had repaired the
c as u Chrvn. it. and S'eh. xL). Consequently, underlying the
cwi-vnvjt Kvo» of pu?t -exilic history, one may perhaps recognize
*o :e trv»h disaster, alter the completion of Zcrubbabcrs temple,
» S.-.1 I uxlih *urfered grievously at the hands of its Edomite brethren
v *i Malachi. date uncertain, vengeance has at last been taken);
N\ hemiah restored the city, and the traditions of the exiles who
returned at this period have been thrown back and focussetfupon the
%\»ik of /erubKibel. The criticism of the history of Nehemiah,
%hteh kuU> to this conRvture, suggests also that if Nehemiah repulsed
the Stmuritati claims vii. 20; cf. Ezra iv. 3, where the building of the
Temple is concerned ^ and refused a compromise (vi.z), it is extremely
unUU-U th.it Samaria had hitherto been seriously hostile, sec also
C C fonvv. £rm &*Jw. pp. ja»-3o\5«
lUtuhcal hivtorv ends with the triumph of the Judaean community,
the Hue " Israel." the right to which title is found in the distant
jsfcvt. 1 l>o Judaean \icw pervades the present sources, and whilst
tt« LXukI a id N«!onum ruled over a united land, the separation
under leivNvun i> \ w »xd as one of calf-worshipping northern tribes
tivuu Jcro-vileu* «.u'i its one central temple and the legitimate
piHtthood v4 the /adokite*, It U from this narrower standpoint of
an exclude and con lined Judah (.and Benjamin) that the traditions
«» UK\M»vMatod in the late recensions gain fresh force, and in Israel's
iviuiiKutKvn ot the Judaean yoke the later hostility between the
t*v» inav be read bet wren the lines. The history in Kingp was not
nnalU «ettk\l until a very lite date, as is evident from the important
vaiwitkm* in the Scptuagiut, and it is especially in the description
ol the tune vU SAxnon and the disruption that there continued to
be con**k«raMe fluctuation*. 1 The book has no finale and the sudden
break mu\ not be accidental. It is replaced by Chronicles, which,
cwuhiiing it*clf to Judaean history from a later standpoint (after
the IYt*un age), includes new characteristic traditions wherein some
L - recogn,,^ Thus< thc
shows itself in Judaean
il stones of the rehabili-
on of cultus; there are
/ southern peoples and
bordi nation of thc royal
ritings of Ezekiel, q v ) ,
on kings who dared to
h) point to a conflict of
in the reconciliation of
fe ascribed to Zechanah
*j F+sk+xtiit Judaism.'
-With Nehemiah and Ezra we enter
*4^i the era in which a new impulse gave to Jewish life and
tVv^ht (Hat form which became the characteristic orthodox
»■ v.i.^ It wa» not t new religion that took root, older ten
; N ^v* wrre diverted into new paths, the existing material was
vV V nn! w **w cnti*. JuvUh was now a religious community
% v*c »v<wr«Utiv* was the high priest of Jerusalem Instead
^ xixx^.^»l kine>, there were royal priests, anointed with oil,
1 ..sv* *-,> k»tvglv insignia, d&iming the usual royal dues in
^ . vs» v v V *u*u*narv nght$ of the priests. With his pnests
. w *^l «niK the chiefs and nobles of thc Jewish
x x v v ^s |vvr*t directs this small state, and his death
. v . » .xn-Ii m u*l\ *» d»»* lftal of lnc '"onarchs in the past
"• T Vv.^vVvki ^xrtwncnt, which can find no founda-
« n. v.«v«« rsv»arv*hv, » the forerunner of the Sanhe-
. »<i >x. iutk>n which, however inaugurated, set
,w k ^w4U\v* which have survived. Laws were
..iH-otsH* that the prophet who took the part
„. >t \vhcmiah (vi. 10 seq.) bears the same
^ x\v K. VKv»m to acquiesce in thc dNrup-
, 1 » NMJK«1 thc divine selection of Jcro-
JEWS JOLD TESTAMENT HrSTORV*
recast in accordance with the requirements of the time, with the
result that, by the side of usages evidently of vtxy great anti-
quity, details now appear which were previously unknown or
wholly unsuitable The age, which the scanty historical tra-
ditions themselves represent as one of supreme importance for
thc history of the Jews, once seemed devoid of interest; fcnd it
is entirely through the laborious scholarship of the 19th century
that it now begins to reveal its profound significance. The
Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, that the hierarchical law in it*
complete form in the Pentateuch stands at the close and not at
the beginning of biblical history, that this mature Judaism
was the fruit of the 5th century B.C. and not a divinely appointed
institution at the exodus (nearly ten centuries previously), has
won the recognition of almost all Old Testament scholars. It
has been substantiated by numerous subsidiary investigations
in diverse departments, from different standpoints, and under
various aspects, and can be replaced only by one which shall
more adequately explain the literary and, historical evidence
(see further, p. 289).
The post-exilic priestly spirit represents a tendency which is
absent from the Judaean Deutcronomic book of Kings but b
fully mature in the later, and to some extent parallel; book
of Chronicles (q v.). The " priestly " traditions of the creation
and of the patriarchs mark a very distinct advance upon the
earlier narratives, and appear in a further developed form ia
the still later book of Jubilees, or " Little Genesis," where they
are used to demonstrate thc prc-Mosaic antiquity of the priestly
or Lcvitical institutions. There is also an unmistakable de-
velopment in the laws, and thc priestly legislation, though ahead
of both Ezekiel and Deuteronomy, not to mention still earlier
usage, not only continues to undergo continual internal modi-
fication, but finds a further distinct development, in the way of
definition and interpretation, outside the Old Testament— in
thc Talmud (7 v ) Upon the characteristics of the post -exilic
priestly writings we need not dwell. 2 Though one may often be
repelled by their iifelcssness, their lack of spontaneity and the
cxternalization of the ritual, it must be recognized that they
placed a strict monotheism upon a legal basis. " It was a
necessity that Judaism should incrust itself in this manner,
without those hard and ossified forms the preservation of its
essential elements would have proved impossible. At a time
when all nationalities, and at the same lime all bonds of religion
and national customs, were beginning to be broken up in the
seeming cosmos and real chaos of the Graeco-Roman Empire,
the Jews stood out like a rock in the midst of the ocean.
When the natural conditions of independent nationality all
failed them, they nevertheless artificially maintained 1t with an
energy truly marvellous, and thereby preserved for themselves,
and at the same time for the whole world, an eternal good." 1
If one is apt to acquire too narrow a view of Jewish legalism,
thc whole experience of subsequent history/through the heroic
age of thc Maccabees (q v j and onwards, only proves that the
minuteness of ritual procedure could not cramp the hcart.
Besidcs, this was only one of the aspects of Jewish literary
activity The work represented in Nehemiah and Ezra, and put
into action by the supporters of an exclusive Judaism, certainly
won the day, and their hands have left their impress upon the
historical traditions. But Yahwism, like Islam, had its sects
and tendencies, and the opponents to the stricter ritualism always
had followers. Whatever the predominant party might think
of foreign marriages, the tradition of the half-Moabite origin
of David serves, in the beautiful idyll of Ruth (^.r.), to suggest
the debt which Judah and Jerusalem owed to one at least
of its neighbours. Again, although some may have desired
a self-contained community opposed to the heathen neigh-
bours of Jerusalem, the story of Jonah implicitly contends
against thc attempt of Judaism to close its doors. The conflict-
ing tendencies were incompatible, but Judaism retained the
* See Hebrew Religion. $ 8 seq., and thc relevant portions of the
histories of Israel.
'J Weljhausen, art. " Israel/* Ency. BnL oth ed , vol. xiii. p. 410:
or his Prolegomena, pp. 497 seq.
OLD TESTAMENT HISTORY] JEWS 3 9 1
incompj " " " " ~"
prophet
develop
TheC
plcte in
histories
thesis p
being q
Pcntatei
writers <
and has
cessions
follows
impress*
Uw-roll
but siiu
become
implies
profoum
icings ar
of the L
Neh. vit
and com
then int
(to pro*
gross wi
time of
of the n
again si
have di!
arrival,
which, I
mental 1
they bri
(under £
tion of
forgottc
they shi
upon th I
Ezra rc« |
is mere! i
even as \
the Lai
Pentatc '
The i 1
from Ds {
several i ,
of Baby <
ask whe I
(6) mere |
the indc •
Assyria i (
there wc ,
origin-
arise CO
vicissitu
To this
(symbol
Vet it i
Priestly
Popular
They cc
very no
in contr
book of
the wh(
Tcstam<
This is
periods,
and the
bittcrnc
the rcf<
reveal a
whose t
the cccl(
is prcse
thought
Egypt.
Exodus,
after th
assumec
of the •
•An i
on criti-
Montefi
byl. A1
-K.O- 2
JEWS
"'- »X , J
it
-\ Vv*i*« [rjt. Mcwes. Jethro). &c.. like the intimate
o ]- Sc:»w -i Israel and surrounding lands, have a significance
V vv .-.w .-t rr>*rAnrh. Israel can no longer be isolated from
»k~*. v-. :--*. :cv*> lore, thought and religion of western Asia
.-«. F >. va«» c* rather Palestinian, thought has been brought
Vt\< of a.'vieac Oriental life, and this life, in spite of the
s? »;n viurh it has from time to time been shaped, still
^- _.._ r.~. fbis 1^5 far-reaching consequences for the
to Israelite history and religion. Research is
i by the growing stores of material, which
en utilized without attention to the principles
ments of knowledge or aspects of study. The
i knowledge and the Interrelation of its different
tsumctcntly realized, and that by writers who
application of such material as they use to
of the manifold problems oi the Old Testament
ronfuse the study of the Old Testament in its
- » iw^« — religious needs with the technical scientific
•r""*i v of the much edited remains of the literature of a small part
s*V« h> a 00 *" 01 ^** ,f lhcre wa$ oncc a tendency to isolate the
c" J rcstiipent and ignore comparative research, it is now sometimes
C>*^». possible to exaggerate us general agreement with Oriental
'*"-#>?>•. ,,{e AnJ ,nou S nl * Difficulties have been found in the super-
*** »*"., Jl <* marvellous stories which would be taken as a matter of
n* 1 " bv contemporary readers, and efforts are often made to
c^^^f hi'tt'ik-al lacts or to adapt the records to modern theology
**\wout sumvicnl attention to the historical data as a whole or
w thvir nrl«i»ous environment. The preliminary preparation for
VZLJ »rvh ol Any value becomes yearly more exacting.
rc?T: ^.. .n.v* of mvth, legend and primitive " thought survive in
ind on the most cautious estimate they pre-
ich is not a little astonishing But they are
•n bereft of their earlier significance, and it is
cc from common Oriental thought which make
it so profound and unique. The process finds
it in later and non-biblical literature; but one
cruder and less distinctive stages, and, as
ct the mentality of an author or of his age, the
* of the extant sources, viewed in the light of
kTy of Palestinian and surrounding culture,
i explanation. The differences between the
o« »•"• stor X an{ * the conditions which prevailed have
,of rsSC d themselves variously upon ^modern writers, and efforts
"" * ament earlier forms
It may be doubted,
'or
of
nt
nd
be
i m £e* bcc n nude to recover from "the Old Testament earlier forms
vZ in acconiince with the external evidence. *" L J * " J
*1
» <S*. uof*. Israels, ii. (1900):
(GREEK DOMINATION
the Old Testament into us present form, and its preservation despite
hostile forces, are the two remarkable phenomena which most arrest
the attention of the historian; it is for the theologian to interpret
their bearing upon the history of religious thought. (S. A. C)
II.— Greek Domination
25. Alexander the Great.— The second great period of the
history of the Jews begins with the conquest of Asia by Alexander
the Great, disaple of Aristotle, king of Macedon and captain-
general of the Greeks. It ends with the destruction of Jeru-
salem by the armies of the Roman Empire, which was, like
Alexander, at once the masterful pupil and the docile patron
of Hellenism. The destruction of Jerusalem might be regarded
as an event of merely domestic importance; for the Roman
cosmopolitan it was only the removal of the titular metropolis
of a national and an Oriental religion. But, since a derivative
of that religion has come to be a power in the world at large, this
event has to be regarded in a different light. The destruction
of Jerusalem in a.d. 70 concludes the period of four centuries,
during which the Jews as a nation were in contact with the
Greeks and exposed to the influence of Hellenism, not wholly oi
their own will nor yet against it. Whether the master of the
provinces, in which there were Jews, be an Alexander, a Ptolemy,
a Seleucid or a Roman, the force by which be rules is the force
of Greek culture. These four centuries are the Greek period oi
Jewish history.
The ancient historians, who together cover this period, are
strangely indifferent to the importance of the Jews, upon which
Josephus is at pains to insist. When Alexander invaded the
interior of the Eastern world, which had hitherto remained
inviolable, he came as the champion of Hellenism. His death
prevented the achievement of his designs; but he had broken
down the barrier, he had planted the seed of the Greek's influ-
ence in the four quarters of the Persian Empire. His successors,
the Diadochi, carried on his work, but Antiochus Epiphanes was
the first who deliberately took in hand to deal with the Jews.
Daniel (viii. 8) describes the interval between Alexander and
Antiochus thus: " The he-goat (the king of Greece) did very
greatly: and when he was strong the great horn (Alexander) was
broken; and instead of it came up four other ones — four king-
doms shall stand up out of his nation but not 'with his power.
And out of one of them came forth a little horn (Antiochus
Epiphanes) which waxed exceeding great towards the south
(Egypt) and towards the East (Babylon) and towards the
beauteous land (the land of Israel)." The insignificance of the
Jewish community in Palestine was their salvation. The re-
forms of Nehemiah were directed towards the establishment of
a religious community at Jerusalem, in which the rigour of the
law shoutd be observed. As a part of the Persian Empire the
community was obscure and unimportant. But the race whose
chief sanctuary it guarded and maintained was the heir of great
traditions and ideals. In Egypt, moreover, in Babylon and in
Persia individual Jews had responded to the influences of their
environment and won the respect of the aliens whom they
despised. The law which they cherished as their standard and
guide kept them united and conscious of their unity. And the
individuals, who acquired power or wisdom among those outside
Palestine shed a reflected glory upon the nation and its Temple.
In connexion with Alexander's march through Palestine Josephus
gives a tradition of his visit to Jerusalem. In Arrian's narrative
of Alexander's exploits, whose fame had already faded before the
greater glory of Rome, there is no mention of the visit or the city or
the Jews. Only Tyre and Gaza barred the way to Egypt. He
took, presumably, the coast-road in order to establish and retain
his command of the sea. The rest of Palestine, which is called
Coele-Syria, made its submission and furnished supplies. Seven
days after the capture of Gaza Alexander was at Pelosium.
According to the tradition which Josephus has preserved the high
priest refused to transfer his allegiance, and Alexander marched
against Jerusalem after the capture of Gaza. The high priest
dressed in his robes went out to meet him, and at the sight Alexander
remembered a dream, in which such a man had appeared to him
~ the appointed leader of his expedition. So the danger
^V^ Cheyne. Traditions
00); I averted: Alexander offered sacrifice and was shown the prophecy
ana I of Daniel, which spoke of him. It is alleged, further, that at this
I timm rwruin Jews who could not refrain from intermarriage with
GREEK DOMINATION) JEWS
the heathen set up a temple on Mt Gerizim and became the Samari-
tan •churn ( 1 21 above). The combination is certainly artificial and
not historical. But it has a value of its own inasmuch as it illus-
trates the permanent tendencies which mould the history of the
Jews. It is true that Alexander was subject to dreams and visited
shrines in order to assure himself or bb followers of victory. But it
is not clear that he had such need of the Jews or such regard for the
Temple of Jerusalem that he should turn aside on his way to Egypt
for such a purpose.
However this may be, Alexander's tutor ha d
met a Jew there, if his disciple Clearchus c 1.
" The man." Aristotle says, was by race a , l
His people are descendants of the Indian | s-
ported that philosophers are called Calani s d
Jews among the Syrians. The Jews take ir
place of abode, which is called Judaea. Tfa is
very difficult; they call it Hierusaleme. T g
been a guest in many homes and having con n
the highlands to the sea-coast, was Hellenic it
also in soul. And as we were staying in Asi n
cast up at the same place and interviewed ■,
making trial of their wisdom. But inasmti jo
be at home with many cultured persons he imparted more than he
St." The date of this interview is probably determined by the
:t that Aristotle visited his friend Hermias, tyrant of Atarneus,
in 347-345 B.C. There is no reason to doubt the probability or even
the accuracy of the narrative. Megasthenes also describes the Jews
as the philosophers of Syria and couples them with the Brahmins
of India. This hcllenized Jew who descended from the hills to the
coast is a figure typical of the period.
26. The Ptolemies.— Alter the death of Alexander Palestine
fell in the end to Ptolemy (301 B.C.) and remained an Egyptian
province until 108 B.C. For a century the Jews in Palestine and
in Alexandria had no history — or none that Josephus knew.
But two individuals exemplify the different attitudes which
the nation adopted towards its new environment and its wider
opportunities, Joseph the tax-farmer and Jesus the sage.
The wisdom of Jesus ben Sira (Sirach) is contained in the book
commonly called Ecclesiasticus (q.v.). At a time when men were
attracted by the wisdom and science of the Greeks, he taught that
all wisdom came from Yahweh who had chosen Israel to receive it
in trust. He discouraged inquiries ii tire and purpose*
of things: it was enough for him thi had created and
ruled the universe. If a man had lei vise — and this is
not for many— he should study the which had come
down, and so become a scribe, For 1 » for the man at
the plough-tail, the Law was the rule 1. however much
or Uttle preoccupied with worldly bu fear God, from
whom come good things and evil, life, death, poverty and riches.
It- was not for men to meddle with secrets which are beyond human
intelligence. Enough that the individual did his duty in the state
of life in which he was set and left behind him a good name at his
death. The race survive*—" the days of Israel are unnumbered."
Every member of the congregation of Israel must labour, as God
has appointed, at some handicraft or profession to provide for his
home. It is his sacred duty and his private interest to beget
children and to train them to take his place. The scholar is apt to
pity the smith, the potter, the carpenter and the farmer: with better
reason he is apt to condemn the trader who becomes absorbed in
greed of gain and so deserts the way of righteoiibness and fair dealing.
As a teacher Jesus gave his own services freely. For the soldier
he had no commendation. There were physicians who understood
the use of herbs, and must be rewarded when their help was invited.
But, whatever means each head of a family adopted to get a liveli-
hood, he must pay the priest's dues. The centre of the life of Israel
was the Temple, over which the high priest presided and which was
inhabited by Yahweh, the God of Israel. The scribe could train the
individual in morals and in manners; but the high priest was the
ruler of the nation.
As ruler of the nation the high priest paid its tribute to Egypt, its
overlord. But Josephus reports of one Onias that for avarice he
withheld it. The sequel shows how a Jew might rise to power in
the civil service of the Egyptian Empire and yet remain a hero to
some of the Jews — provided that he did not intermarry with a
Gentile. For Joseph, the son of Tobiah and nephew of Onias. went
to court and secured the taxes of Palestine, when they were put up
to auction. As tax-farmer he oppressed the non- Jewish cities and
so won the admiration of Josephus.
But while such men went out into the world and brought back
wealth of one kind or another to Palestine, other Jews were
content to make their homes in foreign parts. At Alexandria
ia- particular Alexander provided for a Jewish colony which soon
became Hellenic enough in speech to require a translation of
the Law. It is probable that, as in Palestine an Aramaic para-
phrase of the Hebrew text was found to be necessary, so in
393
Alexandria the Septuagint grew up gradually, as need arose.
The legendary tradition which even Philo accepts gives it a
formal nativity, a royal patron and inspired authors. From
the text which Philo uses, it is probable that the translation had
been transmitted in writing; and his legend probably fixes the
date of the commencement of the undertaking for the reign of
Ptolemy Lagus.
The apology for the necessary defects of a translation put forward
by the translator of EccUsiasticus in his Prologue shows that the
work was carried on beyond the limits of the Law. Apparently it
was in progress at the time of his coming to Egypt in the reign of
Ptolemy Euergetes I. or II. He seems to regard this body of
literature as the answer to the charge that the Jews had contributed
nothing useful for human life. Once translated into Greek, the
Scriptures became a bond of union for the Jews of the dispersion
and were at least capable of being used as an instrument for the
conversion of the world to Judaism. So far as the latter function
is concerned Philo confesses that the Law in his day shared the ob-
scurity of the people, and seems to imply that the proselytes adopted
little more than the monotheistic principle and the observance 01 the
Sabbath. According to Juvenal the sons of such proselytes were
apt to go farther and to substitute the Jewish Law for the Roman—
Romanas autem soliti conlcmnere leges;
iudaicum ediscunt et servant ac metuunt his
'radidit arcano quodcunque volumine Moyses.
«7. The Selcucids.—Tomrd the end of the 3rd century the
Palestinian Jews became involved in the struggle between
Egypt and Syria. In Jerusalem there were partisans of both
the combatants. The more orthodox or conservative Jews
preferred the tolerant rule of the Ptolemies: the rest, who chafed
at the isolation of the nation, looked to the Seleucids, who
inherited Alexander's ideal of a united empire based on a
universal adoption of Hellenism. At this point Josephos cites
the testimony of Porybius>— " Scopas, the general of Ptolemy,
advanced into the highlands and subdued the nation of the Jews
in the winter. After the defeat of Scopas, Antibchus gained
Batanaea and Samaria and Abila and Gadara, and a little later
those of the Jews who live round the Temple called Jerusalem
adhered to him." From this it appears that the pro-Syrian
faction of the Jews had been strong and active enough to bring
an Egyptian array upon them (190-198 B.C.). Josephus adds
that an Egyptian garrison was left in Jerusalem. This act of
oppression presumably strengthened the Syrian faction of the
Jews and led to the transference of the nation's allegiance.
The language of Polybius suggests that he was acquainted with
other Jewish communities and with the fame of the Temple: in
his view they are not an organized state. Tbey were not even
a pawn in the game which Antiochus proposed to play with Rome
for the possession of Greece and Asia Minor. His defeat left the
resources of his kingdom exhausted and its extent diminished;
and so the Jews became important to his successors for the sake
of their wealth and their position on the frontier. To pay his
debt to Rome he was compelled to resort to extraordinary
methods of raising money, he actually met his death (187 B.C.) in
an attempt to loot the temple of Elymais.
The pro-Syrian faction of the Palestinian Jews found their
opportunity in this emergency and informed the governor of
Coele-Syria that the treasury in Jerusalem contained untold
sums of money. Heliodorus, prime minister of Seleucus
Philopator, who succeeded Antiochus, arrived at Jerusalem
in his progress through Coele-Syria and Phoenicia and declared
the treasure confiscate to the royal exchequer. According to
the Jewish legend Heliodorus was attacked when he entered the
Temple by a horse with a terrible rider and by two young men.
He was scourged and only escaped with his life at the inter-
cession of Onias the high priest, who had pleaded with him
vainly that the treasure included the deposits of widows and
orphans and also some belonging to Hyrcanus, " a man in very
high position." Onias was accused by his enemies of having
given the information which led to this outrage and when, rely-
ing upon the support of the provincial governor, they proceeded
to attempt assassination, he fled to Antioch and appealed to the
king.
When Seleucus was assassinated by Heliodorus, Antiochus
IV., his brother, who had been chief magistrate at Athens, came
JEWS
((GREEK DOMINATION
iiawim In n^~(l>aa.xi.aas*q>).
• v o-*2v »*r beveher ot Cuaas* to the
_ w» a> prnncsadb vr lie csavetsaoa
The fc«f? parsi rhircna 1 has
i £> "*■*-■■» act: *a* cuoiv The
, ^ -^ -v! »^ *^-:v«tactt. The pnots Resetted
. v *..v^-i*jw ht \*>ane.J*ft»« wore the Greek
^ *n»* w 4 >afc."i»« w »c«*e$ *i Tw, mad the
.,.,*-. *■«**. ^* w ta» jwivx came frcm his envoys,
<^ > > v ^>v? ***. * ajw* ** aava! expen-
*s^ .^m- s. vim .2*. tmw ynrih»i of ks sacred
„ ^ . , *** »< «^c » ««f «*t Jwiaism.
u j. *,viw «*. 4^i.vt( fte apcwiictment from
*" ... v "vis* a 4 fc^pec onx.r>-tx». In order to
I ^ v^ -* »* -^- -^«« -~* m~?a« «t <>acas, who had
" ^ «^ * .^ima*. Tias Mtmc coapfad with his
|" .«.« > *«%<*> ^rssvK. w*k* a* «*d as bribes, raised
'.^ ^ .- >e <**. * iic. .he 7**f* of Jerusalem. His
\ , v >. , <&. !wv a 4 *rv-^> nocand an accusation
^. -* Vvw* >£*»* \xk«*.>dk At the inquiry
"^ te^ «^u*^ ,* tvw a o»--uet sad as accusers were
t.*.vx> s& -tncuukm ?«*or * Jerusalem and probably
' -^-^ ^ - x xywn wwr,«<ttk pea-Egyptian faction,
~ , ^ ^v.mw (j>?v.a* cams*** * rumour came that
*1 -» »■* *** **• .■***■ •**»* * **** "P 00 Jerusalem.
*"'"' v ^_ x .;» *i«. *»j Ja*M was unable to establish
*" ^ W* j**c*t w*e* presumably out of sym-
v »,\ ^K^We they befcmged to the bouse of
* . * ^„„v %Vw Aauochus finally evacuated
t «f Rome, he thought that
i had ncd, it was necessary
i which Menelaus advised
.v v ***** dames had been roused to
. ■* - ..^Kr>awTtiKce. A massacre took place,
- . *. x mwjii 4t Vahweh by entering and
^^ ^.si.bKX TW author of a Maccabees
. -^ *» * K *t.v«4 had forfeited all right to
.. v — ». . Vawc *» tS-io).
. . ^ * .vs» .b«» maacurated he carried on
w — - s%k^ ^ ^ «m»*f kingdom was to be
^> .- va*. -v \« aAtl aa such doomed to
'. -v * v^n^uvm «as made over to Zeus
-^ • w -j» s* T<« Xenius. AU the
^. H « h^*%M and the neighbouring
^ . , 4mm vk piohibuion upon their
^ . ««. A\^wi by an army which
^ . . - »Ni .-Mceeded to suppress its
K vk^t missionary of Hellcn-
-. . -^ wav« ««te mubushed by force
^■^» .w Otrute were purged and
.„^ * - * Aim* ease. Elsewhere, as
. , --. kv*pw manyn for the faith.
<wmv *A» iv^^cd to conform at
.«*«* w»a " TVe king's officers
L^. - .wmt *e* »•« ril y oi Modein
. ^* *-. 4«r ^ them, but Malta-
... .* « *.-*» aad the king's
v-*v**5*N). Whether
. - > v*» trd mto the wikicr-
.* iv^w^ reputed son,
j t nn v Wvthren. The
1 « fc «mxw Sai wni David
^ x *» «as occupied with
"_'. ** AeHctttniaed Jews
^ «d * the provincial
„ ^ a» coondence in
k.'vtvMs from the
... dc*a»balh to the
^^ m Jmcompanyof
the Asadeans (Hasidim). Such a breach of the sabbath was
necessary if the whole Law was to survive at alt in Pa lest hie.
But the transgression is enough to explain the disfavour into
which the Maccabees seem to fall in the judgment of latex
Judaism, as, in that judgment, it is enough to account for the
instability of their dynasty. Unstable as it was, their dynasty
was soon established. In the country-side of Judaea, Judaism
— and no longer Hellenism — was propagated by force. Apollo-
nius. the commander of the Syrian garrison in Jerusalem, and
Seron the commander of the army in Syria, came in turn against
Judas and his bands and were defeated. The revolt thus became
important enough to engage the attention of the governor of
Code-Syria and Phoenicia, if not of Lyslas the regent himself.
Nicanor was despatched with a large army to put down the
rebels and to pay the tribute due to Rome by selling them as
slaves, Judas was at Emmaus; " the men of the citadel "
guided a detachment of the Syrian troops to his encampment by
night. The rebels escaped in time, but not into the hills, as
their enemies surmised. At dawn they made an unexpected
attack upon the main body and routed it. Next year (165 B.C.)
Lystas himself entered the Idumaean country and laid siege
to the fortress of Bethsura. Judas gathered what men he could
and joined battle. The siege was raised, more* probably in
consequence of the death of Anliochus Epiphancs than because
Judas had gained any real victory. The proscription of the
Jewish religion was withdrawn and the Temple restored to them.
But it was Menelaus who was sent by the king " to encourage "
(2 Mace. xi. 32) the Jews, and in the official letters no reference
is made to Judas. Such hints as these indicate the impossibility
of recovering a complete picture of the Jews during the sove-
reignty of the Greeks, which the Talmudists regard as the dark
age. best left in oblivion.
Judas entered Jerusalem, the citadel of which was stQl occupied
by a Synan garrison, and the Temple was re-dedicated on the
25th of Kislev (164 B.C.). So " the Pious " achieved the object
for which presumably they took up arms. The re-establishment
of Judaism, which alone of current religions was intolerant of
a rival, seems to have excited the jealousy of their neighbours
who had embraced the Greek way of life. The helleniaers had
not lost all hope of converting the nation and were indisposed
to acquiesce in the concordat. Judas and his zealots were thus
able to maintain their prominence and gradually to increase
their power At Joppa, for example, the Jewish settlers — two
hundred in all — " were invited to go into boats provided in ac-
cordance with the common decree of the city M They accepted
the invitation and were drowned. Judas avenged them by
burning the harbour and the shipping, and set to work to bring
into Judaea all such communities of Jews who had kept them-
selves separate from their heathen neighbours. In this way he
became strong enough to deal with the apostates of Judaea.
In 163 Lysias led another expedition against these disturbers
of the king's peace and defeated Judas at Bethaachariah. But
while the forces were besieging Bethzur and the fortress on
Mount Zion, a pretender arose in Antioch, and Lysias was com-
pelled to come to terms— and now with Judas. The Jewish
refugees had turned the balance, and so Judas became strategus
of Judaea, whilst Menelaus was put to death
In 162 Demetrius escaped from Rome and got possession 0!
the kingdom of Syria. Jakim, whose name outside religion was
Alcimus, waited upon the new king on behalf of the loyal Jews
who had hcllenfced He himself was qualified to be the legiti
mate head of a united state, for he was of the tribe of Aaron
Judas and the Asmoneans were usurpers, who owed their title
to Lysias. So Alcimus-Jakim was made high priest and Bacchides
brought an army to instal him in his office. The Assideans
made their submission at once. Judas had won for them
religious freedom: but the Temple required a descendant of
Aaron for priest and he was come. But bis first act was to seise
and slay sixty of them-, so it was clear to Judas at any rate, if
not abo to the Assideans who survived, that political inde-
pendence was necessary if the religion was to be secure. la
face of his active opposition Alcimus could not maintaia himself
GREEK DOMINATION)
witnout the support of Bacchides and was forced to retire to
Antioch. In response to bis complaints Nicanor was appointed
governor of Judaea with power to treat with Judas. It appears
that the two became friends at first, but fresh orders from
Antioch made Nicanor guilty of treachery in the eyes of
Judas's partisans. Warned by the change of his friend's
manner Judas fled. Nicanor threatened to destroy the Temple
if the priests would not deliver Judas into his hands. Soon it
came to his knowledge that Judas was in Samaria, whither be
followed him on a sabbath with Jews pressed into his service.
The day was known afterwards as Nicanor's day, for he was found
dead on the field (Capharsalama) by the victorious followers of
Judas (13th of Adar, March 161 B.C.). After this victory Judas
made an alliance with the people of Rome, who had no love
for Demetrius his enemy, nor any intention of putting their
professions of friendship into practice. Bacchides and Aldmus
returned meanwhile into the land of Judah; at Elasa " Judas
fell and the rest fled " (1 Mace. he. 18). Bacchides occupied
Judaea and made a chain of forts. Jonathan, who succeeded
his brother Judas, was captain of a band of fugitive outlaws.
But on the death of Alcimus Bacchides retired and Jonathan
with his followers settled down beyond the range of the Syrian
garrisons. The Hellenizers still enjoyed the royal favour and
Jonathan made no attempt to dispossess them. After an inter-
val of two years they tried to capture him and failed. This
failure seems to have convinced Bacchides that it would be well
to recognize Jonathan and to secure a balance of parties. In
I58 Jonathan began to rule as a judge in Michmash and he
destroyed the godless out of Israel — so far, that is. as his power
extended. In 153 Alexander Balas withdrew Jonathan from
his allegiance to Demetrius by the offer of the high-priesthood.
He had already made Jerusalem his capital and fortified the
Temple mount: the Syrian garrisons had already been withdrawn
with the exception of those of the Akra and Bethzur. In 147
Jonathan repaid his benefactor by destroying the army of the
governor of Code-Syria, who had espoused the cause of Deme-
trius. The fugitives took sanctuary in the temple of Dagon at
Azotus. " But Jonathan burned the temple of Dagon and those
who fled into it. " After the death of Balas he laid siege to the
Akra; and." the apostates, who hated their own nation," ap-
pealed to Demetrius. Jonathan was summoned to Antioch,
made his peace and apparently relinquished his attempt in
return for the addition of three Samaritan districts to his terri-
tory. Later, when the people of Antioch rose against the king,
Jonathan despatched a force of 3000 men who played a notable
part in the merciless suppression of the insurrection. 1 Macca-
bees credits them with 100,000 victims. Trypho, the regent of
Antiochus VI., put even greater political power into the hands of
Jonathan and his brother Simon, but finally seized Jonathan on
the pretext of a conference. Simon was thus left to consolidate
what had been won in Palestine for the Jews and the family
whose head he had become. The weakness of the king enabled
him to demand and to secure immunity from taxation. The
Jewish aristocracy became peers of the Seleucid kingdom.
Simon was declared high priest: Rome and Sparta rejoiced in
the elevation of their friend and ally. In the hundred and
seventieth year (142 B.C.) the yoke of the heathen was taken
away from Israel and the people began to date their legal
documents "in the first year of Simon the great high priest and
commander and leader of the Jews." The popular verdict
received official and formal sanction. Simon was declared by
the Jews and the priests their governor and high priest for ever,
until there should arise a faithful prophet The garrison of the
Akra had been starved by a close blockade into submission, and
beyond the boundaries of Judaea " he took Joppa for a haven
and made himself master of Gazara and Bethsura."
29. John Hyrcanus and the Saddttcees. — But in 138 B.C.
Antiochus Sidetes entered Selcuda and required the submission
of all the petty states, which had taken advantage of the weak-
ness of preceding kings. From Simon he demanded an indem-
nity of 2000 talents for his oppression and invasion of non-i
Jewish territory : Simon offered 100 talents. At length Antiochus
JEWS 395
appeared to enforce his demand in 134. Simon was dead
(135 b.c.) and John Hyrcanus had succeeded his father. The
Jewish forces were driven back upon Jerusalem and the city was
closely invested. At the feast of tabernacles of 13a Hyrcanus
requested and Antiochus granted a week's truce. The only
hope of the Jews lay in the clemency of their victorious suzerain,
and it did not fail them. Some of his advisers urged the demo-
lition of the nation on the ground of their exclusiveness, but he
sent a sacrifice and won thereby the name of " Pious." In
subsequent negotiations he accepted the disarmament of the
besieged and a tribute as conditions of peace, and in response
to their entreaty left Jerusalem without a garrison. When he
went on his last disastrous campaign, Hyrcanus led a Jewish
contingent to join his army, partly perhaps a troop of mercenaries
(for Hyrcanus was the first of the Jewish kings to hire mercen-
aries, with the treasure found in David's tomb). After his death
Hyrcanus took advantage of the general confusion to extend
Jewish territory with the countenance of Rome. He destroyed
the temple of Gerizim and compelled the Idumaeans to submit
to circumcision and embrace the laws of the Jews on pain of
deportation.
In Jerusalem and in tbe country, in Alexandria, Egypt and
Cyprus, the Jews were prosperous (Jos. Ant. xiii. 284). This
prosperity and the apparent security of Judaism led to a breach
between Hyrcanus and his spiritual directors, the Pharisees.
His lineage was (in the opinion of one of them at least) of doubtful
purity; and so it was his duty to lay down the high-priesthood
and be content to rule the nation. That one man should hold
both offices was indeed against the example of Moses, and could
only be admitted as a temporary concession to necessity.
Hyrcanus could not entertain the proposal that he should resign
the sacred office to which he owed much of his authority. The
allegation about his mother was false: the Pharisee who retailed
it was guilty of no small offence. A Sadducean friend advised
Hyrcanus to ask the whole body of the Pharisees to prescribe the
penalty. Their leniency, which was notorious, alienated the
king or probably furnished him with a pretext for breaking
with them. The Pharisees were troublesome counsellors and
doubtful allies for an ambitious prince. They were all-powerful
with the people, but Hyrcanus with his mercenaries was inde-
pendent of the people, and the wealthy belonged to the sect of
the Sadducees. The suppression of the Pharisaic ordinances
and the punishment of those who observed them led to some
disturbance. But Hyrcanus " was judged worthy of the three
great privileges, the rule of the nation, the high-priestly dignity,
and prophecy." This verdict suggests that the Sadducees,
with whom he allied himself, had learned tc* affect some show of
Judaism in Judaea. If the poor were ardent nationalists who
would not intermingle with the Greeks, the rich had long out-
grown and now could humour such prejudices; and the title
of their party was capable of recalling at any rate the sound of
the national ideal of righteousness, i.e. Sadaqah.
The successor of Hyrcanus (d. 105) was Judas Aristobulus,
" the friend of the Greeks," who first assumed the title of king.
According to Strabo he was a courteous man and in many ways
useful to the Jews. His great achievement was the conquest
of a part of Ituraea, which he added to Judaea and whose inhabi-
tants he*compelled to accept Judaism.
The Sadducean nobility continued in power under his brother
and successor Alexander Jannaeus (103-78); and the breach
between the king and the mass of the people widened. But
Salome Alexandra, his brother's widow, who released him from
prison on the death of her husband and married him, was con-
nected with the Pharisees through her brother Simon ben Shetach.
If his influence or theirs dictated her policy, there is no evidence of
any objection to the union of the secular power with the high-
priesthood. The party may have thought that Jannaeus was
likely to bring the dynasty to an end. His first action was to
besiege Ptolemais. Its citizens appealed to Ptolemy Lathyrus,
who had been driven from the throne of Egypt by his mother
Cleopatra and was reigning in Cyprus. Alexander raised the
siege, made peace with Ptolemy and secretly sent to Cleopatra
c«*'
JEWS
, w ^^ TV tfttuk ol this double-dealing was
^^x »** >Wr*ycU by Ptoiemy, who advanced inlo
^ x . j* r****** ** la * w^ °* Cleopatra. But Cleo-
^ * xV *a& *<«* ) c ** *** *>* tneir P* ***** prevented her
k ** ^. v . ^ * IfcuNR lh«» fw*l Iroui fear on the side of
**" l^\»*.k« \v»tuM*e\i his desultory campaigns across
'~ v * \ * A ; X \ *v* the v\>**t without any apparent policy and
m*\v«s. " l * ~
_ . ,., KuuUy, when he officiated as high
^ »>* * "'" ^ km*: s^ uhcrtuvlc* he roused the fury of the
.«. ~a ^ A ^n»n.w txvuh of the Pharisaic rituaL They cried
I-.^*-*** . >v *** uw*\Hth>- oi hi* office, and pelted him with the
V. * X *1 Nxh thv> wvco varying a* the Law prescribed. Alcx-
* . .-*>-' w * .^y^wvl h« wvtwttaiws, and 6000 Jews were killed
* ►,*-"* JL ^ o*t *» ^ * disastrous campaign against an Arabian
^ .v*» v \[\ v *•;**«*>* a iu«Uk\« to find the nation in armed rc-
K ^ \tw« *** VNS>r * v4 ^xu w * r hc appealed to them to
t*---**' aft % h #\>^» ^ wuU ' c * hici * lhcv wouW ky aside' their
->* **^ **; \ »,> i\>'^l ^ demanding his death and called in
i;„, *K« the Syrians chased him into the moun-
^ ^ »>** *vot owr to him and, with their aid, he put
- \^ , s ,' N a * * < s * hundred Jews who had held a fortress
k '' v* * sV,> s ** s iWvi% f°°° Pharisees fled to Egypt and
* " • . , s, ,w v V> • uvb an ineffectual resistance to the passage
'^■>** ow*^ \W\andcr was driven back by Arctas,
v \.,%N»- a*v ^» *hom they had marched. His later
% r v v^hM h»«* ^ vuW vu lories over isolated cities.
' k ^ **> -^^ ll ** wil * lnal Grander advised his wife
k I» \*v* * svV > * lul w, y "P 011 lhc Pharisees. According
" ' %% »,.a» ^ \H.u»cd her " to fear neither the Pharisees
k t^'
I*. •
**«■'
xw 4^ vU v , * ^ wndcr her husband's will Hyrcanus
' ^ vai \»wl> high priest, as the stricter Pharisecs
" V Vi th* rh.»nvuc ordinances which Hyrcanus had
N " I \*^v u\»il imc\l as binding. Simon ben Shatach
N * % io v^ vi^vu: the exiles were restored and among
sSV t V >UU »o*o Jchudah bcnTabai. The great saying
V V »» Z'Vi^ * v i * Wm * U ^wwerncd with the duties oC a judge;
^ s^»^ H v ^ s v»s* iwiiu-c to the importance of the Sanhedrin,
yi». %s "\,\^.U^ ^*' K rhauvT*. The legal reforms which they
^ s -^ v ^ u ■ '^^ < xV * ^ v nHttl P* rt lo mercy, but the Talmud
* ^ '« \ N \^»v ,.v^. «hwh i» an exception: false witnesses were
w - • *^ %l v ^ »• '* l ^ x vviulty due to their victim, even if he
ss*. v * * %% | s,» w »\* wa> W interpreted as part of a campaign
, fc . v»-< »^ w^uvnlKws of Alexander or as an instance
' ^«-*'' l M ' v " v ^' l ^ a hUcntion is equivalent to commis-
*^ 0> >s *W V aw, The queen interposed to prevent
' * sW4 s v» ^vw \>hx\ had counselled the crucifixion of the
N ' S x , .«v*l *hcwi to withdraw with her younger son
* \".o v "^ viw»o» outside Jerusalem- Against their
% . ' v. k n s wv uv.»\ be set the faa that the Pharisees
unong the Jews,
tobulus disputed the
rces met at Jericho,
allowing deserted to
the tower Antonia
1 as hostages for his
ras able to abdicate
private life. But he
: also the enemies of
tipas (or Antipater),
le fears of Hyrcanus
abataean Arabs with
1 the army of Aretas:
.here besieged. The
is: only the priests
ly fled to Egypt,
this point the power
rrson of M- AemEius
k sent into Syria by
[GREEK DOMINATION
Pompey (65 B.C.). Both brothers appealed to this new tribunal
and Aristobulus bought a verdict in his favour. The siege was
raised. Arctas retired from Judaea; and Aristobulus pursued
the retreating army. But, when Pompey himself arrived at
Damascus, Antipater, who pulled the strings and exploited the
claims of Hyrcanus, realized that Rome and not the Arabs, who
were cowed by the threats of Scaurus, was the ruler of the East.
To Rome, therefore, he must pay his court. Others shared this
conviction: Strabo speaks of embassies from Egypt and Judaea
bearing presents— one deposited in the temple of Jupiter
Capitolinus bore the inscription of Alexander, the king of the
Jews. From Judaea there were three embassies pleading, for
Aristobulus, for Hyrcanus, and for the nation, who would have
no king at all but their God.
Pompey deferred his decision until he should have inquired
into the state of the Nabataeans, who had shown themselves
to be capable, of dominating the Jews in the absence of the
Roman army. In the interval Aristobulus provoked him by his
display of a certain impatience. The people had no responsible
head, of whom Rome could take cognisance: so Pompey decided
in favour of Hyrcanus and humoured the people by recognising
him, not as king, but as high priest. Antipater remained secure,
in power if not in place. The Roman supremacy was established :
the Jews were once more one of the subject states of Syria, now
a Roman province. Their national aspirations had received
a contemptuous acknowledgment, when their Temple had been
desecrated by the entry of a foreign conqueror.
Aristobulus himself had less resolution than his partisans.
When he repented of his attempted resistance and treated with
Pompey for peace, his followers threw themselves into Jeru-
salem, and, when the faction of Hyrcanus resolved to open the
gates, into the Temple. There they held out for three months,
succumbing finally because in obedience to the Law (as inter-
preted since the time of Antiochus Epiphancs) they would only
defend themselves from actual assault upon the sabbath day.
The Romans profited by this inaction to push on the siege-
works, without provoking resistance by actual assaults until the
very end. Pompey finally took the stronghold by choosing
the day of the fast, when the Jews abstain from all work, that is
the sabbath (Strabo). Dio Cassius calls it the day of Cronos.
On this bloody sabbath the priests showed a devotion to their
worship which matched the inaction of the fighting men. Though
they saw the enemy advancing upon them sword in hand they
remained at worship untroubled and were slaughtered as they
poured libation and burned incense, for they put their own
safety second to the service of God. And there were Jews among
the murderers of the 1 2,000 Jews who fell.
The Jews of Palestine thus became once more a subject state,
stripped of their conquests and confined to their own borders.
Aristobulus and his children were conveyed to Rome to grace
their conqueror's triumphal procession. But his son Alexander
escaped during the journey, gathered some force, and overran
Judaea. The Pharisees decided that they could not take action
on cither side, since the elder son of Alexandra was directed
by the Idumaean Antipater; and the people had an affection for
such Asmonean princes as dared to challenge the Roman domina-
tion of their ancestral kingdom. The civil war was renewed;
but Aulus Gabinius, the proconsul, soon crushed the pretender
and set up an aristocracy in Judaea with Hyrcanus as guardian
of the Temple. The country was divided into five districts with
five synods; and Josephus asserts that the people welcomed
the change from the monarchy. In spite of this, Aristobulus
(56 B.C.) and Alexander (55 B.C.) found loyalists to follow them
in their successive raids. But Antipater found supplies for the
army of Gabinius, who, despite Egyptian and Parthian distrac-
tions, restored order according to the will of Antipater. M.
Crassus, who succeeded him, plundered the Temple of its gold
and the treasure (54 B.C.) which the Jews of the dispersion had
contributed for its maintenance. It is said that Eleazar, the
priest who guarded the treasure, offered Crassus the golden
beam as ransom for the whole, knowing, what no one else knew,
that it was mainly composed of wood. So Crassus departed to
GREEK DOMINATION)
Parthia and died. When the Parthians, elated by their victory
over Crassus (53 B.C.) advanced upon Syria, Cassius opposed
them. Some of the Jews, presumably the partisans of Aristo-
bulus, were ready to co-operate with the Parthians. At any rate
Antipater was ready to aid Cassius with advice; Taricheae was
taken and 30,000 Jews were sold into slavery (51 B.C.). In
spite of this vigorous coercion Cassius came to terms with
Alexander, before he returned to the Euphrates to hold it
against the Parthians.
Two years later Julius Caesar made himself master of Rome
and despatched the captive Aristobulus with two legions to
win Judaea (49 B.C.). But Pompey's partisans were beforehand
with him: he was taken off by poison and got not so much as a
burial in his fatherland. At the same time his son Alexander
was beheaded at Antioch by Pompey's order as an enemy of
Rome. After the defeat and death of Pompey (48 B.C.) Antipater
transferred his allegiance to Caesar and demonstrated its value
during Caesar's Egyptian campaign. He carried with him the
Arabs and the princes of Syria, and through Uyrcanus he was
able to transform the hostility of the Egyptian Jews into active
friendliness. These services, which incidentally illustrate the
solidarity and unity of the Jewish nation and the respect of the
communities of the dispersion for the metropolis, were recog-
nized and rewarded. Before his assassination in 44 B.C. Julius
Caesar had confirmed Hyrcanus in the high-priesthood and added
the title of ethnarch. Antipater had been made a Roman
citizen and procurator of the reunited Judaea. Further, as
confederates of the senate and people of Rome, the Jews had
received accession of territory, including the port of Joppa and,
with other material privileges, the right of observing their
religious customs not only in Palestine but also in Alexandria
and elsewhere. Idumaean or Philistine of Ascalon, Antipater
had displayed the capacity of his adoptive or adopted nation for
his own profit and theirs. And when Caesar died Suetonius
notes that he was mourned by foreign nations, especially by the
Jews (Cacs. 84).
In the midst of all this civil strife the Pharisees and all who
were preoccupied with religion found it almost impossible to
discern what they should do to please God. The people whom
they directed were called out to fight, at the bidding of an alien,
for this and that foreigner who seemed most powerful and most
likely to succeed. In Palestine few could command leisure for
meditation; as for opportunities of effective intervention in
affairs, they had none, it would seem, once Alexander was
There is a story of a priest named Onias preserved both by
Josephus and in the Talmud, which throws tome light upon the in-
decision of the religious in the period just reviewed. When Aretas
intervened in the interest of Hyrcanus and defeated Aristobulus,
the usurper of his brother's inheritance, the people accepted the
verdict of battle, sided with the victor's client, and joined in the
siege of Jerusalem. The most reputable of the Jews fled to Egypt;
but Onias, a righteous man and dear to God, who had hidden himself,
was discovered by the besiegers. He had a name for power in prayer;
for once in a drought he prayed for rain and God had heard his prayer.
His captors now required of him that he* should put a curse upon
Aristobulus and his taction. On compulsion he stood in their midst
and said: " O God, king of the universe, since these who stand with
me are thy people and the besieged are thy priests, I pray thee that
thou hearken not to those against these, nor accomplish what
these entreat against those." So he prayed— and the wicked Jews
•toned him.
Unrighteous Jews were in the ascendant. There were only
Asmonean princes, degenerate and barely titular sons of Levi, to
serve as judges of Israel— and they were at/eud and both relied upon
foreign aid. The righteous could only nee or hide, and so wait
dreaming of the mercy of God past and to come. As yet our authori-
ties do not permit us to follow them to Egypt with any certainty,
but the Psalms of Solomon express the mind of one wno survived
to see Pompey the Great brought low. Although Pompey had
•pared the temple treasure, he was the embodiment of the power of
Rome, which was not always so considerately exercised. And so
the psalmist exults in his death and dishonour (Ps. ii.) : he prayed
that the pride of the dragon might be humbled and God shewed mm
the dead body lying upon the waves — and there was none to bury ft.
As one of those who fear the Lord in truth and in patience, he looks
forward to the punishment of all sinners who oppress the righteous
and profane the sanctuary. For the sins of the rulers God had
JEWS 397
rejected his people; but the remnant could not but inherit thenromises,
which belong to the chosen people. For the Lord is faithful unto
those who walk in the righteousness of his commandments (xiv. 1):
in the exercise of their freewill and with God's help they will attain
salvation. As God's servant, Pompey destroyed their rulersand every
wise councillor: soon the righteous and sinless kins of David's house
shall reign over them and over all the nations (xvu.).
31. Herod the Gnat.— After the departure of Caesar, Antipater
warned the adherents of Hyrcanus against taking part in any
revolutionary attempts, and his son Herod, who, in spite of his
youth, had been appointed governor of Galilee, dealt summarily
with Hezekiah, the robber captain who was overrunning the
adjacent part of Syria. The gratitude of the Syrians brought
him to the knowledge of Sextos Caesar the governor of Syria;
but his action inspired the chief men of the Jews with appre-
hension. Complaint was made to Hyrcanus that Herod had
violated the law which prohibited the execution of even an evil
man, unless he had been first condemned to death by the San*
hedrin. At the same time the mothers of the murdered men
came to the Temple to demand vengeance. So Herod was
summoned to stand his trial He came in answer to the summons
— but attended by a bodyguard and protected by the word of
Sextus. Of all the Sanhedrin only Sameas " a righteous man
and therefore superior to fear " dared to speak. Being a Pharisee
he faced the facts of Herod's power and warned the tribunal
of the event, just as later he counselled the people to receive
him, saying that for their sins they could not escape him. Herod
put bis own profit above the Law, acting after his kind, and he
also was God's instrument. The effect of the speech was to
goad the Sanhedrin into condemning Herod: Hyrcanus post-
poned their decision and persuaded him to flee. Sextus Caesar
made him lieutenant-governor of Coele Syria, and only his
father restrained him from returning to wreak his revenge
upon Hyrcanus.
It is to be remembered that, !n this and all narratives of the fife
of H«rod, losephus was dependent upon the history of Herod's
client, Nicolaus of Damascus, and was himself a supporter of law and
order. The action of the Sanhedrin and the presence of the women
suppliants in the Temple suggest, if they do not prove, that this
Hezekiah who harassed the Syrians was a Jewish patriot, who could
not acquiesce and wait with Sameas.
Malichus also, the murderer or reputed murderer of Anti-
pater, appears to have been a partisan of Hyrcanus, who had
a zeal for Judaism. When Cassius demanded a tribute of
700 talents from Palestine, Antipater set Herod, Phasael and
this Malichus, his enemy, to collect it. Herod thought it im-
prudent to secure the favour of Rome by the sufferings of others.
But some cities defaulted, and they were apparently among those
assigned to Malichus. Ii he had been lenient for their sakes or
in the hope of damaging Antipater, he was disappointed; for
Cassius sold four cities into slavery and Hyrcanus made up the
deficit. Soon after this (43 B.C.) Malichus succeeded, it is said,
in poisoning Antipater as he dined with Hyrcanus, and was assas-
sinated by Herod's bravoes.
After the departure of Cassius, Antipater being dead, these
was confusion in Judaea. Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus,
made a raid and was with difficulty repulsed by Herod. The
prince of Tyre occupied part of Galilee. When Antony assumed
the dominion of the East after the defeat of Cassius at Philippf,
an embassy of the Jews, amongst other embassies, approached
him in Bithynia and accused the sons of Antipater as usurpers
of the power which rightly belonged to Hyrcanus. Another
approached him at Antioch. But Hyrcanus was well content
to forgo the title to political power, which he could not exercise
in practice, and Antony had been a friend of Antipater. So
Herod and Phasael continued to be virtually kings of the Jews:
Antony's court required large remittances and Palestine was not
exempt.
In 40 b.c Antony was absent in Egypt or Italy; and the
Parthians swept down upon Syria with Antigonus in their train.
Hyrcanus and Phasael were trapped: Herod fled by way of
Egypt to Rome. Hyrcanus, who was Antigonus' only rival, was
mutilated and carried to Parthia. So he could no more be
39»
JEWS
(GREEK DOMINATION
high priest, and his life was spared only at the intercession of
the Parthian Jews, who bad a regard for the Asmoncan prince.
Thus Antigonus succeeded his uncle as " King Antigonus " in
the Greek and ** Mattathiah the high priest " in the Hebrew by
grace of the Parthians.
The senate of Rome under the influence of Antony and
Octavian ratified the claims of Herod, and after some delay lent
him the armed force necessary to make them good. In the hope
of healing the breach, which his success could only aggravate,
and for love, he took to wife Mariamne, grandniece of Hyrcanus.
Galilee was pacified, Jerusalem taken and Antigonus beheaded
by the Romans. From this point to the end of the period the
Jews were dependents of Rome, free to attend to their own
affairs, so long as they paid taxes to the subordinate rulers,
Herodian or Roman, whom they detested equally. If some
from time to time dared to hope for political independence their
futility was demonstrated. One by one the descendants of the
Asmoneans were removed. The national hope was relegated to
»n indefinite future and to another sphere. At any rate the
Jews were free to worship their God and to study his law: their
nrlqctoo was recognized by the state and indeed established.
This development of Judaism was eminently to the mind of
the rubers; and Herod did much to encourage it. More and
u»r» it became identified with the synagogue, in which the
A- aw was expounded: more and more it became a matter for
(X iftdixiduil and his private life. This was so even in Palestine
. iN? UihI whfch the Jews hoped to possess — and in Jerusalem
t^.i. the holy city, in which the Temple stood. Herod had
p^t Jown Jewish rebels and Herod appointed the high priests.
i* K*» appointments he was careful to avoid or to suppress
*».* f**&*i *h°» being popular, might legitimize a rebellion by
K >*^** it* Th* Pharisees, who regarded his rule as an inevitable
^.n^x tor the sins of the people, he encouraged. Pollio the
"h* vat* «nd Sameas his disciple were in special honour with
y lin V*«i>feus says, when he re-entered Jerusalem and put to
^ v ;W Waders of the faction of Antigonus, How well their
*,„*•>*!* w*v*d h» purpose is shown by the sayings of two
VX'<r *>*\ U not identical with these Pharisees, belong to their
*..w fc*^ tWf p* r ^y* Shemaiah said, " Love work and hate
^* ».*.»•■ *-v* wake *»* thyself known to the government."
> .<o* xj»n< •* Ye wise, be guarded in your words: perchance
7 J • Nv<.r tW debt of exile.'* Precepts such as these could
.a* *w! v ****** *> me modification of the reckless zeal of
^ "* ; . ,^ *> it? r»uplh of the synagogue. Many if not all
"* *" *»*■*<•>*«.>> n*i» had travelled outside Palestine: some
»„• •*»»■ N** *l the dispersion, like Hiilel the Babylonian,
""" „\ nx »*.»♦** t*rms the second of the pairs. Through
"*" 4% m^«*> "v* *< *** dispersion was brought to bear upon
v*^. • »'>•*> Hewdi nominees were not the men to
v ^v*. vN v v* tW high-priesthood at the expense of
^ »*>» i> Vnujalem the synagogue became of more
*~ .a .v V>«**^ Hiilel also inculcated the duty of
... - v \wa*«k He said, " Be of the disciples of
" v ^^ *** P***"** P** ** lovin 8 mankind and
^a v -V law." But even he reckoned the
* - .• **. V*W *• canonical, and these were
„« * *** **> *M not realize the full power of
«iv*. NtM ^«*» was oo insurrection. Formally
* " *. % •***»«* ** '*** against intermarriage
- J y and able to protect
ly was largely due to
shown by the Greek
t buildings he erected
its Greek civilization
Palestine as it was in
bfcfe could not follow
___» ^» •* *« teyal to Caesar and
' """ ^- ^o^ ^QQo-fefused to swear.
.. ^.aoa^wtfeofPheroras-
( " ' " ^ vi r^- la i* tura ior hcr
kindness, being entrusted with foreknowledge by the Visitation
of God, they prophesied that God had decreed an end of rule for
Herod and his line and that the sovereignty devolved upon her
and Pheroras and their children.
From the sequel it appears that the prophecy was uttered by
one Pharisee only, and that it was in no way endorsed by the
party. When it came to the ears of the lung he slew the most
responsible of the Pharisees and every member of his household
who accepted what the Pharisee said. An explanation of this
unwarrantable generalization may be found in the fact that the
incident is derived from a source which was unfavourable to the
Pharisees: they are described as a Jewish section of men who
pretend to set great store by the exactitude of the ancestral
tradition and the laws in which the deity -delights— as dominant
over women-folk— and as sudden and quick in quarrel.
Towards the end of Herod's life two rabbis attempted to up-
hold by physical force the cardinal dogma of Judaism, which
prohibited the use of images. Their action is intelligible enough.
Herod was stricken with an incurable disease. He had sinned
against the Law; and at last God had punished him. At last
the law-abiding Jews might and must assert the majesty of the
outraged Law. The most conspicuous of the many symbols and
signs of his transgression was the golden eagle which he had
placed over the great gate of the Temple; its destruction was
the obvious means to adopt for the quickening and assertion
of Jewish principles.
By their labours in the education of the youth of the nation,
these rabbis, Judas and Matthias, had endeared themselves to
the populace and had gained influence over their disciples. A
report that Herod was dead co-operated with their exhortations
to send the iconoclasts to their appointed work. And so they
went to earn the rewards of their practical piety from the Law.
If they died, death was inevitable, the rabbis said, and no better
death would they ever find. Moreover, their children and kindred
would benefit by the good name and fame belonging to those who
died for the Law. Such is the account which Josephus gives
in the Antiquities; in the Jewish War he represents the rabbis
and their disciples as looking forward to greater happiness for
themselves after such a death. But Herod was not dead yet, and
the instigators and the agents of this sacrilege were burned
alive.
$2. The Settlement of A uputus.— On the death of Herod in 4 B.C.
Archelaus kept open house for mourners as the Jewish custom,
which reduced many Jews to beggary, prescribed. The people
petitioned for the punishment of those who were responsible for
the execution of Matthias and his associates and for the removal of
the high priest. Archelaus temporized; the loyalty of the people
no longer constituted a valid title to the throne; his succession
must first be sanctioned by Augustus. Before he departed to
Rome on this errand, which was itself an insult to the nation,
there were riots in Jerusalem at the Passover which he needed
all his soldiery to put down. When he presented himself before
the emperor — apart from rival claimants of his own family —
there was an embassy .from the Jewish people who prayed to
be rid of a monarchy and rulers such as Herod. As part of
the Roman province of Syria and under its governors they
would prove that they were not really disaffected and rebellious.
During the absence of Archelaus, who would — the Jews feared—
prove his legitimacy by emulating his father's ferocity, and to
whom their ambassadors preferred Antipas, the Jews of Palestine
gave the lie to their protestations of loyalty and peaceablcness. At
the Passover the pilgrims attacked the Roman troops. After
hard fighting the procurator, whose cruelty provoked the attack,
captured the Temple and robbed the treasury. On this the
insurgents were joined by some of Herod's army and besieged the
Romans in Herod's palace. Elsewhere the occasion tempted
many to play at being king—Judas, son of Hezekiah, in Galilee;
Simon, one of the king's slaves, in Peraca. Most notable of all
perhaps was the shepherd Athronges, who assumed the pomp of
royalty and employed his four brothers as captains and satraps in
the war which he waged upon Romans and king's men alike — not
even Jews escaped him unless they brought him contributions.
CREEK DOMINATION)
Order was restored by Varus the governor of Syria in a campaign
which Josephus describes as the most important war between that
of Pompey and that of Vespasian.
At length August us summoned the representatives of the nation
and Nicholaus of Damascus, who spoke for Arcbelaus, to plead
before him in the temple of Apollo. Augustus apportioned
Herod's dominions among his sons in accordance with the pro-
visions of his latest will. Archelaus received the lion's share:
for ten years he was ethnarrb of Iduraaea, Judaea and Samaria,
with a yearly revenue of 600 talents. Antipas became tetrarch
of Galilee and Peraca, with a revenue of 200 talents. Philip,
who had been left in charge of Palestine pending the decision
and had won the respect of Varus, became tetrarch of Batanaea,
Trachonitis and Auranitis, with 100 talents. His subjects
included only a sprinkling of Jews. Up to his death (a.D. 34) he
did nothing to forfeit 1 he favour of Rome. His coins bore the
heads of Augustus and Tiberius, and his government was worthy
of the best Roman traditions— he succeeded where proconsuls
had failed. His capital was Caesarea Philippi, where Pan had
been worshipped from ancient times, and where Augustus had a
temple built by Herod the Great.
33 Archelaus. — Augustus had counselled Archelaus to deal
gently with his subjects. But there was an outstanding feud
between him and them, and his first act as ethnarch was to
remove the high priest on the ground of his sympathy with the
rebels. In violation of the Law he married a brother's widow,
who had already borne children, and in general he showed himself
so fierce and tyrannical that the Jews joined with the Samaritans
to accuse him before the emperor Archelaus was summoned
to Rome and banished to Gaul; his territory was entrusted to a
series of procurators (A.a 6-41), among whom was an apostate
Jew, but aone with any pretension even to a semi-legitimate
authority. Each procurator represented not David but Caesar.
The Sanhedrin had its police and powers to safeguard the Jewish
religion; but the procurator had the appointment of the high
priests, and no capital sentence could be executed without his
sanction.
3i. The Procurators.— §0 the Jews of Judaea obtained the
settlement for which they bad pleaded at the death of Herod;
and some of them beg?n to regret it at once. The first pro-
curator Coponius was accompanied by P. Sulpicius Quirinius,
legate of Syria, who came to organize the new Roman province.
As a necessary preliminary a census (a.d. 6-7) was taken after
the Roman method, which did not conform to the Jewish Law.
The people were affronted, but for the most part acquiesced,
under the influence of Joazar the high priest, but Judas the
Galilean, with a Pharisee named Sadduc (Sadduk), endeavoured
to mcite them to rebellion in the name of religion. The result of
this alliance between a revolutionary and a Pharisee was the
formation of the party of Zealots, whose influence — according
to Josephus— brought about the great revolt and so led to the
destruction of Jerusalem in 70. So far as this influence ex-
tended, the Jewish community was threatened with the danger
of suicide, and the distinction drawn by Josephus between the
Pharisees and the Zealots is a valid one. Not all Pharisees v/erc
prepared to take such action, in order that Israel might
" (read on the neck of the eagle " (as is said in The Assumption of
Moses), So long as the Law was not deliberately outraged and
so long as the worship was established, most of the religious
leaders of the Jews were content to wait.
It seems that the Zealots made more headway in Galilee than
in Judaea—so much so that the terms Galilean and Zealot are
practically interchangeable In Galilee the Jews predominated
over the heathen and their ruler Herod Antipas had some sort
of claim upon their allegiance. His marriage with the daughter
of the Arabian king Aretas (which was at any rate in accordance
with the general policy of Augustus) seems to have preserved his
territory from the incursions of her people, so long as he remained
faithful to her He conciliated his subjects by his deference
to the observances of Judaism, and— the case is probably
typical of his policy — he joined in protesting, when Pilate set
up a votive shield in the palace of Herod within the sacred city.
JEWS 399
He seems to have served Tiberius as an official scrutineer of
the imperial officials and he commemorated his devotion by
the foundation of the city of Tiberias. But he repudiated the
daughter of Aretas in order to marry Hcrodias and so set the
Arabians against him. Disaster overtook his forces (aj>. 36)
and Tiberius, his patron, died before the Roman power was
brought in full strength to his aid. Caligula was not predisposed
to favour the favourites of Tiberius; and Antipas, having
petitioned him for the title of king at the instigation of Hcro-
dias, was banished from his tetrarchy and (apparently) was
put to death in 39.
Antipas is chiefly known to history in connexion with John the
Baptist, who reproached him publicly for his marriage with
Herodias. According to the earliest authority, he seems to
have imprisoned John to save him from the vengeance of
Herodias. But — whatever his motive — Antipas certainly con-
sented to John's death. If the Fourth Gospel is to be
trusted, John had already recognized and acclaimed Jesus oi
Nazareth as the Messiah for whom the Jews were looking. By
common consent of Christendom, John was the forerunner of the
founder of the Christian Church. It was, therefore, during the
reign of Antipas, and partly if not wholly within his territory,
that the Gospel was first preached by the rabbi or prophet whom
Christendom came to regard as the one true Christ, the Messiah
of the Jews. Josephus' history of the Jews contains accounts
of John the Baptist and Jesus, the authenticity of which has
been called in question for plausible but not entirely convincing
reasons. However this may be, the Jews who believed Jesus to
be the Christ play no great part in the history of the Jews before
70, as we know it. Many religious teachers and many revolu-
tionaries were crucified within this period; and the early
Christians were outwardly distinguished from other Jews only
by t heir scrupulous observance of religious duties.
The crucifixion of Jesus was sanctioned by Pontius Pilate,
who was procurator of Judaea a.d. 26-36. Of the Jews under
his predecessors little enough is known. Speaking generally,
they seem to have avoided giving offence to their subjects. But
Pilate so conducted affairs as to attract the attention not only
of Josephus but also of Philo, who represents for us the Jewish
community of Alexandria. Pilate inaugurated his term of
office by ordering his troops to enter Jerusalem at night and to
lake their standards with them. There were standards and
standards in the Roman armies: those which bore the image of
the emperor, and therefore constituted a breach of the Jewish
Law, had hitherto been kept aloof from the holy city. On
learning of this, the Jews repaired to Caesarea and besought
Pilate to remove these offensive images. Pilate refused; and,
when they persisted in their petition for six days, be surrounded
them with soldiers and threatened them with instant death.
They protested that they would rather die than dare to transgress
the wisdom of the laws; and Pilate yielded. But he proceeded
to expend the temple treasure upon an aqueduct for Jerusalem;
and some of the Jews regarded the devotion of sacred money to
t he service of man as a desecration. Pilate came up to Jerusalem
and dispersed the petitioners by means of disguised soldiers
axmed with clubs. So the revolt was put down, but the exces-
sive zeal of the soldiers and Pilate's obstinate adherence to his
policy widened the breach between Rome and the stricter Jews,
But the death of Sejanus in 31 set Tiberius free from prejudice
against the Jews; and. when Pilate put up the votive shields in
Herod's palace at Jerusalem, the four sons of Herod came forward
in defence of Jewish principles and he was ordered to remove
them In 3s he dispersed a number of Samaritans, who had
assembled near Ml Gerizim at the bidding of an impostor, in
order to see the temple vessels buried there by Moses. Complaint
was made to Vitellius, then legate of Syria, and Pilate was sent
to Rome to answer for his shedding of innocent blood. At the
passover of 36 Vitellius came to Jerusalem and pacified the Jews
by two concessions: he remitted the taxes on fruit sold in the
city, and he restored to their custody the high priest's vestments,
which Herod Archelaus and the Romans had kept in the tower
Antonia. The vestments had been stored there since the time
4 oo JEWS
of the first high priest named Hyrcanus, and Herod had taken
them over along with the tower, thinking that his possession of
them would deter the Jews from rebellion against his rule. At
the same time Vitellius vindicated the Roman supremacy by
degrading Caiaphas from the high-priesthood, and appointing a
son of Annas in his place. The motive for this change does not
appear, and we are equally ignorant of the cause which prompted
his transference of the priesthood from his nominee to another
son of Annas in 37. But it is quite clear that Vitellius was con-
cerned to reconcile the Jews to the authority of Rome. When
he marched against Arctas, his army with their standards did
not enter Judaea at all; but he himself went up to Jerusalem for
the feast and, on receipt of the news that Tiberius was dead,
administered to the Jews the oath of allegiance to Caligula.
35. Caligula and Agrippa I. — The accession of Caligula (a.d.
37-41) was hailed by his subjects generally as the beginning of
the Golden Age. The Jews in particular had a friend at court.
Agrippa, the grandson of Herod the Great, was an avowed
partisan of the new emperor and had paid penalty for a prema-
ture avowal of his preference. But Caligula's favour, though
lavish*} u P° n Agrippa, was not available for pious Jews. His
foible was omnipotence, and he aped the gods of Greece in turn.
In the provinces and even in Italy his subjects were ready to
acknowledge his divinity — with the sole exception of the Jews.
So we learn something of the Palestinian Jews and more of the
Jewish community in Alexandria. The great world (as we know
it) took small note of Judaism even when Jews converted its
women to their faith; but now the Jews as a nation refused to
bow before the present god of the civilized world. The new
Catholicism was promulgated by authority and accepted with
deference. Only the Jews protested: they had a notion of the
deity which Caligula at all events did not fulfil.
The people of Alexandria seized the opportunity for an attack
upon the Jews. Images of Caligula were set up in the syna-
gogues, an edict deprived the Jews of their rights as citizens,
and finally the governor authorized the mob to sack the Jewish
quarter, as if it had been a conquered dty (38). Jewesses were
forced to eat pork and the elders were scourged in the theatre.
But Agrippa had influence with the emperor and secured the
degradation of the governor. The people and the Jews re-
mained in a state of civil war, until each side sent an embassy
(40) to wait upon the emperor. The Jewish embassy was
headed by Phflo, who has described its fortunes in a tract dealing
with the divine punishment of the persecutors. Their opponents
also had secured a friend at court and seem to have prevented any
effective measure of redress. While the matter was still pending,
news arrived that the emperor had commanded Publius Petronius,
the governor of Syria, to set up his statue in the temple of Jeru-
salem. On the intervention of Agrippa the order was counter-
manded, and the assassination of the emperor (41) effectually
stopped the desecration.
36. Claudius and the Procurators. — Claudius, the new emperor,
restored the civic rights of the Alexandrian Jews and made
Agrippa I. king over all the territories of Herod the Great. So
there was once more a king of Judaea, and a king who observed
the tradition of the Pharisees and protected the Jewish religion.
There is a tradition in the Talmud which illustrates his popularity.
As he was reading the Law at the feast of tabernacles he burst
into tears at the words " Thou mayest not set a stranger over
thee which is not thy brother"; and the people cried out,
" Fear not, Agrippa; thou art our brother." The fact that he
began to build a wall round Jerusalem may be taken as further
proof of his patriotism. But the fact that he summoned five
vassal-kings of the empire to a conference at Tiberias suggests
rather a policy of self-aggrandisement. Both projects were
prohibited by the emperor on the intervention of the legate.
In 44 he died. The Christian records treat his death as an act
of divine vengeance upon the persecutor of the Christian Church.
The Jews prayed for his recovery and lamented him. The
Gentile soldiers exulted in the downfall of his dynasty, which
they signahzed after their own fashion. Claudius intended that
Agrippa's young son should succeed to the kingdom; but he was
(GREEK DOMINATION
overruled by his advisers, and Judaea was taken over once more
by Roman procurators. The success of Agrippa's brief reign
had revived the hopes of the Jewish nationalists, and concess ion s
only retarded the inevitable insurrection.
Cuspius Fad us, the first of these procurators, purged the
land of bandits. He also attempted to regain for the Romans
the custody of the high priest's vestments; but the Jews appealed
to the emperor against the revival of this advertisement of their
servitude. The emperor granted the petition, which indeed the
procurator had permitted them to make, and further transferred
the nomination of the high priest and the supervision of the
temple from the procurator to Agrippa's brother, Herod of
Chalcis. But these concessions did not satisfy the hopes of the
people. During the government of Fadus, Theudas, who claimed
to be a prophet and whom Josephus describes as a wizard, per-
suaded a large number to take up their possessions and follow him
to the Jordan, saying that he would cleave the river asunder
with a word of command and so provide them with an easy
crossing. A squadron of cavalry despatched by Fadus took them
alive, cut off the head of Theudas and brought it to Jerusalem.
Under the second procurator Tiberius Alexander, an apostate
Jew of Alexandria, nephew of Philo, the Jews suffered from a
great famine and were relieved by the queen of Adiabene, &
proselyte to Judaism, who purchased corn from Egypt. The
famine was perhaps interpreted by the Zealots as a punishment
for their acquiescence in the rule of an apostate. At any rate
Alexander crucified two sons of Simon the Galilean, who had
headed a revolt in the time of the census. They had presumably
followed the example of their father.
Under Ventidius Cumanus (48-52) the mutual hatred of Jews
and Romans, Samaritans and Jews, found vent in insults and
bloodshed. At the passover, on the fourth day of the feast, a
soldier mounting guard at the porches of the Temple provoked an
uproar, which ended in a massacre, by indecent exposure of his
person. Some of the rebels intercepted a slave of the emperor
on the high-road near the dty and robbed him of his possessions.
Troops were sent to pacify the country, and in one village a
soldier found a copy of Moses* laws and tore it up in public with
jeers and blasphemies. At this the Jews flocked to Caesarea,
and were only restrained from a second outbreak by the execution
of the soldier. Finally, the Samaritans attacked certain Gali-
leans who were (as the custom was) travelling through Samaria
to Jerusalem for the passover. Cumanus was bribed and refused
to avenge the death of the Jews who were killed. So the Gali-
leans with some of the lower classes of " the Jews " allied them-
selves with a "robber" and burned some of the Samaritan
villages. Cumanus armed the Samaritans, and, with them and
his own troops, defeated these Jewish marauders. The leading
men of Jerusalem prevailed upon the rebels who survived the
defeat to disperse. But the quarrel was referred first to the
legate of Syria and then to the emperor. The emperor was still
disposed to conciliate the Jews; and, at the instance of Agrippa,
son of Agrippa I., Cumanus was banished.
37. Felix and the Revolutionaries. — Under Antonius Felix
(52-60) the revolutionary movement grew and spread. The
country, Josephus says, was full of '* robbers " and •' wizards."
The high priest was murdered in the Temple by pilgrims who
carried daggers under thdr cloaks. Wizards and impostors per-
suaded the multitude to follow them into the desert, and an
Egyptian,* laiming to be a prophet, led his followers to the Mount
of Olives to see the walls of Jerusalem fall at his command. Such
deceivers, according to Josephus, did no less than the murderers
to destroy the happiness of the city. Their hands were cleaner
but their thoughts were more impious, for they pretended to
divine inspiration.
Felix the procurator — a king, as Tacitus says, in power and
in mind a slave — tried in vain to put down the revolutionaries.
The " chief-robber " Elcazar, who had plundered the country for
twenty years, was caught and sent to Rome; countless robbers of
less note were crucified. But this severity cemented the alliance
of religious fanatics with the physical- force party and induced
the ordinary dtizens to join them, in spite of the punishments
GREEK DOMINATION) JEWS.
which they received when captured. Agrippa IT; received a
kingdom— first Chalcis, and then the tetrarchies of Philip and
Lysanias— but, though he had the oversight of the Temple and
the nomination of the high priest, and enjoyed a reputation for
knowledge of Jewish customs and questions, he was unable to
check the growing power of the Zealots. His sitter Drusilla had
broken the Law by ber marriage with Felix; and his own notorious
relations with his sister Berenice, and bis coins which bore the
images of the emperors, were an open affront to the conscience
of Judaism. When Felix was recalled by Nero in 60 the nation
was divided against itself, the Gentiles within its gates were
watching for their opportunity, and the chief priests robbed the
lower priests with a high hand.
In Caesarea there had been for some time trouble between the
Jewish and the Syrian inhabitants. The Jews claimed that the
city was theirs, because King Herod had founded it. The Syrians
admitted the fact, but insisted that it was a city for Greeks,
as its temples and statues proved. Their rivalry led to street-
fighting: the Jews mad the advantage in respect of wealth and
bodily strength, but the Greek party had the assistance of the
soldiers who were stationed there. On one occasion Felix sent
troopsagainst the victorious Jews; but neither this nor the scourge
and the prison, to which the leaders of both factions had been
consigned, deterred them. The quarrel was therefore referred to
the emperor Nero, who finally gave his decision in favour of the
Syrians or Greeks. The result of this decision was that the
synagogue at Caesarea was insulted on a Sabbath and the Jews
left the city taking their books of the Law with them. So —
Josephus says— the war began in the twelfth year of the reign of
Nero (a.d. 66).
38. Fes t us, Albinos and Florus. — Meanwhile the procurators
who succeeded Felix— Pordus Festus (60-62), Albinus (62-64)
and Gcssius Florus (64-66) — had in their several ways brought
the bulk of the nation into line with the more violent of the Jews
of Caesarea. Festus found Judaea infested with robbers and
the sicarii, who mingled with the crowds at the feasts and
stabbed their enemies with the daggers (sicae) from which their
name was derived. He also had to deal with a wizard, who de-
ceived many by promising them salvation and release from evils,
if they would follow him into the desert. His attempts to crush
all such disturbers of the peace were cut short by his death in
bis second year of office.
In the interval which elapsed before the arrival of Albinus,
Ananus son of Annas was made high priest by Agrippa. With
the apparent intention of restoring order in Jerusalem, he
assembled the Sanbedrin, and being, as a Sadducce, cruel in the
matter of penalties, secured the condemnation of certain law-
breakers to death by stoning. For this he was deposed by
Agrippa. Albinus fostered and turned to his profit the struggles
of priests with priests and of Zealots with their enemies. The
general release of prisoners, with which he celebrated his impend-
ing recall, is typical of his policy. Meanwhile Agrippa gave the
Levites the right to wear the linen robe of the priests and sanc-
tioned the use of the temple treasure to provide work— the paving
of the city with white stone*— for the workmen who had finished
the Temple (64) and now stood idle. But everything pointed to
the destruction of the city,, which one Jesus had prophesied at
the feast of tabernacles in 62. The Zealots' zeal for the Law and
the Temple was flouted by their pro-Roman king.
By comparison with Florus, Albinus was, in the opinion of
Josephus, a benefactor. When the news of the troubles at
Caesarea reached Jerusalem, it became known also that Florus
had seized seventeen talents of the temple treasure (66). At this
the patience of the Jews was exhausted. The sacrilege, as they
considered it, may have been an attempt to recover arrears of
tribute; but they were convinced that Florus was providing for
himself and not for Caesar. The revolutionaries went about
among the excited people with baskets, begging coppers for their
destitute and miserable governor. Stung by this insult, he
neglected the fire of war which had been lighted at Caesarea, and
hastened to Jerusalem. His soldiers sacked the upper city and
killed 630 persons— men, women and children. Berenice, who
xv 7*
401
was fulfilling a Nazarite vow, interposed in vain. Florus
actually dared to scourge and crucify Jews who belonged to the
Roman order of knights. For the moment the Jews were cowed,
and next day they went submissively to greet the troops coming
from Caesarea. Their greetings were unanswered, and they cried
out against Florus. On this the soldiers drew their swords and
drove the people into the city; but, once inside the city, the
people stood at bay and succeeded in establishing themselves
upon the temple-hill. Florus withdrew with all his troops,
except one cohort, to Caesarea. The Jews laid complaint against
him, and he complained against the Jews before the governor
of Syria, Ccstius Callus, who sent an officer to inquire into the
matter. Agrippa, who had hurried from Alexandria, entered
Jerusalem with the governor's emissary. So long as he counselled
submission to the overwhelming power of Rome the people
complied, but when he spoke of obedience to Floras he was com-
pelled to fly. The rulers, who desired peace, and upon whom
Florus had laid the duty of restoring peace, asked him for troops;
but the civil war ended in their complete discomfiture. The
rebels abode by their decision to stop the daily sacrifice for the
emperor; Agrippa's troops capitulated and marched out unhurt;
and the Romans, who surrendered on the same condition and
laid down their arms, were massacred. As if to emphasize the
spirit and purpose of the rebellion, one and only one of the
Roman soldiers was spared, because he promised to become a
Jew even to the extent of circumcision.
39. Josephus and the Zealots.— Simultaneously with this,
massacre the citizens of Caesarea slaughtered the Jews who still
remained there; and throughout Syria Jews effected— and
suffered — reprisals. At length the governor of Syria approached
the centre of the disturbance in Jerusalem, but retreated after
burning down a suburb. In the course of his retreat he was
attacked by the Jews and fled to Antioch, leaving them his
engines of war. Some prominent Jews fled from Jerusalem — as
from a sinking ship — to join him and carried the news to the
emperor. The rest of the pro-Roman party were forced or
persuaded to join the rebels and prepared for war on a grander
scale. Generals were selected by the Sanhcdrin from the aristo-
cracy, who had tried to keep the peace and still hoped to make
terms with Rome. Ananus the high priest, their leader, re-
mained in command at Jerusalem; Galilee, where the first attack
was to be expected, was entrusted to Josephus, the historian
of the war. The revolutionary leaders, who had already taken
the field, were superseded.
Josephus set himself to make an army of the inhabitants of
Galilee, many of whom had no wish to fight, and to strengthen
the strongholds. His organization of local government and his
efforts to maintain law and order brought him into collision
with the Zealots and especially with John of Giscala,one of their
leaders. The people, whom he had tried to conciliate, were
roused against him; John sent assassins and finally procured an
order from Jerusalem for his recall. In spite of all this Josephus
held his ground and by force or craft put down those who resisted
his authority.
In the spring of 67 Vespasian, who had been appointed by
Nero to crush the rebellion, advanced from his winter quarters
at Antioch. The inhabitants of Sepphoris — whom Josephus
had judged to be so eager for the war that he left them to build
their wall for themselves — received a Roman garrison at their
own request. Joined by Titus, Vespasian advanced into Galilee
with three legions and the auxiliary troops supplied by Agrippa
and other petty kings. Before his advance the army of Josephus
fled. Josephus with a few stalwarts took refuge in Tiberias, and
sent a lejtter to Jerusalem asking that he should be relieved of his
command or supplied with an adequate force to continue the war.
Hearing that Vespasian was preparing to besiege Jotapato,
a strong fortress in the hills, which was held by other fugitives,
Josephus entered it just before the road approaching it was made
passable for the Roman horse and foot. A deserter announced
his arrival to Vespasian, who rejoiced (Josephus says) that the
cleverest of his enemies had thus voluntarily imprisoned him*
self. After some six weeks' siege the place was stormed, and its
+03
exhausted garrison were killed or enslaved. Josephus, whose
pretences had postponed the final assault, hid in a cave with
forty men. His companions refused to permit him to surrender
and were resolved to die. At his suggestion they cast lots, and
the first man was killed by the second and so on, until all were
dead except Josephus and (perhaps) one other. So Josephus
saved them from the sin of suicide and gave himself up to the
Romans. He had prophesied that the place would be taken — as
it was — on the forty-seventh day, and now he prophesied that
both Vespasian and his son Titus would reign over all mankind.
The prophecy saved his life, though many desired his death, and
the rumour of it produced general mourning in Jerusalem. By
the end of the year (67) Galilee was in the hands of Vespasian,
and John of Giscala had fled. Agrippa celebrated the conquest
at Caesarea Philippi with festivities which lasted twenty days.
In accordance with ancient custom Jerusalem welcomed the
fugitive Zealots. The result was civil war and famine. A nanus
incited the people against these robbers, who arrested, imprisoned
and murdered prominent friends of Rome, and arrogated to them-
selves the right of selecting the high priest by lot. The Zealots
took refuge in the Temple and summoned the Idumacans to their
aid. Under cover of a storm, they opened the city-gates to their
allies and proceeded to murder Ananus the high priest, and,
against the verdict of a formal tribunal, Zacharias the son of
Baruch in the midst of the Temple. The Idumaeans left, but
John of Giscala remained master of Jerusalem.
40. The Fall of Jerusalem. — Vespasian left the rivals to consume
one another and occupied his army with the subjugation of the
country. When he had isolated the capital and was preparing
to besiege it, the news of Nero's death reached him at Caesarea.
For a year (June 68-June 69) he held his hand and watched
events, until the robber-bands of Simon Bar-Giora (son of the
proselyte) required his attention. But, before Vespasian took
action to stop his raids, Simon had been invited to Jerusalem in
the hope that he would act as a counterpoise to the tyrant John.
And so, when Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in fulfilment of
Josephus' prophecy, and deputed the command to Titus, there
were three rivals at war in Jerusalem — Eleazar, Simon and John.
The temple sacrifices were still offered and worshippers were
admitted; but John's catapults were busy, and priest and
worshippers at the altar were killed, because Eleazar's party
occupied the inner courts of the Temple. A few days before the
passovcr of 70 Titus advanced upon Jerusalem, but the civil
war went on. When Eleazar opened the temple-gates to admit
those who wished to worship God, John of Giscala introduced
some of his own men, fully armed under their garments, and so
got possession of the Temple. Titus pressed the attack, and the
two factions joined hands at last to repel it. In spite of their
desperate sallies, Jerusalem was surrounded by a wall, and its
people, whose numbers were increased by those who had come up
for the passover, were hemmed in to starve. The famine afTccted
all alike — the populace, who desired peace, and the Zealots, who
were determined to fight to the end. At last John of Giscala por-
tioned out the sacred wine and oil, saying that they who fought
for the Temple might fearlessly use its stores for their sustenance.
Steadily the Romans forced their way through wall after wall,
until the Jews were driven back to the Temple and the daily
sacrifices came to an end on the 17th of July for lack of men.
Once more Josephus appealed in vain to John and his followers to
cease from desecrating and endangering the Temple. The siege
proceeded and the temple-gates were burned. According to
Josephus, Titus decided to spare the Temple, but — whether
this was so or not — on the 10th of August it was fired by a
soldier after a sortie of the Jews had been repelled. The legions
set up their standards in the temple-court and hailed Titus as
impcrator.
Some of the Zealots escaped with John and Simon to the
upper city and held it for another month. But Titus had already
earned the triumph which he celebrated at Rome in 71. The
Jews, wherever they might be, continued to pay the temple-tax,
but now it was devoted to Jupiter Capilolinus. The Romans had
taken their holy place, and the Law was all that was left to them.
JEWS
[GREEK DOMINATION
41. From A.O. 70 to a.d. 135.— The destruction of the Temple
carried with it the destruction of the priesthood and all its power.
The priests existed to offer sacrifices, and by the Law no sacrifice
could be offered except at the Temple of Jerusalem. Thenceforward
the remnant of the Jews who survived the fiery ordeal formed a
church rather than a nation or a state, and the Pharisees exercised
an unchallenged supremacy. With the Temple and its Sadducean
high priests perished the Sanhedrin in which the Sadducees had
competed with the Pharisees for predominance. The Stcaxii or
Zealots who had appealed to the arm of flesh were exterminated.
Only the teachers 01 the Law survived to direct the nation and to
teach those who remained loyal Jews, how they should render to
Caesar what belonged to Caesar, and to God what belonged to God.
Here and there hot-headed Zealots rose up to repeat the errors and
the disasters of their predecessors. But their fate only served to
deepen the impression already stamped upon the general mind oi
the nation. The Temple was gone, but they had the Law. Already
the Jews of the Dispersion had learned to supplement the Temple by
the synagogue, and even the Jews of Jerusalem bad not been free-
to spend their lives in the worship of the Temple. There were still.
as always, rites which were independent of the place and of the
priest; there had been a time when the Temple did not exist. So
Judaism survived once more the destruction of its central sanctuary.
When Jerusalem was taken, the Stcartf still continued to hoM
three strongholds: one — Masada — for three years. But the com*
mandcr of Masada realized at length that there was no hope of
escaping captivity except by death, and urged his comrades to
anticipate their fate. Lach man slew his wife and children; ten
men were selected by lot to slay the rest; one man slew the nine
executioners, fired the palace and fell upon his sword. When the
place was stormed the garrison consisted of two old women and five
children who had concealed themselves in caves. So Vespasian
obtained possession of Palestine — the country which Nero had given
him — and for a time it was purged of revolutionaries. Early
Christian writers assert that he proceeded to search out and to
execute all descendants of David who might conceivably come
forward as claimants of the vacant throne.
In Egypt and in Cyrcne fugitive Zealots endeavoured to continue
their rebellion against the emperor, but there also with disastrous
results. The doors of the Temple in Egypt were closed, and its sacri-
fices which had been offered for 243 years were prohibited. Soon
afterwards this temple also was destroyed. Apart from these local
outbreaks, the Jews throughout the empire remained loyal citizens
and were not molested. The general nope of the nation was not
necessarily bound up with the house of David, and its realization
was not incompatible with the yoke of Rome. They still looked for
a true prophet, and meanwhile they had their rabbis.
Under Johanan ben Zaccai (q.v.) the Pharisees established them-
selves at Jamnia. A new Sanhedrin was formed there under the
presidency of a ruler, who received yearly dues from all Jewish,
communities. The scribes through the synagogues preserved the
national spirit and directed it towards the religious hfe which was
prescribed by Scripture. The traditions of the elders were tested
and gradually harmonized in their essentials. The canon of Scrip-
ture was decided in accordance with the touchstone of the Penta-
teuch. Israel had retired to their tents to study their Bible.
Under Vespasian 'and Titus the Jews enjoyed freedom of con*
science and equal political rights with non-Jewish subjects of Rome.
But Domitian, according to pagan historians, bore hardly on them.
The temple-tax was strictly exacted; Jews who lived the Jewish life
without openly confessing their religion and Jews who concealed
their nationality were brought before the magistrates. Proselyte*
to Judaism were condemned cither to death or to forfeiture of
their property. Indeed it would seem that Domitian instituted a
persecution of the lews, to which Nerva his successor put an end.
Towards the end of Trajan's reign (114-1 17) the Jews of Egypt and
Cyrenc rose against their Greek neighbours and set up a king. The
rebellion spread to Cyprus; and when Trajan advanced from
Mesopotamia into Parthia the Jews of Mesopotamia revolted.
The massacres they perpetrated were avenged in kind and alt the
insurrections were quelled when Hadrian succeeded Trajan.
In 132 the Jews of Palestine rebelled again. Hadrian had for*
bidden circumcision as illegal mutilation: he had also replaced
Jerusalem by a city of his own. Aelia Capitolina, and the temple of
Yahweh by a temple of Jupiter. Apart from these bitter provoca-
tions^ — the prohibition of the sign of the covenant and the desecration
of the sacred place— the Jews had a leader who was recognized as
Messiah by the rabbi Aqiba. Though the majority of the rabbis
looked for no such deliver*- r and refused to admit his claims. Barcoche-
bas (q.v ) drew the people alter him to struggle for their national
independence. For three years and a half he held his own and issued
coins in the name of Simon, which commemorate the liberation of
Jerusalem. Some attempt was apparently made to rebuild the
Temple; and the Jews of the Dispersion, who had perhaps been
won over by Aqiba. supported the rebellion. Indeed even Ceo tiles
helped them, so that the whole world (Dio Cassius says) was stirred.
Hadrian sent hi* best generals at;nin«;t the rebels-and at length they
were driven from Jerusalem to Bethar (135). The Jews were for-
bidden to enter the new city of Jerusalem on pain of death.
DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES) JEWS
Bibliography. — The most comprehensive of modern booksdeattng
with the period is Emil Schurer, GesckickU des Judixhtn Volkes
tm ZeiUiMcr Jesu Chnsti (3 vols., Leipzig, tool foil.). Exception
has been taken to a certain lack of sympathy with the Jews, espe-
cially the rabbis, which has been detected in the author. But at least
the book remains an indispensable storehouse of references to ancient
and modern authorities. An earlier edition was translated into
English under the title History of the Jeudsh People (Edinburgh.
1890, 1801). Of shorter histories, D. A. Schlatter's Ceschtchle
Israel's von Alexander dem Crossen bis Hadrian (2nd ed., 1906)
is perhaps the least dependent upon Schurer and attempts more
than others to interpret the fragmentary evidence available. Dr
R. H. Charles has done much by his editions to restore to their
proper prominence in connexion with Jewish history the Testaments
of the Twelve Patriarchs, The Book of Jubilees* Enoch, &c. But
SchQrer gives a complete bibliography to which it must suffice to
refer. For the Sanhedrin see Synedrium. (J- H. A. H.)
in— Fiom the Dispersion to Modern Times
42. The Later Empire.— Wtlh the failure in 135 of the attempt
led by Barcochcbas to free Judaea from Roman domination a new
era begins in the history of the Jews. The direct consequence of
the failure was the annihilation of political nationality. Large
numbers fell in the actual fighting. Dio Cassius puts the total at
the incredible figure of 580,000, besides the incalculable number
who succumbed to famine, disease and fire (Dio-Xiphilin lxix.
1 1-» 5)- Jerusalem was rebuilt by Hadrian, orders to this effect
being given during the emperor's first journey through Syria in
130, the date of his foundations at Gaza, Tiberias and Petra
(Rcinach, Texks relalifs au Judalsmc, p. 108). The new city
was named Aelia Capitolina, and on the site of the temple of
Jehovah there arose another temple dedicated to Jupiter. To
Eusebius the erection of a temple of Venus over the sepulchre
of Christ was an act of mockery against the Christian religion.
Rome had been roused to unwonted fury, and the truculence of
the rebels was matched by the cruelty of their masters. The
holy city was barred against the Jews; they were excluded,
under pain of death, from approaching within view of the
walk. Hadrian's policy in this respect was matched later on
by the edict of the caliph Omar (c. 638), who, like his Roman
prototype, prevented the Jews from settling in the capital of
their ancient country. The death of Hadrian and the accession
of Antoninus Pius (138), however, gave the dispersed people
of Palestine a breathing-space. Roman law was by no means
intolerant to the Jews. Under the constitution of Caracalla
(198-217) all inhabitants of the Roman empire enjoyed the civil
rights of the Civcs Romani (Schcrcr, Die Rcchlsverhilltnisse der
Juden, p. 10).
Moreover, a spiritual revival mitigated the crushing effects of
material ruin. The synagogue had become a firmly established
institution, and the personal and social life of the masses
had come under the control of communal law. The dialectic
of the school proved stronger to preserve than the edge of the
sword to destroy. Pharisaic Judaism, put to the severest test
to which a religious system has ever been subject, showed itself
able to control and idealize life in all its phases. Whatever
question may be possible as to the force or character of Phari-
saism in the time of Christ, there can be no doubt that it
became both all-pervading and ennobling among the successors of
Aqiba (q.v.) t himself one of the martyrs to Hadrian's severity.
Little more than half a century after the overthrow of the Jewish
nationality, the Mishnah was practically completed, and by this
code of rabbinic law— and law is here a term which includes
the social, moral and religious as well as the ritual and legal
phases of human activity— the Jewish people were organized
into a community, living more or less autonomously under the
Sanhedrin c»r Synedrium (q.v.) and its officials.
Judah the prince, the patriarch or nisi who edited the Mishnah,
died early in the 3rd century. With him the importance of
the Palestinian patriarchate attained its zenith. Gamaliel II.
of Jamnia (Jabne Yebneh) had been raised to this dignity a
century before, and, as members of the house of HUlel and thus
descendants of David, the patriarchs enjoyed almost royal
authority. Their functions were political rather than reli-
gious, though their influence was by no means purely secular.
403
They were often on terms of intimate friendship with the
emperors, who scarcely interfered with their jurisdiction.
As late as Thcodosius I. (370-305) the internal affairs of the
Jews were formally committed to the patriarchs, and Honorius
(404) authorized the collection of the patriarch's tax (aurum
cofonarium), by which a revenue was raised from the Jews of the
diaspora. Under Theodosius II. (408-450) the patriarchate
was finally abolished after a regime of three centuries and a half
(Gractz, History of the Jews, Eng. trans, vol. ii. ch. xxii.), though
ironically enough the last holder of the office had been for a time
elevated by the emperor to the rank of prefect. The red
turning-point had been reached earlier, when Christianity became
the state religion under Constantine I. in 312.
Religion under the Christian emperors became a significant source
of discrimination in legal status, and non-conformity might reach
so far as to produce complete loss of rights. The laws concerning
the Jews had a repressive and preventive object: the repression of
Judaism and thenrevention of inroads of Jewish influences into the
state religion. The Jews were thrust into a position of isolation,
and the Code of Thcodosius and other authorities characterize the
Jews as a lower order of depraved beings {inferiores and perversi),
their community as a godless, dangerous sect (setia nejaria, feralis),
their religion a superstition, their assemblies for religious worship a
blasphemy (sacrile^i coetusS and a contagion (Schercr, op. cit. pp.
11-12). Vet Judaism under Roman Christian law was a lawful
religion (retigio licita), Valentinian 1. (364-37^5) forbade the quarter-
ing of soldiers in the synagogues, Thcodosius I. prohibited inter-
ference with the synagogue worship ("Judacorum scctam nulla lege
prohibitam satis constat "j, and in 412 a special edict of protection
was issued. But the admission of Christians into the Jewish fold
was punished by confiscation of goods (357), the erection of new
synagogues was arrested by Thcodosius II. (430) under penalty of a
heavy fine, Jews were forbidden to hold Christian slaves under pain
of death (423). A similar penalty attached to intermarriage between
Jews and Christians, and an attempt was made to nullify all Jewish
marriages which were not celebrated in accordance with Roman law.
and the Byzantine emperors of the 8th and 9th centuries passed
even more intolerant regulations. As regards civil law, Jews were
at first allowed to settle disputes between Jew and Jew before their
own courts, but Justinian denied to them and to heretics the right
to appear as witnesses in the public courts against orthodox Chris-
tians. To Constantine V. (911-959) goes back the Jewish form of
oath which in its later development required the Jew to gird him-
self with thorns; stand in water; and, holding the scroll of the
Torah in his hand, invoke upon his person the leprosy of Naaman,
the curse of Eli and the fate of Koran's sons should he perjure himself.
This was the original of all the medieval forms of oath more judaico,
which still prevailed in many .European lands till the 19th century,
and are even now maintained by some of the Rumanian courts.
Jews were by the law of Honorius excluded from the army, from
public offices and dignities (418), from acting as advocates (425);
only the curial offices were open to them. Justinian gave the
finishing touch by proclaiming in 537 the Jews absolutely ineligible
for any honour whatsoever ( honorc fruantur nuilo ").
43. Judaism in Babylonia. — The Jews themselves weTe during
this period engaged in building up a system of isolation on their
own side, but they treated Roman law with greater hospitality
than it meted out to them. The Talmud shows the influence of
that law in many points, and may justly be compared to it as a
monument of codification based on great principles. The Pales-
tinian Talmud was completed in the 4th century, but the better
known and more influential version was compiled in Baby-
lonia about 500. The land which, a millennium before, had been
a prison for the Jewish exiles was now their asylum of refuge.
For a long time it formed their second fatherland. Here, far
more than on Palestinian soil, was built the enduring edifice of
jabbinism. The population of the southern part of Mesopotamia
— the strip of land enclosed between the Tigris and the Euphrates
— was, according to Graetz, mainly Jewish; while the district
extending for about 70 m. on the cast of the Euphrates, from
Nehardea in the north to Sura in the south, became a new
Palestine with Nehardea for its Jerusalem. The Babylonian
Jews were practically independent, and the exilarch (rcsJi-
galulha) or prince of the captivity was an official who ruled
the community as a vassal of the Persian throne. The exilarch
claimed, like the Palestinian patriarch, descent from the royal
house of David, and exercised most of the functions of
4<H
government. Babylonia had risen into supreme importance
for Jewish life at about the time when the Mishnah was com-
pleted. The great rabbinic academies at Sura and Nehardea,
the former of which retained something of its dominant role
till the nth century, had been founded. Sura by Abba Arika
(q.v.) (c. aio), but Nehardea, the more ancient seat of the
two, famous in the 3rd century for its association with Abba
Arika 's renowned contemporary Samuel, lost its Jewish import-
ance in the age of Mahomet.
To Samuel of Nehardea (q.v.) belongs the honour of formu-
lating the principle which made it possible for Jews to live under
alien laws. Jeremiah had admonished his exiled brothers:
" Seek ye the peace of the city whither I have caused you to be
carried away captives, and pray unto the Lord for k: for in
the peace thereof shall ye have peace " (Jer. xxix. 7).. It was
now necessary to go farther, and the rabbis proclaimed a
principle which was as influential with the synagogue as "Give
unto Caesar that which is Caesar's " became with the Church.
" The law of the government is law "(Baba Qama 113 b.), said
Samuel, and ever since it has been a religious duty for the
Jews to obey and accommodate themselves as far as possible
to the laws of the country in which they are settled or reside.
In 259 Odenathus, the Palmy rene adventurer whose memory has
been eclipsed by that of his wife Zenobia, laid Nehardea waste
for the time being, and in its neighbourhood arose the academy
of Pumbcdita (Pombeditha) which became a new focus for the
intellectual life of Israel in Babylonia. These academies were
organized on both scholastic and popular lines; their consti-
tution was democratic. An outstanding feature was the
Kailah assemblage twice a year (in Elul at the close of the
summer, and in Adar at the end of the winter), when there
were gathered together vast numbers of outside students of
the most heterogeneous character as regards both age and
attainments. Questions received from various quarters were
discussed and the final decision of the Kailah was signed by the
Resh- Kailah or president of the general assembly, who was only
second in rank to the Resh-Metibta, or president of the scholastic
sessions. Thus the Babylonian academies combined the func-
tions of specialist law-schools, universities and popular parlia-
ments. They were a unique product of rabbi nism; and the
authors of the system were also the compilers of its literary
expression, the Talmud.
44. Judaism in Islam. — Another force now appears on the
scene. The new religion inaugurated by Mahomet differed
in its theory from the Roman Catholic Church. The Church,
it is true, in council after council, passed decisions unfriendly
to the Jews. From the synod at Elvira in the 4th century this
process began, and it was continued in the West-Gothic Church
legislation, in the Lateran councils (especially the fourth in
1215), and in the council of Trent (1563). The anti-social
tendency of these councils expressed itself in the m diction
of the badge, in the compulsory domicile of Jews within ghettos,
and in the erection of formidable barriers against all intercourse
between church and synagogue. The protective instinct was
responsible for much of this interference with the natural
impulse of men of various creeds towards mutual esteem and
forbearance. The church, It was conceived, needed defence
against the synagogue at all hazards, and the fear that the latter
would influence and dominate the former was never absent from
the minds of medieval ecclesiastics. But though this defensive
aeal led to active persecution, still in theory Judaism was a
Vienied religion wherever the Church had sway, and many papal
hu£s zi a friendly character were issued throughout the middle
aq= SAtier. rx 32 seq.).
V?— -nt •>< other hand, had no theoretic place in its scheme
*r rrziri rfgxias; its principle was fundamentally fn-
J — - V^ere 'J* mosque was erected, there was no room
r v icgjyjg. The caliph Omar initiated in the
-**» VnA reared Christians and Jews to wear
— — — t^rt bz right to hold state offices or to
* - - - -w*Tjxt <m them, and while forbidding
en the permission to build
JEWS [DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES
new places of worship for themselves. Again and again these
ordinances were repeated in subsequent ages, and intolerance
for infidels is still a distinct feature of Mahommedan law. Bat
Islam has often shown itself milder in fact than in theory,
for its laws were made to be broken. The medieval Jews on
the whole lived, under the crescent, a fuller and freer life than
was possible to them under the cross. Mahommedan Baby-
lonia (Persia) was the home of the gaonate (see Gaon), the central
authority of religious Judaism, whose power transcended that
of the secular exilarchate, for it influenced the synagogue far and
wide, while the exilarchate was local. The gaonate enjoyed a
practical tolerance remarkable when contrasted with the letter
of Islamic law. And as the Bagdad caliphate tended to become
more and more supreme in Islam, so the gaonate too shared in
this increased influence. Not even the Qaraile schism was able
to break the power of the geonim. But the dispersion of the
Jews was proceeding in directions which carried masses from the
Asiatic inland to the Mediterranean coasts and to Europe.
45. In Medieval Europe: Spain. — This dispersion of the Jews
had begun in the Hellenistic period, but it was after the Bar-
cochebas war that it assumed great dimensions in Europe. There
were Jews in the Byzantine empire, in Rome, in France and
Spain at very early periods, but it is with the Arab conquest of
Spain that the Jews of Europe began to rival in culture and im-
portance their brethren of the Persian gaonate. Before this date
the Jews had been learning the r61e they afterwards filled, that
of the chief promoters of international commerce. Already
under Charlemagne this development is noticeable; in his
generous treatment of the Jews this Christian emperor stood in
marked contrast to his contemporary the caliph Harun al-Rashid,
who persecuted Jews and Christians with equal vigour. But by
the xoth century Judaism had received from Islam something
more than persecution. It caught the contagion of poetry,
philosophy and science. 1 The schismatic Qaraites initiated or
rather necessitated a new Hebrew philology, which later on
produced Qimrji, the gaon Saadiah founded a Jewish philosophy,
the statesman (fasdai introduced a new Jewish culture — and
all this under Mahommedan rule. It is in Spain that above all
the new spirit manifested itself. The distinctive feature of
the Spanish- Jewish culture was its comprehensiveness. Litera-
ture and affairs, science and statecraft, poetry and medicine,
these various expressions of human nature and activity weie so
harmoniously balanced that they might be found in the posses-
sion of one and the same individual. The Jews of Spain attained
to high places in the service of the state from the time of the
Moorish conquest in 711. From rjasdai ibn Shaprut in the
10th century and Samuel the nagid in the nth the line of
Jewish scholar-statesmen continued till we reach Isaac Abrabanel
in 1492, the date of the expulsion of the Jews from Spain. This
last-named event synchronized with the discovery of America;
Columbus being accompanied by at least one Jewish navigator.
While the Spanish period of Jewish history was thus brilliant
from the point of view of public" service, it was equally notable
on the literary side. Hebrew religious poetry was revived for
synagogue hymnology, and, partly in imitation of Arabian models,
a secular Hebrew poetry was developed in metre and rhyme.
The new Hebrew Piyut found its first important exponent in
Kalir, who was not a Spaniard. But it is to Spain that we must
look for the best of the medieval poets of the synagogue,
greatest among them being Ibn Gabirol and Halevi. So, too,
the greatest Jew of the middle ages, Maimonides, was a Spaniard.
In him culminates the Jewish expression of the Spanish-Moorish
culture; bis writings had an influence on European scholas-
ticism and contributed significant elements to the philosophy of
Spinoza. But the rccon quest of Andalusia by the Christians
associated towards the end of the 15th century with the
establishment of the Inquisition, introduced a spirit of intoler-
ance which led to the expulsion of the Jews and Moors. The
consequences of this blow were momentous; it may be said to
inaugurate the ghetto period. In Spain Jewish life bad parti-
cipated in the general life, but the expulsion— while it dispersed
* *~ *he writers mentioned below see articles s.v.
DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES)
the Spanish Jews in Poland, Turkey, Italy and Fiance, and
thus in the end contributed to the Jewish emancipation at the
French Revolution— -for the time drove the Jews within their
own confines and barred them from the outside world. 1
46. In France, Germany, England, /to/y.-~ In the meantime
Jewish life bad been elsewhere subjected to other influences
which produced a result at once narrower and deeper. Under
Charlemagne, the Jews, who had begun to settle in Gaul in
the time ol Caesar, were more than tolerated. They were
allowed to hold land and were encouraged to become— what their
ubiquity qualified them to be — the merchant princes of Europe.
The reign of Louis the Pious (814-840) was, as GracU puts it,
" a golden era for the Jews of his kingdom, such as they had
never enjoyed, and were destined never again to enjoy in
Europe "—prior, that is, to the age of Mendelssohn. In Germany
at the same period the feudal system debarred the Jews from
holding land, and though there was as yet no material persecu-
tion they suffered moral injury by being driven exclusively into
finance and trade. Nor was there any widening of the general
horizon such as was witnessed in Spain. The Jewries of France
and Germany were thus thrown upon their own cultural re-
sources. They rose to the occasion. In Mainz there settled in
the xoth century Gershom, the " light of the exile,' 1 who, about
xooo, published his ordinance forbidding polygamy in Jewish
law as it had long been forbidden in Jewish practice. This
ordinance may be regarded as the beginning of the Synodal
government of Judaism, which was a marked feature of medieval
life in the synagogues of northern and central Europe from
the 1 2th century. Soon after Gcrshom's death, Rashi (1040-
x 106) founded at Troycs a new school of learning. If Maimon-
ides represented Judaism on its rational side, Rashi was the
expression of its traditions.
French Judaism was thus in a sense more human if less
humane than the Spanish variety; the fatter produced
thinkers, statesmen, poets and scientists; the former, men
with whom the Talmud was a passion, men of robuster because
of more naive and concent rated piety. In Spain and North Africa
persecution created that strange and significant phenomenon
Maranism or crypto-Judaism, a public acceptance of Islam or
Christianity combined with a private fidelity to the rites of
Judaism. But in England, France and Germany persecution
altogether failed to shake the courage of the Jews, and martyr-
dom was borne in preference to ostensible apostasy. The
crusades subjected the Jews to this ordeal The evfl was
wrought, not by the regular armies of the cross who were in-
spired by noble ideals, but by the undisciplined mobs which, for
the Sake of plunder, associated themselves with the genuine
enthusiasts. In 1096 massacres of Jews occurred in many cities of
the Rhineland. During the second crusade (1 145-1 147) Bernard
of Clairvaux heroically protested against similar inhumanities.
The third crusade, famous for the participation of Richard I.,
was the occasion for bloody riots in England, especially in
York, where 150 Jews immolated themselves to escape baptism.
Economically and socially the crusades had disastrous effects
upon the Jews (sec J. Jacobs, Jewish Encyclopedia, iv. 379).
Socially they suffered by the outburst of religious animosity.
One of the worst forms taken by this ill-will was the oft-revived
myth of ritual murder (q.v.), and later on when the Black
Death devastated Europe (1348-1349) the Jews were the victims
of an odious charge of well-poisoning. Economically the results
were also injurious. " Before the crusades the Jews had prac-
tically a monopoly of trade in Eastern products, but the
closer connexion between Europe and the East brought about
by the crusades raised up a class of merchant traders among the
Christians, and from this time onwards restrictions on the sale
of goods by Jews became frequent " (op. cit.). After the second
crusade the German Jews fell into the class of servi earner oe,
which at first only implied that tbey enjoyed the immunity of
imperial servants, but afterwards made of them slaves and
pariahs. At the personal whim of rulers, whether royal or of
'For the importance of the Portuguese Jews, see Portugal:
Bislcry.
JEWS 405
lower rank, the Jews were expelled from states and principalities
and were reduced to a condition of precarious uncertainty
as to what the morrow might bring forth. Pope Innocent III.
gave strong impetus to the repression of the Jews, especially
by ordaining the wearing of a badge. Popular animosity was
kindled by the enforced participation of the Jews in public
disputations. In 1306 Philip IV. expelled the Jews from
France, nine years later Louis X. recalled them for a period of
twelve years. Such vicissitudes were the ordinary lot of the
Jews for several centuries, and it was their own inner life — the
pure life of the home, the idealism of the synagogue, and the
belief in ultimate Messianic redemption—that saved them from
utter demoralisation and despair. Curiously enough in Italy —
and particularly in Rome — the external conditions were better.
The popes themselves, within their own immediate jurisdiction,
were often far more tolerant than their bulls issued for foreign
communities, and Torquemada was less an expression than
a distortion of the papal policy. In the early 14th century,
the age of Dante, the new spirit of the Renaissance made Italian
rulers the patrons of art and literature, and the Jews to some
extent shared in this gracious change. Robert of Aragon—
vicar-general of the papal states— in particular encouraged the
Jews and supported them in their literary and scientific ambi-
tions. Small coteries of Jewish minor poets and philosophers
were formed, and men like Kalonymos and Immanuel— Dante's
friend — shared the versatility and culture of Italy. But in
Germany there was no echo of this brighter note. Persecution
was elevated into a system, a poll-tax was exacted, and the
rabble was allowed (notably in 1336-133 7) to give full vent to
its fury. Following on this came the Black Death with its
terrible consequences in Germany; even in Poland, where the
Jews had previously enjoyed considerable rights, extensive
massacres took place.
In effect the Jews became outlaws, but their presence being
often financially necessary, certain officials were permitted to
" hold Jews," who were liable to all forms of arbitrary treatment
on the side of their " owners." The Jews had been among the
first to appreciate the commercial advantages of permitting the
loan of money on interest, but it was the policy of the Church
that drove the Jews into money-lending as a characteristic
trade. Restrictions on their occupations were everywhere
common, and as the Church forbade Christians to engage in
usury, this was the only trade open to the Jews. The excessive
demands made upon the Jews forbade a fair rate of interest.
" The Jews were unwilling sponges by means of which a large
part of the subjects' wealth found its way into the royal ex-
chequer " (Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages, ch. xii.).
Hence, though this procedure made the Jews intensely obnoxious
to the peoples, they became all the more necessary to the rulers.
A favourite form of tolerance was to grant a permit to the Jews
to remain in the state for a limited term of years; their con-
tinuance beyond the specified time was illegal and they were
therefore subject to sudden banishment. Thus a second expul-
sion of the Jews of France occurred in 1394. Early m the 15th
century John Hus— under the inspiration of Wycliffe— initiated
at Prague the revolt against the Roman Catholic Church. The
Jews suffered in the persecution that followed, and in 1420 all
the Austrian Jews were thrown into prison. Martin V. published
a favourable bull, but it was ineffectual. The darkest days
were nigh. Pope Eugcnius (1442) issued a fiercely intolerant
missive; the Franciscan John of Capistrano moved the masses
to activity by his eloquent denunciations; even Casimir IV,
revoked the privileges of the Jews in Poland, when the Turkish
capture of Constantinople (1453) offered a new asylum for the
hunted Jews of Europe. But in Europe itself the catastrophe
was not arrested. The Inquisition in Spain led to the expulsion
of the Jews (1492), and this event involved not only the latter
but the whole of the Jewish people. " The Jews everywhers
feh as if the temple had again been destroyed" (Graetz).
Nevertheless, the result was not all evil. If fugitives are for
the next half-century to be met with in all parts of Europe,
yet, especially in the Levant, there grew up thriving Jewish
406
JEWS
IDISFERSION TO MODERN TIMES
communities often founded by Spanish refugees. Such incidents
as the rise of Joseph Nasi (q.v.) to high position under the
Turkish government as duke of Naxos mark the coming change.
The reformation as such had no favourable influence on Jewish
fortunes in Christian Europe, though the championship of the
cause of toleration by Reuchlin had considerable value. But
the age of the ghetto (q.v.) had set in too firmly for immediate
amelioration to be possible. It is to Holland and to the 17th
century that we must turn for the first real steps towards Jewish
emancipation.
47. Period of Emancipation. — The ghetto, which had prevailed
more or less rigorously for a long period, was not formally pre-
scribed by the papacy until the beginning of the 16th century.
The same century was not ended before the prospect of liberty
dawned on the Jews. Holland from the moment that it joined the
union of Utrecht (1579) deliberately set its face against religious
persecution (Jcvish Encyclopedia, i. 537). Maranos, fleeing to
the Netherlands, were welcomed; the immigrants were wealthy,
enterprising and cultured. Many Jews, who had been compelled
to conceal their faith, now came into the open. By the middle
of the 17th century the Jews of Holland had become of such
importance that Charles II. of England (then in exile) entered
into negotiations with the Amsterdam Jews (1656). In that
same year the Amsterdam community was faced by a serious
problem in connexion with Spinoza. They brought themselves
into notoriety by excommunicating the philosopher — an act
of weak self-defence on the part of men who bad themselves but
recently been admitted to the country, and were timorous of
the suspicion that they shared Spinoza's then execrated views.
It is more than a mere coincidence that this step was taken during
the absence in England of one of the ablest and most notable of
the Amsterdam rabbis. At the time, Mcnasseh ben Israel {q.v.)
was in London, on a mission to Cromwell. The Jews had been
expelled from England by Edward I., after a sojourn in the
country of rather more than two centuries, during which they
had been the licensed and oppressed money-lenders of the
realm, and had— through the special exchequer of the Jews —
been used by the sovereign as a means of extorting a revenue
from his subjects. In the 17 th century a considerable number
of Jews had made a home in the English colonies, where from the
first they enjoyed practically equal Tights with the Christian
settlers. Cromwell, upon the inconclusive termination of the
conference summoned in 1655 at Whitehall to consider the
Jewish question, tacitly assented to the return of the Jews to
this country, and at the restoration his action was confirmed.
The English Jews "gradually substituted for the personal
protection of the crown, the sympathy and confidence of the
nation " (L. Wolf, Mcnasseh ben Israel's Mission to Cromwell,
p. lxxv.). The city of London was the first to be converted to
the new attitude. " The wealth they brought into the country,
and their fruitful commercial activity, especially in the. colonial
trade, soon revealed them as an indispensable element of the
prosperity of the city. As early as 1668, Sir Josiah Child, the
millionaire governor of the East India company, pleaded for
their naturalization on the score of their commercial utility.
For the same reason the city found itself compelled at first to
connive at their illegal representation on 'Change, and then to
violate its own rules by permitting them to act as brokers without
previously taking up the freedom. At this period they con-
trolled more of the foreign and colonial trade than all the other
alien merchants in London put together. The momentum of
tfek commercial enterprise and stalwart patriotism proved
irresistible. From the exchange to the city council chamber,
:**»w ia the aldennanic court, and eventually to the mayoralty
» wf vet aeriub&e stages of an emancipation to which their
or^ m^rests ii ike city and their high character entitled them.
T iiilr -ac z^r at London— not only as the converted champion
' but as the convinced apologist of the Jews—
2e fcjtfcschikl to knock at the door of the
c.i--rir : Ijcrnacm as parliamentary representative
_L- i „ T^:-ai~ Yctf. Inc. eft.).
t in Holland and England
were Sephardic (or Spanish) Jews— descendants of the Spanish
exiles. In the meantime the Ashkena2ic (or German) Jews had
been working out their own salvation. The chief effects of the
change were not felt till the i8lh century. In England emanci-
pation was of democratic origin and concerned itself with
practical questions. On the Continent, the movement was more
aristocratic and theoretical; it was part of the intellectual
renaissance which found its most striking expression in the
principles of the French Revolution. Throughout Europe the
1 8th century was less an era of stagnation than of transition.
The condition of the European Jews seems, on a superficial
examination, abject enough. But, excluded though they were
from most trades and occupations, confined to special quarters
of the city, disabled from snaring most of the amenities of life,
the Jews nevertheless were gradually making their escape from
the ghetto and from the moral degeneration which it had caused.
Some ghettos (as in Moravia) were actually not founded till the
1 8th century, but the careful observer can perceive clearly that
at that period the ghetto was a doomed institution. In the
" dark ages " Jews enjoyed neither rights nor privileges; in
the x8th century they were still without rights but they had
privileges. A grotesque feature of the time In Germany and
Austria was the class of court Jews, such as the Oppcnheims,
the personal favourites of rulers and mostly their victims when
their usefulness had ended. These men often rendered great
services to their fellow-Jews, and one of the results was the
growth in Jewish society of an aristocracy of wealth, where
previously there had been an aristocracy of learning. Even
more important was another privileged class — that of the
Schutz-Judc (protected Jew). Where there were no rights,
privileges had to be bought. While the court Jews were the
favourites of kings, the protected Jews were the proteges of
town councils. Corruption is the frequent concomitant of
privilege, and thus the town councils often connived for a price
at the presence in their midst of Jews whose admission was
illegal. Many Jews found it possible to evade laws of domicile
by residing in one place and trading in another. Nor could
they be effectually excluded from the fairs, the great markets
of the 1 8th century. The Sephardic Jews in all these respects
occupied a superior position, and they merited the partiality
shown to them. Their personal dignity and the vast range of
their colonial enterprises were in striking contrast to the retail
traffic of the Ashkenazim and their degenerate bearing and
speech. Peddling had been forced on the latter by the action
of the gilds which were still powerful in the x8th century on the
Continent. Another cause may be sought in the Cossack
assaults on' the Jews at an earlier period. Crowds of wanderers
were to be met on every road; Germany, Holland and Italy were
full of Jews who, pack on shoulder, were seeking a precarious live-
lihood at a time when peddling was neither lucrative nor safe.
But underneath all this were signs of a great change. The
18th century has a goodly tale of Jewish artists in metal-work,
makers of pottery, and (wherever the gilds permitted it) artisans
and wholesale manufacturers of many important commodities.
The last attempts at exclusion were irritating enough; but they
differed from the earlier persecution. Such strange enactments
as the Familianten-Gcsdz, which prohibited more than one
member of a family from marrying, broke up families by forcing
the men to emigrate. In 1781 Dohm pointed to the fact that a
Jewish father could seldom hope to enjoy the happiness of living
with his children. In that very year, however, Joseph II.
initiated in Austria a new era for the Jews. This Austrian
reformation was so typical of other changes elsewhere, and so
expressive of the previous disabilities of the Jews, that, even in
this rapid summary, space must be spared for some of the
details supplied by Graetz. " By this new departure (19th of
October 1781) the Jews were permitted to learn handicrafts,
arts and sciences, and with certain restrictions to devote them-
selves to agriculture. The doors of the universities and acade-
mies, hitherto closed to them, were thrown open. ... An
ordinance of November 2 enjoined that the Jews were every-
where considered fellow-men, and all excesses against them woe
DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES}
to be avoided. The Leibzoll (body-tax) was also abolished, in
addition to the special law-taxes, the passport duty, the night*
duty and all similiar imposts which had stamped the Jews
as outcast, for they were now (Dec. 19) to have equal
rights with the Christian inhabitants." The Jews were not,
indeed, granted complete citizenship, and their residence and
public worship in Vienna and other Austrian cities were circum-
scribed and even penalized. " But Joseph II. annulled a number
of vexatious, restrictive regulations, such as the compulsory
wearing of beards, the prohibition against going out in the
forenoon on Sundays or holidays, or frequenting public pleasure
resorts. The emperor even permitted Jewish wholesale mer-
chants, notables and their sons, to wear swords (January 2,
2732), and especially insisted that Christians should behave in a
friendly manner towards Jews."
48. The Mendelssohn Movement. — This notable beginning to
the removal of "the ignominy of a thousand years" was
causally connected with the career of Moses Mendelssohn (1720-
1786; q.v.). He found on both sides an unreadiness for approxi-
mation: the Jews bad sunk into apathy and degeneration, the
Christians were still moved by hereditary antipathy. The
failure of the hopes entertained of Sabbatai Zebi (q.v.) had
plunged the Jewries of the world into despair. This Smyrnan
pretender not only proclaimed himself Messiah (c. 1650) but he
was accepted in that role by vast numbers of his brethren. At
the moment when Spinoza was publishing a system which is
still a dominating note of modern philosophy, this other son of
Israel was capturing the very heart of Jewry. His miracles
were reported and eagerly believed everywhere; " from Poland,
Hamburg and Amsterdam treasures poured into his court; in the
Levant young men and maidens prophesied before him; the
Persian Jews refused to till the fields. 'We shall pay no more
taxes/ they said, ' our Messiah is come/ " The expectation
that he would lead Israel in triumph to the Holy Land was
doomed to end in disappointment. Sabbatai lacked one quality
without which enthusiasm is ineffective; be failed to believe in
himself. At the critical moment he embraced Islam to escape
death, and though he was still believed in by many— it was not
Sabbatai himself but a phantom resemblance that had assumed
the turban! — his meteoric career did but colour the sky of the
Jews with deeper blackness. Despite all this, one must not fall
into the easy error of exaggerating the degeneration into which
the Jewries of the world fell from the middle of the 17th till the
middle of the 18th century. For Judaism had organized itself;
the Skulhan aruch of Joseph Qaro (q.v.), printed in 1564 within
a decade of its completion, though not accepted without demur,
was nevertheless widely admitted as the code of Jewish life. If
in more recent times progress in Judaism has implied more or
less of revolt against the rigors and fetters of Qaro's code, yet
for 250 years it was a powerful safeguard against demoralization
and stagnation. No community living in full accordance with
that code could fail to reach a high moral and intellectual level.
It is truer to say that on the whole the Jews began at this period
to abandon as hopeless the attempt to find a place for themselves
in the general life of their country. Perhaps they even ceased
to desire it. Their children were taught without any regard to
outside conditions, they spoke and wrote a jargon, and their
whole training, both by what it included and by what it excluded,
tended to produce isolation from their neighbours. Moses
Mendelssohn, both by his career and by his propaganda, for
ever put an end to these conditions; he more than any other man.
Born in the ghetto of Dessau, he was not of the ghetto. At the
age of fourteen he found his way to Berlin, where Frederick the
Great, inspired by the spirit of Voltaire, held the maxim that
" to oppress the Jews never brought prosperity to any govern-
ment." Mendelssohn became a warm friend of Lessing, the
hero of whose drama Nathan the Wise was drawn from the Dessau
Jew. Mendelssohn's Phaedo, on the immortality of the soul,
brought the author into immediate fame, and the simple home
of the " Jewish Plato " was sought by many of the leaders of
Gentile society in Berlin. Mendelssohn's translation of the
Pentateuch into German with a new commentary by himself
JEWS 407
and others introduced the Jews to more modern ways of thinking.
Two results emanated from Mendelssohn's work. A new school
of scientific study of Judaism emerged, to be dignified by the
names of Leopold Zunz -{$.».), H. Gractz (q.v.) and many
others. On the other band Mendelssohn by his pragmatic
conception of rcKgion (specially in his Jerusalem) weakened the
belief of certain minds in the absolute truth of Judaism, and thus
his own grandchildren (including the famous musician Felix
Mcndelssohn-Bartholdy) as well as later Heine, B5rne, Cans and
Neander, embraced Christianity. Within Judaism itself two
parties were formed, the Liberals and the Conservatives, and as
time went on these tendencies definitely organized themselves.
Holdheim (q.v.) and Geiger (q.v.) led the reform movement in
Germany and at the present day the effects of the movement are
widely felt in America on the Liberal side and on the opposite
side in the work of the neo-orthodox school founded by S. R.
Hirsch (q.v.). Modern seminaries were established first in
Brcslau by Zacharias Fr&nkel (q.v.) and later in other cities.
Brilliant results accrued from all this participation in the general
life of Germany. Jews, engaged in all the professions and pur-
suits of the age, came to the front in many branches of public
life, claiming such names as Riesser (d. 1863) and Lasker in
politics, Aucrbach in literature, Rubinstein and Joachim in
music, Traube in medicine, and Lazarus in psychology. Especi-
ally famous have been the Jewish linguists, pre-eminent among
them Theodor Benfey (1800-1881), the pioneer of modern
comparative philology; and the Greek scholar and critic Jakob
Bernays (1824- 1881).
49. Eject 0/ the French Revolution. — In close relation to the
German progress in Mendelssohn's age, events had been pro-
gressing in France, where the Revolution did much to improve
the Jewish condition, thanks largely to the influence of Mirabeau.
In 1 807 Napoleon convoked a Jewish assembly in Paris. Though
the decisions of this body had no binding force on the Jews
generally, yet in some important particulars its decrees represent
principles widely adopted by the Jewish community. They
proclaim the acceptance of the spirit of Mendelssohn's recon-
ciliation of the Jews to modern life. They assert the citizen-
ship and patriotism of Jews, their determination to accommodate
themselves to the present as far as they could while retaining
loyalty to the past. They declare their readiness to adapt the
law of the synagogue to the law of the land, as for instance in
the question of marriage and divorce. No Jew, they decided,
may perform the ceremony of marriage unless civil formalities
have been fulfilled; and divorce is allowed to the Jews only if and
so far as it is confirmatory of a legal divorce pronounced by the
civil law of the land. The French assembly did not succeed in
obtaining formal assent to these decisions (except from Frankfort
and Holland), but they gained the practical adhesion of the
majority of Western and American Jews. Napoleon, after the
report of the assembly, established the consislorial system which
remained in force, with its central consistory in the capital,
until the recent separation of church and state. Many French
Jews acquired fame, among them the ministers Crfmieux (1796-
1879), Fould, Gondchaux and Raynal; the archaeologists and
philologians Oppert, Halcvy, Munk, the Derenbourgs, Darme-
steters and Rcinachs; the musicians Halevy, Waldtcufel and
Meyerbeer; the authors and dramatists Catullc Mendes and
A. d'Ennery, and many others, among them several distinguished
occupants of civil and military offices.
50. Modern Italy. — Similar developments occurred in other
countries, though it becomes impossible to treat the history of
the Jews, from this time onwards, in general outline. We must
direct our attention to the most important countries in such
detail as space permits. And first as to Italy, where the Jews
in a special degree have identified themselves with the national
life. The revolutions of 1848, which greatly affected the posi*
tion of the Jews in several parts of Europe, brought considerable
gain to the Jews of Italy. During the war against Austria in
the year named, Isaac Pcsaro Marogonato was finance minister
in Venice. Previously to this date the Jews were still confined
to the ghetto, but in 1859, in the Italy united under Victor
408
JEWS
(DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMES
Emanuel II., the Jews obtained complete rights, a privilege
which was extended also to Rome itself in 1870. The Italian
Jews devoted themselves with ardour to the service of the state.
Isaac Artom was Cavour's secretary, L' Olpcr a counsellor of
Mazzini. "The names of the Jewish soldiers who died in the
cause of Italian liberty were placed along with those of their
Christian fellow soldiers on the monuments erected in their
honour" (Jewish Encyclopedia, vii. 10). More recently men
bice Wollcmbcrg, Ottolenghi and Luzzatti rose to high positions
as ministers of state. Most noted of recent Jewish scholars in
Italy was S. D. Luzzatto (q.v.).
51. Austria.— From Italy we may turn to the country which
so much influenced Italian politics, Austria, which had founded
the system of " Court Jews" in 1518, had expelled the Jews
from Vienna as late as 1670, when the synagogue of that city
was converted into a church. But economic laws are often too
strong for civil vagaries or sectarian fanaticism, and as the
commerce of Austria suffered by the absence of the Jews, it was
impossible to exclude the latter from the fairs in the provinces
of from the markets of the capital. As has been pointed out
above, certain protected Jews were permitted to reside in places
where the expulsion of the Jews had been decreed. But Maria
Theresa (1 740-1 780) was distinguished for her enmity to the
Jews, and in 1744 made a futile attempt to secure their expulsion
from Bohemia. " In 1760 she issued an order that all unbearded
Jews should wear a yellow badge on their left arm " (Jewish
Encyclopedia, ii. 330). The most petty limitations of Jewish
commercial activity continued; thus at about this period the
community of Prague, in a petition, " complain that they are
not permitted to buy victuals in the market before a certain
hour, vegetables not before 9 and cattle not before n o'clock;
to buy fish is sometimes altogether prohibited; Jewish drug-
gists are not permitted to buy victuals at the same time with
Christians " (op. cit.). So, too, with taxation. It was exorbi-
tant and vexatious. To pay for rendering inoperative the
banishment edict of 1744, the Jews were taxed 3,000,000 florins
annually for ten years. In the same year it was decreed that
the Jews should pay " a special tax of 40,000 florins for the right
to import their citrons for the feast of booths." Nevertheless,
Joseph II. (1780-1790) inaugurated a new era for the Jews of
his empire. Soon after his accession he abolished the distinctive
Jewish dress, abrogated the poll-tax, admitted the Jews to
military service and their children to the public schools, and in
general opened the era of emancipation by the Tolcranzpatent
of 1782. This enlightened policy was not continued by the
successors of Joseph II. Under Francis II. (1702-1835) eco-
nomic and social restrictions were numerous. Agriculture was
again barred; indeed the Vienna congress of 1815 practically
restored the old discriminations against the Jews. As time
went on, a more progressive policy intervened, the special form
of Jewish oath was abolished in 1846, and in 1848, as a result
of the revolutionary movement in which Jews played an active
part, legislation took a moTC liberal turn. Francis Joseph I.
ascended the throne in that year, and though the constitution
of 1849 recognized the principle of religious liberty, an era of
reaction supervened, especially when " the concordat of 185s
delivered Austria altogether into the hands of the clericals."
But the day of medieval intolerance had passed, and in 1867 the
new constitution " abolished all disabilities on the ground of
religious differences," though anti-Semitic manipulation of the
law by administrative authority has led to many instances of
intolerance. Many Jews have been members of the Reichsrath,
some have risen to the rank of general in the army, and Austrian
Jews have contributed their quota to learning, the arts and
literature. Ldw, Jcllinek, Kaufmann, as scholars in the Jewish
field; as poets and novelists, Kompcrt, Franzos, L. A. Frankl;
the pianist Moscheles, the dramatist Mosenthal, and the actor
Sonnenthal, the mathematician Spitzer and the chess-player
Stcinitz are some of the most prominent names. The law of
1800 makes it " compulsory for every Jew to be a member of
the congregation of the district in which he resides, and so gives
to every congregation the right to tax the individual members "
(op. cit.). A similar obligation prevails in parts of Germany.
A Jew can avoid the communal tax only by formally declaring
himself as outside the Jewish community. The Jews of Hungary
shared with their brethren in Austria the same alternations of
expulsion and recall. By the law " De Judaeis " passed by the
Diet in 1791 the Jews were accorded protection, but half a century
passed before their tolerated condition was regularized. The
"toleration-tax" was abolished in 1846. During the revolu-
tionary outbreak of 1848, the Jews suffered severely in Hungary,
but as many as 20,000 Jews are said to have joined the army.
Kossuth succeeded in granting them temporary emancipation,
but the suppression of the War of Independence led to an era of
royal autocracy which, while it advanced Jewish culture by
enforcing the establishment of modern schools, retarded the
obtaining of civic and political rights. As in Austria, so in
Hungary, these rights were granted by the constitution of 1867.
But one step remained. The Hungarian Jews did not consider
themselves fully emancipated until thtf Synagogue was " duly
recognized as one of the legally acknowledged religions of the
country." This recognition was granted by the law of 1895- 1806.
In the words of Bttcbler (Jewish Encydopedia,x\. 503) ; " Since
their emancipation the Jews have taken an active part in the
political, industrial, scientific and artistic life of Hungary. In
all these fields they have achieved prominence. They have also
founded great religious institutions. Their progress has not been
arrested even by anti-Semitism, which first developed in 1883 at
the time of the Tisza-Eslar accusation of ritual murder."
52. Other European Countries.-*- According to M. Caimi the
present Jewish communities of 'Greece are divisible into five
groups : (r) Arta (Epirus); (2) Chalcis (Euboea); (3) Athens
(Attica); (4) Volo, Larissa and Trikala (Thessaly); and (5) Corfu
and Zantc (Ionian Islands). The Greek constitution admits no
religious disabilities, but anti-Semitic riots in Corfu and Zante in
1 891 caused much distress and emigration. In Spain there has
been of late a more liberal attitude towards the Jews, and there
is a small congregation (without a public synagogue) in Madrid.
In 1858 the edict of expulsion was repealed. Portugal, on the
other hand, having abolished the Inquisition hi 1821, has since
1826 allowed Jews freedom of religion, and there are synagogues
in Lisbon and Faro. In Holland the Jews were admitted to
political liberty in 1796. At present more than half of the Dutch
Jews are concentrated in Amsterdam, being largely engaged in
the diamond and tobacco trades. Among famous names of
recent times foremost stands that of the artist Josef Israels. la
1675 was consecrated in Amsterdam the synagogue which is still
the most noted Jewish edifice in Europe. Belgium granted full
freedom to the Jews in 181 5, and the community has since 1808
been organized on the state consistorial system, which tilt
recently also prevailed in France. It was not till 1874 that full
religious equality was granted to the Jews of Switzerland. But
there has been considerable interference (ostensibly on humani-
tarian grounds) with the Jewish method of slaughtering animals
for food (Shehilah) and the method was prohibited by a refer-
endum in 1893. In the same year a similar enactment was
passed in Saxony, and the subject is & favourite one with anti*
Semites, who have enlisted on their side some scientific authori-
ties, though the bulk of expert opinion is in favor of ShcfrUah
(see Dembo, Das StA/atAton, 1894). In Sweden the Jews have all
the rights which are open to non-Lutherans; they cannot become
members of the council of state. In Norway there is a small
Jewish settlement (especially in Christiania) who are engaged
in industrial pursuits and enjoy complete liberty. Denmark
has for long been distinguished for its liberal policy towards the
Jews. Since 1814 the latter have been eligible as magistrates,
and in 1849 full equality was formally ratified. Many Copen-
hagen Jews achieved distinction as manufacturers, merchants
and bankers, and among famous Jewish men of letters may be
specially named Georg Brandes.
The story of the Jews in Russia and Rumania remains a black
spot on the European record. In Russia the Jews are more
numerous and more harshly treated than in any other part of
the world. In the remotest past Jews were settled in much of
DISPERSION TO MODERN TIMESJ
the territory now included in Russia, but they are still treated
as aliens. They are restricted to the pale of settlement which
was first established in 1791. The pale now includes fifteen
governments, and under the May laws of 1892 the congestion of
the Jewish population, the denial of free -movement, and the
exclusion from the general rights of citizens were rendered more
oppressive than ever before. The right to leave the pale is indeed
granted to merchants of the first gild, to those possessed of
certain educational diplomas, to veteran soldiers and to certain
classes of skilled artisans. But these concessions arc unfavour-
ably interpreted and much extortion results. Despite a huge
emigration of Jews from Russia, the congestion within the pale
is the cause of terrible destitution and misery. Fierce massacres
occurred in Nizhniy-Novgorod in 1882, and in Kishinev in 1903.
Many other pogroms have occurred, and the condition of the
Jews has been reduced to one of abject poverty and despair.
Much was hoped from the duma, but this body has proved
bitterly opposed to the Jewish claim for liberty. Yet in spite
of these disabilities there are amongst the Russian Jews many
enterprising contractors, skilful doctors, and successful lawyers
and scientists. In Rumania, despite the Berlin Treaty, the Jews
are treated as aliens, and but a small number have been natural-
ized. They are excluded from most of the professions and are
hampered in every direction.
53. Oriental Countries. —In the Orient the condition of the
Jews has been much improved by the activity of Western
organizations, of which something is said in a later paragraph.
Modern schools have been set up in many places, and Palestine
has been the scene of a notable educational and agricultural
revival, while technical schools — such as the agricultural college
near Jaffa and the schools of the alliance and the more recent
Bczalel in Jerusalem — have been established. Turkey has always
on the whole tolerated the Jews, and much is hoped from the
new regime. In Morocco the Jews, who until late in the 19th
century were often persecuted, are still confined to a nullah
(separate quarter), but at the coast-towns there are prosperous
Jewish communities mostly engaged in commerce. In other
parts of the same continent, in Egypt and in South Africa, many
Jews have settled, participating in all industrial and financial
pursuits. Recently a mission has been sent to the Falashas of
Abyssinia, and much interest has been felt in such outlying
branches of the Jewish people as the Black Jews of Cochin and
the Bene Israel community of Bombay. In Persia Jews are
often the victims of popular outbursts as well as of official extor-
tion, but there are fairly prosperous communities at Bushire,
Isfahan, Teheran and Kashan (in Shiraz they are in low estate).
The recent advent of constitutional government may improve
the condition of the Jews.
54. The United Kingdom.— -The general course of Jewish
history in England has been indicated above. The Jews came
to England at least as early as the Norman Conquest; they were
expelled from Bury St Edmunds in 1190, after the massacres at
the coronation of Richard I.; they were required to wear badges
in 1218. At the end of the 12th century was established the
" exchequer of the Jews," which chiefly dealt with suits concern-
ing money-lending, and arranged a continual flow of money
from the Jews to the royal treasury," and a so-called '* parlia-
ment of the Jews " was summoned in 1241 ; in 1275 was enacted
the statute de Judaismo which, among other things, permitted
the Jews to hold land. But this concession was illusory, and as
the statute prevented Jews from engaging in finance — the only
occupation which had been open to them — it was a prelude to
their expulsion in 1290. There were few Jews in England from
that date till the Commonwealth, but Jews settled in the American
colonies earlier in the 17th century, and rendered considerable
services in the advancement of English commerce. The White-
hall conference of 1655 marks a change in the status of the Jews
in England itself, for though no definite results emerged it was
dearly defined by the judges that there was no legal obstacle to
the return of t he Jews. Charles II. in 1664 continued Cromwell's
tolerant policy. No serious attempt towards the emancipation
of the Jews was made till the Naturalization Act of 1753, which
JEWS +o 9
was, however, immediately repealed. Jews no longer attached
to the Synagogue, such as the HerscheU and Disraelis, attained
to fame. In 1830 the first Jewish emancipation bill was brought
in by Robert Grant, but it was not till the legislation of 1858-
1860 that Jews obtained full parliamentary rights. In other
directions progress was more rapid. The office of sheriff was
thrown open to Jews in 1835 (Moses Montcfiore, sheriff of London
was knighted in 1837); Sir I. L. Goldsmid was made a baronet
in 1841, Baron Lionel de Rothschild was elected to Parliament in
1847 (though he was unable to take his seat), Alderman (Sir
David) Salomons became lord mayor of London in 1855 and
Francis Goldsmid was made a Q.C. in 1858. In 1873 Sir George
Jessel was made a judge, and Lord Rothschild took his seat in the
House of Lords as the first Jewish peer in 1886. A fair propor-
tion of Jews have been elected to the House of Commons, and
Mr Herbert Samuel rose to cabinet rank in 1909. Sir Matthew
Nathan has been governor of Hong-Kong and Natal, and among
Jewish statesmen in the colonies Sir Julius Vogel and V. L-
Solomon have been prime ministers (Hyamson: A History oj the
Jews in England, p. 342). It is unnecessary to remark that in
the British colonies the Jews everywhere enjoy full citizenship.
In fact, the colonies emancipated the Jews earlier than did the
mother country. Jews were settled in Canada from the time
of Wolfe, and a congregation was founded at Montreal in 1768,
and since 1832 Jews have been entitled to sit m the Canadian
parliament. There arc some thriving Jewish agricultural colonics
in the same dominion. In Australia the Jews from the first were
welcomed on perfectly equal terms. The oldest congregation
is that of Sydney (181 7); the Melbourne community dates from
1844. Reverting to incidents in England itself, in 1870 the
abolition of university tests removed all restrictions on Jews at
Oxford and Cambridge, and both universities have since elected
Jews to professorships and other posts of honour. The communal
organization of English Jewry is somewhat inchoate. In 1841
an independent reform congregation was founded, and the
Spanish and Portuguese Jews have always maintained their
separate existence with a Haham as the ecclesiastical head. In
1870 was founded the United Synagogue, which is a metropolitan
organization, and the same remark applies to the more recent
Federation of Synagogues. The chief rabbi, who is the ecclesi-
astical head of the United Synagogue, has also a certain amount
of authority over the provincial and colonial Jewries, but this
is nominal rather than real. The provincial Jewries, however,
participate in the election of the chief rabbi. At the end of 1909
was held the first conference of Jewish ministers in London, and
from this is expected some more systematic organization of
scattered communities. Anglo-Jewry is rich, however, in chari-
table, educational and literary institutions; chief among these
respectively may be named the Jewish board of guardians
(1859), the Jews' college (1855), and the Jewish historical society
(1893). Besides the distinctions already noted, English Jews
have risen to note in theology (C. G. Montefiore), in literature
(Israel Zangwill and Alfred Sutro), in art (S. Hart, R.A , and
S. J. Solomon, R.^-) in music (Julius Benedict and Frederick
Hymen Cowcn). More than 1000 English and colonial Jews
participated as active combatants in the South African War.
The immigration of Jews from Russia was mainly responsible
for the ineffective yet oppressive Aliens Act of 1005. (Full
accounts of Anglo-Jewish institutions are given in the Jewish
Year- Book published annually since 1895.)
55. The A titer ican Continent.— Closely parallel with the progress
of the Jews in England has been their steady advancement in
America. Jews made their way to America early in the x6th
century, settling in Brazil prior to the Dutch occupation. Under
Dutch rule they enjoyed full civil rights. In Mexico and Peru
they fell under the ban of the Inquisition. In Surinam the Jews
were treated as British subjects; in Barbadoes, Jamaica and New
York they are found as early as the first half of the 17th century.
During the War of Independence the Jews of America took a
prominent part on both sides, for under the British rule many
had risen to wealth and high social position. After the Declaration
of Independence, Jews are found all over America, where they
4 io JEWSBURY
have long enjoyed complete emancipation, and have enormously
increased in numbers, owing particularly to immigration from
Russia. The American Jews bore their share in the Civil War
(7038 Jews were in the two armies), and have always identified
themselves closely with national movements such as the eman-
cipation of Cuba. They have attained to high rank in all
branches of the public service, and have shown most splendid
instances of far-sighted and generous philanthropy. Within the
Synagogue the reform movement began in 1825, and soon won
many successes, the central conference of American rabbis and
Union College (1875) at Cincinnati being the instruments of this
progress. At the present time orthodox Judaism is also again
acquiring its due position and the Jewish theological seminary
of America was founded for this purpose. In 1908 an organiza-
tion, inclusive of various religious sections, was founded under
the description " the Jewish community of New York." There
have been four Jewish members of the United States senate, and
about 30 of the national House of Representatives. Besides
filling many diplomatic offices, a Jew (O. S. Straus) has been a
member of the cabinet. Many Jews have filled professorial
chairs at the universities, others have been judges, and in art,
literature (there is a notable Jewish publication society), industry
and commerce have rendered considerable services to national*
culture and prosperity. American universities have owed much
to Jewish generosity, a foremost benefactor of these (as of many
other American institutions) being Jacob Schiff. Such institu-
tions as the Gratz and Dropsie colleges are further indications
of the splendid activity of American Jews in the educational
field. The Jews of America have also taken a foremost place
in the succour of their oppressed brethren in Russia and other
parts of the world. (Full accounts of American Jewish institu-
tions are given in the American Jewish Y car-Book, published
annually since 1899.)
56. Anti-Semitism.— It is saddening to be compelled to close
this record with the statement that the progress of the European
Jews received a serious check by the rise of modern anti-Semi-
tism in ,the last quarter of the 19th century. While in Russia
this took the form of actual massacre, in Germany and Austria
it assumed the shape of social and civic ostracism. In Germany
Jews are still rarely admitted to the rank of officers in the army,
university posts are very difficult of access, Judaism and its
doctrines are denounced in medieval language, and a tone of
hostility prevails in many public utterances. In Austria, as in
Germany, anti-Semitism is a factor in the parliamentary elections.
The legend of ritual murder (q.v.) has been revived, and every
obstacle is placed in the way of the free intercourse of Jews with
their Christian fellow-citizens. In France Edouard Adolphe
Drumont led the way to a similar animosity, and the popular
fury was fanned by the Dreyfus case. It is generally felt, how-
ever, that this recrudescence of anti-Semitism is a passing phase
in the history of culture (see Anti-Semitism).
57. The Zionist Movement. — The Zionist movement (sec
Zionism), founded in 1895 by Theodor Herzl (q.v.) was in a sense
the outcome of anti-Semitism. Its object was the foundation
of a Jewish state in Palestine, but though it aroused much
interest it failed to attract the majority of the emancipated Jews,
and the movement has of late been transforming itself into a
mere effort at colonization. Most Jews not only confidently be-
lieve that their own future lies in progressive development within
the various nationalities of the world, but they also hope that
a similar consummation is in store for the as yet unemancipatcd
branches of Israel. Hence the Jews are in no sense internation-
ally organized. The influence of the happier communities has
been exercised on behalf of those in a worse position by indivi-
duals such as Sir Moses Montefiore (q.v.) rather than by societies
or leagues. From time to time incidents arise which appeal to
the Jewish sympathies everywhere and joint action ensues.
Such incidents were the Damascus charge of ritual murder ( 1 840) ,
the forcible baptism of the Italian child Mortara (1858), and the
Russian pogroms at various dates. But all attempts at an
international union of Jews, even in view of such emergencies
as these, have failed. Each country has its own local organiza-
tion for dealing with Jewish questions. In France the Alliance'
Israelite (founded in i860), in England the Anglo-Jewish Associa-
tion (founded in 187 1), in Germany the Hilfsverein der deutschen
Juden, and in Austria the Israelitische Allianz zu Wien (founded
187 2) ,in America the American Jewish Committee (founded 1906),
and similar organizations in other countries deal only incidentally
with political affairs. They are concerned mainly with the
education of Jews in the Orient, and the establishment of colonies
and technical institutions. Baron Hirsch (q.v.) founded the
Jewish colonial association, which has undertaken vast colonizing
and educational enterprises, especially in Argentina, and more
recently the Jewish territorial organization has been started to
found a home for the oppressed Jews of Russia. All these
institutions arc performing a great regenerative work, and the
tribulations and disappointments of the last decades of the 19th
century were not all loss. The gain consisted in the rousing of
the Jewish consciousness to more virile efforts towards a double
end, to succour the persecuted and ennoble the ideals of the
emancipated.
fig
St
(i
JEWSBURY, GERALDINE 8NDS0R (1812-1880), English
writer, daughter of Thomas Jewsbury, a Manchester merchant,
was born in 1812 at Mcasham, Derbyshire. Her first novel. Lot:
the History of Two Lives, was published in 1845, and was followed
by The Half Sisters (1848), Marian Withers (1851), Constance
Herbert (185s), The Sorrows of Gentility (1856), Rif>ht or Wront
(1859). In 1850 she was invited by Charles Dickens to write
for Household Words; for many years she was a frequent con-
tributor to the Athenaeum and other journals and magazines.
It is, however, mainly on account of her friendship with Thomas
Carlyle and his wife that her name is remembered. Carlyle
described her, after their first meeting in 184 1 , as " one of the most
interesting young women I have seen for years; clear delicate
sense and courage looking out of her small sylph-like -figure.**
From this time till Mrs Carlyle's death in 1866, Gcraldine Jews-
bury was the most intimate of her friends. The selections from
Geraldine Jewsbury *s letters to Jane Welsh Carlyle ( 1 892, ed. Mrs
Alexander Ireland) prove how confidential were the relations
JEW'S EARS— JHABUA
between the two women for a quarter of a century. In 1854
Miss Jewibury removed from Manchester to London to be near
her friend. To her Carlyle turned {or sympathy when his wife
died; and at his request she wrote down some " biographical
anecdotes " of Mrs Carlyle's childhood and early married life.
Carlyle's comment was that " few or none of these narratives are
Correct in details, but there is a certain mythical truth in all or
most of them;" and he added, u the GeralcHne accounts of her
(Mrs Carlyle's) childhood are substantially correct." He ac-
cepted them as the groundwork for his own essay on " Jane
Welsh Carlyle/' with which they were therefore incorporated by
Froude when editing Carlyle's Reminiscences. Miss Jewsbury
was consulted by Froude when he was preparing Carlyle's
biography, and her recollection of her friend's confidences con-
firmed the suspicion that Carlyle had on one occasion used
physical violence towards his wife. Miss Jewsbury further
informed Froude that the secret of the domestic troubles of the
Carlyles lay in the fact that Carlyle had been "one of those
persons who ought never to have married," and that Mrs Carlyle
had at one time contemplated having her marriage legally an-
nulled (see My Relations with Carlyle, by James Anthony Froude,
1903). The endeavour has been made to discredit Miss Jews-
bury in relation to this matter, but there seems to be no sufficient
ground for doubting that she accurately repeated what she had
learnt from Mrs Carlyle's own lips. Miss Jewsbury died in
London on the 23rd of September 1880.
JEWS BARS, the popular name of a fungus, known botani-
catly as Hirneda auric ula-judae, so called from its shape, which
somewhat resembles a human ear. It is very thin, flexible, flesh-
coloured to dark brown, and one to three inches broad. It is
common on branches of elder, which, it often kills, and is also
found on ehn, willow, oak and other trees. It was formerly
prescribed as a remedy for dropsy.
JEWS HARP, or Jew's Teump (Fr. guimborde, O. Fr. trompe,
grondr, Ger. Mundharmonica, Maul trommel, Brummeisen; Ital.
scaccie-pensieri or spassa-pensiero), a small musical instrument
of percussion, known for centuries all over Europe. "Jew's
trump " is the older name, and " trump " is still used in parts
of Great Britain. Attempts have been made to derive " Jew's "
from " jaws " or Fr. jcu, but, though there is no apparent reason
for associating the instrument with the Jews, it Is certain that
" Jew's " is the original form (see the New English Dictionary and
C B. Mount in Notes and Queries (Oct. 23, 1807, p. 322).
The instrument consists of a slender tongue of sted riveted at
one end to the base of a pear-shaped steel Ioop;theotherendof
the tongue, left free and passing out between the two branches
of the frame, terminates in a sharp bend at right angles, to enable
the player to depress it by an elastic blow and thus set it vibrating
while firmly pressing the branches of the frame against his teeth.
The vibrations of the steel tongue produce a compound sound
composed of a fundamental and its harmonics. By using the
cavity of the mouth as a resonator, each harmonic in succession
can be isolated and reinforced, giving the instrument the
compass shown. The lower harmonics of the series cannot be
4 5.8 7 8 9 10 II 12
4 5
8 9
10 1)
12
obtained, owing to the limited capacity of the resonating cavity.
The black notes on the stave show the scale which may be
produced by using two harps, one tuned a fourth above the
other The player on the Jew's harp, in order to isolate the
harmonics, frames his mouth as though intending to pronounce
the various vowels. At the beginning of the 10th century,
when much energy and ingenuity were being expended in all
countries upon the invention of new musical instruments, the
Mauttrommel, re-christened Mundharmonica (the most rational
of all its names), attracted attention in Germany Heinrich
Scbeibler devised an ingenious holder with a handle, to contain
4«I
five Jew's harps, all tuned to different notes; by holding one in
each hand, a large compass, with duplicate notes, became avail-
able; he called this complex Jew's harp Aura 1 and with it played
themes with variations, marches, Scotch reels, &c. Other
virtuosi, such as Eulenstein, a native of WUrtemberg, achieved
the same result by placing the variously tuned Jew's harps upon
the table in front of him, taking them up and setting them down
as required. Eulenstein created a sensation irr London in 1827
by playing on no fewer than sixteen Jew's harps. In 1828
Sir Charles Wheatstone published an essay on the technique of
the instrument in the Quarterly Journal of Science. (K. S.)
JEZEBEL (Heb. l*xbcl, perhaps an artificial form to suggest
" un-exalted," a divine name or its equivalent would naturally
be expected instead of the first syllable), wife of Ahab, king of
Israel (1 Kings xvi. 31), and mother of Athaliah, in the Bible.
Her father Eth-baal (Ithobal, Jos., contra A p. i. 18) was king of
Tyre and priest of the goddess Astarte. He had usurped the
throne and was the first important Phoenician king after Hiram
(see Phoenicia). Jeaebel, a true daughter of a priest of Astarte,
showed herself hostile to the worship of Yahweh, and to his
prophets, whom she relentlessly pursued (1 Kings xviii. 4-13; see
Elijah). She is represented as a woman of virile character, and
became notorious for the part she took in the matter of Naboth'd
vineyard. When the Jezreelite* sheikh refused to sell the
family inheritance to the king, Jezebel treacherously caused him
to be arrested on a charge of treason, and with the help of false
witnesses he was found guilty and condemned to death. For
tins the prophet Elijah pronounced a solemn curse upon Ahab
and Jezebel, which was fulfilled when Jehu, who was anointed
king at EKsba's instigation, killed the son Jchoram, massacred
all the family, and had Jezebel destroyed (1 Kings xxi.; 2 Kings
ix. 11-28). What is told of her comes from sources written
under the influence of strong religious bias; among the exagger-
ations must be reckoned 1 Kings xviii. 13, which is inconsistent
with xix. 18 and xxii. 6. A literal interpretation of the reference
to Jezebel's idolatry (2 Kings ix. 22) has made her name a by-
word for a false prophetess in Rev. ii. 20. Her name is often
used in modern English as a synonym for an abandoned woman
or one who paints her face. (S. A. C.)
JBZREEL (Heb. " God sows "), the capita! of the Israelite
monarchy under Ahab, and the scene of stirring Biblical events
(1 Sam. xxix. 1 ; 1 Kings xxi. ; 2 Kings ix. 21-37). The name was
aho applied to the great plain (Esdraelon) dominated by the
city (" valley of Jerrcd," Josh. xvfi. 16, &c). The site has
never been lost, and the present village Zercln retains the name
radically unchanged. In Greek {e.g. Judith) the name appears
under the form 'Ea6parj\6.; it is Stradcla in the Bordeaux Pilgrim,
and to the Crusaders the place was known as Parvum Cerinum.
The modern stone village stands on a bare rocky knoll, 500ft.
above the broad northern valley, at the north extremity of a-
long ledge, terminating in sleep cliffs, forming part of the chain
of Mt Gilboa. The buildings are modern, but some scanty
remains of rock-hewn wine presses and a few scattered sarcophagi
mark the antiquity of the site. The view over the plains is fine
and extensive. It is vain now to look for Ahab's palace or
Naboth's vineyard. The fountain mentioned in 1 Sam. xxix. 1
is perhaps the fine spring *Ain el Meiyyila, north of the village,
a shallow pool of good water full of small fish, rising between
black basalt boulders: or more probably the copious 'Ain Jalud.
A second city named Jezreel lay in the hill country of Judah,
somewhere near Hebron (Josh xv. s6>. This was the native
place of David's wife Abinoam (1 Sam. xxv. 43).
See. for an excellent description of the scenery and history of the
Israelite Jezreel, G. A. Smith, HtsU Gtog. xix.
JHABUA, a native state of Central India, in the Bhopawar
agency. Area, with the dependency of Rutanmal, 1336 sq. m.
'See Attg. tnusik. Ztg, (Leipzig. 1816), p. 506. and BeUage 5,
where the construction of the instruments is described and illus-
trated and the system of notation shown in various pieces of music.
' According to another tradition Naboth lived at Samaria (xxi 1
ILXX.l, 18 seq.; ci. xxii. 38). A similar confusion regarding the
king's home appears in 2 Kings x. 1 1 compared with w 1 . 17
♦"
1^ v t^oi >, £0,889. More than half the inhabitants belong to
the abertfinil Bath. Estimated revenue, £7000; tribute,
t tooo. MiagiiM r and opium are exported. The chief, whose
tttfe •$ raja, is a Rajput of the Rathor dan, descended from a
branch of the Jodhpur family. Raja Udai Singh was invested
ia tS^S with the powers of administration.
Tbc town of Jhabua (pop. 3354) stands on the bank of a lake,
and is surrounded by a mud wait A dispensary and a guest-
bouse were constructed to commemorate Queen Victoria's
Diamond Jubilee in 1897*
JHALAWAR* a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency,
pop. (1001), 00,175; estimated revenue, £26,000; tribute, £2000.
Area, Sio sq. m. The ruling family of Jhalawar belongs to the
Jhala dan of Rajputs, and their ancestors were petty chiefs
of Halwad in the district of Jhalawar, in Kathiawar. About
1709 one of the younger sons of the head of the clan left his
country with his son to try his fortunes at Delhi. At Kotah
he left his son Madhu Singh, who soon became a favourite with
the maharaja, and received from him an important post, which
became hereditary. On the death of one of the Kotah rajas
(1771)1 the country was left to the charge of Zalim Singh, a
descendant of Madhu Singh. From that time Zalim Singh was
the real ruler of Kotah. He brought it to a wonderf>d state of
prosperity, and under his administration, which lasted over
forty-live years, the Kotah territory was respected by all parties.
In 1838 it was resolved, with the consent of the chief of Kotah,
to dismember the state, and to create the new principality of
Jhalawar as a separate provision for the descendants of Zalim
Singh. The districts then severed from Kotah were considered
to represent one-third (£120,000) of the income of Kotah; by
treaty they acknowledged the supremacy of the British, and
agreed to pay an annual tribute of £8000. Madan Singh received
the title of maharaja rana, and was placed on the same footing as
the other chiefs in Rajputana. He died in 1845. An adopted son
of his successor took the name of Zalim Singh in 1875 on becom-
ing chief of Jhalawar. He was a minor and was not invested
with governing powers till 1884. Owing to his maladminis-
tration, his relations with the British government became
strained, and he was finally deposed in 1896, " on account of
persistent misgovernment and proved unfitness for the powers
of a ruling chief." He went to live at Benares, on a pension of
£3000; and the administration was placed in the hands of the
British resident. After much consideration, the government
resolved in 1897 to break up the state, restoring the greater part
to Kotah, but forming the two districts of Shahabad and the
Chaumahla into a new state, which came into existence in 1899,
and of which Kunwar Bhawani Singh, a des c endant of the
original Zalim Singh, was appointed chief.
The chief town is Patan, or Jhaliapatan (pop.7955), founded
close to an old site by Zalim Singh in 1796, by the side of
an artificial lake. It is the centre of trade, the chief exports
of the state being opium, oil-seeds and cotton. The palace is
at the cantonment or chhaoni, 4 m. north. The andent site
near the town was occupied by the dty of Chandrawati, said to
have been destroyed in the time of Aurangzeb. The finest
feature of its remains is the temple of Sitaleswar Mahadeva
* 4HAR0, a town and district of British India, in the Multan
^ \-j*» of the Punjab. The town, which forms one munidpality
»*V iW newer and now more important quarter of Maghiana,
* iv«{ * », from the right bank of the river Chcnab. Founded
j. x.^KVsn, a Sial chieftain, in 1462, it long formed the
- ,. tfaXUhommcdanstate. Pop. (1901), 244*2. Maghiana
\ -„ ..Hwres of leather, soap and metal ware.
■x , v i^«.cr or Jhanc extends along both sides of the
^* ,./ V*c ■>« h* confidences with the Jhelum and the
,- ..^ \,^ t *;o sq. m Pop. (1901 )> 378,695. showing an
- <*» jev^>* ^ 13 N m ihe decade, due to the creation of
. " ^ ^ x ,0>*r « «0O4. But actually the population
* ^JlT ^ *" v j« tH cW area, owing to the opening of the
"^ V o.H\»uation of the tract irrigated by it.
4 "■ * :**«*** of acres of government waste
JHALAWAR— JHANSI
have been allotted to colonists, who are reported to be flourishing.
A branch of the North -Western railway enters the district in
this quarter, extending throughout its entire length. The
Southern Jech Doab railway serves the south. The principal
industries are the ginning, pressing and weaving of cotton.
Jhang contains the ruins of Shorkot, Identified with one of
the towns taken by Alexander. In modern times the history of
Jhang centres in the famous clan of Sials,' who exercised an
extensive sway over a large tract between Shahpur and Multan,
with little dependence on the imperial court at Ddhi, until they
finally fell before the all-absorbing power of Ranjit Singh. The
Sials of Jhang are. Mabommedans of Rajput descent, whose
ancestor, Rai Shankar of Daranagar, emigrated early in the
13th century from the Gangetic Doab. In the beginning of the
19th century Maharaja Ranjit Singh invaded Jhang, and cap-
tured the Sial chieftain's territory. The latter recovered a small
portion afterwards, which he was allowed to retain on payment
of a yearly tribute. In 1847, after the establishment of the
British agency at Lahore, the district came under the charge of
the British government; and in 1848 Ismail Khan, the Sial
leader, rendered important services against the rebel chiefs, for
which he received a pension. During the Mutiny of 1857 the
Sial leader again proved his loyalty by serving in person on the
British side. His pension was afterwards increased, and he
obtained the title of khan bahadur, with a small jagir for life.
JHANSI, a city and district of British India, in the Allahabad
division of the United Provinces. The. dty is the centre of the
Indian Midland railway system, whence four lines diverge to
Agra, Cawnpore, Allahabad and Bhopal. Pop. (1901), 55,724.
A stone fort crowns a neighbouring rock. Formerly the capital
of a Mahratta principality,, which lapsed to the British in 1853,
it was during the Mutiny the scene of disaffection and massacre.
It was then made over to GwaJior, but has been taken back in
exchange for other territory. Even when the dty was within
Gwalior, the dvil headquarters and the cantonment were at
Jhansi Naoabad, under its walls. Jhansi is the principal centre
for the agricultural trade of the district, but its manufactures
are small.
The District op Jhansi was enlarged in 1891 by the incor-
poration of the former district of Lalitpur, which extends
farther into the hill country, almost entirely surrounded by
native states. Combined area, 3628 sq.m. Pop. (1901), 616,759
showing a decrease of 10 % in the decade, due to the results of
famine. The main line and branches of the Indian Midland rail-
way serve the district, which forms a port ton of the hill country
of Bundelkhand, sloping down from the outliers of the Vindhyan
range on the south to the tributaries of the Jumna on the north.
The extreme south is composed of parallel rows of long and
narrow-ridged hills. Through the intervening valleys the rivers
flow down impetuously over ledges of granite or quartz. North
of the hilly region, the rocky granite chains gradually lose them-
selves in clustcre of smaller hills. The northern portion consists
of the level plain of Bundelkhand, distinguished for its deep black
soil, known as mar, and admirably adapted for the cultivation of
cotton. The district is intersected or bounded by three prindpal
rivers— the Pahuj, Betwa and Dhasan. The district is much cut
up, and portions of it are insulated by the surrounding native
states. The principal crops are millets, cotton, oil-seeds, pulses,
wheat, gram and barley. The destructive kans grass has proved
as great a pest here as elsewhere in Bundelkhand. Jhansi is
especially exposed to blights, droughts, floods, hailstorms, epi-
demics, and their natural consequence— famine.
Nothing is known with certainty as to the history of this
district before the period of Chandd rule, about the nth century
of our era. To this epoch must be referred the artificial reser-
voirs and architectural remains of the hilly region. The Chandels
were succeeded by their servants the Khangars, who built the
fort of Karar, lying just outside the British border. About
the 14th century the Bundelas poured down upon the plains,
and gradually spread themselves over the whole region which
now bears thdr name. The Mahommedan governors were
constantly making irruptions into the Bondela country; and in
JHELUM— JHERING
• 1732 Chhatar Sal, the Biradela chieftain, called in the aid of die
Mahrattas. They came to his assistance with their accustomed
promptitude, and were rewarded on the raja's death in 1734,
by the bequest of one-third of his dominions. Their general
founded the city of Jhansi, and peopled it with inhabitants
from Orchha state. In 1806 British protection was promised
to the Mahratta chief, and in 181 7 the peshwa ceded to the
East India Company all his rights over Bundelkhand. In 1853
the raja died childless, and his territories lapsed to the British.
The Jhansi state and the Jalaun and Chanderi districts were
then formed into a supcrintendency. The widow of the raja
considered herself aggrieved because she was not allowed to
adopt an heir, and because the slaughter of cattle was permitted
in the Jhansi territory. Reports were spread which excited
the religious prejudices of the Hindus. The events of 1857
accordingly found Jhansi ripe for mutiny. In June a few men
of the 1 2th native infantry seized the fort containing the treasure
and magazine, and massacred the European officers of the
garrison. Everywhere the usual anarchic quarrels rose among
the rebels, and the country was plundered mercilessly. The
rani put herself at the head of the rebels, and died bravery in
battle. It was not till November 1858, after a series of sharp
contests with various guerilla leaders, that the work of reorgan-
ization was fairly set on foot.
JHELUM, or Jehlam (Hydaspes of the Greeks), a river of
northern India. It is the most westerly of the " five rivers " of
the Punjab. It rises in the north-east of the Kashmir state,
flows through the city of Srinagar and the Wular lake, issues
through the Pir Panjal range by the narrow pass of Baramula,
and enters British territory in the Jhelum district. Thence it
flows through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary
between the Jech Doab and the Sind Sagar Doab, and finally
joins the Chenab at Timmu after a course of 450 miles. The
Jhelum colony, in the Shahpur district of the Punjab, formed on
the example of the Chenab colony in 1001, is designed to contain
a total irrigable area of 1,130,000 acres. The Jhelum canal is a
smaller work than the Chenab canal, but its silt is noted for
its fertilizing qualities. Both projects have brought great
prosperity to the cultivators.
JHELUM, or Jehlam, a town and district of British India,
in the Rawalpindi division of the Punjab. The town is situated
an the right bank of the river Jhelum, here crossed by a bridge
of the North- Western railway, 103 m. N. of 'Lahore. Pop. (1001) ,
14,951. It is a modern town with river and railway trade
(principally in timber from Kashmir), boat-building and canton-
ments for a cavalry and four infantry regiments.
The District Of Jhelum stretches from the river Jhelum
almost to the Indus. Area, 2813 sq. m. Pop. (iooi), 5°M*4»
showing a decrease of 2 % in the decade. Salt is quarried at the
Mayo mine in the Salt Range. There are two coal-mines, the
only ones worked in the province, from which the North- Western
railway obtains part of its supply of coal. The chief centTe of
the salt trade is Pind Dadan Khan (pop. 13,770)- The district
is crossed by the main line of the North- Western railway, and
also traversed along the south by a branch line. .The river
Jhelum is navigable throughout the district, which forms the
south-eastern portion of a rugged Himalayan spur, extending
between the Indus and Jhelum to the borders of the Sind Sagar
Doab. Its scenery is very picturesque, although not of so wild
a character as the mountain region of Rawalpindi to the north,
and is lighted up in places by smiling patches of cultivated valley.
The backbone of the district is formed by the Salt Range, a
treble line of parallel hills running in three long forks from east
to west throughout its whole breadth. The range rises in bold
precipices, broken by gorges, clothed with brushwood and tra-
versed Jt>y streams which are at first pure, but soon become
impregnated with the saline matter over which they pass.
Between the line of hills lies a picturesque table-land, in which
the beautiful little lake of Katlar Kahar nestles amongst the
minor ridges. North of the Salt Range, the country extends
upwards in an elevated plateau, diversified by countless ravines
and fissures, until it loses itself in tangled masses of Rawalpindi
+'3
mountains. In this rugged tract cultivation is rare and difficult,
the soil being choked with saline matter. At the foot of the
Salt Range, however, a small strip of level soil ties along the
banks of the Jhelum, and is thickly dotted with prosperous
villages. The drainage of the district is determined by a low
central watershed running north and south at right angles to
the Salt Range. The waters of the western portion find their
way into the Sohan, and finally into the Indus; those of the
opposite slope collect themselves into small torrents, and empty
themselves into the Jhelum.
The history of the district dates back to the semi-mythical
period of the Mah&bhdrato. Hindu tradition represents the
Salt Range as the refuge of the five Pandava brethren during
the period of their exile, and every salient point in its scenery is*
connected with some legend of the national heroes. Modern
research has fixed the site of the conflict between Alexander
and Porus as within Jhelum district, although the exact point
at which Alexander effected the passage of the Jhelum (or
Hydaspes) is disputed. After this event, we have little infor-
mation with regard to the condition of the district until the
Mahommedan conquest brought back literature and history
to Upper India. The Janjuahs and Jats, who now hold the
Salt Range and its northern plateau respectively, appear to
have been the earliest inhabitants. The Ghakkars seem to
represent an early wave of conquest from the east, and they still
inhabit the whole eastern slope of the district; while the A wans,
who now cluster in the western plain, are apparently later
invaders from the opposite quarter. The Ghakkars were the
dominant race at the period of the first Mahommedan incursions,
and long continued to retain their independence. During the
flourishing period of the Mogul dynasty, the Ghakkar chieftains
were prosperous and loyal vassals of the house of Baber; but after
the collapse of the Delhi Empire Jhelum fell, like its neighbours,
under the sway of the Sikhs. In 1 765 Gu jar Singh defeated the
last independent Ghakkar prince, and reduced the wild moun-
taineers to subjection. His son succeeded to his dominions,
until 18 10, when he fell before the irresistible power of Ran jit
Singh. In 1849 the district passed, with the rest of the Sikh
te rritorie s, into the hands of the British.
JHERING, RUDOLF VON (1818-1802), German jurist, was
born on the 22nd of August 1818 at Aurich in East Friesland,
where his father practised as a lawyer. Young Jhering entered
the university of Heidelberg in 1836 and, after the fashion of
German students, visited successively Gdttingen and Berlin.
G. F. Puchta, the author of Gesckichie des Rechts bei dem rOmischen
Volke, alone of all his teachers appears to have gained his admir-
ation and influenced the bent of his mind. After graduating
doctor juris, Jhering established himself in 1844 at Berlin as
privatdoccnl fof Roman law, and delivered public lectures on
the Geist des romhehtn Rechts, the theme which may be said to
have constituted his life's work. In 1845 he became an ordinary
professor at Basel, in 1846 at Rostock, in 1849 at Kiel, and in
1851 at Giessen. Upon all these scats of learning he left his
mark; beyond any other of his contemporaries he animated the
dry bones of Roman law. The German juristic world was still
under the dominating influence of the Savigny cult, and the older
school looked askance at the daring of the young professor, who
essayed to adapt the old to new exigencies and to build up a
system of natural jurisprudence. This is the keynote of his
famous work, Geist des rdmischen Rechts auf den venchiedtnen
Shtfen seiner Entwickdung (1852-1865), which for originality of
conception and lucidity of scientific reasoning placed its author
in the forefront of modern Roman jurists. It is no exaggeration
to say that in the second half of the 19th century the reputation
of Jhering was as high as that of Savigny in the first. Their
methods were almost diametrically opposed. Savigny and his
school represented the conservative, historical tendency. In
Jhering the philosophical conception of jurisprudence, as a
science to be utilized for the further advancement of the moral
and social interests of mankind, was predominant. In 1868
Jhering accepted the chair of Roman Law at Vienna, where his
lecture-room was crowded, not only with regular students but
4H
with men of all profession* and even of the highest ranks in the
official world. He became one of the lions of society, the
Austrian emperor conferring upon him in 187 2 a title of hereditary
nobility. But to a mind constituted like his, the social functions
of the Austrian metropolis became wearisome, and he gladly
exchanged its brilliant circles for the repose of Gdttingcn, where
he became professor in 1872. In this year he had read at Vienna
before an admiring audience a lecture, published under the title
of Der Kampf urn's Rcchi (1872; Eng. trans., Battle for Right,
1884). Its success was extraordinary. Within two years it
attained twelve editions, and it has been translated into twenty-
six languages. This was followed a few years later by Der Zweck
im Rctht (2 vols., 187 7-1883). In these two works is clearly
teen Jhering's individuality. The Kampf urn's Reckt shows the
firmness of his character, the strength of his sense of justice, and
his juristic method and logic: " to assert his rights is the duty
that every responsible person owes to himself." In the Zweck
im Rctht is perceived the bent of the author's intellect. But
perhaps the happiest combination of all his distinctive charac-
teristics is to be found in his Jurisprudent des, t&glichen Lebens
(1870; Eng. trans., 1004). A great feature of his lectures was
his so-called Praktika, problems in Roman law, and a collection
of these with hints for solution was published as early as
1847 under the title CivilrechtsfdUe okne Entscheidungen, In
Gdttingen be continued to work until his death on the 17th of
September 1892. A short time previously he had been the centre
of a devoted crowd of friends and former pupils, assembled at
Wilhelmshohe near Cassel to celebrate the jubilee of his doc-
torate. Almost all countries were worthily represented, and
this pilgrimage affords an excellent illustration of the extra-
ordinary fascination and enduring influence that Jhering
commanded. In appearance he was of middle stature, his face
clean-shaven and of classical mould, lit up with vivacity and
beaming with good nature. He was perhaps seen at his best
when dispensing hospitality in his own house. With him died
the best beloved and the most talented of Roman-law professors
of modern times. It was said of him by Professor Adolf Merkcl
in a memorial address, R. v. Jhering (1893), that be belonged to
the happy class of persons to whom Goethe's lines are applicable:
" Was ich in der Jugend gewiinscht, das habe ich im Alter die
Fulle," and this may justly be said of him, though he did not
live to complete his Geisl des rdmischen Rechts and his Rcckls-
gesckichte. For this work the span of a single life would have
been insufficient, but what he has left to the world is a monument
of vigorous intellectual power and stamps Jhering as an original
thinker and unrivalled exponent (in his peculiar interpretation)
of the spirit of Roman law.
Among others of his works, all of them characteristic of the author
and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: Beitrdge
tur Lehre von Besitz, first published in the JahrbOcher fUr dxe DogmaUk
des heutigen rdmischen und deutschen Privat-rechts, and then separ-
ately; Der B4sitxaUle, and an article entitled "Besitx" in the
Handwdrterbuch der Staatnoissenschaflen (1891), which aroused at
the time much controversy, particularly on account of the opposition
manifested to Savigny's conception of the subject. See also Schers
und Ernst in der Jurisprudent ( 1 885) ; Das Schuldmomenl im rdmischen
Prwat-recht (1867) ; Das Trinkrdd (1882): and among the papers he
left behind him hit Vorgeschtchle der IndoeurefOer, a fragment, has
been published by v. Ehrenberg (1894). See for an account of his
life also M. de Jonge, Rudolf v. Jhering (1888); and A. Merkcl,
Rudolf 90* Jhering (1893). (P. A. A.)
JIBITOS, a tribe of South American Indians, first met with
by the Franciscans in 1676 in the forest near the Huallaga
river, in the Peruvian province of Loreto. After their con-
version they settled in villages on the western bank of the
river.
JIBUTI (Djibouti), the chief port and capital of French
Somaliland, in 1 1° 33' N. ( 43° 10' E. Jibuti is situated at the
entrance to and on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura
about 150 m. S.W. of Aden. The town is built on a horseshoe-
shaped peninsula partly consisting of mud flats, which are
Spanned by causeways. The chief buildings are the governor's
palace, customs-house, post office, and the terminal station
of the railway to Abyssinia. The houses in the European
JIBITOS— JIDDA
quarter are built of stone, are flat-roofed and provided with
verandas. There is a good water supply, drawn from a reser-
voir about 2} m. distant. The harbour is land-locked and
capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter it at all states of
wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native town,
consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well
thatched roofs. In it is held a large market, chiefly for the
disposal of live slock, camels, cattle, &c. The port is a regular
calling-place and also a coaling station for the steamers of the
Messagcrics Maritimes, and there is a local service to Aden.
Trade is confined to coaling passing ships and to importing goods
for and exporting goods from southern Abyssinia via Harrar,
there being no local industries. (For statistics see Souaulakd,
French.) The inhabitants are of many races — Somali, Danakil,
Gallas, Armenians, Tews, Arabs, Indians, besides Greeks, Italians,
French and other Europeans. The population, which in 1900
when the railway was building was about 1 5,000, had fallen in
1907 to some 5000 or 6000, including 300 Europeans.
Jibuti was founded by the French in 1888 in consequence of its
superiority to Obok both in respect to harbour accommodation
and in nearness to Harrar. It has been the seat of the governor
of the colony since May 1896. Order is maintained by a purely
native police force. The port is not fortified.
JICARlLLA, a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan
stock. Their former range was in New Mexico, about the head-
waters of the Rio Grande and the Pecos, and they are now settled
in a reservation on the northern border of New Mexico. Origin-
ally a scourge of the district, they are now subdued, but remain
uncivilized. They number some. 800 and arc steadily decreasing.
The name is said to be from the Spanish j tear a, a basket tray, in
reference to their excellent basket-work.
JIDDA (also written Jeddah, Djiddah, Djeddeh), a town in
Arabia on the Red Sea coast in 21 28' N. and 39 10' E. It is of
importance mainly as the principal landing place of pilgrims to
Mecca, from which it is about 46 m. distant. It is situated in a
low sandy plain backed by a range of hills 10 m. to the east, with
higher mountains behind. The town extends along the beach for
about a mile, and is enclosed by a wall with towers at intervals, the
seaward angles being commanded by two forts, in the northern
of which are the prison and other public buildings. There are
three gates, the Medina gate on the north, the Mecca gate
on the east, and the Yemen gate (rarely opened) on the south;
there are also three small posterns on the west side, the centre
one leading to the quay. In front of the Mecca gate is a rambling
suburb with shops, coffee houses, and an open market place;
before the Medina gate are the Turkish barracks, and beyond
them the holy place of Jidda, the tomb of " our mother Eve,"
surrounded by the principal cemetery.
The tomb if a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions
of the body, about 200 paces long and 15 ft. broad. At the head is
a small erection where gifts are deposited, and rather more than
half-way down a whitewashed dome encloses a small dark chapd
within which is the black stone known as El Surrah, the navci.
The grave of Eve is mentioned by Edrisi, but except the black
stone nothing bears any aspect of antiquity (sec Burton s Pilgrimage,
vol. ii.).
The sea face is the best part of the town; the houses there are
lofty and well built of the rough coral that crops out all along
the shore. The streets are narrow and winding. There arc
two mosques of considerable size and a number of smaller ones.
The outer suburbs are merely collections of brushwood huts.
The bazaars are well supplied with food-stuffs imported by sea,
and fruit and vegetables from Taif and Wadi Fatima. The water
supply is limited and brackish; there are, however, two sweet
wells and a spring 7 J m. from the town, and most of the houses
have dsterns for storing rain-water. The climate is hot and
damp, but fever is not 50 prevalent as at Mecca. The harbour
though inconvenient of access is well protected by coral reefs;
there are, however, no wharves or other dock facilities and cargo
is landed in small Arab boats, sambuks.
The governor is a Turkish kaimakam under the vali of Hejaz,
and there is a large Turkish garrison; the sharif of Mecca,
Jiowever, through his agent at Jidda exercises an authority
JIG— JIMENES
practically superior to that of the sultan's officials- Consulates
are maintained by Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia,
Holland, Belgium and Persia. The permanent population
is estimated at 20,000, of which less than half are Arabs, and of
these, a large number are foreigners from Yemen and Hadramut,
the remainder are negroes and Somali with a few Indian and
Greek traders.
' Jidda is said to have been founded by Persian merchants in the
caliphate of Otbman, but its great commercial prosperity dates
from the beginning of the 15th century when it became the centre
of trade between Egypt and India. Down to the time of
Burckhardt (181 5) the Suez ships went no farther than Jidda,
where they were met by Indian vesrels. The introduction of
steamers deprived Jidda of its place as an emporium, not only
lor Indian goods but for the products of the Red Sea, which
formerly were collected here, but are now largely exported
direct by steamer from Hodeda, Suakin, Jibuti and Aden.
At the same time it gave a great impulse to the pilgrim traffic
which is now regarded as the annual harvest of Jidda. The
average number of pilgrims arriving by sea exceeds 50,000, and in
1003-1904 the total came to 74,600. The changed status of the
port is shown in its trade returns, for while its exports decreased
from £250,000 in 1880 to £25,000 in 1004, its imports in the
latter year amounted to over £1,400,000. The adverse balance
of trade is paid by a very large export of specie, collected from
the pilgrims during their stay in the country.
JIG, a brisk lively dance, the quick and irregular steps of
which have varied at different times and in the various countries
in which it has been danced (see Daxce). Thc» music of the
" Jte>" 0T sucn ** k written in its rhythm, is in various times and
has been used frequently to finish a suite, e.g. by Bach and
Handel. The word has usually been derived from or con-
nected with Fr. gigue, Ital. giga, Ger. Ceige, a fiddle. The French
and Italian words are now chiefly used of the dance or dance
rhythm, and in this sense have been taken by etymologists as
adapted from the English " jig," which may have been originaUy
an onomatopoeic word. The idea of jumping, jerking move-
ment has given rise to many applications of " jig " and its
derivative " jigger " to mechanical and other devices, such as
the machine, used for separating the heavier metal-bearing por-
tions from the lighter parts in ore-dressing, or a tackle consisting
of a double and single block and fall, &c The word " jigger,"
a corruption of the West Indian chigoe, is also used as the name
of a species of flea, the SarcopsyUa penetrans, which burrows and
lays its eggs in the human foot, generally under the toe nails,
and causes great swelling and irritation (sec Flea).
JIHAD (also written Jehad, Jahad, D jehad), an Arabk word
of which the literal meaning is an effort or a contest It is used
to designate the religious duty inculcated in the Koran on the
followers of Mahomet to wage war upon those who do not accept
the doctrines of Islam. This duty is laid down in five suras —
all of these suras belonging to the period after Mahomet had
established his power. Conquered peoples who will neither
embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (ji&ya) are to be put to
the sword. (See further Mahomiicdan Institutions.) By
Mahommedan commentators the commands in the Koran arc
not interpreted as a general injunction on all Moslems constantly
to make war on the infidels. It is generally supposed that the
order for a general war can only be given by the caliph (an
office now claimed by the sultans of Turkey). Mahommedans
who do not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Ottoman
sultan, such as the Persians and Moors, look to tbeirown rulers
for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no
universal warfare by Moslems on unbelievers since the early days
of Mahommedan ism. Jihads are generally proclaimed by all
persons who claim to be mahctis, e.f. Mahommed Ahmad (the
Sudanese mahdi) proclaimed a jihad in 1882. In the belief of
Moslems every one of their number slain in a jihad is taken
straight to paradise.
JIMENES (or Xjmenks) DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO (143&-
1517), Spanish cardinal and statesman, was born in 1436 at
Torrelaguna in Castile, of good but poor family. He studied at
415
Alcala de Henares and afterwards at Salamanca; and in 1459,
having entered holy orders, he went to Rome. Returning to
Spain in 1465, he brought with him an " expective " letter from
the pope, in virtue of which he took possession of the archpricst-
ship of Uzeda in the diocese of Toledo in 1473. Carillo, arch-
bishop of Toledo, dpposed him, and on his obstinate refusal to
give way threw him into prison. For six years Jimenes held
out, and at length in 1480 Carillo restored him to his benefice.
This Jimenes exchanged almost at once for a chaplaincy at
Sigucnza, under Cardinal Mendoza, bishop of Siguenza, who
shortly appointed him vicar-general of his diocese. In that posi-
tion Jimenes won golden opinions from ecclesiastic and layman;
and he seemed to be on the sure road to distinction among the
secular clergy, when he abruptly resolved to become a monk.
Throwing up all his benefices, and changing his baptismal name
Gonzales for that of Francisco, he entered the Franciscan
monastery of San Juan de los Reyes, recently founded by Fer-
dinand and Isabella at Toledo. Not content with the ordinary
severities of the noviciate, he added voluntary austerities. He
slept on the bare ground, wore a hair-shirt, doubled his fasts,
and scourged himself with much fervour; indeed throughout his
whole life, even when at the acme of his greatness, his private life
was most rigorously ascetic The report of his sanctity brought
crowds to confess to him; but from them he retired to the lonely
monastery of Our Lady of Castaftar; and he even built with his
own hands a rude hut in the neighbouring woods, in which he
lived at times as an anchorite. He was afterwards guardian of
a monastery at Salzeda. Meanwhile Mendoza (now archbishop
of Toledo) had not forgotten him; and in 1492 he recommended
him to Isabella as her confessor. The queen sent for Jimenes,
was pleased with him, and to his great reluctance forced the
office upon him. The post was politically important, for
Isabella submitted to the judgment of her father-confessor not
only her private affairs but also matters of state. Jimenes'S
severe sanctity soon won him considerable influence over Isabella;
and thus it was that he first emerged into political life. In
1494 the queen's confessor was appointed provincial of the order
of St Francis, and at once set about reducing the laxity of the
conventual to the strictness of the observantine Franciscans.
Intense .opposition was continued even after Jimenes became
archbishop of Toledo. The general of the order himself came from
Rome to interfere with the archbishop's measures of reform,
but the stern inflexibility of Jimenes, backed by the influence of
the queen, subdued every obstacle. Cardinal Mendoza had died
in 1495, and Isabella had secretly procured a papal bull nomina-
ting her confessor to his diocese of Toledo, the richest and most
powerful in Spain, second perhaps to no other dignity of the Roman
Church save the papacy.* Long and sincerely Jimenes strove to
evade the honour; but his nolo cpiseopari was after six months
overcome by a second bull ordering him to accept consecration.
With the primacy of Spain was associated the lofty dignity
of high chancellor of Castile; but Jimenes still maintained his
lowly life; and, although a message from Rome required him
to live in a style befitting his rank, the outward pomp only
concealed his private asceticism. In 1499 Jimenes accompanied
the court to Granada, and there eagerly joined the mild and
pious Archbishop Talavcra in his efforts to convert the Moors.
Talavera had begun with gentle measures, but Jimenes preferred
to proceed by haranguing the fakihs, or doctors of religion, and
loading them with gifts. Outwardly the latter method was
successful; in two months the converts were so numerous that
they had to be baptized by aspersion. The indignation of the
unconverted Moors swelled into open revolt. Jimenes was
besieged in his house, and the utmost difficulty was found in
quieting the city. Baptism or exile was offered to the Moors
as a punishment for rebellion. The majority accepted baptism;
and Isabella, who had been momentarily annoyed at her arch-
bishop's imprudence, was satisfied that he had done good
service to Christianity.
On the 24th of November 1504 Isabella died. Ferdinand aj
once resigned the title of king of Castile in favour of his daughter
Joan and her husband the archduke Philip, assuming instead
4 i6
JIND— -JINGO
that of regent. Philip was keenly jealous of Ferdinand's pre-
tensions to the regency; and it required all the tact of Jimenes
to bring about a friendly interview between the princes.
Ferdinand finally retired from Castile; and, though Jimenes re-
mained, his political weight was less than before. The sudden
death of Philip in September 1506 quite overset the already
tottering intellect of his wife; his son and heir Charles was still a
child; and Ferdinand was at Naples. The nobles of Castile,
mutually jealous, agreed to entrust affairs to the archbishop of
Toledo, who, moved more by patriotic regard for his country's
welfare than by special friendship for Ferdinand, strove to es-
tablish the final influence of that king in Castile. Ferdinand
did not return till August 1507; and he brought a cardinal's
hat for Jimenes. Shortly afterwards the new cardinal of
Spain was appointed grand inquisitor-general for Castile and
Leon.
- The next great event in the cardinal's life was the expedition
against the Moorish city of Qran in the north of Africa, in which
his religious zeal was supported by the prospect of the political
and material gain that would accrue to Spain from the possession
of such a station. A preliminary expedition, equipped, like that
which followed, at the expense of Jimenes, captured the port of
Mers-el-Kebir in 1505; and in 1509 a strong force, accompanied
by the cardinal in person, set sail for Africa, and in one day the
wealthy city was taken by storm. Though the army remained to
make fresh conquests, Jimenes returned to Spain, and occupied
himself with the administration of his diocese, and in endeavour-
ing to recover from the regent the expenses of his Oran expedi-
tion. On the 28th of January 1516 Ferdinand died, leaving
Jimenes as regent of Castile for Charles (afterwards Charles V.),
then a youth of sixteen in the Netherlands. Though Jimenes at
once took firm hold of the reins of government, and ruled in
a determined and even autocratic manner, the haughty and
turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous intriguing Flemish
councillors of Charles combined to render bis position peculiarly
difficult; while the evils consequent upon the unlimited de-
•Rinds of Charles for money threw much undeserved odium
c^«i the regent. In violation of the laws, Jimenes acceded to
O^Hes's desire to be proclaimed king; he secured the person
*t Charles's younger brother Ferdinand; he fixed the scat
* iVc cortcs at Madrid; and he established a standing army
v. i-CUng the citizens of the great towns. Immediately on
S* % "i-^UHl's death, Adrian, dean of Louvain, afterwards pope,
-w.Uocd a commission from Charles appointing him regent.
^V5 admitted him to a nominal equality, but took care that
« xv Ve nor the subsequent commissioners of Charles ever
».. ••* real share of power. In September 1517 Charles
t tS* province of Asturias, and Jimenes hastened to
^ ».t. On the way, however, he fell ill, not without a
^ „ -. •: .** "vvson. While thus feeble, he received a letter from
-*. ^ .v* » thanking him for his services, and giving him
. <• v w his diocese. A few hours after this virtual
^„ «\vi some, however, say the cardinal never saw,
^ \ttv^» died at Roa, on the 8th of November 151 7.
• - %.«. a bold and determined statesman. Sternly
' ' ccame at times over-
icided to be right, with
?rs as for his own. In
re irreproachable. He
aintained very many
His whole time was
us only recreation was
rhaps one of the most
he advanced period of
:re he was to play such
je from the secular to
)f religious enthusiasm
:r has been disputed;
unvarying superiority
s\ the former alternative
p to the actual honours
of
was Opened, the university of
i Cardinal Jimenes. at whose
peat pitch of outward rnagro-
une 7000 students met within
removed to Madrid, and the
the hopes of supplanting the
of the young, Jimenes caused
by himself and others. He
i endowed a chapel at Toledo,
most famous literary service
nplulum) of the Compfutensian
ttian Scriptures in the original
said to have expended half a
led by the celebrated Stunica
olar Nunez de Guzman (Pin-
the humanist Nebrija, by a
by three Jewish converts, of
the Pentateuch. The other
1 Testament Jerome's version
»w. The synagogue and the
ses it, are set like the thieves
hat is, the Roman Church) in
luraes, and a sixth contains a,
tmenced in 150a. The New
514, and the whole in April
nd was reprinted in 1572 by
Hon by Benito Arias Montane
:ond edition is known aa the
tro, De Rebus Geslis Francisci
uarrv whence have come the
-in Spanish by Roblcs (1604)
t (1813). See also Prescott'a
tux Mondes (May 1841) and
, iv.
thin the Punjab. It ranks
came under British influence
three isolated tracts, amid
q. m. Pop. (1001), 282,003,
decade. Estimated gross
s. Grain and cotton are cx-
>f gold and silver ornaments,
th. The chief, whose title
and of the Phulkian family.
>3, and the chief was recog-
J. The dynasty has always
ritish, especially during the
ivith accessions of territory.
' the first man, European or
he mutineers; and his con-
ace for the British troops
ing excellent service during
ded as a minor in 1887, and
ring the Tirah expedition of
infantry specially distin-
ind, the former capital, has
ilway, 80 m. N.W. of Delhi.
ipital and residence of the
»i), 11,852.
>an, wife of Chflal, the 14th
d's death she assumed the
r for the invasion of Korea
apan completely victorious
lently her son Ojen Tenno,
and later was canonized as
»ss Jingo ruled over Japan
ly " By Jingo," or " By the
ubtful. The identification
ulphus, a Burgundian saint
r 760, was a joke on the part
isby Legends. Some explain
c Basque name for God. It
njang (war), St Jingo being
f war, Mars; and is even
. Son of God," Jc-n-go. In
JINN— JOACHIM OF FLORIS
itipportof the Basque derivation it is alleged that the oath was
first common in Wales, to aid in the conquest of which Edward I.
imported a number of Basque mercenaries. The phrase docs not,
however, appear in literature before the 17th century, first as
conjurer's jargon. Mottcux, in his " Rabelais," is the first to use
" by jingo," translating pat dieu. The political use of the word
as indicating an aggressive patriotism (Jingo" and Jingoism)
originated in 1877 during the weeks of national excitement pre-
luding the despatch of the British Mediterranean squadron to
Gallipoli, thus frustrating Russian designs on Constantinople.
While the public were on the tiptoe of expectation as to what
policy the government would pursue, a bellicose music-hall song
with the refrain " We don't want to fight, but by Jingo if we do,"
&c, was produced in London by a singer known as " the great
MacDermott," and instantly became very popular.' Thus the
war-party came to be called Jingoes, and Jingoism has ever since
been the term applied to those who advocate a national policy
of arrogance and pugnacity.
For a discussion of the etymology of Jingo see Notes and Queries,
(August 25, 1894), 8th series, p. 149.
JINN (Djxhn), the name of a class of spirits (genii) in Arabian
mythology. They are the offspring of fire, but in their form and
the propagation of their kind they resemble human beings.
They are ruled by a race of kings named " Suleyman," one of
whom is considered to have built the pyramids. Their central
home is the mountain Kftf , and they manifest themselves to men
under both animal and mortal form and become invisible at will.
There are good and evil jinn, and these in each case reach the
extremes of beauty and ugliness.
J1RB&EK, JOSEF (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at
Vysoke* Myto in Bohemia on the 9th of October 1825. He entered
the Prague bureau of education in 1850, and became minister of
the department in the Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts
to secure equal educational privileges for the Slav nationalities
in the Austrian dominions brought him into disfavour with the
German element. He became a member of the Bohemian land-
tag in 1878, and of the Austrian Rcichsrat in 1879. His merits as
a scholar were recognized in 1875 by his election as president of
the royal Bohemian academy of sciences. He died in Prague on
the 25th of November 1888.
With Hermenegild lirecck he defended in 1862 the genuineness
of the Kdniginhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He
published in the Czech language an anthology of Czech literature
13 vols., 1858-1861), a biographical dictionary of Czech writers
5 vols., 1875-1876), a Czech hyrnnology, editions of Blahoslaw's
Czech grammar and of some Czech classics, and of the works of his
father-in-law Pavel Josef SafaEk (1 795-1861).
His brother Hermenegild Jlre&ex, Ritter von Samakow
(1827- ), Bohemian jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoke
Myto on the 13th of April 1827, was also an official in the
education department.
Among his important works on Slavonic law were Codex juris
bohemici (11 parts, 1 867-1 892), and a Collection of Slav Folk-Law
(Czech, 1880), Slav Law in Bohemia and Moravia down to the 14th
Century (Czech, 3 vols. 1863-1873).
JikeCek, Konstanttn Josef (1854- ), son of Josef,
taught history at Prague. He entered the Bulgarian service in
1879, and in 1881 became minister of education at Sofia. In
1884 he became professor of universal history in Czech at Prague,
and in 1893 professor of Slavonic antiquities at Vienna.
The bulk of Konstan tin's writings deal with the history of the
southern Slavs and their literature. They include a History of the
Bulgars (Czech and German, 1876), The Principality of Bulgaria
(1891), Travels in Bulgaria (Czech, 1888), &c
JEEAKH. a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of
Samarkand, on the Transcaspian railway, 71m. N.E. of the city
of Samarkand. Pop. (1897), 16,041. Aa a fortified post of
Bokhara it «/as captured by the Russians in 1866.
JOAB (Heb. " Yah[weh] is a father "), in the Bible, the son
of Zeruiah, David's sister (1 Chron. ii. 16). His brothers were
Asahel and Abishai. All three were renowned warriors and
played a prominent part in David's history. Abishai on one
occasion saved the king's Kfe from a Philistine giant (2 Sam.
xxL 17), and Joab as warrior and statesman was directly respon-
417
sible for much of David's success. Joab won his spurs, according
to one account, by capturing Jerusalem (1 Chron.. xi. 4-9); with
Abishai and Ittai of Gath he led a small army against the Israel-
ites who had rebelled under Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2); and
he superintended the campaign against Amnion and Edom
(2 Sam. xi. 1, xii. 26; 1 Kings xL 15). He showed his sturdy
character by urging the king after the death of Absalom to
place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of his
favourite son (2 Sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against David's
proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have
been regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 Sam. xxiv.;
t Chron. xxi. 6).
B<
osi
wl
to
Jo
gu
to
Dj
th
br
a hi !
sir
lat „ x . ^ „.,. — ,,_„ ._,. ^„ w
side of Adonijah against Solomon, and was put to death by Benaiah
at Solomon's command, and it is possible that the charges are the
fruit of a later tradition to remove all possible blame from Solomon
(q.v.) . It is singular that Joab is not blamed for killing Absalom*
btit it would indeed be strange if the man who helped to reconcile
father and son (2 Sam. xiv.) should have perpetrated so cruel an act
in direct opposition to the king's wishes (xviii. 5, 10-16). A certain
animus against Joab's family thus seems to underlie some of the
popular narratives of the life of David (j.p.). (S. A. C.)
JOACHIM OF FLORIS (c. 1 145-1202), so named from the
monastery of San Giovanni in Fiore, of which he was abbot,
Italian mystic theologian, was bom at Celico, near Cosenza, in
Calabria. He was of noble birth and was brought up at the court
of Duke Roger of Apulia. At an early age he went to visit the holy
places. After seeing his comrades decimated by the plague at
Constantinople he resolved to change his mode of life, and, on his
return to Italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic
retreat, became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Casamari. In
August 1 177 we know that he was abbot of the monastery of
Corazzo, near Martirano. In 1183 he went to the court of Pope
Lucius III. at Veroli, and in 1185 visited Urban III. at Verona.
There is extant a letter of Pope Clement HI., dated the 8th of
June 1 188, in which pement alludes to two of Joachim's works,
the Concordia *nd the Expositio in Apocalypsin, and urges him
to continue them. Joachim, however, was unable to continue
his abbatial functions in the midst of his labours in prophetic
exegesis, and, moreover, his asceticism accommodated itself but
ill with the somewhat lax discipline of Corazzo. He accordingly
retired into the solitudes of Pietralata, and subsequently founded
with some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey
of San Giovanni in Fiore, on Monte Nero, in the massif of La
Sila. The pope and the emperor befriended this foundation;
Frederick II. and his wife Constance made important donations
to it, and promoted the spread of offshoots of the parent house;
while Innocent HI., on the 21st of January 1204, approved the
" ordo Florensis " and the " institutio " which its founder had
bestowed upon it. Joachim died in 1202, probably on the 20th
of March.
Of the many prophetic and polemical works that were attributed
to Joachim in the 13th and following centuries, only those enu-
merated in his will can be regarded as absolutely authentic These
are the Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti (first printed at Venice
in 1519), the Expositio in Apocalypsin (Venice, 1527), the Psalter turn
decern chordarum (Venice, 1527), together with some " libelli "
against the Jews or the adversaries of the Christian faith. It is
vtry probable that these " libelli " are the writings entitled Concordia
Evangeliorum, Contra Judaeos, De articulis fidet. Confessio fidei and
De unitate Trinitatis. The last is perhaps the work which was
condemned by the Lateran council in 1215 as containing an erroneous
— ***
— ^**
irsto theory of Peter Lombard. This council,
tbe book, refrained from condemning rhe
c^«tfcr <rf Floras. Nevertheless, the monks
2^1 » insnks as foBowers of a heretic, until
-.-Bra* U I- » tao a bull formally recogaixing
*=* " 2*: Jrt aJfT ^ aryooe to injure his discipJes-
- * ^zrxrxx here aS the vnrfcs attributed to
~Z-.*t --*?* a«vn*ed oc-.^ect with great success,
\^ se j* •** Aso-swpaj posesnic and sustaining
s— '_^=- it ^ - **« ^ *» approaching triumph.
■*" ----- .m » *-? tiie ccRnentarics on
. -^» r*e- t^^-«»t .mv v c.-m» and the
" "*" .1 *w - .<■* *"~c worts the dactrinal essential
^ « ,«t*w* i*e taster ct aenssnantj*. past.
• **" ■ — e rwvek. %W*> xt he £rp*s*n# ••
' ^ v ^ * ^ *> :*v* *$* »«* the Law, or of the
"-^«*v * j» >'N» **s;i«ra«e«f the Spirit.
•"•"' " ^ *t ,"^«*. *e»v*e «»c* <« these afea there
— *-* ^ « » *>"*•* -'** *"* *** Nacww with
*^ j» *-.. >.*» »»<» -w trx Man Adam.
•* ^ , w ^ >cy » *'•' \ ^ eVncdKt. while
„-- % % > *% »\\" ««.•: « :*«\ the Church —
. "" fc- -fci j*««* » ^ *; v*-*-v* j* tbe wilderness
■v.* »»o> .w ««*«*+ JctanVs of the
, iwv.itk «r «»tr> Ita system of
„*«• •** V-« **> *W Ohl Testament*,
o v - -v «•***>• A the third age.
• * ^ v . .^h» i ti the religious and
^ H w — * » ** .vwvxwv* of the second
" v »•- *• *?f A * v * letter, the second
— . * ~* ^ ..n » *** «W N>nt. and the third
^ - — ^^ H : v* «$* j< the Son a the period
- \ *.*<*. .*-*** •* *<?««rds mystic know-
., v» *» ** •■*> *«*»**ry was obedience;
*- ^ • -* - >.,vx*iv N«t the age of the Spirit
^ - ~~.^ » *> *>«*> *V third b the age of the
*'" ^v j* sv**«rat^i»**c<aw the monastic age
_ » ^ k t***«0*«* *«**y directed towards
^ ^, K*«vu. .-**. Jo
, .- -*> . > ,.W v*^* W R»'*A"
'.»" ^« «< v^asC f«cftect ie
> "C* ^ aN>W^>at p f
^~ -**■ »X. V>*.«T WAX*J w rt
*- -^:x^^^« w,,w ? u ^ h
*> " \ . *. ^*-^> » ****"** U
I v ^^ <J*Ohr»t C9
^ v< ^w *m.-^ -N and e* j.
^ - -*\". ,«^ ?v^» the « , e
-- *\. o v -*t M,t l *l »d
» * w xv-v^sv. the Lateran council, which
-" _i\ A^ ;^S*f4 made no allusion to
• *. ^T.; v* a*A Vht hn» of laio was a formal
- "\X!x«* *»?«^ * tw L. lt ^ y , an 1 Fr anee, and
- • vU V*i tcea fwhew In the Franciscan
- ' • *;<»* ^v« Kx *•*♦ ^ aa •• Spirituals,"
- *"* A ^ v^a >•»**»**, •* J * 01 "* » third age.
■^ ^ ,v*v>* x< Joschinusm. Around the
. -. ^\* x Vv.kn %a» % '*««^ * group of Franciscans
JOACHTM I.
>t
v „ t ss ,Vc th«rd
vVk 4wav» e*vn «^«^
^ . -. o xsK"»awe »*• d*
_. % **. moot vrhrai
f their
in the
f their
wevcr,
himite
himite
«x%\ aaavv ana. there
a. d»jy W »».»»sn» * nywgtHMm oetcmum,
- •. -».*♦» vJKTArdod* BorgoSan Donnino.
» .»\ « *».' w aa introduction to, the three
v. n %>vUt the Sfirituals had made some
s, v^^x* v ±A not say, as has been
v v«* w««e the new gospel, but merely
> w ^ nxvn! the key to Holy Writ, and
»». - x«*>»* w^jnrt »* would be possible
- V^ Ve^anWnts the eternal meaning,
v n.^^ 4 vv ^a which would never be
. -*« fc h*d hettt entrusted loan order
,w< **jM«actd by Joachim, and in
» ^ *j» «*• MMhsrd. These affirmations
^^^^ItG»tical world. The
•^ * »ww denounced the work to
• .. ^^^jtwjhe^ope^jt
v ^^SSlSeTthat the three
*«t$4-
was Innocent's successor, Alexander IV.. who appointed a canal*
sion to examine it; and as a result of this commission, which sat at
Anagni, the destruction of the Liber introductorius was ordered by \ \
papal breve dated the 23rd of October 1255. In 1260 a council hekl
at Aries condemned Joachim's writings and his supporters, who \
were very numerous in that region. The Joachimite ideas ircrc 1
equally persistent among the Spirituals, and acquired new strength i
with the publication of the commentary on the Apocalypse, nia I
book, probably published after the death of its author and probably '
interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides Joachimite principles,
an affirmation even clearer than that of Ghcrardo da Borgo of the
elect character of the Franciscan order, as well as extremely violent
attacks on the papacy. The Joachimite literature is extremely
vast. the middle of the 16th, Ubertii
of Cas ie). Bartholomew of Pisa (author
t of the Calabrian hermit Telesphorw,
ohn c i of Fermo, Johannes Annius of
[iterb lost of other writers, repeated of
compli is of Abbot Joachim. A treatise
entitle hich appeared in 1356, has bees
attribi doubtedly from tbe pen of as
anonyi The heterodox movements is
Italy i t w such as those of the Segarellists,
Dolctntsts, and Fraticclli of every description, were penetrated with
Joachim ism; while such independent spirits as Roger Bacon,
Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Dclicieox often comforted
themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace promised
by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has
placed him in Paradise (Par., xii. 140-14 1).
See Acta Sanctorum, Bolt. (May), vii. 94-112; W. Preger is
Abhandl. der kgl. A had. der Wissenschaflen, hist, sect., voL xii.,
pt. 3 (Munich, 1874); " - - - - § ^stik im hiitlA-
alUr, vol. L (Leipzig, achim de Flore et
l'Evangilc Sternel " in re reiigieuse (Paris,
1884) ; F Tocco, L'Eres ?, 1884) ; H. Denifle,
" Das Evangel ium act< ion at Anagni " in
Archie far I.tinatur- una n.\n*cngcxn. mj MimetalUrs, vol. a.; Paul
F< achim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence" in
Rt tions historittues, t. i. (1000); H. C. Lea, History ef
tin of the Middle Ages, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888):
F. :le " Joachim " in Wetaer and Weltc's KirdunUxik**.
Oi tn see • E. Gebhardt, " Recherches nouvelles sur
l'r sachimisme" in Revue kistorique, voL xrxi. (l886)j
H ur Gesch. des Joachimismus in Brieiers Zeitscknft
f* *., vol. vii. (1885). (P. A.)
wnvniH >. (1484-1535), surnamed Nestor, elector of Branden-
burg, elder son of John Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was born
on the 2 1 st of February 1484. He received an excellent educa-
tion, became elector of Brandenburg on his father's death in
January 1499, and soon afterwards married Elizabeth, daughter
of John, king of Denmark. He took some part in the political
complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the early years
of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his elector-
ate, where by stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring
some degree of order (see Brandenburg). He also improved the
administration of justice, aided the development of commerce,
and was a friend to the towns. On the approach of the imperial
election of 1519, Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by tbe
partisans of Francis I., king of France, and by those of Charles,
afterwards the emperor Charles V. Having treated with, and
received lavish promises from, both parties, he appears to have
hoped for the dignity for himself; but when the election came he
turned to tbe winning side and voted for Charles. In spite of
this step, however, the relations between the emperor and the
elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim
was frequently in communication with the enemies of Charles,
Joachim is best known as a pugnacious adherent of Catholic
orthodoxy. He was one of the princes who urged upon the
emperor the necessity of enforcing the Edict of Worms, and at
several diets was prominent among the enemies of the Reformers.
He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525, and was
a member of the league established at Halle in November 1533.
But his wife adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528 fled
for safety to Saxony; and he had the mortification of seeing
these doctrines also favoured by other members of his family.
Joachim, who was a patron of learning, established the uni-
versity of Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1506. He died at Stendal
on the nth of July 1535.
SeeT. von Butt far, Der Kampf Joachims T. van Brandenbnrfgeren
den Adel (1689) ; J. G. Droysen, GcschichU der Preuuiscken PeUHk
(1855-1886).
JOACHIM II.— JOACHIM, JOSEPH
JOACHIM IT. (1505-1571), surnamed Hector, elector of Bran-
denburg, the elder son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg,
was born on the 13th of January 1505. Having passed some
tfrne at the court of the emperor Maximilian I., he married in
1524 a daughter of George, duke of Saxony. In 1532 he led a
contingent of the imperial army on a campaign against the
Turks; and soon afterwards, having lost his first wife, married
Hedwig, daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He became
elector of Brandenburg on his father's death in July 1535, and
undertook the government of the old and middle marks, whHe
the new mark passed to his brother John. Joachim took a
prominent part in imperial politics as an advocate of peace,
though with a due regard for the interests of the house of Habs-
burg. He attempted to make peace between the Protestants
and the emperor Charles V. at Frankfort in 1539, and subse-
quently at other places; but in 1542 he led the German forces on
an unsuccessful campaign against the Turks. When the war
broke out between Charles and the league of Schmalkalden in
1546 the elector at first remained neutral; but he afterwards sent
some troops to serve under the emperor. With Maurice, elector
of Saxony, he persuaded Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to surrender
to Charles after the imperial victory at Muhlbcrg in April 1547,
and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned.
But, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to
be bound by this promise, he refused to join Maurice in his attack
. on Charles. He supported the Interim, which was issued from
Augsburg in May 1548, and took part in the negotiations that
resulted in the treaty of Passau (1552), and the religious peace
of Augsburg (1555). In domestic politics he sought to consoli-
date and strengthen the power of his house by treaties with
neighbouring princes, and succeeded in secularizing the bishoprics
of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus. Although brought up
as a strict adherent of the older religion, he showed signs of
wavering soon after his accession, and in 1539 allowed free
entrance to the reformed teaching in the electorate. He took
the communion himself in both kinds, and established a new
ecclesiastical organization in Brandenburg, but retained much
of the ceremonial of the Church of Rome. His position was not
unlike that of Henry VIII. in England, and may be partly ex-
plained by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with
the wealth of the Church (see Brandenburg). After the peace
of Augsburg the elector mainly confined his attention to Bran-
denburg, where he showed a keener desire to further the principles
of the Reformation. By his luxurious habits and his lavish
expenditure on public buildings he piled up a great accumulation
of debt,' which was partly discharged by the estates of the land
in return for important concessions. He cast covetous eyes
upon the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of
HalbeTstadt, both of which he secured for his son Frederick in
1 55 1. When Frederick died in the following year, the elector's
son Sigismund obtained the two sees; and on Sigismund's death in
1566 Magdeburg was secured by his nephew, Joachim Frederick,
afterwards elector of Brandenburg. Joachim, who was a prince
of generous and cultured tastes, died at Kopenick on the 3rd of
January 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. In
1880 a statue was erected to his memory at Spandau.
Sec SteinmOlier, Einfuhrung der Reformation in die Kurmark
Brandenburg dunk Joachim II. (1903) ; S. Isaacsohn, " Die Finanzen
Joachims II." in the Zeitschriflfur Preussisehe Gtsckiehte und Landes-
unde (1864- 1 883); J. G. Droysen, GeschiehU der Prausischen
Potitik (1855-1886).
JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831*1007), German violinist and com-
poser, was born at Kittsee, near Pressburg, on the 28th of June
1831, the son of Jewish parents. His family moved to Budapest
when he was two years old, and he studied there under Serwac-
xynski, who brought him out at a concert when he was only eight
years old. Afterwards he learnt from the elder Hellmesberger
and Joseph Bdhm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in the
management of the bow. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter
the newly founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing
his musical powers, pronounced that the regular training of a
music school was not needed, but recommended that he should
419
receive a thorough general education in music from Ferdinand
David and Moritz Hauptmarin. In 1844 he visited England,
and made his first appearance at Dairy Lane Theatre, where his
playing of Ernst's fantasia on Oteilo made a great sensation; he
also played Beethoven's concerto at a Philharmonic concert
conducted by Mendelssohn. In 1847-1849 and 1852 he revisited
England, and after the foundation of the popular concerts in
1850* up to 1809, he played there regularly in the latter part of
the season. On Liszt's invitation he accepted the post of
K outer ImeisUr at Weimar, and was there from 1850 to 1853.
This brought Joachim into close contact with the advanced
school of German musicians, headed by Liszt; and he was
strongly tempted to give his allegiance to what was beginning
to be called the " music of the future "; but his artistic convic-
tions forced him to separate himself from the movement, and the
tact and good taste he displayed in the difficult moment of ex-
plaining his position to Liszt afford one of the finest illustrations
of his character.
His acceptance of a similar post at Hanover brought him into
a different atmosphere, and his playing at the Dusseldorf festival
of 1853 procured him the intimate friendship of Robert Schu-
mann. His introduction of the young Brahms to Schumann is
a famous incident of this time. Schumann and Brahms col-
laborated with Albert Dietrich in a joint sonata for violin and
piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Dusseldorf. At Hanover
he was kdniglicher Kornertdirektor from 1853 to. 1868, when he
made Berlin bis home. He married in 1863 the mezzo soprano
singer, A malic Weiss, who died in 1809. In l86 9 Joachim was
appointed head of the newly founded kBnigliche Hochschule jiir
Musik in Berlin. The famous " Joachim quartet " was started
in the Sing-Akademie in the following year. Of his later life,
continually occupied with public performances, there is little to '
say except that he remained, even in a period which saw the rise
of numerous violinists of the finest technique, the acknowledged
master of alL He died on the 15th of August 1007.
Besides the consummate manual skill which helped to make
him famous in his youth, Joachim was gifted with the power of
interpreting the greatest music in absolute perfection: while
Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Brahms were masters, whose
works he played with a degree of insight that has never been
approached, he was no less supreme in the music of Mendelssohn
and Schumann; in short, the whole of the classical repertory
has become identified with his playing. No survey of Joachim's
artistic career would be complete which omitted mention of his
absolute freedom from tricks or mannerism, his dignified bearing,
and his unselfish character. His devotion to the highest ideals,
combined With a certain austerity and massivity of style, brought
against him an accusation of coldness from admirers of a more
effusive temperament. But the answer to this is given by the
depth and variety of expression which his mastery of the re-
sources of his instrument put at his command. His biographer
(1898), Andreas Moser, expressed his essential characteristic in
the words, " He plays the violin, not for its own sake, but in the
service of an ideal."
As a composer Joachim did but little in his later years, and the
works of his earlier life never attained the public success which,
in the opinion of many, they deserve (see Music). They un-
doubtedly have a certain austerity of character which does not
appeal to every hearer, but they are full of beauty of a grave
and dignified kind; and in such things as his " Hungarian con-
certo " for his own instrument the utmost degree of difficulty
is combined with great charm of melodic treatment. The
" romance " in B flat for violin and -the variations for violin and
orchestra are among his finest things, and the noble overture in
memory of Kleist, as well as thc-sccna for mezzo soprano from
Schiller's Demetrius, show a wonderful degree of skill in orchestra-
tion as well as originality of thought. Joachim's place in musical
history as a composer can only be properly appreciated in the
light of his intimate relations with Brahms, with whom he
studiously refrained from putting himself into independent
rivalry, and to whose work as a composer he gave the co-opera-
tion of one who might himself have ranked as a master.
JOAN— JOAN OF ARC
^,& _ A /1mtf»bt« portrait! of Joachim by G. T. Watt* (1866)
^w *>!•> Sjfirn* (i*X>4). th* Utter prwented to him on the 16th
- j.^. ^"^ / !tu. ii th* crlfWion of the sixtieth anniversary of his
*^ *^ *** - f!»ythltml female pope, who is usually placed between
*&f~*^M W** /mjJ-«JS) •** B«*dkt IIL (85S-8S8). One account
_ V' - * * ah* »»• bora to England, another in Germany of
€ ^x' /l « *'*L|*iiW. After an education at Cologne, she fell in
\*L+ * „H fyL JknedJetme monk and fled with him to Athens
** --*•• *«tf * #ID aa. Ob his death she went to Rome under the
ott rt Angticus (John of England), and entered the
• ' - - "'twas
child-
•7: 0m ^* s w g Jj+vcttuitoy receivinf a cardinal's hat. She
1 *~ 1 **"<*'* uooer the title of John VHX, and died in c
•i.^LX f^^apsrd procession.
fiattBTur*** Steven of Boort
\*c* Gtft>4 the Holy S*r*l
• **£ „** f**r
. centimes pw
££* finrt Brri<xj«Jy undexta"
*** .«t to hi* £daircusnmemt dt
the
ave
tors
rth.
I. a
MM
issa
his
was cDfiKlcted t
* f *1^ V,*^*-faaC more properly Je*xxetox Due, afterwards
y^ST^iiW » J"** 1 D,Alcl ^"^ l >' tke - Maid of
r *4*^iP ^TTbom between 1410 and 141*. d* daughter of
«_ -— ^^./' *T peasant proprietor, of Dcnuessy, a _saaall village
V
w
**2e*^'P^;^kCbantt>ag^
Vi^V <**?!i£sa, <* ^ ^ iDl « e * Vootho«.wko from having
> t *** -rii* z£*# to Kome had received the usual surname of
^ 0* I l^SSbapMtnts were m easy ojcasnstaaces, Joan
*L*£* ^l^Jl^^oTVrite, a«i received her sole religious
S^t^lmber anther, who taught her to wot* dfftte
!^^> i,t SaS. *** Credo. She sonxti.es guarded her
O^^^A* J ^hCTtruJiaia3isbestnwrh resented bong
t^^wi^r^cpberdgirL b all boustkoid work she was
«** V* *l!Tkr fkffl in the use of the s*ojV not being
^^^ ^^^da«y»«u«w««fK*«. Inher
.„ . ^^^i«bcraboimding^y^al««<rgy;but
1*0**Lt> ** !T{aVfiom being tainied by ar> cv>am or un-
t^^r^^L Towards her parents Wr <v*d«ct was
* *** --<* ,a ^^t^charinofl»crus^^t«^
^^^fSf-
r^^^ village, Assbeptw:*>«>«tt i nhoocl
U*ttl&*»* spent »«** «t W time in
^ ^ 1 SsnTu)^rbtr fa««; «*i » v V a^«n
rifl^fr^w «d annarentlv i.n.^ bcr hfc
'Pregtr^
books in the*' *^
^*Tkw"'*' 1 ,, "i , , , ' t
*^s««'
lirdir*
»b«
5S556-*'
\»«^
wk*.**^
had become imbued with a sense of having a niask» to fae
France from the English. She heard the voices of St Michael,
St Catherine and St Margaret urging her on. la May 1428 she
tried to obtain from Robert de Baudri court, governor of Vaucou-
leurs, an introduction to the dauphin, saying that God would seed
him aid, but she was rebu fled. When, however, in September the
English (under the earl of Salisbury) invested Orleans, the key
to the south of France, she renewed her efforts with Baudricourt,
her mission being to relieve Orleans and crown the dauphin at
Reims. By persistent importunity, the effect of which was in-
creased by the simplicity of her demeanour and her calm assur-
ance of success, she at last prevailed on the governor to grant her
request; and in February 1429, accompanied by six men-at-arms,
she set out on her perilous journey to the court of the dauphin
at Chinon. At first Charles refused to see her, but popular feel-
ing in her favour induced his advisers to persuade him after three
days to grant her an interview. She is said to have persuaded
him of the divine character of her commission by discovering
him though disguised in the crowd of his courtiers, and by
reassuring him regarding his secret doubts as to his legitimacy.
And Charles was impressed by her knowledge of a secret prayer,
which (he told Dunois) could only be known to God and himself.
Accordingly, after a commission of doctors had reported that
they had found in her nothing of evil or contrary to the Catholk
faith, and a council of matrons had reported on her chastity, she
was permitted to set forth with an army of 4000 or 5000 men
designed for the relief of Orleans. At the head of the army she
rode clothed in a coat of mail, armed with an ancient sword, said
to be that with which Charles Martel had vanquished the Sara-
cens, the hiding-place of which, under the altar of the parish
church of the village of Ste Catherine de Fierbois, the " voices "
had revealed to her; she carried a white standard of her own
design embroidered with lilies, and. having on the one side the
image of God seated on the clouds and holding the world in His
hand, and on the other a representation of the Annunciation.
Joan succeeded in entering Orleans on the 29th of April 1429,
and through the vigorous and unremitting sallies of the French
the English gradually became so discouraged that on the 8th of
May they raised the siege. It is admitted that her extraordinary
pluck and sense of leadership were responsible for this result.
In a single week (June 1 2 to 19), by the capture of Jargeau and
Beaugency, followed by the great victory of Patay, where Talbot
was taken prisoner, the English were driven beyond the Loire.
With some difficulty the dauphin was then persuaded to set out
towards Reims, which he entered with an army of 12,000 men
on the 1 6th of July, Troyes having yielded on the way.. On the
following day, holding the sacred banner, Joan stood beside
Charles at his coronation in the cathedral.
The king then entered into negotiations with a view to detach-
ing Burgundy from the English cause. Joan, at his importunity,
remained with the army, but the king played her false when she
attempted the capture of Paris; and after a failure on the 8th of
September, when Joan was wounded, 3 his troops were disbanded.
Joan went into Normandy to assist the duke of Alencon, but in
December returned to the court, and on the 29th she and her
family were ennobled with the surname of du Lis. Unconsolcd
by such honours, she rode away from the court in March, to assist
In the defence of Compiegne against the duke of Burgundy; and
on the 24th of May she led an unsuccessful sortie against the
besiegers, when she was surrounded and taken prisoner. Charles,
partly perhaps on account of his natural indolence, partly on
account of the* intrigues at the court, made no effort to effect
her ransom, and never showed any sign of interest in her fate.
By means of negotiations instigated and prosecuted with great
perseverance by the university of Paris and the Inquisition, and
through the persistent scheming of Pierre Cauchon, the bishop
of Bcauvais — a Burgundian partisan, who, chased from his own
sec, hoped to obtain the archbishopric of Rouen — she was sold
in November by John of Luxemburg and Burgundy to the
Lnglish, who on the 3rd of January 1431, at the instance of the
'irte St Honor* where Joan was wounded stood where the
•ncatac now stands.
JOANES— JOANNA I. OF NAPLES
university of Paris, de
After a public examii
lasting six days, and
on the roth of March
and, being in the end
the scaffold on the 241
still, however, the pri
duced by those who hi
she was on this accou
to death, and burned i
30th of May 1431. ]
to be Joan of Arc es
indudng many people
confessed her imposti
was revoked by the p<
it has been the custor
of her divine inspirati
During the latter pa
Maid of Orleans spra
by the clerical party,
of this national heroii
and the Catholic faith
enrolment among th(
solemn approval was 1
1003 a formal propos
Feast of the Epiphair
a public declaration b;
designation Venerabl
decree of beatificatioi
the Vatican.
As an historical figu
the personality of J01
to some extent prov
learned account, ably
regarding her as a cler
was in any case ex<
French at a critical ti
pillagers with a fanat
Cromwell's Puritans,
qualities we have the
Captain Marin, in his
takes a high view oi
purpose and the gcnuii
with her purity of ch;
As to her " supranon
belief largely depends
that Quicherat, a free!
admits them {A per qui.
is as good as for any
" the voices '' in Proc
Authorities. — For
(1894), and A. Moliniei
the 19th century the
neglected; Voltaire's 1
of the attitude of his
praises in the Encyclo
sources was that of L7
of Mimoires oi the Ac
base for all lives until J
d'Arc (1841-1849), a a
they reveal the chara
tinctness. Michclct's
one of the best sections
sources, upon which al
Wallon. i860) are bast
4' Are dayrts des docum
(1907); P. H. Dunand,
Andrew Lane, The Mat
by Anatole France (2
some respects open to
handling, of the source
Times, Lit. Suppl., M
reality of the " revelati
cation of Joan of Arc
lives (such as Sepet's,
works worth special 1
Domremy, L. Jarry, i
♦21
J. J. Bourasse*. Miracles de Madame Sainle KatMrine de.Fierbois
(1858, trans, by A. Lang) ; Boucher de Molandon and A. de Beau-
corps, L'Armie antlaise vaincue par Jeanne d'Arc (1892); R. P.
Agroles, S.J., La Vraie Jeanne d'Arc. For the " false Pucelle " see
A. Lang's article in his Valet's Tragedy (1903). Of the numerous
dramas and poems of which Joan of Arc has been the subject*
mention can only be made of Die Jungfrau von Orleans of Schiller,
and of the Joan of Arc oi Southey. A drama in verse by Jules
Barbier was set to music by C. Gounod (1873). (J«T.S**;H.Ch.)
JOANES (or Juanes), VICENTE (1506-1579), head of the
Valencian school of painters, and often called "the Spanish
Raphael," was born at Fuente de la Higuera in the province of
Valencia in 1506. He is said to have studied his art for some
time in Rome, with which school his affinities are closest, but
the greater part of his professional life was spent in the city of
Valencia, where most of the extant examples of his work are
now to be found. All relate to religious subjects, and are
characterized by dignity of conceptifen, accuracy of drawing,
truth and beauty of colour, and minuteness of finish. He died
at Bocairente (near Jativa) while engaged upon an altarpiece in
the church there, on the 21st of December 1579.
JOANNA (1470-1 555)» called the Mad (/a Loco), queen of Castile
and mother of the emperor Charles V., was the second daughter
of Ferdinand and Isabella, king and queen of Spain, and was
born at Toledo on the 6th of November 1479. Her youngest
sister was Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of Henry VIII.
In 1496 at Lille she was married to the archduke Philip the Hand-
some, son of the German King Maximilian I., and at Ghent, in
February 1 500, she gave birth to the future emperor. The death
of her only brother John, of her eldest sister Isabella, queen of
Portugal, and then of the latter's infant son Miguel, made Joanna
heiress of the Spanish kingdoms, and in 1502 the cortes of Castile
and of Aragon recognized her and her husband as their future
sovereigns. Soon after this Joanna's reason began to give way.
She mourned in an extravagant fashion for her absent husband,
whom at length she joined in Flanders; in this country her pas-
sionate jealousy, although justified by Philip's conduct, led to
deplorable scenes. In November 1504 her mother's death left
Joanna queen of Castile, but as she was obviously incapable of
ruling, the duties of government were undertaken by her father,
and then for a short time by her husband. The queen was with
Philip when he was wrecked on the English coast and became
the guest of Henry VII. at Windsor; soon after this event, in
September 1506, he died and Joanna's mind became completely
deranged, it being almost impossible to get her away from the
dead body of hex husband. The remaining years of her miserable
existence were spent at Tordesillas, where she died on the nth
of April 1555. In spite of her afflictions the queen was sought
in marriage by Henry VII. just before his death. Nominally
Joanna remained queen of Castile until her death, her name being
joined with that of Charles in all public documents, but of
necessity she took no part in the business of state. In addition
to Charles she had a son Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor
Ferdinand I., and four daughters, aefong them being Maria
(1 505-1 558), wife of Louis II., king of Hungary, afterwards
governor-general of the Netherlands.
See R. Villa, La Reina dona Juana la Loca (Madrid, 1892) ; Rosier,
Johanna die Wohrsinnige (Vienna, 1890) ; W. H. Prescott, Hist, of Fer-
dinand and Isabella (1854) ; and H. Tighe, A Queen of Unrest (1907).
JOANNA I. (c. 1327-1382), queen of Naples, was the daughter
of Charles duke of Calabria (d. 1328), and became sovereign of
Naples in succession to her grandfather King Robert in 1343.
Her first husband was Andrew, son of Charles Robert, king of
Hungary, who like the queen herself was a member of the house
of Anjou. In 1345 Andrew was assassinated at A versa, possibly
with his wife's connivance, and at once Joanna married Louis,
son of Philip prince of Taranto. King Louis of Hungary then
came to Naples to avenge his brother's death, and the queen took
refuge in Provence — which came under her rule at the same time
as Naples— purchasing pardon from Pope Clement VI. by selling
to him the town of Avignon, then part of her dominions. Having
returned to Naples in 1352 after the departure of Louis, Joanna
lost her second husband in 1362, and married James, king of
422
Majorca (d. 1375), and later Otto of Brunswick, prince of Taranto.
The queen had no sons, and as both her daughters were dead she
made Louis I. duke of Anjou, brother of Charles V. of France,
her heir. This proceeding so angered Charles, duke of Durazzo,
who regarded himself as the future king of Naples, that he seized
the city. Joanna was captured and was put to death at A versa
on the 22nd of May 1382. The queen was a woman of intel-
lectual tastes, and was acquainted with some of the poets and
scholars of her time, including Petrarch and Boccaccio.
See Crivelli, Delia prima e delta seconda Giaoanna, regine di Napdi
(1832); G. BatUglia, Ciovanna I., retina di NatoJi (1835); W.
St C. Baddeley, Queen Joanna I. of Naples (1893): Scarpctta,
Giaoanna I. di Napdi (1903) ; and Franceaca M. Steele, The Beautiful
Queen Joanna I, of Naples (1910).
JOANNA II. OF NAPLES— JOB
JOANNA II. (1371-1435), queen of Naples, was descended from
Charles II. of Anjou through his son John of Durazzo. She had
been married to William, son of Leopold IIL of Austria, and at
the death of her brother King Ladislaus in 14 14 she succeeded
to the Neapolitan crown. Her life had always been very dissolute,
and although now a widow of forty-five, she chose as her lover
Pandolfo Alopo, a youth of twenty-six, whom she made seneschal
of the kingdom. He and the constable Muzio Attendolo Sforza
completely dominated her, and the turbulent barons wished to
provide her with a husband who would be strong enough to
break her favourites yet not make himself king. The choice
fell on James of Bourbon, a relative of the king of France, and
the marriage took place in 1415. But James at once declared
himself king, had Alopo killed and Sforza imprisoned, and kept
his wife in a state of semi-confinement; this led to a counter-
agitation on the part of the barons, who forced James to liberate
Sforza, renounce his kingship, and eventually to quit the country.
The queen now sent Sforza to re-establish her authority in Rome,
whence the Neapolitans had been expelled after the death of
Ladislaus; Sforza entered the city and obliged the condoitiere
Braccio da Montone, who was defending it in the pope's name, to
depart (1416). But when Oddo Colonna was elected pope as
Martin V., he allied himself with Joanna, who promised to give
up Rome, while Sforza returned to Naples. The latter found,
however, that he had lost all influence with the queen, who was
completely dominated by her new lover Giovanni (Sergianni)
Caracciolo. Hoping to re-establish his position and crush
Caracciolo, Sforza favoured the pretensions of Louis HI. of
Anjou, who wished to obtain the succession of Naples at Joanna's
death, a course which met with the approval of the pope. Joanna
refused to adopt Louis owing to the influence of Caracciolo, who
hated Sforza; she appealed for help instead to Alphonso of
Aragon, promising to make him her heir. War broke out be-
tween Joanna and the Aragonese on one side and Louis and
Sforza, supported by the pope, on the other. After much fight-
ing by land and sea, Alphonso entered Naples, and in 1422 peace
was made. But dissensions broke out between the Aragonese
and Catalans and the Neapolitans, and Alphonso had Caracciolo
arrested; whereupon Joanna, fearing for her own safety, invoked
the aid of Sforza, who with difficulty carried her off to Aversa.
There she was joined by Louis whom she adopted as her successor
instead of the ungrateful Alphonso. Sforza was accidentally
drowned, but when Alphonso returned to Spain, leaving only a
small force in Naples, the Angevins with the help of a Genoese
fleet recaptured the dty. For a few years there was peace in
the kingdom, but in 1432 Caracciolo, having quarrelled with the
queen, was seized and murdered by his enemies. Internal
disorders broke out, and Gian Antonio Orsini, prince of Taranto,
led a revolt against Joanna in Apulia; Louis of Anjou died while
conducting a campaign against the rebels (1434), and Joanna
herself died on the 1 ith of February 1435, after having appointed
his son Rene her successor. Weak, foolish and dissolute, she
made her reign one long scandal, which reduced the kingdom
to the lowest depths of degradation. Her perpetual intrigues
and her political incapacity made Naples a prey to anarchy and
foreign invasions, destroying all sense of patriotism and loyalty
both in the barons and the people.
Authorities.— A. von Platen, Storia del fearne di Napdi dal 14T4
JOB
third speaker Zophar fails to answer (unless his answer is to be found
in ch. xxvii.). Job, having driven nis opponents from the field,
carries his reply through a series of discourses in which he dwells in
pathetic words upon nis early prosperity, contrasting with it his
present humiliation, and ends with a solemn repudiation of all the
offences that might be suggested against him, and a challenge to
God to appear and put His hand to the charge which He had against
him and lor which He afflicted him. 3. Elihu, the representative
of a younger generation, who has been a silent observer of the debate,
intervenes to express his dissatisfaction with the manner in which
both Job and his friends conducted the cause, and offers what is
in some respects a new solution of the question (xxxii-xxxvii.).
4. In answer to Job's repeated demands that God would appear and
solve the riddle of his life, the Lord answers Job out of the whirlwind.
The divine speaker does not condescend to refer to Job's individual
problem, but in a series of ironical interrogations asks him, as he
thinks himself capable of fathoming all things, to expound the
mysteries of the origin and subsistence of the world, the phenomena
of the atmosphere, the instincts of the creatures that inhabit the
desert, and, as he judges God's conduct of the world amiss, invites
him to seize the reins, gird himself with the thunder and quell the
rebellious forces of evil in the universe (xxxviii.-xlii. o). Job
is humbled and abashed, lays his hand upon his mouth; and repents
his hasty words in dust and ashes. No solution of his problem is
vouchsafed ; but God Himself effects that which neither the man's
own thoughts of God nor the representations of the friends could
accomplish : he'had heard of him with the hearing of the car without
effect, out now his eye sees Him. This is the profoundest religious
deep in the book. 5. The epilogue, in prose, xlii. 7-17, describes
Job s restoration to a prosperity double that of his former estate,
his family felicity and long life.
Design. — With the exception of the episode of Elihu, the con-
nexion of which with the original form of the poem may be doubt-
ful, all five parts of the book are essential elements of the work
as it came from the hand of the first author, although some parts
of the second and fourth divisions may have been expanded by
later writers. The idea of the composition is to be derived not
from any single element of the book, but from the teaching and
movement of the whole piece. Job is unquestionably the hero
of the work, and in his ideas and his history combined we may
assume that we find the author himself speaking and teaching.
The discussion between Job and his friends of the problem of
suffering occupies two-thirds of the book, or, if the space occupied
by Elihu be not considered, nearly three-fourths, and in the direc-
tion which the author causes this discussion to take we may see
revealed the main didactic purpose of the book. When the three
friends, the .representatives of former theories of providence, are
reduced to silence, we may be certain that it was the author's
purpose to discredit the ideas which they •represent. Job himself
offers no positive contribution to the doctrine of evil; his position
is negative, merely antagonistic to that of the friends. But this
negative position victoriously maintained by him has the effect
of clearing the ground, and the author himself supplies in the
prologue the positive truth, when he communicates the real
explanation of his hero's calamities, and teaches that they were
a trial of his righteousness. It was therefore the author's main
purpose in his work to widen men's views of the providence of
God and set before them a new view of suffering. This purpose,
however, was in all probability subordinate to some wider
practical design. No Hebrew writer is merely a poet or a
thinker. He is always a teacher. He has men before him in
their relations to God, 1 and usually not men in the.ir individual
relations, but members of the family of Israel, the people of
God. It is consequently scarcely to be doubted that the
book has a national scope. The author considered his new
truth regarding the meaning of affliction as of national interest,
and as the truth then needful for the heart of his people. But
the teaching of the book is only half its contents. It contains
also a history — deep and inexplicable affliction, a great moral
struggle, and a victory. The author meant his new truth to
inspire new conduct, new faith, and new hopes. In Job's suffer-
ings, undeserved and inexplicable to him, yet capable of an
explanation most consistent with the goodness and faithfulness
of God, and casting honour upon his faithful servants; in his
despair bordering on unbelief, at last overcome; and in the happy
1 Exceptions must be made in the cases of Esther and the Song of
Songs, which do not mention God, and the original* writer in Eccfesi-
astes who is a philosopher.
423
issue of his afflictions— -in all this Israel may see itself, and from
the sight take courage, and forecast its own history. Job, how-
ever, is not to be considered Israel, the righteous servant of the
Lord, under a feigned name; he is no mere parable (though such a
view is found as early as the Talmud); he and his history have
both elements of reality in them. It is these elements of reality
common to him with Israel in affliction, common even to him
with humanity as a whole, confined within the straitened limits
set by its own ignorance, wounded to death by the mysterious
sorrows of life, tortured by the uncertainty whether its cry finds
an entrance into God's ear, alarmed and paralysed by the irrecon-
cilable discrepancies which it seems tp discover between its
necessary thoughts of Him and its experience of Him in His provi-
dence, and faint with longing that it might come into His place,
and behold him, not girt with His majesty, but in human form,
as one looketh upon his fellow — it is these elements of truth that
make the history of Job instructive to Israel in the times of
affliction when it was set before them, and to men of all races in
all ages. It would probably be a mistake, however, to imagine
that the author consciously stepped outside the limits of his
nation and assumed a human position antagonistic to it. The
chords he touches vibrate through all humanity — but this is
because Israel is the religious kernel of humanity, and because
from Israel's heart the deepest religious music of mankind is
heard, whether of pathos or of joy.
Two threads requiring to be followed, therefore, run through the
book — one the discussion of the problem of evil between Job and
his friends, and the other the.varying attitude of Job's mind towards
God, the first being subordinate to the second. Both Job and his
friends advance to the discussion of his sufferings and of the problem
of evil, ignorant of the true cause of his calamities — Job strong in
his sense of innocence, and the friends armed with their theory
of the righteousness of God, who giveth to every man according to
his works. With fine psychological instinct the poet lets Job
altogether lose his self-control first when his three friends came to
it
d<
their cue: where there is suffering there has been sin in the sufferer.
Not suffering in itself, but the effect of it on the sufferer is what gives
insight into his true character. Suffering is not always punitive;
it is sometimes disciplinary, designed to wean the good man from his
sin. If he sees in his suffering the monition of God and turns from
his evil, his future shall be rich in peace and happiness, and his latter
estate more prosperous than his first. If he murmurs or resists,
he can only perish under the multiplying chastisements which hU
impenitence will provoke. Now this principle is far from being a
peculiar crotchet of the friends; its truth is undeniable, though they
erred in supposing that it would cover the wide providence of God.
The principle is the fundamental idea of moral government, the ex-
pression of the natural conscience, a principle common more or less
to all peoples, though perhaps more prominent in the Semitic mind,
because all religious ideas are more prominent and simple there —
not suggested to Israel first by the law, but found and adopted by the
law, though it may.be sharpened by it. It is the fundamental
principle of prophecy no less than of the law, and. if possible, of the
wisdom of philosophy of the Hebrews more than of either. Specula-
tion among the Hebrews had a simpler task before it than it had in
the West or in the farther East. The Greek philosopher began his
operations upon the sum of things; he threw the universe into his
crucible at once. His object was to eflect some analysis of it, so
424
that he could call one dement cause and another effect. Or, to vary
the figure, his endeavour was to pursue the streams of tendency
which he could observe till he reached at last the central spring which
seat them all forth. God, a single cause and explanation, was the
object of his search. But to the Hebrew of the later time this was
already found. The analysis resulting in the distinction of God and
the world had been effected for him so long ago that the history and
circumstances of the process bad been forgotten, and only, the
unchallengeable result remained. His philosophy was not a quest
of God whom he did not know, but a recognition on all hands of
God whom he knew. The great primary idea to his mind was that
of God, a Being wholly just, doing all. And the world was little
more than the phenomena that revealed the mind and the presence
and the operations of God. Consequently the nature of God as
known to him and the course of events formed a perfect equation.
The idea of what God was in Himself was in complete harmony
with His manifestation of Himself in providence, in the events of
individual human lives, and in the history of nations. The philosophy
of the wise did not go behind the origin of sin, or referred it to the
freedom of man; but, sin existing, and God being in immediate
personal contact with the world, every event was a direct expression
of His moral will and energy ; calamity fell on wickedness, and success
attended right-doing. This view of the moral harmony between the
nature of God and the events of providence in the fortunes of men
and nations is the view of the Hebrew wisdom in its oldest form,
during what might be called the period of principles, to which belong
Prov. x. acq.; and this is the position maintained by Job's three
friends. And the significance of the book of Job in the history of
Hebrew thought arises in that it marks the point when such a view
was definitely overcome, closing the long period when this principle
was merely subjected to questionings, and makes a new positive
addition to the doctrine of evil.
Job agreed that afflictions came directly from the hand of God,
and also that God afflicted those whom He held guilty of sins.
Bnt his conscience denied the imputation of guilt, whether insinu-
ated by his friends or implied in God's chastisement of him. Hence he
was driven to conclude that God was unjust. The position of Job
ho
he
is-
ad
lis
ot
elf
to
ies
of
id
ut
»ir
te
,ly
:es
f;row old, yea, wax mighty in strength, that send forth their children
ike a flock and establish them in their sight. Before the logic of
facts the theory of the friends goes down; and with this negative
result, which the author skilfully reaches through the debate, has
to be combined his own positive doctrine of the uses of adversity
advanced in the prologue.
To a modern reader it appears strange that both parties were so
entangled in the meshes of their preconceptions regarding God as to
be unable to break through the broader views. The friends, while
JOB
maintaining that injustice on the part of God is inconceivable,
might have given due weight to the persistent testimony of Job's
conscience as that behind which it is impossible to go, and found
refuge in the reflection that there might be something inexplicable
in the ways of God, and that affliction might have some other mean-
ing than to punish the sinner or even to wean him from his sin.
And Job, while maintaining his innocence from overt sins, might
have confessed that there was such sinfulness in every human life as
was sufficient to account for the severest chastisement from heaven,
or at least he might have stopped short of charging God foolishly.
Such a position would certainly be taken up by an afflicted saint now,
and such an explanation of his sufferings would suggest itself to the
sufferer, even though it might be in truth a false explanation.
Perhaps here, where an artistic fault might seem to be committed,
the art of the writer, or his truth to nature, and the extraordinary
freedom with which he moves among his materials, as well as the
power and individuality of his dramatic creations, are most remark-
able. The role which the author reserved for himself was to teach
the truth on the question in dispute, and he accomplishes this by
allowing his performers to push tneir false principles to their proper
extreme. There is nothing about which men are usually so sure as
the character of God. They are ever ready to take Him in their
own hand, to interpret His providence in their own sense, to say
what taings are consistent or not with His character and word,
and beat down the opposing consciences of- other men by His
so-called authority, which is nothing but their own. The friends
of Job were religious Orientals, men to whom God was a being
in immediate contact with the world and life, to whom the idea
of second cause --■-•---
to dawn, nor tt
end by complic
suffer for the lai
his sense of the '
scope which he
splendid luxuri
moral consent <
and the obsen
their views. H
from which he i
he himself perh
abandon ; and,
most brilliant form.
'ence had not yet begun
eme pursuing a distant
dividual's interest may
ithies of the author and
e friends are seen in the
of the thought and the
from the immemorial
f the living conscience,
le makes them clothe
of truth in the theory
tational heritage, which
t without a struggle to
y, be sets it forthin its
by
in. the
Kctions
is own,
allows
radiate
er. the
tought
erge of
ut and
as less
tfGod.
Mn oar
xtrding
3TGod
e testi-
Budde,
i afltic-
? killed
coition
estified
otogoe.
o think
rith his
iodica-
in idea
tat the
Job to
x>nthe
i posing
a up in
•t to an
tudeof
tragic
ilerrul.
i point
of each
dc
ch
in!
^
mi
Tl
of his great triaTs he notes that Job sinned not. nor ascribed wrong
to God (i. 22; ii. io) t and from the effect which the divine voice
from the whirlwind is made to produce upon him (xl. *). In
the first cycle of debate (iy.-xiv.) Job's mind reaches the deepest
limit of estrangement. There he not merely charges God with
injustice, but, unable to reconcile His former goodness with His
present enmity, he regards the latter as the true expression of
God's attitude towards His creatures, and the former, comprising
all bis infinite creative «Jull in weaving the delicate organism ol
JOB
425
the m<
togetl
retem
to rise
might
might
again
at fin
them
of ufli
In the
is ma
which.
His providcnc
i\ cruelty in tl
iched, we find
iave brought
rture which i
last all this 1
of heavenly li
ufferer smind
rsuing him to
m out of it t<
ion, unfamilia
Hit of the nee
>ra the author
as familiar ft
reconciliation
or at least c
cannot morall
for, we reach by considering that providence is a grea
moving according to general laws, and that it does not ah
reflect the relation of God to the individual, Job reached ii
way possible to a Semitic mind. He drew a distinction
an outer God whom events obey, pursuing him in His ang<
inner God whose heart was with him, who was aware of his 11
and he appeals from God to God, and bes eech es God
Himself that he shall receive justice from God (xvi. 19
And so high at last does this consciousness that God is at
him rise that be avows his assurance that He will vet ap|
him justice before men, and that he shall see Htm with his
no more estranged but on bis side, and for this moment
with longing (xix. 25 seq.). 1
After this expression of faith Job's mind remains caln
he ends by firmly charging God with perverting his right, am
ing to know the cause of his afflictions (xxvii. a seq.;
where render: " Oh, that I had the indictment which mine
has written 1 "). In answer to this demand the Divine vok
Job out of the tempest: " Who is this that darkeneth c
words without knowledge ? " The word " counsel " int
Job that God does not act without a design, large and be
comprehension of man; and to impress this is the purpt
Divine speeches. The speaker does not enter into Job's
cause; there is not a word tending to unravel his nddle;
is drawn away to the wisdom and majesty of God Him
own words and those of his friends are out re-echoed, but
Himself who now utters them. Job is in immediate nean
majesty of heaven, wise, unfathomable, ironical over the
of man, and he is abased ; God Himself effects what neither
1 This remarkable passage reads thus: "But I hum
redeemer litxtk, and afterwards as shall arise upon the dust,
my skin, even this body, is destroyed, without my flesh shall J
whom I shall see for myself, ana mine eyes shall behold, am
stranger; my reins within me are consumed with longin
redeemer who liveth and shall arise or stand upon the eai
whom he shall see with his own eyes, on his side. The
exegesis was greatly influenced by the translation of Jen
departing from the Itala, rendered: "In novtssimo die
surrecturus sum . . . et rursum circumdabor pelle mea e
mea videbo deum meum." The only point now in q
whether: (a) Job looks for this manifestation of God to hti
is still alive, or (b) after death, and therefore in the sense of
vision and union with God in another life; that is, wh
words " destroyed " and " without my flesh " are to
relatively only, of the extremest effects of his disease upc
literally, of the separation of the body in death. A third v
assumes that the words rendered " without my flesh," 1
literally, " out of my flesh," mean looking out from
that is, clothed with a new body, and finds the idea of re
repeated, perhaps imports more into the language tha
fairly bear. In favour of (b) may be adduced the persist*
of Job throughout to entertain the idea of a restoration ii
the word " afterwards " ; and perhaps the analogy of othci
where the same situation appears, as Ps. xlix. and lxxiii.,
the actual denouement of the tragedy supports (a). The
between the two senses is not important, when the Old 1
view of immortality is considered. To the Hebrew the li
was not what it is to us, a freedom from sin and sorrow and
to an immediate divine fellowship not attainable here. T
life beyond was at best a prolongation of the life here; all !
was that his fellowship with God here should not be if
in death, and that Sheol, the place into which decease
descended and where they remained, cut off from all life '
might be overleapt. On this account the theory of Ews
throws the centre of gravity of the book into this passage i
considering its purpose to be to teach that the riddles c
shall be solved and its inequalities corrected in a future lif
one-sided. The point of the passage does not lie in any c
which it draws between this lite and a future life; it lies in
ance which Job expresses that God, who even now knows
ice, will vindicate it in the future, and that, though
w, He will at last take him to His heart.
' bis friends could
eligious insight of
.ruth.
>ns of the present
n raised by many.
: " It appears to
red from one pen.
>een several times
uber, Ency,, sect.
Wette has been
have studied the
books as this are
nong scholars re-
f they differ as to
unity; and it b
composition and
if the East. The
received frequent
do likelihood that
ved to us. It is
eat effort amidst
upposed that one
bor of chap, iii.-
any other writer
k which must be
1 the work, of the
t our present book
al author, contain
nous minds upon
of being loosely
1 of the first work,
at first quite in-
e expansions and
he same time it is
>k merely because
f the main part of
idcration conspire
the prologue— as,
appears in it, that
itencies between it
There must have
the circumstances
been unintelligible,
miliar that a poem
e would have been
prologue or intro-
x>, is an essential
strive contribution
ission in the poem
1 poetry is common
1; the reference to
; and the author,
its the patriarchal
friends because he
i and to a country
rule had a certain
n his allowing the
viii. 28) in familiar
cies, such as Job's
le interpretation is
even if real imply
it historical. The
tant — as that the
•ration is in conflict
' felicity does not
le teaching of the
doctrine regarding
And it is certainly
ly felicity docs not
the exclusiveness
st principle. The
1 function as minis-
wholly the doctrine
1 any such personal
e should be called
xompany his own
irs with the begin-
instrument of the
try; that done be
4.26 JOB
solution at particular epochs of the history of Israel, and points
of contact with other writings of which the age may with some
certainty be determined. The Jewish tradition that the book
is Mosaic, and the idea that it is a production of the desert,
written in another tongue and translated into Hebrew, want
even a shadow of probability. The book a a genuine outcome
of the religious life and thought of Israel, the product of a
religious knowledge and experience that were possible among
no other people. That the author lays the scene of the poem
outside his own nation and in the patriarchal age is a proceeding
common to him with other dramatic writers, who find freer play
for their principles in a region removed from the present, where
they are not hampered by the obtrusive forms of actual life, but
are free to mould occurrences into the moral form that their
ideas require.
It is the opinion of some scholars, e.g. Delitzsch, that the book
belongs to the age of Solomon. It cannot be earlier than this age,
for Job (vii. 17) travesties the ideas of Ps. viii. in a manner
which shows that this hymn was well known. To infer the
date from a comparison of literary coincidences and allusions
is however a very delicate operation. For, first, owing to the
unity of thought and language which prevades the Old Testa-
ment, in which, regarded merely as a national literature, it
differs from all other national literatures, we are apt to be
deceived, and to take mere similarities for literary allusions and
quotations; and, secondly, even when we are sure that there i*
dependence, it is often uncommonly difficult to decide which is the
original source. The reference to Job in Ezek. xiv. 14 is not to
our book, but to the man (a legendary figure) who was afterwards
made the hero of it. The affinities on the other hand between Job
and Isa. xl.-lv. are very close. The date, however, of this part
of Isaiah is uncertain, though it cannot have received its final
form, if it be composite, long before the return. Between Job bl-
and Jcr. xz. 14 seq. there is, again, certainly literary connexion.
But the judgment of different minds differs on the question
which passage is dependent on the other. The language of
Jeremiah, however, has a natural pathos and genuineness of
feeling in it, somewhat in contrast with the elaborate poetical
finish of Job's words, which might suggest the originality of
the former.
The tendency among recent scholars is to put the book of
Job not earlier than the 5th century B.C. There are good reasons
for putting it in the 4th century. It stands at the beginning
of the era of Jewish philosophical inquiry — its affinities are
with Proverbs, Ecclesiasticus, Ecclesiastes, and the Wisdom of
Solomon, a body of writings that belongs to the latest period
of pre-Christian Jewish literary development (see Wisdom
Literature). Its points of connexion with Isa. xl.-lv. relate
only to the problem of the suffering of the righteous, and that
it is later than the Isaiah passage appears from the fact that
this latter is national and ritual in scope, while Job is universal
and ethical.
The book of Job is not literal history, though it reposes on
historical tradition. To this tradition belong probably the name
of Job and his country, and the names of his three friends,
and perhaps also many other details impossible to specify
particularly. The view that the book is entirely a literary
creation with no basis in historical tradition is as old as the
Talmud (Babe Bathra, xv. 1), in which a rabbi is cited who says:
Job was not, and was not created, but is an allegory. This
view is supported by Hengstenbcrg and others. But pure
poetical creations on so extensive a scale are not probable in the
East and at to early an age.
A M/Aor.—The author of the book is wholly unknown. The
religious life of Israel was at certain periods very intense, and
at those times the spiritual energy of the nation expressed itself
almost impersonally, through men who forgot themselves and
were speedily forgotten in name by others. Hitzig conjectures
that the author was a native of the north on account of the free
criticism of providence which he allows himself. Others, on
account of some affinities with the prophet Amos, infer that he
belonged to the south of Judah, and this is supposed to account
JOBST— JODHPUR
lor his intimate acquaintance with the desert. Ewald considers
that he belonged to the exile in Egypt, on account of his minute
acquaintance with that country. But all these . conjectures
localize an author whose knowledge was not confined to any
locality, who was a true child oi the East and familiar with
life and nature in every country there, who was at the same time
a true Israelite and felt that the earth was the Lord's and the
fullness thereof, and whose sympathies and thought took in all
God's works.
Liter ;
Delitrsct k
in Speak r
(1884); c
also Hoe
(1871), a n
Jahveh, ,.
Bradley, n
(1887);! il
Form of 1,
Essays «i r.
Acad, (il
JOBST, or Jodocus (c. 1350-1411), margrave of Moravia,
was a son of John Henry of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia,
and grandson of John, the blind king of Bohemia. He became
margrave of Moravia on his father's death in 1375, and his clever
and unscrupulous character enabled him to amass a considerable
amount of wealth, while his ambition led him into constant
quarrels with his brother Procop, his cousins, the German king
Wenceslaus and Sigismund, margrave of Brandenburg, and
others. By taking advantage of their difficulties he won consider-
able power, and the record of his life is one of warfare and
treachery, followed by broken promises and transitory recon-
ciliations. In 1385 and 1388 he purchased Brandenburg from
Sigismund, and the duchy of Luxemburg from Wenceslaus; and
in 1397 he also became possessed of upper and lower Lusatia.
For some time he had entertained hopes of the German throne
and had negotiated with Wenceslaus and others to this end.
When, however, King Rupert died in 14 10 he maintained at
first that there was no vacancy, as Wenceslaus, who had been
deposed in 1400, was still king; but changing his attitude, he
was chosen German king at Frankfort on the 1st of October
14 10 in opposition to Sigismund, who had been elected a few days
previously. Jobst however was never crowned, and his death
on the 17th of January 14U prevented hostilities between the
rival kings.
See F. M. Pelzcl, Lebensgesekichte des rdmischen una* bdhmischen
Konigi Wenceslaus (1788-1790); J. Heidcmann, Die Mark Branden-
burg unlet Jobst von Mdhren (1881); J. Aschbach, Cesehickle Kaiser
Sigmunds (1838 -1845); F. Palacky, GesckichU ton Bohmen, iii.
(1864-1874); and T. Lindner, Geschk.hU des Deutschen Roches vom
Ende des 14 Jahrkunderis bis zur Reformation, i. (1 875-1 880).
JOB'S TEARS, in botany, the popular name for Coix Lachryma-
Jobi, a species of grass, of the tribe maydeat y which also includes
the maize (see Grasses). The seeds, or properly fruits, are con-
tained singly in a stony involucre or bract, which does not open
until the enclosed seed germinates. The young involucre sur-
rounds the female flower and the stalk supporting .the spike of
male flowers, and when ripe has the appearance of bluish-white
porcelain. Being shaped somewhat like a large drop of fluid, the
form has suggested the name. The fruits are esculent, but the
involucres are the part chiefly used, for making necklaces and
other ornaments. The plant is a native of India, but is now
widely spread throughout the tropical zone. It grows in marshy
places; and is cultivated in China, the fruit having a supposed
value as a diuretic and anti-phthisic. It was cultivated by John
Gerard, author of the famous Herball, at the end of the 26th
century as a tender annual.
JOCASTA, or Iocasta ('loK&orn; in Homer, J EirMcii<rny), in
Greek legend, wife of LaTus, mother (afterwards wife) of Oedipus
JLq.v,), daughter of Menoeceus, sister (or daughter) of Creon.
According to Homer (Od. xi. 271) and Sophocles (Oed. Tyr. 1241),
on learning that Oedipus was her son she immediately hanged
herself; but in Euripides (Phoenissae, 1455) she stabs herself
over the bodies of her sons Eteocles and Polynices, who had slain
each other in single combat before the walls of Thebes.
427
JOCKEY, a professional rider of race-horses, now the current
usage (see Horse-racing). The word is by origin a diminutive
of " Jock," the Northern or Scots colloquial equivalent of the
name " John " (cf. Jack). A familiar instance of the use of the
word as a name is in " Jockey of Norfolk " in Shakespeare's
Richard III. v. 3, 304. In the 16th and 1 7th centuries the word
was applied to horse-dealers, postilions, itinerant minstrels and
vagabonds, and thus frequently bore the meaning of a cunning
trickster, a " sharp," whence " to jockey," to outwit, or " do "
a person out of something. The current usage is found in John
Evelyn's Diary, 1670, when it was clearly well known. George
Sorrow's attempt to derive the word from the gipsy chuhni, a
heavy whip used by horse-dealing gipsies, has no foundation.
JODELLE, BT1ENNE, seigneur de Limodin (1532-1573),
French dramatist and poet, was born in Paris of a noble family.
He attached himself to the poetic circle of the Pleiade (see
Daurat) and proceeded to apply the principles of the reformers
to dramatic composition. Jodelle aimed at creating a classical
drama that should be in every respect different from the
moralities and saties that then occupied the French stage.
His first play, CUopdire captive, was represented before the court
at Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title role, and the
cast included his friends Remy Belleau and Jean dc la Plruse.
In honour of the play's success the friends organized a little
(tie at Arcueil when a goat garlanded with flowers was led in
procession and presented to the author— a ceremony exaggerated
by the enemies of the Ronsardists into a renewal of the pagan
rites of the worship of Bacchus. Jodelle wrote two other plays.
Eugene, a comedy satirizing the superior clergy, had less success
than it deserved. Its preface poured scorn on Jodelle 's pre-
decessors in comedy, but in reality his own methods are not so
very different from theirs. Didon se sacrifianl, a tragedy which
follows Virgil's narrative, appears never to have been represented.
Jodelle died in poverty in July 1573. His works were collected
the year after his death by Charles de la Mothe. They include
a quantity of miscellaneous verse dating chiefly from Jodelle's
youth. The intrinsic value of his tragedies is small. Cliopitre
is lyric rather than dramatic. Throughout the five acts of the
piece nothing actually happens. ■ The death of Antony is an-
nounced by his ghost in the first act; the story of Cleopatra's
suicide is related, but not represented, in the fifth. Each act
is terminated by a chorus which moralizes on such subjects as
the inconstancy of fortune and the judgments of heaven on
human pride. But the play was the starting-point of French
classical tragedy, and was soon followed by the Mtdlt (1553) of
Jean de la Penise and the Anton (1561) of Andre de Rivaudeau.
Jodelle was a rapid worker, but idle and fond of dissipation.
His friend Ronsard said that his published poems gave no
adequate idea of his powers.
Jodelle's works are collected (1868) in the PUiadefrancaise of
Charles Marty-Laveaux. The prefatory notice gives full informa-
tion of the sources of Jodelle's biography, and La Mothe's criticism
is reprinted in its entirety.
JODHPUR, or Majlwax, a native state of India, in the
Rajputana agency. Area, 34,063 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,935.565.
showing a decrease of 23% in the decade, due to the results of
famine. Estimated revenue, £373,600; tribute, £14,000. The
general aspect of the country is that of a sandy plain, divided
into two unequal parts by the river Luni, and dotted with pic-
turesque conical hills, attaining in places an elevation of 3000 f L
The river Lurri is the principal feature in the physical aspects of
Jodhpur. One of its head-streams rises in the sacred lake of
Pushkar in Ajsaere, and the main river flows through Jodhpur
in a south-westerly direction till it is finally lost in the marshy
ground at the head of the Runn of Cutch. It is fed by numerous
tributaries and occasionally overflows its banks, fine crops
of wheat and barley being grown on the saturated soil. Its
water is, as a rule, saline or brackish, but comparatively sweet
water is obtained from wells sunk at a distance of so or 30 yds.
from the river bank. The famous salt-lake of Sambhar is situ*
ated on the borders of Jodhpur and Jaipur, and two smaller
lakes of the same description lie within the limits of the state,
43©
JOEL, M.— JOFFRIN
Eastern rhetoric; there is no occasion to seek in this section
anything else than literal locusts. Nay, the allegorical interpre-
tation, which takes the locusts to be hostile invaders, breaks
through the laws of all reasonable writing; for the poetical hyper-
bole which compares the invading swarms to an army (ii. 4 seq.)
would be inconceivably lame if a literal army was already con-
cealed under the figure of the locusts. Nor could the prophet so
far forget himself in his allegory as to speak of a victorious host
as entering the conquered city like a thief (ii. 9). The second
part of the book is Yahweh's answer to the people's prayer.
The answer begins with a promise of deliverance from famine,
and of fruitful seasons compensating for the ravages of the locusts.
In the new prosperity of the land the union of Yahweh and his
people shall be scaled anew, and so the Lord will proceed to
rv-wr <k*wn further and higher blessings. The aspiration of
Ms>sos v Num. xL 39) and the hope of earlier prophets (Isa. xxxii.
» 5 ~ v ct ; Jer. xxxi. jj) shall be fully realized in the outpouring
*< : ^e 5r Irit on all the Jews and even upon their servants (Isa.
S 5 v ;:h W. 6, 7); and then the great day of judgment, which
* : : . octroi to overshadow Jerusalem in the now averted plague,
v v :.. ^raw near with awful tokens of blood and fire and darkness.
*-; thf tenors of that day are not for the Jews but for their
r v r— «os. The worshippers of Yahweh on Zion shall be delivered
,** Oct*kL t. 17, * hose words Joel expressly quotes in ch. ii. 32),
a ui t » their heathen enemies, assembled before Jerusalem
** *• ax ajruast Yahweh, who shall be mowed down in the valley
** **- v^v.pfcjit (" Yahweh judgcth ") by no human arm, but
^* s t w \*y warriors. Thus definitively freed from the profane
fc>*< o; ibtc Granger (Isa. lii. 1), Jerusalem shall abide a holy city
h.h *> w . TV fertility of the land shall be such as was long ago
pe**»v:* v «v» fa Amos tx. 13, and streams issuing from the Temple,
**■ v vtv-: > ul described in his picture of the restored Jerusalem
v - * < vZx « t \ $Jull fertilize the barren Wadi of Acacias. Egypt
*»** ^asb, 00 the other hand, shall be desolate, because they
V*v xJh-v) the blood of Yahweh's innocents. Compare the
x M <: *^vv» vi-ooa against Edom, Isa. xxxiv. 9 seq. (Mai. i. 3),
v ■». *. t t^j *Vp>l>t» Isa. xix. 5 seq., Ezek. xxix. Joel's eschato-
V^ -m* .Hxi at* appears Indeed to be largely a combination of
„»c *^**x uvv** v^Jvler unfulfilled prophecies. Its central feature,
v \vt* »»s % ,£ ^ | ne nations to judgment, is already found in
• v *v t si >n FjeMel's prophecy concerning Gog and Magog,
%^»v v ^v^vSrrs of fire and blood named in Toel ii. 30 are also
«* -*v^» V^-c wxvlil. u). The other physical features of the
^»* •- .v * v o iriening of the lights of heaven, arc a standing
v - n x v v\yi»o<% from Amos v. 6, viii. 9, downwards. It is
m. *v »» v. v <.»i »W prophetic cschatology that images suggested
% % N n>\nV< »tx adopted by his successors, and gradually
„,.-•. <* * ■•* *Nc permanent scenery of the last times; and it is
, ^ , jv? Vc vlite of Joel that almost his whole picture is
, v. v ^ ^t;ttrcs. In this respect there is a close paral-
" _•* x * *-'M ^ w" 1 ** details, between Joel and the last
x , * k«i*wutk>ii ol the final deliverance and glory
^ * *w > tv* the deliverance of the nation from a
, * j«iT\ % tn the manner of the so-called prophetic
— " ^ w^. f--» »V«» »h. ^i.~:t.. M .u;,i. u..iu- .,»
affinity between Joel and Ezekiel, this word inevitably 1 __
Oog and Magog, and it is difficult to see how a swarm of locusts
could receive such a name, or if they came from the north could
perish, as the verse puts it, in the desert between the Mediter-
ranean and the Dead Sea. The verse remains a crux inter prelim,
and no exegesis hitherto given can be deemed thoroughly satis-
factory; but the interpretation of the whole book must not be
made to hinge on a single word in a verse which might be alto-
gether removed without affecting the general course of the
prophet's argument.
The whole verse is perhaps the addition of an allegorizing
glossator. The prediction in v. 19, that the seasons shall hence-
forth be fruitful, is given after Yahweh has shown his zeal and
pity for Israel, not of course by mere words, but by acts, as
appears in verses 20, 21, where the verbs are properly perfects
recording that Yahweh hath already done great things, and that
vegetation has already revived. In other words, tne mercy
already experienced in the removal of the plague is taken as a
pledge of future grace not to stop short till all God's old promises
are fulfilled. In this context v. 20 is out of place. Observe
also that in v. 25 the locusts are spoken of in the plain language
of chap. i.
parate commentaries on Joel by Credner (1831), Wunsche
I rx (1879). The last-named gives an elaborate history ol
i on from the Septuagint down to Calvin, and appends
1 c text edited by Dilltnann. Nowackand Marti should also
I J (see their respective series of commentaries) ; also G. A.
i *h* Booh of ike Twelve Prophets, vol. i. (1896), and S. R.
] and Amos (1897). On the language of Joel, see HoTzinger.
* . (1889), pp. 89-131. Of older commentaries the most
i Pocock's (Oxford, 1691). Bochart's Hierozcuon may
t wilted. (W. R.S.;T. K.C.)
JOEL, MANUEL (1826-1890), Jewish philosopher and preacher.
After teaching for several years at the Breslau rabbinical semi-
nary, founded by Z. Frankcl, he became the successor of Abraham
Geigcr in the rabbinate of Breslau. He made important con-
tributions to the history of the school of Aqiba (q.v.) as well as
to the history of Jewish philosophy, his essays on Ibn Gabirol
and Maimonidcs being of permanent worth. But his most
influential work was connected with the relations between
Jewish philosophy and the medieval scholasticism. He showed
how Albertus Magnus derived some of his ideas from Maimonidcs
and how Spinoza was indebted to the same writer, as well as to
Hasdai Crescas. These essays were collected in two volumes
of Bcitrfgc zur Gtschichle dcr Philosophic (1876), while another
two volumes of Blicke in die Religions gescMichU (1S80-1SS3)
threw much light on the development of religious thought in the
early centuries of the Christian era. Equally renowned were
Joel's pulpit addresses. Though he was no orator, his appeal to
the reason was effective, and in their published form his three
volumes of Predigten (issued posthumously) have found many
readers. (I. A.)
JOFFRIN. JULES FRANCOIS ALEXANDRE (1846-1S90).
French politician, was born at Troyes on the 16th of March 1846.
He served in the Franco-German War, was involved in the
Commune, and spent eleven years in England as a political exile.
attached him«*»lf Irt tli* '
1 nrnnn r\t t\*»
fi
b>
Ctr
idc.
J6G0ES— JOHANNESBURG
JOQTTBS, ISAAC (1607-1646), French missionary in North
America, was born at Orleans on the 10th of January 2607.
He entered the Society of Jesus at Rouen in 1624, and in 1636
was ordained and sent, by his own wish, to the Huron mission.
In 1639 he went among the Tobacco Nation, and in 1641 jour-
neyed to Sault Sainte Marie, where he preached to the Algon-
quins. Returning from an expedition to Three Rivers he was
captured by Mohawks, who tortured hira and kept him as a slave
until the summer of 1643, when, aided by some Elutchmen, he
escaped to the manor of Rensselaerwyck and thence to New
Amsterdam. After a brief visit to France, where he was treated
with high honour, he returned to the Mohawk country in May
1646 and ratified a treaty between that tribe and the Canadian
government. Working among them as the founder of the
Mission of the Martyrs, he incurred their enmity, was tortured as
^ sorcerer, and finally killed at Ossernenon, near Auriesville, N. Y.
See P^rkman, The Jesuits in North America (1898).
J09ANAN BEN ZAGCAI, Palestinian rabbi, contemporary
of the Apostles. He was a disciple of Ilillcl {q.v.), and after
the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Titus was the main
instrument in the preservation of the Jewish religion. During
the last decades of the Temple Joljanan was a member of the
Sanhedrin and a skilled controversialist against the Sadducees.
He is also reported to have been head of a great school in the
capital. In the war with Rome he belonged to the peace parly,
and finding that the Zealots were resolved on carrying their
revolt to its inevitable sequel, Jofyanan bad himself conveyed
out of Jerusalem in a coffin.* In the Roman camp the rabbi
was courteously received, and Vespasian (whose future elevation
to the imperial dignity Jofcanan, like Josephus, is said to have
foretold) agreed to grant him any boon he desired. Jofyanan
obtained permission to found a college at Jamnia (Jabnch),
which became the centre of 1 Jewish culture. It practically
exercised the judicial functions of the Sanhedrin (see Jews, 5 40
ad fin.). That chief literary expression of Pharisaism, the
Mishnah, was the outcome of the work begun at Jamnia.
Jorjanan solaced his disciples on the fall of the Temple by the
double thought that charity could replace sacrifice, and that a
life devoted to the religious law could form a fitting continuation
of the old theocratic state. " Jofeanan felt the fall of his people
more deeply than anyone else, but— and in this lies his historical
importance— he did more than any one else to prepare the way
for Israel to rise again " (Bacher).
See GraeU, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.), vol. ii. ch. adii. ;
Weiss, Dor dor ve-doreshav, u. 36; Bacher, Die Agada der Tannaitcn,
vol. L ch. UL (1. A.)
JOHANNESBURG, a city of the Transvaal and the centre of
the Rand gold-raining industry,. It is the most populous city
and the commercial capital of South Africa. It is built on the
southern slopes of the Witwatersrand in 26° u' S. 28 2' E., at
an elevation of 5764 ft. above the sea. The distances by rail
from Johannesburg to the following seaports are: Lourenco
Marques, 3(4 m.; Durban, 483 m.; East London, 659 m.; Port
Elizabeth, 714 m.; Cape Town, 957 m. Pretoria is, by rail, 46 m.
N. by E.
The town lies immediately north of the central part of the main
gold reef. The streets run in straight lines east and west or
north and south. The chief open spaces are Market Square in
the west and Government Square in the south of the town.
Park railway station lies north of the business quarter, and
farther north are the Wanderers' athletic sports ground and
Joubert's Park. The chief business streets, such as Commis-
sioner Street, Market Street, President Street and Pritchard
Street, run east and west. In these thoroughfares and in
several of the streets which intersect them are the offices of the
mining companies, the banks, clubs, newspaper offices, hotels
and shops, the majority being handsome stone or brick buildings,
while the survival of some wooden shanties and corrugated iron
buildings recalls the early character of the town.
, Chief Buildings, 6>c. — In the centre of Market Square are the
market buildings, and at its east end the post and telegraph
431
oflices, a handsome block of buildings with a facade 200 ft. long
and a tower 106 ft. high. The square itself, a quarter of a mile
long, is the la gest in South Africa. The offices of the Witwaters-
rand chamber of mines face the market buildings. The stock
exchange is in Marshall Square. The telephone exchange is in
the centre of the city, in Von Branch's Square. The law courts
are in the centre of Government Square. The Transvaal
university college is in Plcin Square, a little south of Park station.
In the vicinity is St Mary's (Anglican) parish hall (1905-1907),
the first portion of a large building planned to take the place of
" Old M St Mary's Church, the " mother" church of the Rand,
built in 1887. The chief Jewish synagogue is in the same neigh-
bourhood. In Kerk Street, on the outskirts of central Johannes-
burg, is the Roman Catholic Church of the Immaculate Con-
ception, the headquarters of the vicar apostolic of the Transvaal.
North of Joubert's Park is the general hospital, and beyond,
near the crest of the hills, commanding the town and the road
to Pretoria, is a fort built hy the Boer government and now
used as a gaol. On the hills, some 3 ra. E.N.E. of the town, is
the observatory, built in 1003. Johannesburg has several
theatres and buildings adapted for public meetings. There is
a race-course 2 m. south of the town under the control of the
Johannesburg Turf Club.
' The Suburbs.— North, east and west of the city proper are
suburbs, laid out on the same rectangular plan. The most
fashionable are to the east and north— Jcppestown, Belgravia,
Doornfontcin, the Berea, Hillbrow, Parktown, Yeoville and Belle-
vue. Braamfontein (with a large cemetery) lies north-west and
Fordsburg due west of the city. At Fordsburg are the gas and
electric light and power works, and north of Doornfontein there
Is a large reservoir. There are also on the Rand, and dependent
on the gold-mining, three towns possessing separate municipali-
ties— Gcrmiston and Boksburg (q.v.), respectively 9 m. and 1 5 m.
E. of Johannesburg, and Krugersdorp (q.v.), 21 m. W.
The Mines and other Industries. — South, east and west of the
city are the gold mines, indicated by tall chimneys, battery
houses and the compounds of the labourers. The bare veld
is dotted with these unsightly buildings for a distance of over
fifty miles. The mines are worked on the most scientific lines.
Characteristic of the Rand is the fine white dust arising from the
crushing of the ore, and, close to the batteries, the incessant din
caused by the stamps employed in that operation. The com-
pounds in general, especially those originally made for Chinese
labourers, are well built, comfortable, and fulfil every hygienic
requirement. Besides the buildings, the compounds include
wide stretches of veld. To enter and remain in the district,
Kaffirs require a monthly pass for which the employer pays *s.
(For details of gold-mining, see Gold.) A railway traverses
the Rand, going westward past Krugersdorp to Klerksdorp and
thence to Kimberlcy, and eastward past Springs to Delagoa Bay.
From Springs, 25 m. E. of Johannesburg, is obtained much of
the coal used in the Rand mines.
The mines within the municipal area produce nearly half the
total gold output of the Transvaal. The other industries of
Johannesburg include brewing, printing and bookbinding,
timber sawing, flour milling, iron and brass founding, brick
making and the manufacture of tobacco,
Health, Education and Social Conditions. — The elevation of
Johannesburg makes it, despite its nearness to the tropics, a
healthy place for European habitation. Built on open undu-
lating ground, the town is, however, subject to frequent dust
storms and to considerable variations in the temperature. The
nights in winter are frosty and snow falls occasionally. The
average day temperature in winter is 53* F., in summer 75°;
the average annual rainfall is 28 in. The death-rate among white
inhabitants averages about 17 per thousand. The principal
causes of death, both among the white and coloured inhabitants,
arc diseases of the lungs — including miners' phthisis and pneu-
monia — diarrhoea, dysentery and enteric. The death-rate
among young children is very high.
Education Is provided* in primary and secondary schools
maintained by the state. In the primary schools education is
4-32
free but not compulsory. The Transvaal university college,
founded in 1004 as the technical institute (the change of title
being made in 1906), provides full courses in science, mining,
engineering and law. In 1006 Alfred Beit (q.v.) bequeathed
£200,000 towards the cost of erecting and equipping university
buildings.
In its social life Johannesburg differs widely from Cape Town
and Durban. The white population is not only far larger but
piorc cosmopolitan, less stationary and more dependent on a
single industry; it has few links with the past, and both city and
citizen* bear the marks of youth. The cost of living is much
tjjghcr than in London or New York. House rent, provisions,
clothing, aue all very dear, and more than counterbalance the
jowness of rates. The customary unit of expenditure is the
tbreepenny-bit or " tickey."
Sanitary and other Services.— There is an ample supply of water
t o the town and mines, under a water board representing all the
j^od municipalities and the mining companies. A water-
borne sewerage system began to be introduced in 1906. The
general illuminant is electricity, and both electrical and gas
^rvices are owned by the municipality. The tramway service,
opened in 1801, was taken over by the municipality in 1004.
Up to 1006 the trams were horse-drawn; in that year electric
c ax3 began running. Rickshaws are also a favourite means of
conveyance. The police force is controlled by the government.
jlrea, Government and Rateable Value.— The city proper covers
a b<> ut ° **' m * ^" c munic »Pal boundary extends in every
direction some 5 m. from Market Square, encloses about 82 sq. m.
ana includes several of the largest mines. The local government
: s carried . on bv an elected municipal council, the franchise
being restricted to white British subjects (men and women) who-
rent or own property of a certain value. In 1908 the rateable
value of the municipality was £36,466,044, the rate ajd. in the £,
and the town debt £5,500,000.
papulation.— In 1887 the population was about 3000, By
the beginning of 1800 it had increased to over 25,000. A census
tak« n »n J^y l8 v° showed a population within a radius of
« rn. i* roro Market Square of 102,078, of whom 50,007 were
whites. At the census of April 1004 the inhabitants of the city
proper numbered 99,022, the population within the municipal
area being x 55,64*, of whom 83,363 were whites. Of the white
inhabitants, 35% were of British origin, 51,629 were males,
and 3» ,73+ I * cmales * 0f persons aged sixteen or over, the number
of males was almost double the number of females. The coloured
copulation included about 7000 British Indians— chiefly small
traders. A municipal census taken in August 1008 gave the
following result: whites 95,162; natives and coloured 78,781;
Asiatics 6780^0^ 180,687.
History^ nannesburg owes its existence to the discovery
of gold in the Witwatcrsrand reefs. The town, named after
Tohannes Riss» k > t J cn surveyor-general of the Transvaal, was
founded in September 1886, the first buildings being erected on
the oart of tne reef where are now the Ferrcira and Wemmcr
•n«T These buildings were found to cover valuable ore, and
^"ikcerober following the Boer government marked out the site
2 iwit v proper, and possession of the plots was given to pur-
*k^« on th« ,st of ^ SLnnaT y l88 7- The exploitation of the
^ kd to * ^P* 4 <lcvcIo P mcnt of the town during the next
JOHANNISBERG— JOHN
. «ars- The year 1800 was one of great depression
*^?*J^TC exhaustion of the surface ore, but the provision of
•*""* ^ety and cheaper coal led to a revival in 1891. By
-* tttr . m f' *j^ mines had proved their dividend-earning capa-
aa; 3e tfJ ^*r» lbcrc was a great " boom " in the shares of the
**""" " aA J .Llj^ **be Unking of the town to the seaports by
' T= ? r-n»a*^^ iSo j uj^ considerable impetus to the gold-
• •* * - ^" = * "" j£it<ml prosperity was accompanied, how-
— - — ■ =r *' ^jaivaal and other disadvantages, and the
-* 1 "* I *Il»a Jhtfgro — most of whom were foreigners
c -rs»e»Iy the grievances under which they
• — ___^ '.*>* to an abortive rising against the
~~^~ -. .. r. ui- History). One result of this
"~ "" "1 municipal self-government.
Since 1887 the management of the town had been entrusted to
a nominated sanitary board, under the chairmanship of the
mining commissioner appointed by the South African Republic
In 1890 elected members had been admitted to this board, but
at the end of 1897 an elective stadsraad (town council) was
constituted, though its functions were strictly limited. There
was a great development in the mining industry during 1897-
1898 and 1809, the value of the gold extracted in 1898
exceeding £15,000,000, but the political situation grew worse,
and in September 1899, owing to the imminence of war between
the Transvaal and Great Britain, the majority of the Uitlanders
fled from the city. Between October 1899, when war broke out.
and the 31st of May 1900, when the city was taken by the British,
the Boer government worked certain mines for their own benefit.
After a period of military administration and of government by a
nominated town council, an ordinance was passed in June 1003
providing for elective municipal councils, and in December
following the first election to the new council took place. In x 90s
the town was divided into wards. In that year the number of
municipal voters was 23,338. In 1909 the proportional repre-
sentation system was adopted in the election of town councillors.
During 1901-1003, while the war was still in progress or bat
recently concluded, the gold output was comparatively slight.
The difficulty in obtaining sufficient labour for the mines led to
a successful agitation for the importation of coolies from China
(see Transvaal: History). During 1904-1906 over 50,000
coolies were brought to the mines, a greatly increased output
being the result, the value of the gold extracted in 1005 exceeding
£20,000,000. Notwithstanding the increased production of
gold, Johannesburg during 1005- 1007 passed through a period
of severe commercial depression, the result in part of the un-
settled political situation. In June 1007 the repatriation of the
Chinese coolies began; it was completed in February 1910.
An excellent compilation, entitled Johannesburg Statistics, dealing
with almost every phase of the city's life, is issued monthly (since
' by the town cou " ** "* " ' ~~
(Johannesburg, annually), .
prepared maps, and the annual reports of the Johannesburg chamber
January 1905) by tne town council. See also the Post Office Direc-
tory, Transvaal (Johannesburg, annually), which contains specially
of commerce. For the political history of Johannesburg, see the
bibliography under Transvaal.
JOHANNISBERG, a village of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, in the Rheingau, on the right bank
of the Rhine, 6 m. S. of Rildesheim by railway. The place is
mainly celebrated for the beautiful Schloss which crowns a hill
overlooking the Rhine valley, and is surrounded by vineyards
yielding the famous Johannisberger wine. The Schloss, built in
1757-1759 by the abbots of Fulda on the site of a Benedictine
monastery founded in 1090, was bestowed, in 1807, by Napoleon
upon Marshal Kellcrmann. In 1814 it was given by Francis,
emperor of Austria, to Prince Metternich, in whose family it
still remains.
JOHN (Heb. wV), Ydbdndn, " Yahweh has been gradous, n
Cr. 'IwAynp, Lat. Joannes, Ital. Giovanni, Span. Juan, Port.
Jo&o, Ft. Jean, Ger. Johannes, Johann [abbr. Hans], Gael lam,
Pol. and Czech Jan, Hung. Jdnos), a masculine proper name
common in all Christian countries, its popularity being due to
its having been borne by the " Beloved Disciple " of Christ. St
John the Evangelist, and by the forerunner of Christ, St John the
Baptist. It has been the name of twenty-two popes — the style
of Popes John XXII. and XXIII. being due to an error in the
number assumed by John XXL (q.v.)— and of many sovereigns,
princes, &c. The order followed in the biographical notices
below is as follows: (1) the Apostle, (2) the Baptist, (3) popes*
(4) Roman emperors, (5) kings; John of England first, the rest
in the alphabetical order of their countries, (6) other sovereign
princes, (7) non-sovereign princes, (8) saints, (9) theologians,
chroniclers, &c. Those princes who are known by a name in
addition to John (John Albert, &c.) will be found after the
article John, Gospel of.
JOHN, the Apostle, in the Bible, was the son of Zcbedce. a
Galilean fisherman, and Salome. It is probable that he was born
at Bcthsaida, where along with his brother James he followed
JOHN THE BAPTIST
hit father's occupation. The family appear* to have been in
easy circumstances; at least we find that Zebedee employed
hired servants, and that Salome was among those women who
contributed to the maintenance of Jesus (Mark i. ao, xv. 40, 41,
xvi. 1). John's " call " to follow our Lord occurred simulta-
neously with that addressed to his brother, and shortly after
that addressed to the brothers Andrew and Simon Peter (Mark i.
19, 20). John speedily took his place among the twelve apostles,
sharing with James the title of Boanerges (" sons of thunder,"
perhaps strictly " sons of anger," i.e. men readily angered), and
became a member of that inner circle to which, in addition to
his brother, Peter alone belonged (Mark v. 37, ix. 2, xiv. 33),
John appears throughout the synoptic record as a zealous, fiery
Jew-Christian. It is he who indignantly complains to Jesus,
" We saw one casting out devils in Thy name, and he followeth
not us," and tells Him, " We forbade him " for that reason
(Mark ix. 3$); and who with his brother, when a Samaritan
village will not receive Jesus, asks Him, " Wilt thou that we
command fire to come down from heaven and consume them?"
(Luke ix. 54). The book of Acts confirms this tradition. After
the departure of Jesus, John appears as present in Jerusalem
with Peter and the other apostles (i. 13); is next to Peter the
most prominent among those who bear testimony to the fact of
the resurrection (iii. 12-26, iv. 13, 19-22); and is sent with Peter
to Samaria, to confirm the newly converted Christians there
(viii. 14, 25). St Paul tells us similarly that when, on his second
visit to Jerusalem, " James," the Lord's brother, " and Cephas
and John, who were considered pillars, perceived the grace that
was given unto me, they gave to me and Barnabas the right
hand of fellowship, that we should go unto the heathen, and
they unto the circumcision " (Gal. iL 9). John thus belonged
in 46-47 to the Jewish-Christian school; but we do not know
whether to the stricter group of James or to the milder group
of Peter (ibid. iL 11-14)-
The subsequent history of the apostle is obscure. Polycrates,
bishop of Ephesus (in Euseb., H. E. iii. 31 ; v. 24), attests in 106
that John M who lay on the bosom of the Lord rests at Ephesus ";
but previously in this very sentence he has declared that " Philip
one of the twelve apostles rests in Hierapolis," although Eusebius
(doubtless rightly) identifies this Philip not with the apostle but
with the deacon-evangelist of Acts xxi. 8. Polycrates also
declares that John was a priest wearing the reraXor (gold
plate) that distinguished the high-priestly mitre. Irenaeus in
various passages of his works, 181-191, holds a similar tradition.
He says that John lived up to the time of Trajan and published
bis gospel in Ephesus, and identifies the apostle with John the
disciple of the Lord, who wrote the Apocalypse under* Domitian,
whom Irenaeus's teacher Polycarp had known personally and of
whom Polycarp had much to tell. These traditions are accepted
and enlarged by Later authors, Tertullian adding that John was
banished to Patmos after he had miraculously survived the
punishment of immersion in burning oiL As it is evident that
legend was busy with John as early as the time of Polycrates,
the real worth of these traditions requires to be tested by exami-
nation of their ultimate source. This inquiry has been pressed
upon scholars since the apostolic authorship of the Apocalypse
or of the Fourth Gospel, or of both these works, has been
disputed. (See John, Gospel op, and Revelation, Book or.)
The question has not been strictly one between advanced and
conservative criticism, for the Tubingen school recognized the
Apocalypse as apostolic, and found in it a confirmation of John's
residence in Ephesus. On the other hand, LUtzelbergcr (1840),
Th. Keim (Jesus v. No*., vol. i., 1867), J. H. Scholten (1872),
H. J. Holtzmann (esp. in Einl. in d. N. T., 3rd ed., 1002), and
other recent writers, wholly reject the tradition. It has had
able defenders in Steitz (Stud, u. KriL, 1868), Hilgenfeld (Einl.,
1875) and Lightfoot (Essays on Supernatural Religion, collected
1889). W. Sanday (Criticism of Fourth Gospel, 1905) makes
passing admissions eloquent as to the strength of the negative
position; whilst amongst Roman Catholic scholars, A. Loisy
(Le 4Mt. Ev., 1003) stands with Holtzmann, and Th. Calmes
CE». sdon S. Jean, 1004, 1906) and L. Duchesne (Hut. one. d*\
433
VEil, 1006) exhibit, with papal approbation, the iiiconciusive-
ness of the conservative arguments.
The opponents of the tradition lay weight on the absence of
positive evidence before the latter part of the 2nd century,
especially in Papias and in the epistles of Ignatius and of
Irenaeus's authority, Polycarp. They find it necessary to
assume that Irenaeus mistook Polycarp; but this is not a difficult
task, since already Eusebius (c. 310-313) is compelled to point
out that Papias testifies to two Johns, the Apostle and a
presbyter, and that Irenaeus is mistaken in identifying those
two Johns, and in holding that Papias had seen John the
Apostle (H.E. iii. 39, 5, 2). Irenaeus tells us, doubtless
correctly, that Papias was "the companion of Polycarp": this
fact alone would suffice, given his two mistakes concerning
Papias, to make Irenaeus decide that Polycarp had seen John
the Apostle. The chronicler George the Monk (Hamartolus) in
the 9th century, and an epitome dating from the 7th or 8th
century but probably based on the Chronicle of Philip of Side
(c. 430), declare, on the authority of the second book of Papias,
that John the Zebedean was killed by Jews (presumably in
60-70). Adolf Harnack, Chron. d. altchr. Liti. (1897), pp. 656-
680), rejects the assertion; but the number of scholars who
accept it as correct is distinctly on the increase. (F. v. H.)
JOHN THB BAPTIST, in the Bible, the " forerunner " of Jesus
Christ in the Gospel story. By his preaching and teaching he
evidently made a great impression upon his contemporaries
(cf. Josephus, Ant. x viii., 5 5). According to the birth-narrative
embodied in Luke i. and ii., he was born in " a city of Judah "
in " the hill country " (possibly Hebron l ) of priestly parentage.
His father Zacharias was a priest " of the course of Abijah," and
his mother Elizabeth, who was also of priestly descent, was
related to Mary, the mother of Jesus, whose senior John was by
six months. This narrative of the Baptist's birth seems to
embody some very primitive features, Hebraic and Palestinian
in character, and possibly at one time independent of the
Christian tradition. In the apocryphal gospels John is some-
times made the subject of special miraculous experiences (e.g. in
the ProtevangcJiut* Jacobi, ch. xxii., where Elizabeth fleeing from
Herod's assassins cried: " Mount of God, receive a mother with
her child," and suddenly the mountain was divided and received
her).
In his 30th year (15th year of the emperor Tiberius, ? aj>.
25-26) John began his public life in the " wilderness of Judaea,"
the wild district that lies between the Kedron and the Dead Sea,
and particularly in the neighbourhood of the Jordan, where
multitudes were attracted by his eloquence. The central theme
of his preaching was, according to the Synoptic Gospels, the
nearness of the coming of the Messianic kingdom, and the
consequent urgency for preparation by repentance. John was
evidently convinced that he himself had received the divine
commission to bring to a close and complete the prophetic
period, by inaugurating the Messianic age. He identified him-
self with the " voice " of Isa. xL 3. Noteworthy features of his
preaching were its original and prophetic character, and its high
ethical tone, as shown e.g. in its anti-Pharisaic denunciation of
trust in mere racial privilege (Matt. iii. 9). Herein also lay,
probably, the true import of the baptism which he administered
to those who accepted his message and confessed their sins. It
was an act symbolizing moral purification (cf. Esek. xxxvi. 25;
Zech. xiii. 1) by way of preparation for the coming " kingdom
of heaven," and implied that the Jew so baptized no longer
rested In his privileged position as a child of Abraham. John's
appearance, costume and habits of life, together with the tone
of his preaching, all suggest the prophetic character. He was
popularly regarded as a prophet, more especially as a second
Elijah. His preaching awoke a great popular response, particu-
larly among the masses of the people, " the people of the land."
He had disciples who fasted (Mark ii. 18, &c), who visited him
1 There is no reason to suppose that Tutta is intended by the ir6Xu
'lovia of Luke i. 39: the tradition which makes 'Ain Karim, near
Jerusalem, the birthplace of the Baptist only dates from the crusad-
ing period. 2o)
JOHN (POPES)
4-34
regularly in prison (Matt. xJ. a, xhr. i j), and to whom he taught
special forms of prayer (Luke v. 33, »'. 1). Some of these
afterwards became followers of Christ (John i. 37). John's
activity indeed had far-reaching effects. It profoundly influenced
the Messianic movement depicted in the Gospels. The preaching
of Jesus shows traces of this, and the Fourth Gospel (as well as
the Synoptists) displays a marked interest in connecting the
Joharmine movement with the beginnings of Christianity. The
fact that after the lapse of a quarter of a century there were
Christians in Ephesus who accepted John's baptism (Acts xviii.
«5, xix. 3) is highly significant. This influence also persisted
in later times. Christ's estimate of John (Matt. xi. 7 seq.) was
« very high one. He also pointedly alludes to John's work and
the people's relation to it, in many sayings and parables (some-
times in a tone of irony). The duration of John's ministry
cannot be determined with certainty: it terminated in his
imprisonment in the fortress of Machaerus, to which he had been
committed by Herod Antipas, whose incestuous marriage with
Herodtas, the Baptist had sternly rebuked. His execution
cannot with safety be placed later than a.d. 28.
In the church calendar this event is commemorated on the
,pth of August. According to tradition he was buried at
5*maria (Theodore t, H.E. iii. 3). (G. H. Bo.)
JOHN U pope from 523 to 526, was a Tuscan by birth, and
^ras consecrated pope on the death of Hormisdas. In 525 he
^,£3 sent by Theodoric at the head of an embassy to Constanti-
nople lo obtain from the emperor Justin toleration for the
Afians; but he succeeded so imperfectly in his mission that
^^rodoric on his return, suspecting that he had acted only half-
^^rtedly, threw him into prison, where he shortly afterwards
JL<|, Felix IV. succeeding him. He was enrolled among the
~T ri yrs, his day being May 27.
^jOMM !I.« pope from 533 to 535, also named Mercurius, was
^wvated t0 tne P^l chair on the death of Boniface II. During
f*l *^>nuncate a decree against simony was engraven on marble
**j pUccd before the altar of St Peter's. At the instance of the
**v*t* Justinian he adopted the proposition unus dc Trinitate
9e ^^ sm s «* •* * drw * ** a tcst of t** orthodoxy of certain Scythian
^*di* awtised of Nestorian tendencies. He was succeeded by
»*^alH UU pope from 561 to 574, successor to Pelagius, was
^^j^a from a noble Roman family. He is said to have been
"*"*^ -**! * preventing an invasion of Italy by the recall of the
"^H^ i ♦*»*** Narses, but the Lombards still continued their
^^^a*, as*l. especially during the pontificate of his successoi
^ m, "\ i< I . n»i«oted great miseries on the province.
^'^gj ff^ pepe fiom 640 to 642, was a Dalmatian by birth,
* ,I ^\ V< J(J Sewrinus after the papal chair had been vacant
*"• ^^ Vw \Ylule he adhered to the repudiation of the
*^ ^%T < AKtritoe by Severinus, he endeavoured to explain
%^>'* ,,,, >>c . ^v^Kt^a of HonoriuB I. with the heresy. His
j— « " ** fi. TVvxtocns I.
• _^ y _ n.v* toee* 63 5 to 686, was a Syrian by birth, and on
-J*** ^ \ ^ twadNtpe ol Greek had in 680 been named papal
•m •** * 1%C *v, a «v*»eiucal council at Constantinople. He
*' " ,*.ve**« «* Benedict II., and after a pontificate of
*- m ^ \m * «nr, passed chiefly in bed, was followed by
native ol Greece, and
lis after the death of
hylact, who had been
I., and prevented him
Partly by persuasion
succeeded in inducing
from the territories of
essor of John VI., was
> have acceded to the
it he should give his
or Trullan council of
John in the church of
Lxtine hill; others were
formerly in the chapel of the Virgfn, built by him in the basificfc
of St Peter. He was succeeded by Sisinnius.
JOHN VIII., pope from 872 to 882, successor of Adrian II.,
was a Roman by birth. His chief aim during his pontificate
was to defend the Roman state and the authority of the Holy
See at Rome from the Saracens, and from the nascent feudalism
which was represented outside by the dukes of Spoleto and the
marquises of Tuscany and within by a party of Roman nobles.
Events, however, were so fatally opposed to his designs that no
sooner did one of his schemes begin to realize itself in fact than
it was shattered by an unlooked-for chance. To obtain an
influential alliance against his enemies, he agreed in 875, after
death had deprived him of his natural protector, the emperor
Louis II., to bestow the imperial crown on Charles the Bald; but
that monarch was too much occupied in France to grant him
much effectual aid, and about the time of the death of Charles
he found it necessary to come to terms with the Saracens, who
were only prevented from entering Rome by the promise of an
annual tribute. Carloman, the opponent of Charles's son Louis,
soon after invaded northern Italy, and, securing the support of
the bishops and counts, demanded from the pope the imperial
crown. John attempted to temporize, but Lambert, duke of
Spoleto, a partisan of Carloman, whom sickness had recalled to
Germany, entered Rome in 878 with an overwhelming force,
and for thirty days virtually held John a prisoner in St Peter's.
Lambert was, however, unsuccessful in winning any concession
from the pope, who after his withdrawal carried out a previous
purpose of going to France. There he presided at the council
of Troyes, which promulgated a ban of excommunication against
the supporters of Carloman — amongst others Adalbert of
Tuscany, Lambert of Spoleto, and Formosus, bishop of Porto,
who was afterwards elevated to the papal chair. In 879 John
returned to Italy accompanied by Boso, duke of Provence,
whom he adopted as his son, and made an unsuccessful attempt
to get recognized as king of Italy. In the same year he was
compelled to give a promise of his sanction to the claims of
Charles the Fat, who received from him the imperial crown in
88 1 . Before this, in order to secure the aid of the Greek emperor
against the Saracens, he had agreed to sanction the restoration
of Photius to the see of Constantinople, and had withdrawn his
consent on finding that he reaped from the concession no
substantial benefit. Charles the Fat, partly from unwillingness,
partly from natural inability, gave him also no effectual aid, and
the last years of John VIII. were spent chiefly in hurling vain
anathemas against his various political enemies. According to
the annalist of Fulda, he was murdered by members of his
household.' His successor was Marinus.
JOHN IX., pope from 898 to 000, not only confirmed the
judgment of his predecessor Theodore II. in granting Christian
burial to Formosus, but at a council held at Ravenna decreed
that the records of the synod which had condemned him should
be burned. Finding, however, that it was advisable to cement
the ties between the empire and the papacy, John gave unhesi-
tating support to Lambert in preference to Arnulf, and also
induced the council to determine that henceforth the consecra-
tion of the popes should take place only in the presence of the
imperial legates. The sudden death of Lambert shattered
the hopes which this alliance seemed to promise. John was
succeeded by Benedict IV.
JOHN X M pope from 9x4 to 928, was deacon at Bologna when
he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Thcophybct,
the most powerful noble in Rome, through whose influence he was
elevated first to the see of Bologna and then to the archbishopric
of Ravenna. In direct opposition to a decree of council, he was
also at the instigation of Theodora promoted to the papal chair
as the successor of Lando. Like John IX. he endeavoured to
secure himself against his temporal enemies through a close
alliance with Theophylact and Alberic, marquis of Camerino,
then governor of the duchy of Spoleto. -In December 9x5 he
granted the imperial crown to Berengar, and with the assistance
of the forces of all the princes of the Italian peninsula be took
the field in person against the Saracens, over whom he gained a
JOHN (POPES)
gnat victory on the banks of the Gariglieno. The defeat and
death of Berengar through the combination of the Italian princes,
again frustrated the hopes of a united Italy, and after witnessing
several yearn of anarchy and confusion John perished through
the intrigues of Marozia, daughter of Theodora. His successor
was Leo VI.
JOHN XI., pope from 031 to 935, was the son of Marozia and
the reputed son of Sergius III. Through the influence of his
mother he was chosen to succeed Stephen VII. at the early age
of twenty-one. He was the mere exponent of the purposes of
his mother, until her son Alberic succeeded in 933 in over-
throwing their authority. Hie pope was kept a virtual prisoner
in the Lateran, where he is said to have died in 935, in which
year Leo VII. was consecrated his successor.
JOHN XII., pope from 955 to 964, was the son of Alberic,
whom he succeeded as patrician of Rome in 954, being then only
sixteen years of age. His original name was Oct avian, but
when he assumed the papal tiara as successor to Agapetos II., he
adopted the apostolic name of John, the first example, it is said,
of the custom of altering the surname in connexion with elevation
to* the papal chair. As a temporal ruler John was devoid of the
vigour and firmness of his father, and his union of the papal
office — which through his scandalous private life he made a by-
word of reproach— with his civil dignities proved a source of
weakness rather than of strength. In order to protect himself
against the intrigues in Rome and the power of Berengar II. of
Italy, he caHed to his aid Otto the Great of Germany, to whom
he granted the imperial crown in 962. Even before Otto left
Rome the pope had, however, repented of his recognition of a
power which threatened altogether to overshadow his authority,
and had begun to conspire against the new emperor. His
intrigues were discovered by Otto, who, after he had defeated
and taken prisoner Berengar, returned to Rome and summoned
a council which deposed John, who was in hiding in the moun-
tains of Campania, and elected Leo Villain his stead. An
attempt at an insurrection was made by the inhabitants of
Rome even before Otto left the city, jnd on his departure John
returned at the head of a formidable company of friends and
retainers, and caused Leo to seek safety in immediate flight.
Otto determined to make an effort in support of Leo, but before
he reached the city John had died, in what manner is uncertain,
and Benedict V. had mounted the papal chair.
JOHN XIII., pope from 065 to 972, was descended from a
noble Roman family, and at the time of his election as successor
to Leo VIII. was bishop of Narni. He had been -somewhat
inconsistent in. his relations with his predecessor Leo, but his
election was confirmed by the emperor Otto, and his submissive
attitude towards the imperial power was so distasteful to the
Romans that they expelled him from the city. On account of
the threatening procedure of Otto, they permitted him shortly
afterwards to return, upon which, with the sanction of Otto, he
took savage vengeance on those who had formerly opposed him.
Shortly after holding a council along with the emperor at
Ravenna in 967, he. gave the imperial crown to Otto II. at
Rome in assurance of his succession to his father; and in 972 he
also crowned Theophano as empress immediately before her
marriage. On his death in the same year he was followed by
Benedict VI.
JOHN XIV., pope from 983 to 984, successor to Benedict VII.,
was born at Pavia, and before his elevation to the papal chair
was imperial chancellor of Otto II. Otto died shortly after his
election, when Boniface VII., on the strength of the popular
feeling against the new pope, returned from Constantinople and
placed John in prison, where be died either by starvation or
poison.
JOHN XV., pope from 985 to 096,. generally recognized as the
successor of Boniface VII., the pope John who was said to have
ruled for four months after John XIV., being now omitted by
the best authorities. John XV. was the son of Leo, a Roman
presbyter. At the time he mounted the papal chair Crescentius
was patrician of Rome, but, although his influence was on this
account very much hampered, the presence of the empress
435
Theophano In Rone from 089 to 991 restrained also the ambition
of Crescentius. On her departure the pope, whose venality
and nepotism had made him very unpopular with the citizens,
died of fever before the arrival of Otto III., who elevated his
own kinsman Bruno to the papal dignity under the name of
Gregory V.
JOHN XVI., pope or antipope from 997 to 998, was a Calabrian
Greek by birth, and a favourite of the empress Theophano, from
whom be had received the bishopric of Placentia. His original
name was PhOagathus. In 095 he was sent by Otto III. on an
embassy to Constantinople to negotiate a marriage with a Greek
princess. On his way back he either accidentally or at the
special request of Crescentius visited Rome. A little before
this Gregory V., at the end of 096, had been compelled to flee
from the city; and the wily and ambitious Greek had now no
scruple in accepting the papal tiara from the hands of Crescentius.
The arrival of Otto at Rome in the spring of 998 put a sudden
end to the teacherous compact. John sought safety in flight,
but was discovered in his place of hiding and brought back to
Rome, where after enduring cruel and ignominious tortures he
was immured in a dungeon.
JOHN XVII., whose original name was Sicco," succeeded
Silvester II. as pope in June 1003, but died less than five months
afterwards.
JOHN XVIII., pope from 1003 to 1009, was, during his whole
pontificate, the mere creature of the patrician John Crescentius,
and ultimately he abdicated and retired to a monastery, where
he died shortly afterwards. His successor was Sergius IV.
JOHN XIX., pope from 1024 to 1033, succeeded his brother
Benedict VIII., both being members of the powerful house of
Tusculum. He merely took orders to enable him to ascend the
papal chair, having previously been a consul and senator. He
displayed his freedom from ecclesiastical prejudices, if also his
utter ignorance of ecclesiastical history, by agreeing, on the pay-
ment of a large bribe, to grant to the patriarch of Constantinople
the title of an ecumenical bishop, but the general indignation
which the proposal excited throughout the church compelled
him almost immediately to withdraw from his agreement. On
the death of the emperor Henry II. in 1024 he gave his support
to Conrad II., who along with his consort was crowned with
great pomp at St Peter's in Easter of 1027. John died in 1033,
in the full possession of his dignities. A successor was found for
him in his nephew Benedict IX., a boy of only twelve years of age.
(L. D.*)
JOHN XXI. (Pedro Giuliano-Rebulo); pope from the 8th of
September 1276 to the 20th of May 1277 (should be named
John XX., but there is an error in the reckoning through the
insertion of an antipope), a native of Portugal, educated for the
church, became archdeacon and then archbishop of Braga, and
so ingratiated himself with Gregory X. at the council of Lyons
(1274) that he was taken to Rome as cardinal-bishop of Frascati,
and succeeded Gregory after an interregnum of twenty days.
As pope he excommunicated Alphonso III. of Portugal for
interfering with episcopal elections and sent legates to the
Great Khan. He was devoted to secular science, and his small
affection for the monks awakened the distrust of a large portion
of the clergy. His life was brought to a premature dose through
the fall of the roof in the palace he had built at Vitcrbo. His
successor was Nicholas III.
John XXI. has been identified since the 14th century, most
probably correctly, with Petrus Hispanus, a celebrated Portu-
guese physician and philosopher, author of several medical
works~notably the curious Liber de oculo, trans, into German
and well edited by A. M. Berger (Munich, 1809), and of a popular
textbook in logic, the Summulae logicaks. John XXI. is
constantly referred to as a magician by ignorant chroniclers.
See Let Regislres de Crigoire X. et Jean XXL, published by
J. Guiraud and E .Cadier in Bibliotheque des Icoksfranqaises £ A thine t
et de Rome (Paris, 1898); A. Potthast. Regesta pontif. Roman., vol. *
(Berlin, 1875); F. Gregorovius, Rome in Ike Middle Ages, vol. v.,
trans, by Mrs G.W. Hamilton (London, 1000-1902) ; R.Stapper, Paptl
Johann XXI. (Miinster, 1898); J. T. Kdhler, VoUstindige Nathruhr
von Papst Johann XXI. (Gbttingeo, 1760). (C H. Ha.)
«6
JOHN (POPES)
JOHN XXIL. pope from 1316 to 1334. *** borti at Cahors,
France, in 1 140. His original name was Jacques Duese, and he
came either of a family of petty nobility or else of well-to-do
■uddle-dass parents, and was not, as has been popularly
supposed, the son of a shoemaker. He began his education
with the* Dominicans at Cahors, subsequently studied law at
Montpeuter, and law and medicine in Paris, and finally taught
at Cahors and Toulouse. At Toulouse he became intimate with
the bishop Louis, son of Charles II., king of Naples. In 1300 he
was elevated to the episcopal see of Frejus by Pope Boniface
VIII. at the instance of the king of Naples, and in 1308 was
nude chancellor of Naples by Charles, retaining this office under
Chat les's successor, Robert of Anjou. In 13 10 Pope Clement V.
summoned Jacques to Avignon and instructed him to advise
upon the affair of the Templars and also upon the question of
condemning the memory of Boniface VIII. Jacques decided
00 the' legality of suppressing the order of the Templars, holding
that the pope would be serving the best interests of the church
by pronouncing its suppression; but he rejected the condemnation
of Boniface as a sacrilegious affront to the church and a mon-
strous abuse of the lay power. On the 23rd of December 1312
Clement appointed him cardinal-bishop of Porto, and it was
while cardinal of Porto that he was elected pope, on the 7th of
August 1316. Clement had died in April 13 14, but the cardinals
assembled at Carpentras were unable to agree as to his successor.
As the two-thirds majority requisite for an election could not
be obtained, the cardinals separated, and it was not until the
28th of June 13 16 that they reassembled in the cloister of the
Dominicans at Lyons, and then only in deference to the pressure
exerted upon them by Philip V. of France. After deliberating
for more than a month they elected Robert of Anjou's candidate,
Jacques Duese, who was crowned on the 5th of September, and
on the 2nd of October arrived at Avignon, where he remained
for the rest of his life.
More jurist than theologian, John defended the rights of the
papacy with rigorous zeal and as rigorous logic. For the
restoration of the papacy to its old independence, which had
been so gravely compromised under his immediate predecessors,
and for the execution of the vast enterprises which the papacy
deemed useful for its prestige and for Christendom, considerable
sums were -required; and to raise the necessary money John
burdened Christian Europe with new taxes and a complicated
fiscal system, which was fraught with serious consequences.
For his personal use, however, he retained but a very small
fraction of the sums thus acquired, and at his death his private
fortune amounted to scarce a million florins. The essentially
practical character of his administration has led many historians
to tax him with avarice, but later research on the fiscal system
of the papacy of the period, particularly the joint work of Samaran
and Moll at, enables us very sensibly to modify the severe judg-
ment passed on John by Gregorovius and others.
John's pontificate was continually disturbed by his conflict
with Louis of Bavaria and by the theological revolt of the
Spiritual Franciscans. In October 13 14 Louis of Bavaria and
Frederick of Austria had each been elected German king by the
divided electors. Louis was gradually recognized by the whole
of Germany, especially after his victory at Muhldorf (1322), and
gained numerous adherents in Italy, where he supported the
Visconti, who had been condemned as heretics by the pope.
John affected to ignore the successes of Louis, and on the 8th
of October 1323 forbade his recognition as king of the Romans.
After demanding a respite, Louis abruptly appealed at Nurem-
berg from the future sentence of the pope to a general council
(December 8, 1323). The conflict then assumed a grave
doctrinal character. The doctrine of the rights of the lay
monarchy sustained by Occam and John of Paris, by Marsilius
of Padua, John of Jandun and Leopold of Bamberg, was affirmed
by the jurists and theologians, penetrated into the parlements
and the universities, and was combated by the upholders of
papal absolutism, such as Alvaro Pelayo and Alonzo Trionfo.
Excommunicated on the 21st of March 1324, Louis retorted by
appealing for a second time to a general council, which was held
on the 22nd of May 1324, and accused John of being an c
to the peace and the law, stigmatizing him as a heretic on the
ground that he opposed the principle of evangelical poverty as
professed by the strict Franciscans. From this moment Louis
appeared in the character of the natural ally and even the
protector of the Spirituals against the persecution of the pope.
On the nth of July 1324 the pope laid under an interdict the
places where Louis or his adherents resided, but this bull had
no effect in Germany. Equally futile was John's declaration
(April 3, 1327) that Louis had forfeited his crown and abetted
heresy by granting protection to Marsilius of Padua. Having
reconciled himself with Frederick of Austria, Louis penetrated
into Italy and seized Rome on the 7th of January 1328, with
the help of the Roman Ghibellines led by Sciarra Colonna. After
installing himself in the Vatican, Louis got himself crowned by
the deputies of the Roman people; instituted proceedings for
the deposition of John, whom the Roman people, displeased by
the spectacle of the papacy abandoning Rome, declared to have
forfeited the pontificate (April 18, 1328); and finally caused
a Minorite friar, Pietro Rainalucd da Corvara, to be elected
pope under the name of Nicholas V. John preached a platonic
crusade against Louis, who burned the pope's effigy at Pisa and
in Amelia. Soon, however, Louis felt his power waning, and
quitted Rome and Italy (1329). Incapable of independent
action, the antipope was abandoned by the Romans and banded
over to John, who forced him to make a solemn submission
with a halter round his neck (August 15, 1330). Nicholas was
condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and died in obscurity
at Avignon; while the Roman people submitted to King Robert,
who governed the church through his vicars. In 13 1 7, in execu-
tion of a bull of Clement V., the royal vicariate in Italy bad been
conferred by John on Robert of Anjou, and this appointment
was renewed in 1322 and 1324, with threats of excommunkatioa
against any one who should seize the vicariate of Italy without
the authorization of the pope. One of John's last acts was
his decision to separate Italy from the Empire, but this bull was
of no avail and fell into oblivion. After his death, however, the
interdict was not removed* from Germany, and the resistance of
Louis and his theologians continued.
A violent manifestation of this resistance took place in
connexion with the accusation of heresy brought against the
pope. On the third Sunday in Advent 1329, and afterwards in
public consistory, John had preached that the souls of those
who have died in a state of grace go into Abraham's bosom,
sub altari Dei, and do not enjoy the beatific vision (fisio facie ad
facUm) of the Lord until after the Last Judgment and the
Resurrection; and he had even instructed a Minorite friar,
Gauthier of Dijon, to collect the passages in the Fathers which
were in favour of this doctrine. On the 27th of December 1331
a Dominican, Thomas of England, preached against this doctrine
at Avignon itself and was thrown into prison. When news of
this affair had reached Paris, the pope sent the general of the
Minorites, Gerard Odonis, accompanied by a Dominican, to
sustain his doctrine in that city, but King Philip VI., perhaps at
the instigation of the refugee Spirituals in Paris, referred the
question to the faculty of theology, which, on the 2nd of January
1333, declared that the souls of the blessed were elevated to the
beatific vision immediately after death; the faculty, nevertheless,
were of opinion that the pope should have propounded his
erroneous doctrine only " recitando" and not " dcUrminorub,
asserendo, seu etiam opinando." The king notified this decision
to the pope, who assembled his consistory in November 1333,
and gave a haughty reply. The theologians in Louis's following
who were opposed to papal absolutism already spoke of " the
new heretic, Jacques de Cahors," and reiterated with increasing
insistency their demands for the convocation of a general
council to try the pope. John appears to have retracted shortly
before his death, which occurred on the 4th of December 1334. 1
Pope Benedict XII. pronounced.*
doctrine, a judgment which be de>
bull which death had prevented
* On the 29th of January 1336 Pot
long judgment on this point of doct
ctared had been included by John in a
him from sealing.
JOHN (POPES)
John had kindled very keen animosity, not only among the
upholders of the independence of the lay power, but also among
the upholders of absolute religious poverty, the exalted Francis-
cans. Clement V., at the council of Vienne, had attempted to
bring back the Spirituals to the common rule by concessions;
John, on the other hand, in the bull Quorundqm exigit (April
*3> 1317)* adopted an uncompromising and absolute attitude,
and by the bull Gloriasam eccUsiam (January 23, 13x8) con-
demned the protests which had been raised against the bull
Quorundam by a group of seventy-four Spirituals and conveyed
to Avignon by the monk Bernard Deiicieux. Shortly afterwards
four Spirituals were burned at Marseilles. These were imme-
diately hailed as martyrs, and in the eyes of the exalted
Franciscans at Naples and in Sicily and the south of France the
pope was regarded as antichrist. In the bull Sancla Romana
et univcrsa ecdesia (December 28, 1318) John definitively
excommunicated them and condemned their principal book,
the Postil (commentary) on the Apocalypse (February 8,
1326). The bull Quia nonnunquam (March 26, 1322) defined
the derogations from the rule punished by the pope, and the
bull Cum inter nonnulhs (November 12, 1323) condemned the
proposition which had been admitted at the general chapter of
the Franciscans held at Perugia in 1322, according to which
Christ and the Apostles were represented as possessing no
property, either personal or common. The minister general,
Michael of Ccscna, though opposed to the exaggerations of the
Spirituals, joined with them in protesting against the condemna-
tion of the fundamental principle of evangelical poverty, and
the agitation gradually gained ground. The p°pc» hy the bull
Quia quorundam (November 10, 1324), cited Michael to appear
at Avignon at the same time as Occam and Bonagratia.
All three fled to the court of Louis of Bavaria (May 26, 1328),
while the majority of the Franciscans made submission and
elected a general entirely devoted to the pope. But the resist-
ance, aided by Louis and merged as it now was in the cause
sustained by Marsilius of Padua and John of Jandun, became
daily bolder. Treatises on poverty appeared on every side; the
party of Occam clamoured with increasing imperiousness for the
condemnation of John by a general council; and the Spirituals,
confounded in the persecution with the Beghards and with
Fraticelli of every description, maintained themselves in the
south of France in spite of the reign of terror instituted in that
region by the Inquisition.
SeeM.St bis Urban VI.
(Brunswick Rome, 1904);
K. Mailer, ie (Tubingen,
1879 seq.) ; can XXII. et
Louis de B; ice., xv., xvi.,
xvii. ; S. Ric • Zeit LudvAti
des Baiers 1 u"in Arcktv
fur Littemli ris. i. and ii.);
C. Samara r Franc* au xh*
tilde (Pari res secrhies et
euriaies d$ .... (Paris, 1899,
•eq.). (P. A.)
JOHN mil. (Baldassare Cossa), pope, or rather anti-pope
from 14x0 to 141 5, was born of a good Neapolitan family, and
began by leading the life of a corsair before entering the service
of the Church under the pontificate of Boniface IX. His
abilities, whkh were mainly of an administrative and military
order, were soon rewarded by the cardinal's hat and the legation
of Bologna. On the 29th of June 1408 he and seven of his
colleagues broke away from Gregory XII., and together with six
cardinals of the obedience of Avignon, who had m like manner
separated from Benedict XIII., they agreed to aim at the assem-
bling of a general council, setting aside the two rival pontiffs,
an expedient which they considered would put an end to the
great schism of the Western Church, but which resulted in the
election of yet a third pope. This act was none the less decisive
for Baldassare Cossa's future. Alexander V., the first pope
elected at Pisa, was not perhaps, as has been maintained, merely
a man of straw put forward by the ambitious cardinal of
Bologna; but he reigned only ten months, and on his death,
which happened rather suddenly on the 4th of May 14x0,
437
Baldassare Cossa succeeded him. Whether the latter had bought
his electors by money and promises, or owed his success to his
dominant position in Bologna, and to the support of Florence
and of Louis II. of Anjou, he seems to have received the unani-
mous vote of all the seventeen cardinals gathered together at
Bologna (May 17). He took the name of John XXIII., and
France, England, and part of Italy and Germany recognized him
as head of the Catholic church.
The struggle in which he and Louis II. of Anjou engaged with
Ladislaus of Durazzo, king of Sicily, and Gregory XII. 's chief
protector in Italy, at first went in John's favour. After the
brilliant victory of Roccasecca (May 19, 14x1) he had the
satisfaction of dragging the standards of Pope Gregory and King
Ladislaus through the streets of Rome. But the dispersion of
Louis of Anjou's troops and his carelessness, together with the lack
of success which attended the preaching of a crusade in Germany,
France and England, finally decided John XXIII. to abandon
the French claimant to the throne of Sicily; he recognized
Ladislaus, his former enemy, as king of Naples, and Ladislaus
did not fail to salute John XXIII. as pope, abandoning Gregory
XII. (June 15, 14x2). This was a fatal step: John XXIII.
was trusting in a dishonest and insatiable prince; he would have
acted more wisely in remaining the ally of the weak but loyal
Louis of Anjou. However, it seemed desirable that the reforms
announced by the council of Pisa, which the popes set up by
this synod seemed in no hurry to carry into effect, should
be further discussed in the new council which it had been
agreed should be summoned about the spring of 1412. But
John was anxious that this council should be held in Rome,
a city where he alone was master; the few prelates and ambassa-
dors who very slowly gathered there held only a small number
of sessions, in which John again condemned the writings of
Wycliffe. John was attacked by the representatives of the
various nations and reprimanded even tor his private conduct,
but endeavoured to extricate himself from this uncomfortable
position by gratifying their desires, if not by reforming abuses.
It is, however, only fair to add that betook various half-
measures and gave many promises which, if they had been put
into execution, would have confirmed or completed the reforms
inaugurated at Pisa. But on the 3rd of Mrach 14x3 John ad-
journed the council of Rome till December, without even fixing
the place where the next session should be held. It was held
at Constance in Germany, and John could only have resigned
himself to accepting such an uncertain meeting-place because
he was forced by distress, isolation and fear to turn towards
the bead of the empire. Less than a year after the treaty con-
cluded with Ladislaus of Durazzo, the latter forced his way into
Rome (June 8, 1413), which he sacked, expelling John, to whom
even the Florentines did not dare to throw open their gates
for fear of the king of Sicily. Sigismund, king of the Romans,
not only extorted, it is said, a sum of 50,000 florins from the
pontiff in his extremity, but insisted upon bis summoning the
council at Constance (December 9). It was in vain that,
on the death of Ladislaus, which took place unexpectedly
(August 6, 14x4), John was inspired with the idea of breaking
his compact with Sigismund and returning to Rome, at the
same time appealing to Louis of Anjou. It was too late. The
cardinals forced him towards Germany by the most direct
road, without allowing him to go by way of Avignon as he had
projected, in order to make plans with the princes of France.
On the 5th of November 1414 John opened the council of
Constance, where, on Christmas Day, he received the homage of
the head of the empire, but where his lack of prestige, the defec-
tion of his allies, the fury of his adversaries, and the general
sense of the necessity for union soon showed only too clearly
how small was the chance of his retaining the tiara. He had to
take a solemn oath to abdicate if his two rivals would do the
same, and this concession, which was not very sincere, gained
him for the last time the honour of seeing Sigismund prostrate at
his feet (March 2, 1415). But on the night of the 2oth-2xst
of March, having donned the garments of a layman, with a
cross-bow slung at his side, he succeeded in making his escape
JOHN (ROMAN EMPERORS)
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, «. •^xi^r^tMt Dafee Frederick of
> -.* -at*;vo« >fcts £*£*; but, laid under
-, - *■. **- -M.V ?■ :wi:i *naies, and feeling
.„ ^a at urn. ' id *» give op the pontiff
vi*. Van was eac^s* back to Freiburg
■**» -at *=ua *rwr^t«d to appease the
«, iv jw.( *■ awor «e less vague promises
. t > ",!* h wu, was already beginning.
i % v-st * o*«g*! wua fees defence hastily
•i ■»%. -?v * **. Sc**e;y-*our charges were
«.«-• a * n^% veer set aside after the wii-
*.m v .- '^at *.xvaoam of having poisoned
«. - - avw *. luaapaa was not maintained.
. _^ » ■■— ** -.». t s>-i tsjr, ambition and simony
. ..*. ^ *^ * >r jrvoc* judgment. He was
. *v . v . a-*s >.w «• the 14th of May 1415,
-< vvvr awj have been from the
\ v- -** w *a-wmcs do not seem to have
. -k -■•*■* « k*t«\ wbkh was necessary,
^^ ^ *. . ^ * ,x -vf*! to justify the deposi-
i ., H ^. *» k -v o*»i*:»«aed pope was not long
«. bM»« vjkoc w» as bumble and re-
" , v « wi «<m,npei v and tenacious, on his
„ i^.>^. » Vtv..: v4*a*.tttd the wrong which
, v. y*. x-w<>t ,\> *R*sT forward anything in
J . ^ M ... *.\ ikW ^o^paeat of the council
*„ ,■* -v * * ■** *** »alrjr > as an extreme
I-xv «■•* »«*•• «** x t u tocc of deposition,
ta 7 * **•> •**» » .'**r> teaottneed any rights
*\ ^ v l» b v i*"*^- **** * acl *** «»bse-
J\ ^ v ^ V N '*«.** •*** »**» fc»vc appealed to
^ w ta-^i .mat a wtfc»:A can depose a pope
k. jiv*rt
* ^, m , N% v^**^ afaft$t tb* sentence which
* " ^ , Vfc ^ Hf «4» WW prisoner for three
'■ '" ^ \ ** 4** Si^aft be hberty from the
"" *"* ^ ^ h^ •-^•ct «I> to go to Florence,
*vi j* *t ^ <v > w vkr kgitimatc pope.
* "" " % ^K»-Jto**r^T»sculum, a dignity
"■""'* VM * * t* s»ias. He died on the
^ " **" ^ j ,vi«» c« tbt Baptistery at
"*—•••■ ** w . ^ ^ b«U»ocbtno, the sombre
- ■ w^.*^ xAvV^aed pontiff, who had
■ ■ ■- • * ^^..^^ji^ |*cbastisement,and
*** v «.»*.,.«• »» tbe eitinction of the
- ■ " v ^^*-rf^n»- (N.V.)
.- -- ^— • vj^ m^Snsft Roman emperor,
' "^'-^^.^^rAwajr^ After helping
--***' w ^.^ lw ? throne and to
■ - ■ • ^ tal * ^^ te «m ^tprived of his
** "V-.# w wa*aw' by conspiring
-- - * , -. w« Elected
-- ^-"*- ( ^ ^ asurpation by
- •" " '-— »«aders of the
JT«*jre*ublishcd
.. -"-■*■' ^wtef Thrace,
*. — * • ^yjiolon on
*-- * """" ^ ,*wake the
-■■*.. wimaster
^. . ■-— * 7-«- imitct by
■ - • **hom he
,.*sinthc
recovered the inland parts of Syria and the middle reaches of
the Euphrates. He died suddenly in 976 on bis return from his
second campaign against the Saracens. John's surname was
apparently derived from the Armenian tshemskkik (red pool).
Sec E. Gibbon, The Dedine and Fait of (he Roman Empire, vol. vt
fed, Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, History of Greece, ii. 334-360 (od. I«77);
G. Scblumbcrger, L'Epopit Bymntine^ 1 1-336 (1896).
JOHN II. (1088- 1 143), surnamed Comnenus and abo Kalo-
joanncs (John the Good), East Roman emperor, was the eldest son
of the East Roman emperor Alexius, whom he succeeded in 1 1 xS.
On account of his mild and just reign he has been called the Byzan-
tine Marcus Aurclius. By the personal purity of his character
he effected a notable improvement in the manners of his age,
but he displayed little vigour in internal administration or in
extirpating the long-standing corruptions of the government.
Nor did his various successes against the Hungarians, Servians
and Scljuk Turks, whom he pressed hard in Asia Minor and pro-
posed to expel from Jerusalem, add much to the stability of his
empire. He was accidentally killed during a wild-boar hunt on
Mt Taurus, on the 8th of April 1143.
Sec E. Gibbon, The Dedine and Fall of the Roman Empire t v. 228
seq. (cd. Bury, 1896).
JOHN HI. (1193-1254), surnamed Vatatzes and also Ducas,
East Roman emperor, earned for himself such distinction as
a soldier that in 1222 he was chosen to succeed his father-
in-law Theodore I. Lascaris. He reorganized the remnant
of the East Roman empire, and by his administrative skiU
made it the strongest and richest principality in the Levant.
Having secured his eastern frontier by an agreement with
the Turks, he set himself to recover the European posses-
sions of his predecessors. While his fleet harassed the Latins
in the Aegean Sea and extended his realm to Rhodes, his
army, reinforced by Prankish mercenaries, defeated the Latin
emperor's forces in the open field. Though unsuccessful in a
siege of Constantinople, which he undertook in concert with the
Bulgarians (1235), he obtained supremacy over the despotats of
Thessalonica and Epirus. The ultimate recovery of Constanti-
nople by the Rhomaic emperors is chiefly due to his exertions.
See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Raman Empire, vi.
431-462 fed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, History of Greece, iii. 196-320
(cd. 1877); A. Mcliarakcs, 'Uropia tov BaatXcfovrft Nuabu «aJ tcS
Awrordrov T$t 'Unlpov, pp. 1 55-42 1 (1898).
JOHN IV. (c 1250-*. 1300), surnamed Lascaris, East Roman
emperor, son of Theodore II. His father dying in 1 2 58, Michael
Palaeologus conspired shortly after to make himself regent, and
in 1 261 dethroned and blinded the boy monarch, and imprisoned
him in a remote castle, where he died a long time after.
Sec E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi 459-
466 (cd. Bury, 1896) ; A. Mcliarakcs, 'lorcfil* rw BaciXtlav r*t Nmfcf
(Athens, 1898), pp. 491*528.
JOHN V. or VI. (1332-1391), surnamed Palaeologus, East
Roman emperor, was the son of Andronicus III., whom he
succeeded in X341. At first he shared his sovereignty with his
father's friend John Cantacuzene, and after a quarrel with the
latter was practically superseded by him for a number of years
(i347-i35S)- His reign was marked by the gradual dissolution
of the imperial power through the rebellion of his son Andronicus
and by the encroachments of the Ottomans, to whom in 1381
John acknowledged himself tributary, after a vain attempt to
secure the help of the popes by submitting to the supremacy of
the Roman Church.
See E. Gibbon, The Dedine and Fall of me Roman Empire, n* 495
seq.. vii. 38 aeq. (cd. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, The Destruction of tmj
Greek Empire, pp. 70-96 (1903).
JOHN VI. or V. (c 1292-1383), surnamed Cantacuzene, East
Roman emperor, was born at Constantinople. Connected with
the house of Palaeologus on his mother's side, on the accession of
Andronicus III. (1328) be was entrusted with the supreme
administration of affairs. On the death of the emperor in »34t,
Cnntacuzene was left regent, and guardian of his son John
•t, who was but nine years of age* Being suspected
JOHPT FALAEOLOGUS'iyi.^OHN OF ENGLAND 439
by the empress and opposed by a powerful party at court, be
rebelled, and got himself crowned emperor at Didymotcichos in
Thrace, while John Palaeologus and bis supporters maintained
themselves at Constantinople. The civil war which ensued
lasted six years, during which the rival parties called in the aid
of the Servians and Turks, and engaged mercenaries of every
description. It was only by the aid of the Turks, with whom
be made a disgraceful bargain, that Cantacuzene brought the
war to a termination favourable to himself. In 1347 he entered
Constantinople in triumph, and forced his opponents to an
arrangement by which he became joint emperor with John
Palaeologus and sole administrator during the minority of his
colleague. During this period, the empire, already broken up
and reduced to the narrowest limits, was assailed on every side.
There were wars with the Genoese, who had a colony at Galata
and had money transactions with the court;, and with the
Servians, who were at that time establishing an extensive empire
on the north-western frontiers; and there was a hazardous
alliance with the Turks, who made their first permanent settle-
ment in Europe, at Callipolis in Thrace, towards the end of the
reign (1354). Cantacuzene was far too ready to invoke the aid
of foreigners in his European quarrels; and as he had no money
to pay them, this gave them a ready pretext for seizing upon a
European town. The financial burdens imposed by him had
long been displeasing to his subjects, and a strong party had
always favoured John Palaeologus. Hence, when the latter
entered Constantinople at the end of 1354, his success was easy.
Cantacuzene retired to a monastery (where he assumed the name
of Joasaph Christodulus)and occupied himself in literary labours.
He died in the Pcloponncse and was buried by his sons at
Mysithra in Laconia. His History in four books deals with the
years 1320-1356. Really an apologia for his own actions, it
needs to be read with caution; fortunately it can be supplemented
and corrected by the work of a contemporary, Niecphorus
Gregoras. It possesses the merit of being well arranged and
homogeneous, the incidents being grouped round the chief actor
in the person of the author, but the information is defective on
matters with which he Is not directly concerned.
Cantacuzene was also the author of a commentary on the first
five books of Aristotle's Ethics, and of several controversial theologi-
cal treatises, one of which (Against Mohammedanism) » printed in
Migne (Patrologia Craeca, cliv.). History, cd. pr. by J. Pontamjs
(1603); in Bonn. Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz^ by J. Schopcn (1828-
1832) and Migne, cliii., cliv. Sec also Val Pansot, Canfacuzinc,
homme d'ilat et hislorien (1845); E, Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch.
lxiii.; and C. Krumbacher, Geschicht* dtr bytantinischen Ldlteratur
(1897).
JOHN VI. or Vn. (1300-1448), surnamed Palaeologus, East
Roman emperor, son of Manuel II., succeeded to the throne in
1425. To secure protection against the Turks he visited the
pope and consented to the union of the Greek and Roman
churches, which was ratified at Florence in 1439. The union
failed of its purpose, but by his prudent conduct towards the
Ottomans be succeeded in holding possession of Constantinople!
and in 1432 withstood a siege by Sultan Murad I.
See Turkey: History, and also E. Gibbon, The Decline and FaU
0] the Roman Empire, vt 97-107 (cd. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, The
Destruction of the Greek Empire* pp. 115-130 (1903).
JOHN (1167-1216). king of England, the youngest son of
Henry II. by Eleanor of Aquttaine, was born at Oxford on the
24th of December 1 167. He was given at an early age the nick-
name of Lackland because, unlike his elder brothers, he received
no apanage in the continental provinces. But his future was a
subject of anxious thought to Henry II. When only five years
old John was betrothed (1173) to the heiress of Maurienne and
Savoy, a principality which, as dominating the chief routes from
France and Burgundy to Italy, enjoyed a consequence out of all
proportion to its area. Later, when this plan had fallen through,
he was endowed with castles, revenues and lands on both sides
of the channel; the vacant earldom of Cornwall was reserved for
him (1175); he was betrothed to Isabella the heiress of the earl-
dom of Gloucester (1176); and he was granted the lordship of
Ireland with the homage of the Anglo-Irish baronage (1177).
Henry IT. even provoked a civil war by attempting to transfer
the duchy of Aquitaine from the hands of Richard Cceur de Lion
to those of John (1 183). In spite of the incapacity which he dis-
played in this war, John was sent a Kltle later to govern Ireland
(1185); but he returned in a few months covered with disgrace,
having alienated the loyal chiefs by his childish insolence and
entirely failed to defend the settlers from the hostile septs.
Remaining henceforth at his father's side he was treated with
the utmost indulgence. But he joined with his brother Richard
and the French king Philip Augustus in the great conspiracy of
1 189, and the discovery of his treason broke the heart of the old
king (sec Henky II.).
Richard on his accession confirmed John's existing possessions;
married him to Isabella of Gloucester; and gave him, besides
olhcr grants, the entire revenues of six English shires; but ex-
cluded him from any share in the regency which was appointed
to govern England during the third crusade; and only allowed
him to Hve in the kingdom because urged to this concession by
their mother. Soon after the king's departure for the Holy
Land it became known that he had designated his nephew,
the young Arthur of Brittany, as his successor. John at
once began to intrigue against the regents with the aim of
securing England for himself. He picked a quarrel with the un-
popular chancellor William Longchamp (<?.t\), and succeeded,
by the help of the barons and the Londoners, in expelling this
minister, whose chief fault was that of fidelity to the absent
Richard. Not being permitted to succeed Longchamp as the
head of the administration, John next turned to Philip Augustus
for help. A bargain was struck; and when Richard was captured
by Leopold, duke of Austria (December 1192), the allies en-
deavoured to prevent his release, and planned a partition of his
dominions. They were, however, unable to win either English
or Norman support and their schemes collapsed with Richard's
return (March 1 194). He magnanimously pardoned his brother,
and they lived on not unfriendly terms for the next five years.
On his deathbed Richard, reversing his former arrangements,
caused his barons to swear fealty to John (1199), although the
hereditary claim of Arthur was by the law of primogeniture
undoubtedly superior.
England and Normandy, after some hesitation, recognized
John's title; the attempt of Anjou and Brittany to assert the
rights of Arthur ended disastrously by the capture of the young
prince at Mircbcau in Poitou ( 1 202). But there was no part of his
dominions in which John inspired personal devotion. Originally
accepted as a political necessity, he soon came to be detested by
the people as a tyrant and despised by (he nobles for his cowardice
and sloth. He inherited great difficulties — the feud with France,
the dissensions of the continental provinces, the growing indiffer-
ence of England to foreign conquests, the discontent of all his
subjects with a strict executive and severe taxation. But he
cannot be acquitted of personal responsibility for his misfortunes.
Astute in small mattcri, he had no breadth of view or foresight;
his policy was continually warped by his passions or caprices; he
flaunted vices of the most sordid kind with a cynical indifference
to public opinion, and shocked an age which was far from tender-
hearted by his ferocity to vanquished enemies. He treated his
most respectable supporters with base ingratitude, reserved his
favour for unscrupulous adventurers, and gave a free rein to the
licence of his mercenaries. While possessing considerable gifts
of mind and a latent fund of energy, he seldom acted or reflected
until the favourable moment had passed. Each of his great
humiliations followed as the natural result of crimes or blunders.
By his divorce from Isabella of Gloucester he offended the
English baronage (1200), by his marriage with Isabella of
Angoulcme, the betrothed of Hugh of Lusignan, he gave an
opportunity to the discontented Poitevins for invoking French
assistance and to Philip Augustus for pronouncing against him
a sentence of forfeiture. The murder of Arthur ( 1 203) ruined his
cause in Normandy and Anjou; the story that the court of the
peers of France condemned him for the murder is a fable, but no
legal process was needed to convince men of his guilt. In the
later quarrel with Innocent III. (1207-1213; see Lancton,
JOHN OP HUNGARY—JOHN III. OP POLAND
44«
frequent guest of Edward at Westminster. He died on the 8th of
April, and the body was sent back to France with royal honours.
See FroUsart's Chronicles; Due d'Aumale, Notes et documents
rctaiifs & Jean, rot de France, et d sa caUtviti (1856); A. Coville, in
Lavisse's HisUnre de France, vol. iv., ana authorities cited there.
JOHN (Zapolya) (1487-1540), king of Hungary, was the
son of the palatine Stephen Zapolya and the princess Hedwig of
Teschen, and was born at the castle of Saepesvar. He began hi*
public career at the famous Rikos diet of 1505, when, on bis
motion, the assembly decided that after the death of the reigning
king, Wladislaus II., no foreign prince should be elected king
of Hungary. Henceforth he became the national candidate for
the throne, which his family had long coveted. As far back as
1491 his mother had proposed to the sick king that his daughter
Anne should be committed to her care in order, subsequently,
to be married to her son; but Wladislaus frustrated this project
by contracting a matrimonial alliance with the Habsburga.
In 1 5 10 Zapolya sued in person for the hand of the Princess
Anne in vain, and his appointment to the voivody of Tran-
sylvania (1511) was with the evident intention of removing
him far from court. In 1513, after a successful raid in Turkish
territory, he hastened to Buda at the head of 1000 horsemen and
renewed his suit, which was again rejected. In 1514 he stamped
out the dangerous peasant rising under Dozsa (93.) and the
infernal torments by means of which the rebel leader waa
slowly done to death were the invention of Zapolya. With the
gentry, whose hideous oppression had moved the peasantry to
revolt, he was now more than ever popular, and, on the death of
Wladislaus II., the second diet of Rikos (15x6) appointed him
the governor of the infant king Louis II. He now aimed at the
dignity of palatine also, but the council of state arid the court
party combined against him and appointed Istvan Bithory
instead (1519). The strife of factions now burnt more fiercely
than ever at the very time when the pressure of the Turk de-
manded the combination of all the national forces against a
common danger. It was entirely due to the dilatoriness and
dissensions of Zapolya and Bithory that the great fortress of
Belgrade was captured in 1521, a loss which really sealed the
fate of Hungary. In 152a the diet would have appointed both
Zapolya and Bithory captains-general of the realm, but the
court set Zapolya aside and chose Bathory only. At the diets
of Hitvan and Rikos in 1522, Zapolya placed himself at the head
of a confederation to depose the palatine and the other great
officers of state, but the attempt failed. In the following year,
however, the revolutionary Hat van diet drove out all the members
of the council of state and made Istvan Vcrboczy, the great
jurist, and a friend of Zapolya, palatine. In the midst of this
hopeless anarchy, Suleiman I., the Magnificent, invaded Hungary
with a countless army, and the young king perished on the field of
Monies in a vain attempt to stay his progress, the contradictory
orders of Louis II. preventing Zapolya from arriving in time to
turn the fortunes of the day. The court party accused him of
deliberate treachery on this occasion; but the charge must be
pronounced groundless. His younger brother George was killed
at Monies, where he was second commander-in-chief. Zapolya
was elected king of Hungary at the subsequent diet of Tokaj
(Oct. 14), the election was confirmed by the diet of Saeites-
fehervir (10th of November), and he was crowned on the follow-
ing day with the holy crown.
A struggle with the rival candidate, the German king Ferdi-
nand I., at once ensued (see Hub gaby: History) and it was only
with the aid of the Turks that king John was able to exhaust his
opponent and compel him to come to terms. Finally, in 1538,
by the compact of Nagyvarad, Ferdinand recognized John asking
of Hungary, but secured the right of succession on his death.
Nevertheless John broke the compact by bequeathing the king-
dom to his infant son John Sigismund under Turkish protection*
John was the last national king of Hungary. His merit, as a
statesman, lies in his stout vindication of the national indepen-
dvnve, though without the assistance of his great minister Gyorgy
I uvMrmmch, better known as " Frater George" (Cardinal
iUiUttuaai *rv), this would have been impossible. Indirectly
he contributed to the subsequent conquest of Hungary bf
admitting the Turk as a friend.
See Vilmos Fraknoi, Ungarn vor der SckJachl bet Monies (Buda-
pest. 1886) ; L. Kupdwiescr, Die KamPfe Untarns mU den Osntamtm
bu smr Schlacht bei Mokict (Vienna, 1S9O; Ignacx Aesldy. History
of the Hungarian Sealm, vol. i. (Hung.) (Budapest, 1903-1904)*
JOHN OP BRIENNE (c. 1148-1237), king of Jerusalem and
Latin emperor of Constantinople, was a man of sixty years of
age before he began to play any considerable part in history.
Destined originally for the Church, he had preferred to become a
knight, and in forty years of tournaments and fights he had
won himself a considerable reputation, when in 1208 envoys
came from the Holy Land to- ask Philip Augustus, king of
France, to select one of his barons as hnsbartd to the heiress,
and ruler of the kingdom, of Jerusalem. Philip selected John
of Brienne, and promised to support him in his new dignity.
In tzio John married the heiress Mary (daughter of Isabella and
Conrad of Montferrat), assuming the title of king in right of his
wife. In 1 ai 1, after some desultory operations, he concluded
a six years' truce with MaKk-et-Adil; in 1212 he lost bis wife,
who left him a daughter, Isabella; soon afterwards he married
an Armenian princess. In the fifth crusade (1218-1221) be was
a prominent figure. The legate Pelagius, however, claimed the
command; and insisting on the advance from Damietta, in
spite of the warnings of King John, he refused to accept the
favourable terms of the sultan, as the king advised, until it was
too late. After the failure of the crusade, Ring John came to
the West to obtain help for his kingdom. In 1223 he met
Honorius III. and the emperor Frederick II. at Ferentino, where,
in order that he might be connected more closely with the Holy
Land, Frederick was betrothed to John's daughter Isabella,
now heiress of the kingdom. After the meeting at Ferentino,
John went to France and England, finding little consolation;
and thence he travelled to Compostelta, where he married a
new wife, Berengaria of Castile. After a visit to Germany he
returned to Rome (1225). Here he received a demand from
Frederick II. (who had now married Isabella) that he should
abandon his title and dignity of king, which*— so Frederick
claimed— had passed to himself along with the heiress of the
kingdom. John was now a septuagenarian " king in exile," but
he was still vigorous enough to revenge himself on Frederick,
by commanding the papal troops which attacked southern Italy
during the emperor's absence on the sixth crusade (1228-1229).
In 1229 John, now eighty years of age, was invited by the barons
of the Latin empire of Constantinople to become emperor, on
condition that Baldwin of Courtenay should marry his second
daughter and succeed him. For nine years he ruled in Constanti-
nople, and in 1235, with a few troops, he repelled a great siege
of the city by Vataces of Kicaea and Axen of Bulgaria. After
this last feat of arms, which has perhaps been exaggerated by
the Latin chroniclers, who compare him to Hector and the
Maccabees, John died in the habit of a Franciscan friar. An
aged paladin, somewhat uxorious and always penniless, he was a
typical knight errant, whose wanderings led him all over Europe,
and planted him successively on the thrones of Jerusalem and
Constantinople.
The story of John's career must be sought partly In histories of
the kingdom of Jerusalem and of the Latin Empire of the East,
partly in monographs. Among these, of which R. Rdhricht gives a
list (Geschichte des Konigreiehs Jerusalem, p. 609, n. 3), tee especially
that of E. de Montcarmet, Un chevalier du temps passi (Limoges,
1876 and 1881).
JOHN m. (SOBixsau) (1624-1696), king of Poland, was the
eldest son of James Sobieski, castellan of Cracow, and Thcofila
Danillowiczowna, grand-daughter of the great Hetman Zol-
kiewski. After being educated at Cracow, he made the grand
tour with his brother Mark and returned to Poland in 1648.
He served against Chmielnicki and the Cossacks and was present
at the battles of Beresteczko (1651) and Batoka (1652), but
was one of the first to desert his unhappy country when invaded
by the Swedes in 1654, and actually assisted them to conquer tha
Prussian provinces in 2615. He returned to his lawful slkgianct
JOHN I. OF PORTUGAL
in the following year and assisted Czamiecki ia his difficult
task of expelling Charles X. of Sweden from the central Polish
provinces. For his subsequent services to King John Casirnir,
especially in the Ukraine against the Tatars and Cossacks,
he received the grand baton of the crown, or commaudership-
jn-chtef (1668). He had already (1665) succeeded Czamiecki
as acting commander-in-chief. Sobieski had well earned
these distinctions by his extraordinary military capacity, but
he was now to exhibit a less pleasing side of his character. He
was in fact a typical representative of the unscrupulous self-
seeking Polish magnates of the 17th century who were always
ready to sacrifice everything, their country included, to their
own private ambition. At the election diet of 1660 he accepted
large bribes from Louis XIV. to support one of the French candi-
dates; after the election of Michael Wisniowfecki (June 10,
1669) he openly conspired, again in the French interest, against
his lawful sovereign, and that too at the very time when
the Turk was ravaging the southern frontier of the republic*
Michael was the feeblest monarch the Poles could have placed
upon the throne, and Sobieski deliberately attempted to make
government of any kind impossible. He formed a league with
the primate Prazmowski and other traitors to. dethrone the
king; when (1670) the plot was discovered and participation
in it repudiated by Louis X1V M the traitors sought the help of
the elector of Brandenburg against their own justly indignant
countrymen. Two years later the same traitors again conspired
against the king, at the very time when the Turks had defeated
Sobteski's unsupported lieutenant, Luzecki, at Czertwerty-
worska and captured the fortress of Kamieniec (Kamcnctz-
Podolskiy), the key of south-eastern Poland, while Lemberg was
only saved by the valour of Elias Lanckl The unhappy king
did the only thing possible in the circumstances. He summoned
the tuaenia pospoliu, or national armed assembly, but it failed
to assemble in time, whereupon Michael was constrained to
sign the disgraceful peace of Buczacz (Oct. 17. 1672) whereby
Poland ceded to the Porte the whole of the Ukraine with Podoiia
and Kamieniec Aroused to duty by a series of disasters for
which he himself was primarily responsible* Sobieski now
hastened to the frontier, and won four victories in ten days.
But be could not recover Kamieniec, and when the tusunia fos-
poiite met at Golenba and ordered an inquiry into the conduct
of Sobieski and his accompices he frustrated all their efforts by
summoning a counter confederation to meet at Szczebrzeszyn.
Powerless to oppose a rebel who was at the same time com-
mander-in-chief, both the king and the diet had to gi"e way, and
a compromise was come to whereby the peace of Buczacz was
repudiated and Sobieski was given a chance of rehabilitating
himself, which he did by his brilliant victory over an immense
Turkish host at Khotin (Nov. xo, 1675). The same day King
Michael died and Sobieski,, determined to secure the throne
for himself, hastened to the capital, though Tatar bands were
swarming over the frontier and the whole situation Was acutely
perilous. Appearing at the elective diet of 1674 at the head
of 6000 veterans he overawed every other competitor, and
despite the persistent opposition of the Lithuanians was elected
long on the 21st of May. By this time, however, the state of
things in the Ukraine was so alarming that the new king had to
hasten to the front. Assisted by French diplomacy at the Porte
(Louis XIV. desiring to employ Poland against Austria), and his
own skilful negotiations with the Tatar khan, John Hi now
tried to follow the example of Wladislaus IV by leaving the
guardianship of the Ukraine entirely in the hands of the Cossacks,
while he assembled as many regulars and militiamen as possible
at Lemberg, whence he might hasten with adequate forces to
defend whichever of the provinces of the Republic might be in
most danger But the appeal of the king was like the voice of
one crying in the wilderness, and not one gentleman in a hundred
hastened to the assistance of the fatherland Even at the end
of August Sobieski bad but 3000 men at his disposal to oppose to
60,000 Turks. Only his superb strategy and the heroic devo-
tion of bis lieutenants—notably the converted Jew, Jan Samuel
Chrzaaowski, who held the Ottoman army at hay for eleven days
443
behind the walls of Trembowla— enabled the king to remove
" the pagan yoke from our shoulders "; and he returned to be
crowned at Cracow on the 14th of February 1676. In October
1676, in his entrenched camp at Zaravno, be with 13,000 men
withstood 80,000 Tnrks for three weeks, and recovered by special
treaty two-thirds of the Ukraine, but without Kamieniec (treaty
of Zaravno, Oct. 16, 1676).
Having now secured peace abroad Sobieski was desirous of
strengthening Poland at home by establishing absolute mon-
archy; but Louis XIV. looked coldly on the project, and from
this time forth the old familiar relations between the republic
and the French monarchy were strained to breaking point,
though the final rupture did not come till 1682 on the arrival
of the Austrian minister, Zerowski, at Warsaw. After resisting
every attempt of the French court to draw him into the ami-
Habsburg league, Sobieski signed the famous treaty of alliance
with the emperor Leopold against the Turks (March 31, 1683),
which was the prelude to the most glorious episode of his life,
the relief of Vienna and the liberation of Hungary from the
Ottoman yoke. The epoch-making victory of the 12th of Sep-
tember 16S3 was ultimately decided by the charge of the Polish
cavalry led by Sobieski in person. Unfortunately Poland
profited little or nothing by this great triumph, and now that
she had broken the back of the enemy she was left to fight
the common enemy in the Ukraine with whatever assistance
she could obtain from the unwilling and unready Muscovites.
The last twelve years of the reign of John III. were a period of
unmitigated humiliation and disaster. He now reaped to the
full the harvest of treason and rebellion which he himself bad
sown so abundantly during the first forty years of his life. A
treasonable senate secretly plotting his dethronement, a mutinous
diet rejecting the most necessary reforms for fear of " absolu-
tism," ungrateful allies who profited exclusively by his victories
— these were his inseparable companions during the remainder of
his life. Nay, at last his evil destiny pursued him to the battle-
field and his own home. His last campaign (in 1690) was an
utter failure, and the last years of his life were embittered
by the violence and the intrigues of his dotingly beloved wife,
Marya Kazimiera d'Arquien, by whom he had three sons,
James, Alexander and Constantine. He died on the 17th of
June 1606, a disillusioned and broken-hearted old man.
See Tadeusz Korzon, Fortunes and Misfortunes of John Sobieski
(Pol.) (Cracow, 1808); E. H. R. Tatham, John Sobieski (Oxford,
1881); Kazimicrz Walisrewsld. Archives of French Foreign Affairs*
1674-1696, v. (Cracow, 1881); Ludwik Piotr Leliwa, John Sobieski
and His Times (Pol.) (Cracow, 1882-1885); Kazimierz Wali«ewski,
Marynenka Queen of Poland (London, 1898) ; Georg Rieder, Johann
Sobieski in Wien (Vienna, 1882). (R. N. B.)
JOHN I. (1357-1433). king of Portugal, the natural son of
Pedro 1. {el Jwliciciro), was born at Lisbon on the 22nd of
April 1357, and in 1364 was created grandmaster of Aviz. On
the death of his lawful brother Ferdinand I., without male issue,
in October 1383, strenuous efforts were made to secure the
succession for Beatrice, the only child of Ferdinand I., who as
heiress-apparent had been married to John I. of Castile (Spain),
but the popular voice declared against an arrangement by which
Portugal would virtually have become a Spanish province, and
John was after violent tumults proclaimed protector and regent
in the following December. In April 138s he was unanimously
chosen king by the estates of the realm at Coimbra. The king of
Castile invaded Portugal, but his army was compelled by
pestilence to withdraw, and subsequently by the decisive
battle of Aljubarrota (Aug. 14, 1385) the stability of John's
throne was permanently secured. Hostilities continued inter-
mittently until John of Castile died, without leaving issue by
Beatrice, in 2300. Meanwhile the king of Portugal went on
consolidating the power of the crown at home and the influence
of the nation abroad. In 14 15 Ceuta was taken from the Moors
by his sons who had been born to him by bis wife Philippa,
daughter of John, duke of Lancaster, specially distinguished
in the siege was Prince Henry (q.v.) afterwards generally known
as " the Navigator." John L, sometimes surnamed " the
Great," and sometimes " father of his country," died on the
r ,. JOHN H. OF PORTUGAL-JOHN OF SAXONY
__i u»*i. i MMMifod •« king of Portugal but be continued to reside It
insequent spread of dissatisfaction resulted is
evolution of 1820, and the proclamation of a
government, to which he swore fidelity on ha
ugal in 1822. In the same year, and again in
> suppress a rebellion led by his Km Dom Miguel,
lately was compelled to banish in 1824. He died
the 36th of March 1826, and was succeeded by
-1873), king of Saxony, son of Prince Man-
ly and his wife Caroline of Parma (d. 1804), was
en on the 12th of December 1801. As a boy he
terest in literature and art (also in history, law,
idence), and studied with the greatest ardour
German literature (Herder, Schiller, Goethe),
n to compose poetry himself, and drew great
m a journey in Italy (1821-1822), the pleasure
however darkened by the death of his brother
Pavia the prince met with Biagioli's edition of
is gave rise to his lifelong and fruitful studies of
irst part of his German translation of Dante was
828, and in 1833 appeared the complete work,
t commentary, which met with a great success,
iitions appeared under his constant supervision,
1' '" ary of works on Dante.
c as betrothed to Princess Amafia
1 Maximilian Joseph. He thus
Frederick William IV., king of
l deep and lasting friendship.
I kh of November 1877, having
1 of whom, Albert and George,
ings of Saxony.
1 to Dresden, John was called in 1822 to the privy
e (Gekeimes FinatukolUgium) and in 1825 became
eat. Under the leadership of the president,
lanteuffel, he acquired a thorough knowledge of
and of political economy, and laid the founda-
ronservatism which he retained throughout life,
rities did not, however, interrupt his literary and
l He came into still closer relations with politics
it after his entry into the privy council in 183a
olution in Saxony he helped in the pacification of
ecame commandant of the new national guard,
endendes of which he tried to check, and took
lly active part in the organization of the con-
« 4th of September 2831 and especially in the
f the upper chamber, where he worked with un-
' and great ability. Following the example of his
bt his children in person, and had a great influence
tion. On the 1 2th of August 1845, during a stay
1 prince was the object of hostile public demon-
people holding him to be the bead of an alleged
party at court, and the revolution of 1848 corn-
interrupt his activities in the upper chamber,
fter the suppression of the revolution he resumed
»k part chiefly in the discussion of legal quest ions.
terested in the amalgamation of the German his-
haeological societies. On the death of his brother
istus II., John became, on the 9th of August 1 854.
f. As king he soon won great popularity owing
ty, gradousness and increasingly evident know-
. In his policy as regards the German confedcrm-
irely on the side of Austria. Though not opposed
f the federal constitution, he held that its main*
the presidency of Austria was essential. This
trted at the assembly of princes at Frankfort in
eptember 1863. He was unable to uphold bis
Prussia, and in the war of 1866 fought on the stde
t was with difficulty that, on the conclusion of
in diplomacy succeeded in enabling the king to
n. After i860 King John gradually became recon-
w state of affairs. He entered the North Gen
JOHN I. OF BRABANT— JOHN THE FEARLESS 445
confederation, and in the war of 1870-71 wit* France bis troops
fought with conspicuous courage. He died at Dresden- on the
toth of October 1873.
i See J. Pettboldt,. " Zur Littc er
A nttigcrfxtr Bibliographic (1 858, 1 n
Qber unsera Konig J., " Bote von m
pom Kdnig Jokann (Leipzig, 18 u
Jahrbucher 23 (1869); A. Rcun ii
SaMonia." Dagli AUi ddia Accad ) ;
J. P. von Winterstetn, Jokann, 1 ),
and in Attgemeine Deutsche Biogr U
liner und die Landesgeschichte (Lei \e
\Ceschkhte (Leipzig, 1899, Samml
, JOHN I. (d. 1294). duke of Brabant and Lorraine, surnamed
the Victorious, one of the most gifted and chivalrous princes of
iiis time, was the second son of Duke Henry III. and Aleidis of
Burgundy. In 1267 his elder brother Henry, being infirm of
mind and body, was deposed in his favour. In 127 1 John mar-
ried Margaret, daughter of Louis IX. of France, and on her death
in childbirth he took as his second wife (1273) Margaret of Flan-
ders, daughter of Guy de Dampierre. His sister Marie was es-
poused in 1275 to Philip III. (the Bold) of France, and during
the reign of Philip and his son Philip IV. there were dose rela-
tions of friendship and alliance between Brabant and France.
In 1285 John accompanied Philip III. in his expedition against
Peter III., king of Aragon, but the duchy of Limburg was the
scene of his chief activity and greatest successes. After the
death of Waleran IV. in 1279 the succession to this duchy was
disputed. His heiress, Ermengarde, had married Reinald L
count of Gelderland. She died childless, but her husband con-
tinued to rule in Limburg, although his rights were disputed
by Count Adolph of Berg, nephew to Waleran IV. (see Ldcbukc).
Not being strong enough to eject his rival, Adolph sold his
rights to John of Brabant, and hostilities broke out in 1283.
Harassed by desultory warfare and endless negotiations, and
seeing no prospect of holding his own against the powerful duke
of Brabant, Reinald made over his rights to Henry III. count of
Luxemburg, who was a descendant of Waleran III. of Limburg.
Henry III. was sustained by the archbishop of Cologne and other
allies, as well as by Reinald of Gelderland. The duke of Brabant
at once invaded the Rhineland and laid siege to the castle of
Woeringen near Bonn. Here he was attacked by the forces
of the confederacy on the 5th of June 1288. After a bloody
struggle John of Brabant, though at the head of far inferior
numbers, was completely victorious. Limburg was henceforth
attached to. the duchy of Brabant. John consolidated his
conquest by giving his daughter in marriage to Henry of Luxem-
burg (1291) John the Victorious was a perfect model of a
feudal prince in the days of chivalry, brave, adventurous, ex-
celling in every form of active exercise, fond of display, generous
in temper. He delighted in tournaments, and was always eager
personally to take part in jousts. On the 3rd of May 1204* on
the occasion of some marriage festivities at Bar, he was wounded
in the arm in an encounter by Pierre de Bausner, and died from
the effects of the hurt.
Bibliography.— H. Barlandus, Rerum jestdrun a Brabantiae
ducibus historic usque in annum s$ 26 (Lou vain, 1566) ; G. C. van der
Berghe, Jean le Victorieux, due de Brabant (1259-1294), (Louvatn,
1857): K. F. Stallaert, Cesch. v. Jan I. van Braband en tijne tijdvah
(Brussels, 1861); A. Wautera, Le Due Jean? 1" etle Brabant sous le
regne de ce prime (Brussels, 1859).
JOHN, or Hans (1513-1571), margrave of Brandenburg-
Ctistrin, was the younger son of Joachim I., elector of Branden-
burg, and was born at Tangermunde on the 3rd of August 151 3.
In spite of the dispositio Achillea which decreed the indivisi-
bility of the electorate, John inherited the new mark of Branden-
burg on his father's death in July 1535. He had been brought up
as a strict Catholic, but soon wavered in his allegiance, and in
1538 ranged himself definitely on the side of the Reformers.
About the same time he joined the league of Schmalkalden;.
but before the war broke out between the league and the em-
peror Charles V. the promises of the emperor had won him over
to the imperial side. After the conclusion of the war, the rela-
tions between John and Charles became somewhat strained.
The margrave opposed the Interim, issued from Augsburg in
May 1548; and he was the leader of the princes who formed a
league for the defence of the Lutheran doctrines in February
1550. The alliance of these princes, however, with Henry II.,
king of France, does not appear to have commended itself to
him and after some differences of opinion with Maurice, elector
of Saxony, he returned to the emperor's side. His remaining
years were mainly spent in the new mark, which he ruled care-
fully and economically. He added to its extent by the purchase
of Beeskow and Storkow, and fortified the towns of Custrin and
Pdta. He died at Custrin on the 13th of January 1571. His
wife Catherine was a daughter of Henry II., duke of Brunswick,
and as he left no sons the new mark passed on his death to his
nephew John George, elector of Brandenburg.
See Berg, Beitr&ge *ur Ceschichte da Morkgrofen Jokann von
KUstrin (Laodsberg, 1903).
JOHN (1371-1419). called the Fearless (Sans Peur), duke of
Burgundy, son of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and Mar-
garet of Flanders, was born at Dijon on the 28th of May 137 1.
On the death of his maternal grandfather in 1384 he received the
title of count of Nevers, which he bore until his father's death.
Though originally destined to be the husband of Catherine,
sister of Charles VI. of France, he married in 1385 Margaret,
daughter of Duke Albert of Bavaria, an alliance which con-
solidated his position in the Netherlands. In the spring of
1306 he took arms for Hungary against the Turks and on the
28th of September was taken prisoner by the Sultan Bayezid I.
at the bloody battle of Nicopolis, where he earned his surname
of " the Fearless." He did not recover his liberty until 1397,
and then only by paying an enormous ransom. He succeeded
bis father in 1404, and immediately found himself in conflict'
with Louis of Orleans, the young brother of Charles VI. The
history of the following years is filled with the struggles between
these two princes and with their attempts to seize the authority
in the name of the demented king. John endeavoured to
strengthen his position by marrying his daughter Margaret to
the dauphin Louis, and by betrothing his son Philip to a daugh-
ter of Charles VL Like his father, he looked for support -to
the popular party, to the tradesmen, particularly the powerful
gild of the butchers, and also to the university of Paris. In 1405 »
he opposed in the royal council a scheme of taxation proposed
by the duke of Orleans, which was nevertheless adopted,
Louis retaliated by refusing to sanction the duke of Burgundy's
projected expedition against -Calais, whereupon John quitted
the court in chagrin on the pretext of taking up his mother's
heritage. He was, however, called back to the council to find
that the duke of Orleans and the queen bad carried off the
dauphin. John succeeded in bringing back the dauphin to
Paris, and open war seemed imminent between the two princes.
But an arrangement was effected in October 1405, and in 1406
John was made by royal decree guardian of the dauphin and the
king's children.
The struggle, however, soon revived with increased force*
Hostilities had been resumed with England; the duke of Orleans
had squandered the money raised for John's expedition against
Calais; and the two rivals broke out into open threats. On the
20th of November 1407 their uncle, the duke of Berry, brought
about a solemn reconciliation, but three days later Louis was
assassinated by John's orders in the Rue Barbette, Paris. John
at first sought to conceal his share in the murder, but ultimately
decided to confess to his uncles, and abruptly left Paris. His
vassals, however, showed themselves determined to support him
in his struggle against the avengers of the duke of Orleans.
The court decided to negotiate, and called upon the duke to
return. John entered Paris in triumph, and instructed the
Franciscan theologian Jean Petit (d. 141 r) to pronounce an
apology for the murder. But he was soon called back to his
estates by a rising of the people of Liege against his brother-in-law,
the bishop of that town. The queen and the Orleans party took
every advantage of his absence and had Petit's discourse solemnly
refuted. John's victory over the Lilgeois at Hasbain on the
23rd of September 1408, enabled him to return to Paris, where he
44.6
JOHN OF SAXONY— JOHN, DON
was reinstated in his ancient privilege*. By the peace of
Cbartres (March 9, 1400) the king absolved him from the
crime, and Valentina Visconti, the widow of the murdered duke,
and her children pledged themselves to a reconciliation; while an
edict of the 27th of December 1409 gave John the guardianship
of the dauphin. Nevertheless, a new league was formed against
the duke of Burgundy in the following year, principally at the
instance of Bernard, count of Armagnac, from whom the party
opposed to the Burgundians took its name. The peace of
Bicetre (Nov. 2, 14 10) prevented the outbreak of hostilities,
inasmuch as the parties were enjoined by its terms to return
to their estates; but in 1411, in consequence of ravages com-
mitted by the Armagnacs in the environs of Paris, the duke of
Burgundy was called back to Paris. He relied more than ever
on the support of the popular party, which then obtained the
reforming Ordonnanee Cabockienne (so called from Simon
Caboche, a prominent member of the gild of the butchers).
But the bloodthirsty excesses of the populace brought a change.
John was forced to withdraw to Burgundy (August 1413),
and the university of Paris and John Gerson once more cen-
sured Pctit's propositions, which, but for the lavish bribes of
money and wines offered by John to the prelates, would have
been solemnly condemned at the council of Constance. John's
attitude was undecided; he negotiated with the court and also
with the English, who had just renewed hostilities with France.
Although he talked of helping his sovereign, his troops took no
part in the battle of Agincourt (1415), where, however, two of his
brothers, Anthony, duke of Brabant, and Philip, count of
Nevers, fell fighting for France.
In 141 7 John made an attack on Paris, which failed through
his loitering at Lagny; * but on the 30th of May 14x8 a traitor,
one Perrinet Lederc, opened the gates of Paris to the Burgundian
captain, Villiers de l'lsle Adam. The dauphin, afterwards King
Charles VL, fled from the town, and John betook himself to the
king, who promised to forget the past. John, however, did
nothing to prevent the surrender of Rouen, which had been
besieged by the English, and on which the fate of the kingdom
seemed to depend; and the town was taken in 1419. The
dauphin then decided on a reconciliation, and on the ixth of
« July the two princes swore peace on the bridge of Pouilly, near
Melun. On the ground that peace was not sufficiently assured
by the Pouilly meeting, a fresh interview was proposed by the
dauphin and took place on the xoth of September 14 19 on the
bridge of Montereau, when the duke of Burgundy was felled
with an axe by Tanneguy du Chastel, one of the dauphin's
companions, and done to death by the other members of the
dauphin's escort. His body was first buried at Montereau and
afterwards removed to the Chartreuse of Dijon and placed in
a magnificent tomb sculptured by Juan de la Huerta; the tomb
was afterwards transferred to the museum in the ktlel de ville.
By his wife, Margaret of Bavaria, he had one son,. Philip the
Good, who succeeded him; and seven daughters— Margaret,
who married in 1404 Louis, son of Charles VI., and in 14 23
Arthur, earl of Richmond and afterwards duke of Brittany;
Mary, wife of Adolph of Cleves; Catherine, promised in 1410
to a son of Louis of Anjou; Isabella, wife of Olivier de Chatillon,
count of Penthievre; Joanna, who died young; Anne, who mar-
ried John, duke of Bedford, in 1423; and Agnes, who married
Charles I., duke of Bourbon, in 1425. ;
(Brussels. 1 835-1 836); B. Zeller, Louis de France et Jean same Pent
(Paris, 1886) ; and E. Petit, Jtin&oire de PhUippe le Bardi et de J earn
«<w Peur (Pans, 1888). t (R. Pa)
JJOHN (1468-1532). called the Steadfast, elector of Saxony,
fourth son of the elector Ernest, was bora on the 30th of June
1468. In 1486, when his eldest brother became elector as
Frederick HI., John received a part of the paternal inheritance
and afterwards assisted his kinsman, the German king Maxi-
milian I., in several campaigns. He was an early adherent of
Luther, and, becoming elector of Saxony by his brother's death
•This incident earned for him among the Parisians the con-
temptuous nickname of " John of Lagny, who does not hurry."
in May 1 5 2 5, was soon prominent among the Reformers. Having
assisted to suppress the rising led b> Thomas Mnnzer in 1525,
be helped Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to found the league of
Gotha, formed in 1526 for the protection of the Reformers. He
was active at the diet of Spires in x 526, and the " recess " of this
diet gave him an opportunity to reform the church in Saxony,
where a plan for divine service was drawn up by Luther. The
assertions of Otto von Pack that a league had been formed
against the elector and his friends induced John to ally himself
again with Philip of Hesse in March 1528, but he rest rained
Philip from making an immediate a tuck upon their opponents.
He signed the protest against the " recess " of the diet of Spires
in 1529, being thus one of the original Protestants, and was
actively hostile to Charles V. at the diet of Augsburg in 1530.
Having signed the confession of Augsburg, he was alone among
the electors in objecting to the election of Ferdinand, afterwards
the emperor Ferdinand I., as king of the Romans. He was
among the first members of the league of Schmalkalden, assented
to the religious peace of Nuremberg in 1 53 2, and died at Sch weid-
nitz on the 16th of August 1532. John was twice married and
left two sons and two daughters. His elder son, John Frederick,
succeeded him as elector, and his younger son was John Ernest
(d- 1553). He rendered great services to the Protestant cause
in its infancy, but as a Lutheran resolutely refused to come to
any understanding with other opponents of the older faith.
See J. Becker, Kurfursl Johann von Sachsen und seine Beiickvntm
tu Luther (Leipzig, 1890) ; J. Jansscn, History of the German People
(English translation), vol. v. (London, 1003) ; L. von Rankc, Deutsche
Gesckickte im Zeiealter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1882).
JOHN, DON (1545*1578), of Austria, was the natural son of
the emperor Charles V. by Barbara Blomberg, the daughter of
an opulent citizen of Regensburg. He was born in that free
imperial city on the 24th of February 1545, the anniversary of
his father's birth and coronation and of the battle of Pa via,
and was at first confided under the name of GeTonimo to foster
parents of humble birth, living at a village near Madrid; but in
1554 he was transferred to the charge of Madalcna da Ulloa,
the wife of Don Luis de Quijada, and was brought up in ignorance
of his parentage at Quijada's castle of Villagarcia not far from
Valladolid. Charles V. in a codicil of his will recognized Gcro-
nimo as his son, and recommended him to the care of his successor.
In September X559 Philip II. of Spain publicly recognized the
boy as a member of the royal family, and he was known at court
as Don Juan de Austria. For three years he was educated at
Alcala, and had as school companions his nephews, the infante
Don Carlos and Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma. With
Don Carlos his relations were especially friendly. It had been
Philip's intention that Don John should become a monk, but he
showed a strong inclination for a soldier's career and the king
yielded. In 1568 Don John was appointed to the command of
a squadron of 3$ galleys, and his first operations were against the
Algerian pirates. His next services were (1569-7°) against the
rebel Moriscos in Granada. In X571 a nobler field of action was
opened to him. The conquest of Cyprus by the Turks had led
the Christian powers of the Mediterranean to fear for the safety
of the Adriatic. A league between Spain and Venice was
effected by the efforts of Pope Pius V. to resist the Turkish
advance to the west, and Don John was named admiral in chief
of the combined fleets. At the head of 208 galleys, 6 galleasses
and a number of smaller craft, Don John encountered the
Turkish fleet at Lepanto on the 7th of October 1571, and gained
a complete victory. Only forty Turkish vessels effected their
escape, and it was computed that 35,000 of their men were slain
or captured white 15,000 Christian galley slaves were released.
Unfortunately, through divisions and jealousies between the
allies, the fruits of one of the most decisive naval victories in
history were to a great extent lost.
This great triumph aroused Don John's ambition and filled
his imagination with schemes of personal aggrandizement.
He thought of erecting first a principality in Albania and the
Morea, and then a kingdom in Tunis. But the conclusion by
Venice of a separate peace with the sultan put an end to the
JOHN, DON— JOHN OF THE CROSS
fe*go.e, and though Don John captured Tunis in 1573, ft wa*
again speedily lost. Tbe schemes of Don John found no support
In Philip II., who refused to entertain them, and even withheld
from his half-brother the title of infante of Spain. At last,
however, he was appointed (1 576) governor-general of the Nether-
lands, in succession to Luis de Rcquesens. The administration
of the latter had not been successful, the revolt headed by the
prince of Orange had spread, and at the time of Don John's
nomination the Pacification of Ghent appeared to have united
the whole of the seventeen provinces of the Netherlands in deter-
mined opposition to Spanish rule and the policy of Philip II.
The magic of Don John's name, and the great qualities of which
he had given proof, were to recover what had been lost. He
was, however, now brought into contact with an adversary of
a very different calibre from himself. This was William of
Orange, whose influence was now supreme throughout the Nether-
lands. The Pacification of Ghent, which was really a treaty
between Holland and Zecland and the other provinces for the
defence of their common Interests against Spanish oppression,
had been followed by an agreement between the southern pro-
vinces, known as the Union of Brussels, which, though maintain"
ing the Catholic religion and the king's authority, aimed at the
expulsion of the Spanish soldiery and officials from the Nether-
lands. Confronted by the refusal of the states general to accept
him as governor unless he assented to the conditions of tbe Paci-
fication of Ghent, swore to maintain the rights and privileges
of the provinces, and to employ only Netherlander* in his
service, Don John, after some months of fruitless negotiations,
saw himself compelled to give way. At Hucy on the 12th of
February 1577 he signed a treaty, known as the " Perpetual
Edict," in which he complied with these terms. On the 1st of
May he made his entry into Brussels, but he found himself
governor-general only in name, and the prince of Orange master
of the situation. In July he suddenly betook himself to Namur
and withdrew his concessions. William of Orange forthwith
took up his residence at Brussels, and gave his support to the
archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor, whom the states-
general accepted as their sovereign. Meanwhile Philip had sent
large reinforcements* to Don John under the leadership of his
cousin Alexander Farncse. At the head of a powerful force
Don John now suddenly attacked the patriot army at Gem-
blours, where, chiefly by the skill and daring of Farncse, a com-
plete victory was gained on the 31st of January 1578. He
could not, however, follow up his success for lack of funds, and
was compelled to remain inactive all tbe summer, chafing with
impatience at the cold indifference with which his appeals for
the sinews of war were treated by Philip. His health gave way,
$e was attacked with fever, and on the 1st of October 1578, at
the earty age of 33, Don John died, heartbroken at the failure
of all his soaring ambitions, and at the repeated proofs that he
had received of the king his brother's jealousy and neglect.
See Sir W. Stirling Maxwell. Don John of A ustria i$47-l$75 (1883)
and the blbtiography under Philip If. of Spain.
. JOHN, DON (1629-1679). of Austria, the younger, recognized
as the natural son of Philip IV., king of Spain, his mother,
Maria Calderon, or Calderona, being an actress. Scandal
accused her of a prodigality of favours which must have rendered
the paternity of Don John very dubious. He was, however,
recognized by the king, received a princely education at Ocafta,
and was amply endowed with commanderies in the military
orders, and other forms of income. Don John was sent in 1647
to Naples — then in the throes of the popular rising first led by
Masaniello— with a squadron and a military force, to support
the viceroy. The restoration of royal authority was due rather
to the exhaustion of the insurgents and the follies of their French
leader, the duke of Guise, than to the forces of Don John. He
was next sent as viceroy to Sicily, whence he was recalled in 1651
to complete the pacification of Catalonia, which had been in
revolt since 1640. The excesses of the French, whom the Catalans
had called in, had produced a reaction, and Don John had not
much more to do than to preside over the final siege of Barcelona
and the convention which terminated the revolt in October 1652.
447
On both occasions he had played the peacemaker, and this
sympathetic part, combined with his own pleasant manners
and handsome person with bright eyes and abundant raven-
black hair— a complete contrast to the fair complexions of the
Habsburgs— made him a popular favourite. In 1656 he was
sent to command in Flanders, in combination with the prince of
Condi, then in revolt against his own sovereign. At the storming
of the French camp at Valenciennes in 1656, Don John displayed
brilliant personal courage at the head of a cavalry charge.
When, however, he took a part in the leadership of the army at
the Dunes in the battle fought against Turennc and the British
forces sent over by Cromwell in 1658, he was completely beaten,
in spite of the efforts of Condi, whose advice he neglected, and
of the hard fighting of English Royalist exiles. During 1661 and
1662 he commanded against the Portuguese in Estremadura.
The Spanish troops were ill-appointed, irregularly paid and un-
trustworthy, but they were superior in numbers and some
successes were gained. If Don John had not suffered from the
indolence which Clarendon, who knew him, considered his chief
defect, the Portuguese would have been hard pressed. The
greater part of the south of Portugal was overrun, but in 1663
the Portuguese were reinforced by a body of English troops,
and were put under the command of the Huguenot Schomberg.
By him Don John was completely beaten at Estremos. Even
now he might not have lost the confidence of his father, if
Queen Mariana, mother of the sickly infante Carlos, the only
surviving legitimate son of the king, had not regarded the bastard
with dist rust and dislike. Don John was removed from command
and sent to his commandery at Consuegra. After the death of
Philip IV. in 1665 Don John became the recognized leader of
the opposition to the government of Philip's widow, the queen
regent. She and her favourite, the German Jesuit Nithard,
seized and put to death one of his most trusted servants, Don
Jose" Malladas. Don John, in return, put himself at the head of
a rising of Aragon and Catalonia, which led to the expulsion of
Nilhard on the 25th of February 1669. Don John was, however,
forced to content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon. In
1677, the queen mother having aroused universal opposition by
her shameless favour for Fernando de Valenzuela, Don John
was able to drive ber from court, and establish himself as prime
minister. Great hopes were entertained of his administration, 1
but it proved disappointing and short. Don John died on the
17th of September 1679. __
The career of Don John can be followed in J. C. Dunlop's Memoir*
of Spain 1621-1700 (Edin. 1834).
JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST (d. 721), English bishop, is said
to have been born of noble parents at Harpham, in the east riding
of Yorkshire. He received his education at Canterbury under
Archbishop Theodore, the statement that he was educated at
Oxford being of course untrue. He was for a time a member of
the Whitby community, under St Hilda, and in 687 he was conse-
crated bishop of Hexham and in 705 was promoted to the bishop-
ric of York. He resigned the latter see in 718, and retired to a
monastery which he had founded at Beverley, where he died on
the 7th of May 721. He was canonized in 1037, and his feast
is celebrated annually in the Roman Church on the 7th of May.
Many miracles of healing are ascribed to John, whose pupils were
numerous and devoted to him.. He was celebrated for hi*
scholarship as well as for his virtues.
The following works are ascribed to John by J. Bale: Pro Luca
exbonendo (an exposition of Luke); Horn ilia* in Evangeha; Et&stala*
ad Herebaldum, Attdenam, et Bertin*m\ and Epistotae ad Hytdam
abbatissam. See life by Folcard. based on Bede, in Ada SS. Bouand. 1
and J. Raine's Fasti eboracensts (1863). "" *
JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST 542-1501). Spanish mystic,
was born at Ontiveros (Old Castile) on the 24th of June 1542.
He became a professed Carmelite in X564, and was ordained
priest at Salamanca in 1567. He met with much opposition in
his efforts to introduce the reforms proposed by St Theresa, and
was more than once imprisoned. His real name was Juan de
Yepez y Alvarez; in religion he was known as Juan de San
Malias till 1568, when he adopted the name of Juan de la Cruz.
C or ASIA.— JOHN OF DAMASCUS
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JOHN OF HEXHAM— JOHN OF SALISBURY
natures by relegating to the divine Logos the formative and control-
ling agency. It it not a human individual that the Logos assumes.
nor is it numanity, or human nature in general. It b rather a
potential human individual, a nature not yet developed into a person
or hypostasis. The hypostasis through which this takes place b
the personal Logos through whose union with this potential man,
in the womb of Mary, the potential man acquires a concrete reality,
an individual existence. He has, therefore, no hypostasis of himself
but only in and through the Logos. It b denied that he b nan-hypo-
static (awftorarof ) ; it is affirmed that be b en-hjpostatic (tonreVrorof).
Two natures may form a unity, as the body and soul in man. So man,
both soul and body, is brought into unity with the Logos; there being
then one bypostasb for both natures." There b an interchange of
the divine and human attributes, a communication of the former
which deifies the receptive and passive human nature. In Christ
the human will has become the organ of the divine will. Thus while
John b an adherent of Chakedon and a dyothelite, the drift of his
teaching b in the roonophysite direction. "The Chalccdonian
Definition b victorious, but Apoffinarb b not overcome"; what
John gives with the one hand he takes away with the other. On
the question of the Atonement he regards the death of Christ as a
sacrifice offered to Cod and not a ransom paid to the deviL
LrrnATuaB.— The Life of John of Damascus was written by
John, patriarch of Jerusalem in the 10th century (Migne, Patrol.
Grate., xdv. 429-489). The works were edited by Le Quien (2 vols.,
fol., Paris, 1712) and form vob. 94 to 96 in Mtgne's Greek series.
A monograph by J. Langen was published in 18^9. A. Ha mack's
Hislory of Dogma Is very full (see especially vob. iii. and iv. ; on the
image- worship controversy, iv. 322 seq.), and so arejthe simuar works
Loofs-Seeberg and A. Dorr " •-*«■•
_. . . m See also O. Bardenhewer's
Patrologie, and other literature cited in F. Kattenbusch's excellent
article in Hauck-Herzog, Realencyhlopddie, vol. ix.
JOHN OF HEXHAM (c. 1x60*1209), English chronicler, b
known to us merely as the author of a work called the Historia
XX V. atmorum, which continues the Historia return of Simeon
of Durham and contains an account of English events 1 130-1 1 53.
From the title, as given in the only manuscript, we learn John's
name and the fact that he was prior of Hexham. It must have
been between 1160 and 1209 that be held this position; but the
date at which he lived and wrote cannot be more accurately
determined. Up to the year 1 139 he follows closely the history
written by hb predecessor. Prior Richard; thenceforward be b
an independent though not a very valuable authority. He b
best informed as to the events of the north country; hb want of
care, when he ventures farther afield, may be illustrated by the
fact that he places in 114s King Stephen's siege of Oxford, which
really occurred in 1 142. Even for northern affairs hb chronology
is faulty; from 1140 onwards hb dates are uniformly one year
too late. Prior Richard b not the only author to whom John is
indebted; he incorporates in the annal of 1 138 two other narra-
tives of the battle of the Standard, one in verse by the
monk Serlo, another in prose by Abbot Ailred of Rievaux; and
also a poem, by a Glasgow clerk, on the death of Sumerled of the
The one manuscript of John's chronicle b a 13th century copy;
MS. C C. C. Cambridge, exxxix. 8. The best edition b that of
T« Arnold in Symeonis monacki opera, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, 1883).
There ban English translation in J. Stevenson's Church Historians of
England, vol. iv. (London, 1856). (H. VY. C. D.)
JOHN OP IRELAND (Johaxnb de Luandia), (JL 1480),
Scottish writer, perhaps of Lowland origin, was resident for thirty
years in Paris and later a professor of t neology. He was confessor
to James IV. and also to Louis XI. of France, and was rector of
Yarrow (de Forests) when he completed, at Edinburgh, the work
on which rests hb sole claim at a vernacular writer. This book,
preserved in MS. in the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh (MS. 18,
2, 8), and labelled " Johannis de Irlandia opera theologka," b a
treatise in Scots on the wisdom and discipline necessary to a
prince, especially intended for the use of the young James IV.
The book u the earliest extant example of original Scots prose.
It was still in MS. in 1910, but an edition was promised by the
Scottish Text Society. In thb book John refers to two other
vernacular writings, one " of the commandementis and uthir
thingjs pre! en and to the salvacioune of man," the other, " of the
tabill of confessioune." No traces of these have been discovered.
The author's name appears on the registers of the university
of Paris and on the rolbof the Scottish parliaments, and
449
be b referred to by the Scottish historians, Leslie and
Dempster.
See the notices in John Lyden's Introduction to hb edition of
the Conploynt of Scotland* (1801), pp. 85 seq.; The Scottish
Antiquary, xiiL 111-115 and rv. i-i£ Annotated extracts are
given in Gregory Smith's Specimens of Middle Scats (1902).
JOHN OF RAVENNA. Two distinct persons of thb name,
formerly confused and identified with a third (anonymous)
Ravennese in Petrarch's letters, lived at the end of the 14th
and the beginning of the 15th century.
x. A young Ravennese born about 1347, who in 1364 went
to live with Petrarch as secretary. In 1367 be set out to see
the world and make a name for himself, returned in a state of
destitution, but, growing restless again, left hb employer for
good in 1368. He b not mentioned again in Petrarch's corre-
spondence, unless a letter*' to a certain wanderer" (vagocuidam),
congratulating him on hb arrival at Rome in 1373, b addressed
to him.
2. Son of Conversanus (Conversmus, Convertinos). He b
first beard of (Nov. 17, 2368) as appointed to the professor-
ship of rhetoric at Florence, where he bad for some time held
the post of notary at the courts of justice. This differentiates
him from (1). He entered (c. 1370) the service of the docal house
of Padua, the Carraras, in which he continued at least until 1404,
al t hough the whole of t hat period was not spent in Padua. From
1375 to 1379 he was a schoolmaster at Bclluno, and was dismissed
as too good for hb post and not adapted for teaching boys. On
the 22nd of March 1382, he was appointed professor of rhetoric
at Padua. During the struggle between the Carraras and
Viscontb, he spent five years at Udine (1387-1392). From
1 J95-1404 be was chancellor of Francis of Carrara, and b heard
of for the last time in 1406 as living at Venice. Hb history of
the Carraras, a tasteless production in barbarous Latin, says little
for his literary capacity; but as a teacher he enjoyed a great
reputation, amongst hb pupils being Viltorino da Feltre and
Guarino of Verona.
3. Malpaghini (De Malpaghinb), the most Important. Born
about 1356, he was a pupil of Petrarch from a very early age to
I374. On the 10th of September 1397 he was appointed pro-
fessor of rhetoric and eloquence at Florence. On the 9th of June
1412, on the re-opening of the studio, which had been shut from
1405 to 1411 owing to the plague, hb appointment was renewed
for five years, before the expiration of which period he died (May
1417). Although Malpagfu'ni left nothing behind him, he did
much to encourage the study of Latin; among hb pupils was
Poggio Bracciolini.
The local documents and other authorities on the subject will be
found in E. T. Klctte, Beitrage tur Ceschichie und LtUeratur der
tiehentscken Gelehrtenrenatssance, vol. i. (1 888); see also G. Voigt,
Die Wtederbelebungdes hlass i s c h e n Altertums, who, however, identifies
(I) and (2).
JOHN OF SALISBURY (c. xirs-ti8o), English author,
diplomatist and bishop, was born at Salisbury between the years
1 1 15 and 1 1 20. Beyond the fact that he was of Saxon, not of
Norman race, and applies to himself the cognomen of Parvus,
" short," or " small," few dctatts are known regarding hb early
life; but from his own statements it is gathered that he crossed
to France about 1136, and began regular studies in Paris under
Abelard, who had there for a brief period re-opened his famous
school on Mont St Genevieve. After Abelard s retirement , John
carried on hb studies under Alberich of Reims and Robert of
Melun. From 1138 to 1140 he studied grammar and the
classics under William of Conches and Richard I'Eveque, the
disciples of Bernard of Chartres, though it b still a matter of
controversy whether it was in Chartres or not (cf. A. Clerval,
Lts Scales de Chartres au tnoyen Age, 1895). Bernard's teaching
was distinguished partly by its pronounced Platonic tendency,
partly by the stress laid upon literary study of the greater Latin
writers; and the influence of the latter feature b noticeable in
all John of Salisbury's works. About 1140 he was at Paris
studying theology under Gilbert de la Porree, then under
Robert Pullus and Simon of Poissy. In U48 he resided at
JOHST OF SWABIA— JOHN, EPISTLES OF
450
Moutiers la Celle in the diocese of Troyes, with his friend Peter
of Celle. He was present at the council of Rams, presided over
by Pope Eugenius III., and was probably presented by Bernard
of Clairvaux to Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, at whose
court he settled, probably about 1150* Appointed secretary to
Theobald, he was frequently sent on missions to the papal see.
During this time he composed his greatest works, published
almost certainly in 1159, the Potkratkus, site de Hugis aerial turn
tt de lestigiis phUcsophorum and the Metabgkus, writings
invaluable as storehouses of information regarding the matter
and form of scholastic education, and remarkable ior their
cultivated style and humanist tendency. After the death of
Theobald in 1161, John continued as secretary to Thomas
Becket, and took an active part in the long disputes between
that primate and his sovereign, Henry U. His letters throw
light on the constitutional struggle then agitating the English
world. With Becket he withdrew to France during the king's
displeasure; he returned with him in 1170, and was present at
his assassination. In the following years, during which he
continued in an influential situation in Canterbury, but at what
precise date is unknown, he drew up the Life of Thomas Beckel.
In 1 1 76 he was made bishop of Chart res, where be passed
the remainder of his life. In 1 170 he took an active part in the
council of the Lateran. He died at or near Chartres on the
25th of October 1180.
John's writings enable us to understand with much completeness
the literary and scientific position of the 12th century. His views
imply a cultivated intelligence well versed in practical affairs,
opposing to the extremes of both nominalism and realism a practical
common sense. His doctrine is a kind of utilitarianism, with a
strong leaning on the speculative side to the modified literary
scepticism of Cicero, for whom he had unbounded admiration.
He was a humanist before the Renaissance, surpassing all other
representatives of the school of Chartres in his knowledge of the
Latin classics, as in the purity of his style, which was evidently
moulded on that of Cicero. Of Greek writers he appears to have
known nothing at first hand, and very little in translations. The
Ttmaeus of Plato in the Latin version of Chalcidius was known to
him as to his contemporaries and predecessors, and probably he
had access to translations of the Pkatdo and Meno.^ Of Aristotle
he possessed the whole of the Organon in Latin; he is. indeed, the
first of the medieval writers of note to whom the whole was known.
Of other Aristotelian writings he appears to have known nothing.
The collected editions of the works are by J. A. Giles (5 vols.,
Oxford. 1848), and by Mignc. in the Patrolopoe cursus, vol. 199:
neither accurate. The Poitcratteus was edited with notes and
introductions by C C. I. Webb. Ioannts Saresbenensts episcopt
Camotensu Polteratkt (Oxford. 1900). 2 vols. The most complete
study of John of Salisbury is the monograph by C. Schaarschnudt.
Johannes Sarisbcrtensis nock Leben und Studien, Schnften und
Philosophic, 1862. which is a model of accurate and complete work-
manship. See also the article in the Did. Nat. Btog.
JOHN (1200-c 1320), surnamed the Parricide, and called also
John of Swabia, was a son of Rudolph 11. count of Habsburg
and Agnes daughter of Ottakar 11. king of Bohemia, and
consequently a grandson of the German king Rudolph I. Having
passed his early days at the Bohemian court, when he came of
age he demanded a portion of the family estates from his unde.
the German king Albert I. His wishes were not gratified, and
with three companions he formed a plan to murder the king.
On the 1 st of May 1308 Albert in crossing the river Reuss at
VVindisch became separated from his attendants, and was at
once attacked and killed by the four conspirators. John
escaped the vengeance of Albert's sons, and was afterwards
found in a monastery at Pisa, where in 1313 he is said to have
been visited by the emperor Henry VII., who had placed him
under the ban. From this time he vanishes from history.
The character of John is used by Schiller in his play Wilheim
TeU.
JOHN, THB EPISTLES OF. The so-called epistles of John,
in the Bible, are not epistles in the stria sense of the term, for
the first is a homily, and encyclical or pastoral (as has been recog-
nised since the days of Brctschneider and Michaelis), while
the other two are brief notes or fetters. Nor are they John's,
if John means the son of Zebedee. The Utter conclusion depends
upon the particular hypothesis adopted with regard to the
general Johanaine problem, yet even when it Is held that jofe
the apostle (?.».) survived to old age in Ephesus, the second
and third epistles may be fairly ascribed (with Erasmus, Grotius,
Credner, Brctschneider, Reuss, &c.) to John the presbyter 1 , as
several circles in the early church held ("Opinio a p i eri s qnc
tradita," Jerome: De sir. ill. 18). An apostle indeed might
call himself a presbyter (cf. x Pet. v. 1). But these notes imply
no apostolic claim on the part of the author, and, although their
author is anonymous, the likelihood is that their composition
by the great Asiatic presbyter John led afterwards to their
incorporation in the " instrument um " of John the apostle's
writings, when the prestige of the latter had obscured the
former. All hypotheses ns to their pseudonymity or composition
by different hands may be dismissed. They would never have
floated down the stream of tradition except on the support of
some primitive authority. If this was not connected with John
the apostle the only feasible alternative is to think of John the
presbyter, for Papias refers to the latter in precisely this fashion
(Ettseb. H.E. hi. 30* 15; coi roDro 6 t. tktye).
The period of all three lies somewhere within the last decade
of the 1st century and the first decade of the 2nd. No evidence
is available to determine in what precise order they were written,
but it will be convenient to take the two smaller notes befoie
the larger. The so-called Second Epistle of John is one of the
excommunicating notes occasionally despatched by early
Christian leaders to a community (cf. 2 Cor. v. 0). The presbyter
or elder warns a Christian community, figuratively addressed
as M the elect lady " (cf. 13 with t Pet. i. 1 ; v, 13 ; also the plural
of 6, 8, 10 and 13), against some itinerant (cf. Didacke xi. 1-1)
teachers who were promulgating advanced Docettc views (7)
upon the person of Christ. The note is merely designed to
serve (1 2) until the writer arrives in person. He sends greetings
to his correspondents from some community in which he is
residing at present (13), and with which they had evidently
some connexion.
The note was familiar to Irenacus* who twice (1. id, 3, 13. 16, 8)
cites 10-11, once quoting it from the first epistle by mistake,
but no tradition has preserved the name of the community in
question, and all opinions on the matter are guess-work. The
reference to " all who know the truth " (ver. 1) is, of course, to
be taken relatively (cf. Rev. fi. 23); it does not necessarily imply
a centre like Antioch or Rome (Chapman). Whiston thought
of Philadelphia, and probably it must have been one of the
Astatic churches
The so-called Third Epistle of John belongs to the erfrroXat
ffutrr&rixac (2 Cor iii. t) of the early church, like Rom. xvi. It
is a private note addressed by the pre&yter to a certain Gains,
a member of the same community or house-church (o) as that
to which 2 John is written. A local errorist, Diotrephes (0-10)
had repudiated the authority of the writer and his party,
threatening even to excommunicate Gaius and others from
the church (cf. Abbott's DtcUssarica, % 2258). With this
opponent the writer promises (10) to deal sharply in person
before very long. Meantime (14) he despatches the present
note, in hearty appreciation of his correspondent's attitude
and character.
The allusion in v (eypa^a) refers in all likelihood to the
" second " epistle (so Ewald, Wolf, Salmon, &c). In order to
avoid the suggestion that it implied a lost epistle, op was inserted
at an early stage in the textual history of the note. If UkX+tias
could be read in 12, Demetrius would be a presbyter; in any
case, he is not to be identified with Demas (Chapman), nor is
1 So Sehryn, Christian Prophets (pp. 133-145), Harnack. Heinrid
{Das Vrchnstenthum, 1902, pp. 129 scq.), and von Soden (HiUory of
Early Christian Literature, pp. 445-446), after Renan tL'£gltse
chrftienne, pp. 78 scq.). Von Dd
Primitive Church, pp. 218 sea.) a
ZeUalttr, 1905, pp. 32 seq.. &c) are among the'most recent critics
chuu {Christian Life t* the
a.) and R. Knopf (Das nachapost.
who ascribe all three epistles to the presbyter.
L 'On the early allusions to these brief notes, cf. Gregory: The
Canon and Text of the New Testament (1907). pp. 131. 190 scq., "West-
cott'i Canon of the New Testament, pp. 218 seq.. 355, 357. 366. &c~
and LeipolaYs Geuhuhte d. neut. Kanons C1007). 1. pp. 60 s*q., 79
seq.. 99 seq.. 151 seq., 191 seq>. 23s seq.
JOHN, EPISTLES OF
theft any reason to suppose (with Harnack) 1 that the note of 9
was written to, and suppressed by, him. What the presbyter
is afraid of is not so much that his note would not be read
(Ewald, Harnack), as that it would not be acted upon.
These notes, written originally on small sheets of papyrus,
reveal the anonymous presbyter travelling (so Clem. Alex. Quis
dives saiv. xlii.) in his circuit or diocese of churches, and writing
occasional pastoral letters, in which he speaks not only in his
own name but in that of a coterie of like-minded Christians. 1
It is otherwise with the brochure or manifesto known as the
" first epistle." This was written neither at the request of its
readers nor to meet any definite local emergency, but on the
initiative of its author (i. 4) who was evidently concerned about
the effect produced upon the Church in general by certain
contemporary phases of semi-gnostic teaching. The polemic is
directed against a dualism which developed theoretically into
docetic views of Christ's person (ii. 22, iv. 2, &c.),and practically
into libertinism (ii. 4, &c.).* It is natural to think, primarily,
of the churches in Asia Minor as the circle addressed, but all
indications of date or place are absent, except those which may
be inferred from its inner connexion with the Fourth Gospel
The plan of the brochure is unstudied and unpremeditated,
resembling a series of variations upon one or two favourite
themes rather than a carefully constructed melody. Fellowship
(Koatuvia) with God and man is its dominant note. After
defining the essence of Christian xoivupia (i. 1-3)/ the writer
passes on to its conditions (i. 5— ii. 17), under the antithesis of
light and darkness. These conditions are twofold: (a) a sense
of sin, which leads Christians to a sense of forgiveness* through
Jesus Christ, (6) and obedience to the supreme law of brotherly
love (cf. Ignat. Ad Smyrn. 6). If these conditions are unfulfilled,
moral darkness is the issue, a darkness which spells ruin to the
soul. This prompts the writer to explain the dangers of Kouwia
(ii. 18-29), under the antithesis of truth and falsehood, the
immediate peril being a novel heretical view of the person of
1 In his ingenious study {Texte und Untersuchungen, xv. 3), whose
main contention is adopted by von Dobschutx and Knopf. On this
view (for criticism see Bclscr in the Tubing. Quartal sckrift, 1897,
pp. 150 seq., Kruger in Zeitschrtft fur die vttss. Theoiogte, 1898. pp.
307-311, and Hilgenfeld: ibid. 316-320), Diotrephcs was voicing a
successful protest of the local monarchical bishops against the
older itinerant authorities (cf. Schmiedcl, Ency. Bib., 314&-3147).
As Wilamowitz-Mocllendorf (Hermes, 1898. pp. 529 seq.) points out,
there is a close connexion between ver. 1 r and ver. 10. The same
writer argues that, as the substitution of Ayawhrot for 4lXrdr«*
(ver. 1) " ist Schonrednerci und nicht vom besten Geschmacke," the
writer adds 6» iy<* Ayaru tr AXq0«f$.
* This is the force of the faU in 3 John 9-10 (cf. I John iv. 6, 14)
*' The truth " (3 lohn 3-5) seems to mean a life answering to the
apostolic standard th
• Several of these ti
thus, others may ha
The opposition to th<
The denial of the ^
system of Cerinthus
Matthew and Luke,
from the baptism to
preferred to answer
Logos, with its implk
* On the vexed qui
is purely spiritual or :
(Expositor, 1893. PP- (
ichtng of Cerin-
wish Christian,
tried adherents.
d part of the
the stories of
on of the spirit
chool evidently
'. theory of the
this paragraph
. G. E. Findlay
1893, PP- ( recent study in
Diatessarica, §§ 1615- .- — ing the Docetic
heresy, and at the same time keeping up the line of communications
with the apostolic base.
• The universal range fri. 2) ascribed to the redeeming work of
Christ is directed against Gnostic dualism and the Ebionitic narrow-
ing of salvation to Israel; only iput here denotes Christians in
general, not Jewish Christians. On the answer to the Gnostic
pride of perfectionism (i. 8), cf. Epict. iv. 12, 19. The emphasis on
you all ** (ii. 20) hints at the Gnostic aristocratic system of degrees
among believers, which naturally tended to break up brotherly love
(cf. I Cor. viii. I seq.). The Gnostics also held that a spiritual seed
cf. Lit. 9) was implanted in man, as the germ of his higher develop-
ment into the divine life; for the Valentinian idea cf. Iren. Adv.
Haer. L 64. and Tertull. De onima, 11 Jhaeretici| " nesrio quod
spin tale semen infulciunt animae "). Cf. the general discussions
by Hit.ng in Theologische Abhandlungen C. von Weizsdeker rewidtnei
(1892), pp. 188 seq., and Zahn in Wonderungen durck Sckrift si.
Ctukukle (1693), pp. 3^74-
45 1
Christ. The characteristics of the fellowship are then developed
(iii. 1- 1 2), as sinlessncss and brotherly love, under the antithesis
of children of God (cf. ii. 29, " born of Him ") and children of
the deviL This brotherly love bulks so largely in the writer's
mind that he proceeds to enlarge upon its main elements of
confidence towards God (iii. 13-24), moral discernment (iv. 1-6);
and assurance of union with God (iv. 7-2 1), all these being bound
up with a true faith in Jesus as the Christ (v. 1-12) • A brief
epilogue gives what is for the most part a summary (v. 13-21) of
the leading ideas of the homily T
Disjointed as the cause of the argument may seem, a close
scrutiny of the context often reveals a subtle connexion between
paragraphs which at first sight appear unlinked. Thus the idea
of the Kfojiof passing away (ii. 17) suggests the following sen-
tences upon the nearness of the rapoveta (ii. 18 seq.), whose signs
are carefully noted in order to reassure believers, and whose
moral demands are underlined (ii. 28, iii. 3). Within this
paragraph* even the abrupt mention of the xpfop* has its
genctical place (ii. 20). The heretical ayrlxpurroi, it is implied,
have noxpfapa from God; Christians have (note the emphasis on
W, owing to their union with the true Xpiaros. Again, the
genetic relation of iii. 4 seq. to what precedes becomes evident
when we consider that the norm of Christian purity (iii. 3) is
the keeping of the divine commandments, or conduct resembling
Christ's on earth (iii. 3-ii. 4-6), so that the Gnostic* breach of
this law not only puts a man out of touch with Christ (iii. 6 seq.),
but defeats the very end of Christ's work, i.e. the abolition of
sin (iii. 8). Thus iii. 7-10 resumes and completes the idea of
ii. 29; the Gnostic is shown to be out of touch with the righteous
God, partly because he will not share the brotherly love which
is the expression of the righteousness, and partly because his
claims to sinlessness render God's righteous forgiveness (i. 9)
superfluous. Similarly the mention of the Spirit (iii. 24) opens
naturally into a discussion of the decisive test for the false
claims of the heretics or gnostic illuminati to spiritual powers
and gifts (iv 1 seq); and, as this test of the genuine Spirit of God
is the confession of Jesus Christ as really human and incarnate,
the writer, on returning (in iv. 17 seq.) to his cardinal idea of
brotherly love, expresses it in view of the incarnate Son (iv. 9),
• Cf. Denney, The Death of Christ (1902), pp. 2G9-281. The polemi-
cal reference to Cerinthus is specially clear at this point. The death
of Jesus was not that of a phantom, nor was his ministry from the
baptism to the crucifixion that of a heavenly aeon which suffered
nothing: such is the writer's contention. " In every case the his-
torical is asserted, but care is taken that it shall not be material-
ized: a primacy is given to the spiritual. . . . Except through the
historical, there is no Christianity at all. but neither is there any
Christianity till the historical has been spiritually comprehended.
The well-known interpolation of the three heavenly witnesses (v. 7)
has now been proved by Karl Kunstle (Das Comma Johanneum,
1905) to have originally come from the pen of the 4th century Span*
iard. Priscitlian, who himself denied all distinctions of person in the
Godhead.
1 On the ** sin to death "(v. 16) cf. Jubilees xxi. ax, xxvL 34 with
Karl's Jokann. Studien (1898), i. 97 seq. and M. Goguel's La
Notion johanniqui de f esprit (1902), pp. 147-153, for the general
theology of the epistle. The conceptions of light and life are best
handled by Grill in his Untersuchungen tiber die Entstekung des vierteu
Evgliums (1902), pp. 301 sea., 312 seq.
• In Preuschen's Zeit sckrift fur die neutesL Wissenschaft (1907).
pp. 1-8, von Dobschutc tries to show that the present text of ii. 28-
lii. 12 indicates a revision or rearrangement of an earlier text.
Cludius (Uransichten des Ckristenlumt, Altona. 1808) had already
conjectured that a Gnostic editor must have worked over a Jewish
Christian document.
• Dr Alois Wurm's attempt {Die Irrlehrtr im erst en Jokaxnesbritfe,
1003) to read the references to errorists solely in the light of Jewish
Christianity ignores or underrates several of the data. He is sup-
ported on the whole by Clemen, in Preuschen's Zeilschrift (1905).
pp. 271-281. There is certainly an anti-Jewish touch, e.g. in the
claim of iii. I (note the emphatic to**), when one recollects the
saying of Aqiba (Aboth iii. 12) and Philo's remark, mi yip d jis>tf
Uaroi 0«oDrati«f ropiferfu yrydratur, AXXA rot rift a«— fa cU6w *WoG,
\6you roD UpurArov $toi ykp dx&r Mt»« 6 wptofibrmrpt (Deconf. ling,
28). But the antithesis of John and Cerinthus, nnlike that of
Paul and Cerinthus (Epiph. Haer. xxviii.), is too well based in the
tradition of the early Church to be dismissed as a later dogmatic
reflection, and the internal evidence of this manifesto corroborates
it clearly.
f-
fa-
Mi
T)
T<
J
in t
the
aj'ze,
**c
Job.
x>n
452
whose mission furnishes the proof of God's love is well as the
example and the energy of man's (iv. 10 seq.). The same concep-
tion of the real humanity of Jesus Christ as essential to faith's
being and well-being is worked out in the following paragraph
(v. 1-12), while the allusion to eternal life (v. 11- 12) leads to
the closing recapitulation (v. 13-21) of the homily's leading
ideas under this special category.
' The curious idea, mentioned by Augustine (Quaest. evang. ii.
39), that the writing was addressed ad Parthos', has been literally
taken by several Latin fathers and later writers (e.g. Grotius,
Paulus, Hammond), but this title probably was a corruption of ad
spar sos (Wetstein, Wegschneider) or of vp&t rapQirovs (Whiston:
the Christians addressed as virgin, i.e. free from heresy), if
not of rapBhos, as applied in early tradition to John the apostle.
The circle for which the homily was meant was probably, in the
first instance, that of the Fourth Gospel, but it is impossible to
determine whether the epistle preceded or followed the larger
treatise. The division of opinion on this point (cf. J. Moffat,
Historical New Testament, 1001, p. 534) is serious, but the
evidence for either position is purely subjective. There are
sufficient peculiarities of style and conception 1 to justify
provisionally some hesitation on the matter of the authorship.
The epistle may have been written by a different author, or,
from a more popular standpoint, by the author of the gospel,
possibly (as some critics hold) by the author of John xxL But
res lubrica, opinio incerta.
It is unsafe to lay much stress .upon the apparent reminiscence
of iv. 2-3 (or of 2 John 7) inPoIycarp.ad Phil. 7 reading t\n\v$6ra
instead of IkrjkvOhai), though, if a literary filiation is assumed,
the probability is that Polycarp is quoting from the epistle, not
vice versa (as Volkmar contends, in his Ursprung d. unseren
Evgtien 47 seq.). But Papias is said by Eusebius (H. E. iii. 39) to
have used ^ 'IwAww raorkpa ( ■■ ^ 'Iwdryov rpirrn, v. 8 ?), i.e. the
anonymous tract, which, by the time of Eusebius, had come to
be known -as 1 John, and we have no reason to suspect or reject
this statement, particularly as Justin Martyr, another Asiatic
writer, furnishes clear echoes of the epistle {Dial. 123). The
tract must have been in circulation throughout Asia Minor at
any rate before the end of the first quarter of the 2nd century. 1
The terminus a quo is approximately the period of the Fourth
Gospel's composition, but there is no valid evidence to indicate
the priority of either, even upon the hypothesis that both came
bom the same pen. The aim of each is too special to warrant
the coadssion that the epistle was intended to accompany or to
: the gospeL
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
1862), C. A. Wolf (and ed., 1885), Ewald (Die Joh. Briefe tbtrstt* mmi
erklaert, Gdttingen, 1861-1862), and Lucke (3rd ed., revised by
Bertheau, 1856) still repay the reader, and among previous editions
those of W. Whiston (Comm. on St John's Thru Catholic Epistle*.
1719) and de Wette (1837, &c.) contain material of real exegeticat
interest. Special editions of the first epistle have been published by
John Cotton (London, 1655), Neander (1851 ; Eng. trans. New York,
1853), E. Haupt (1869; Eng. trans. 1879), Lias (1887) and C. Watson
(1891, expository) among others. Special studies by F. H. Kern
(De epistolae Joh. consUio, Tubingen. 1830), Erdmann (Prima* Joh.
epistolae argumentum, nexus el consilium, Berlin, 1833), C. E. Lu-
r • -- • ... * ' , i860),
thardt (De primae Joaunis epistolae composition,
, J. Stock-
meycr (Die Structur des ersten Joh. Brief es, Basel, 1873) and, mam.
elaborately, by H. J. Holtzmann (Jahrb.fUr protest. Theologie. t&si.
pp.690scq.; l882,pp. i28seq..3i6seq.,46oseq.). To the monographs
already noted in the course of this article may be added the essays by
Wiesinger (Studien undKrttiken, 1890. pp. 575 seq.) and Wohlenberg
(" Glossen zum ersten Johannisbriel,' Neue Kirckluhe Zeiiukrift,
1902, pp. 233 seq., 632 seq.). On 2 John there are special comment-
aries and studies by Ritmeier (De electa domino, 1 706), C. A. KriegcJe
(De Kupla Johannis, 1758), Carpzov (Theolog. exegetica, pp. 105-208),
H. G. B. Muller (Comment, in secundam episMam Joannis, ~~"~
. 1783).
C. Klug (De authentic., &c, 1823), J. Rendel Harris (Expositor, 6th
series, 1901, pp. 194 seq.), W. M. * "
Gibbins (ibid.. 1902, pp. 228-236), while, in addition to Hermann's
series, 1901, pp. 194 seq.), W. M. Ramsay (ibid., pp. 354 seq.) 1
Gibbins (ibid.. 1902, pp. 228-236), while, in addition to Herman
Comment, in Joan. ep. III. (1778), P. L. Gachon (AuthentUM de la
deuxieme et troisieme tpttres de Jean, 1851), Poggel (Per aoeite und
dritte Briefe d. AposUl Johannis, 1896), and Chapman {Journal of
T " ""he Historical Setting of the Second and
tl n "), have discussed both of the minor
audtes of all three are furnished by H. J.
:l- Lexicon, iii. 342-352, Sabatier (Eucy-
cli ii. 1 77 seq), S. Cox (The Praam Letters
oj Farrar (Early Days of Christianity, eh*.
x> roduction to Catholic Epistles, 1887, pp.
2* n Hasting's Did. Bible (vol. ii), G. H.
C s of Jesus, 1901, pp. 301-332). and V.
•B 100, pp. 418 seq. ; from a more advanced
cr t Gospel and its Earliest Interpretations,
1 i micdcl (Ency. Bib., 2556-2562. also in a
m ;, und OJfenbarung des Johannes, 1906;
E (Le Quatrieme Evangile, 1901, pp. 49
se iristentum, 2nd ed., 1902, pp. 390 seq J.
Tl discussed incidentally by many writers
01 ell as by writers on New Testament
in ier, Barth and Belser, on the Conserva-
tive side, and Hilgenfeld, Julichcr and von Sodcn on the Liberal. On
the older Syriac version of 2 and 3 John, see Gwynn's article in
Hermathena (1890), pp. 28! seq. On the general reception of the
three epistles in the early Church, Zahn's paragraphs (in his
Gesckichte d. N. T. Kanons, i. 209 seq., 374 seq., 905 seq.; ii. 48 seq.,
88 seq.) are the most adequate. (J. Ml.)
JOHN, GOSPEL OP ST, the fourth and latest of the Gospels,
in the Bible, and, next to that of St Mark, the shortest. The
present article will first describe its general structure and more
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST +53
with the woman at the well coi
character of the new religion ; and
of faith in the simple word of Jesu
the vivifying Life-Logos and its
Kralyttc • cure, (g) Manifestatk)
ing Bread and its contradiction
the loaves; walking on the water
Eucharist.
(Hi.) Acute conflict between the
fvit.-xii). (*) Self-manifestation
(vii. i-x. 39). Journey to the feat
soul athirst to come to Him (the
proclamation of Himself as the Lis
born blind ; allegory of the good si
at the feast of the dedication. Th
(t) The Logos-Life brings Lazarus
so). Jesus withdraws beyond lor
His friend Lazarus being buried th
Resurrection and the Life; and call
saw it report the act to the Pharisee
declares that one man must die for 1
ceaselessly plan His death. Jesus
but soon returns, six days befon
anoints Him, a crowd comes 'to set
archs then plan the killing of Laza
into Jerusalem on an ass is colt. C
He declares the hour of His g tori fit
soul is troubled. . . . Father, sa>
this have I come unto this hour:
voice answers, " I have glorified, it
think that an angel spoke; but J
not for His sake but for theirs, w
draw all men to Himself; they a
The writer's concluding reflection : I
among the lews. Once again He
the world, that whoso bclieveth in 1
2. The Logos-Christ's manifesto
disciples, during the last supper, tr
Gv.) The Last Supper (xm.-xvu
dplcs feet; the beloved disciple; <
forth, it is night (xiii. 1-30). (*)
31-xiv. 31): the new commandmei
us go hence." Second series (xv.
vine; " Greater love than this ha
life for his friend "; the world's hai
them into all truth ; " I came fort
into the world, again I leave the
" Be of good cheer, I have overt
priestly prayer (xvii). " Father,
glory which I had with Thee bcfoi
many as Thou hast given Him, Y
pray for them, I pray not for the 1
shall believe in Me through their w
Thou Father art in Me. and 1 in 1
(v.) The Passion (xvm- xix.). (w)
come to apprehend Him, fall back
Hon " I am He." Peter and Mak
and Caiaphas at dawn; Peter's d
Pilate (xviii. 28-40). Jesus declai
world. I have come into the worl
truth : everyone that is of the truth
sceptically "What is truth?" ai
(p) The true king presented to t
rejection by the Jews and abando
Jesus carries His cross to Colgotha,
Others; the cross's title and Pilate
(r) The soldiers cast lots upon H
His mother with two faithful woi
the cross's foot; His commendatic
to each other; His last two sayir
of scripture " I thirst," " It is a
spirit; His bones remain unbroken
blood and water issue (xix. 23-37)
Arimathaca and Nkodemus, bin
sheet with one hundred pounds of
new monument in a near garden, t
(vi.) The risen Jesus, Lord and C
first day of the week, Mary Magda
from the monument, runs to tell P
the Lord's body has been remove
run to the grave; the latter, arriv
has gone in and noted the empty gi
After their departure, Mary sees ti
and turning away beholds Jesus si
when He addresses her. He bids h
not yet ascended " ; but to tell His
and to your Father, to My God am
(tt) Second apparition (xx, 10-43).
being shut, Jesus appears amongi
(pierced) hands ana side, and so
x*r* QOSH& OF ST
*»*
^*~^r*£>*t prologue
* ^ ^ » ** "** U* 01 coming
~ k J? £<*.«•/• so that the
" " K " ;r^T«< ** incarnate, historic
* N ' T " V% t^T**** itself has, all but
■ . ,^ - ~ £^E£ «* *• > P irUua, «**«*»
^ v ..^^ T.^JJ3 before His incarnation, has
N , v ~-> Tv^jU at to the past by the Johannine
N , .^^ I*.* contrast to the earliest Synoptic
V "»1 « Cn«*»a« truth and its first form remain
-* ^* s , Vrt* «u earthly future appears restricted
* *** i "^^ h sK * >"** the Eternal Life conception largely
* v \ s -^* > %m 4 » v (torn all successiveness; Jesus'
* ' V K \av* »w* h««t lot rehgion's assimilation of further
* * * ~ *v*s,«*e*** " 1 have many things to tell you, but you
"" X*i '**«• •**•" "^ F * ther wai # vc you aootllor
»v i^ W ****»l «* lruln » wno wiU abidc with you tor cver "
v IV \rt i O Itui universahsm is not simply spiritual,
V" v^*ol tWmHkt. presupposed in the Synoptists as that of
,V. W%** vhurch within which Jesus' earthly life was spent,
* *v<* that ot the now separate Christian community: He has
<*W* iW aot of this fold— them also He must bring, there
%*« htm fold, one shepherd; and His seamless tunic, and
sVn-t's net which, holding every kind of fish, is not rent, are
*\«tU>b of this visible unity. Ministerial gradations exist in
tat* church; Jesus begins the feet-washing with Peter, who
alww speaks and is spoken to; the beloved disciple outruns
iVtrr to Jesus' monument, yet waits to go in till Peter has done
so nrat, and in the appendix the treble pastoral commission is
to Peter alone a Petrine pre-eminence which but echoes the
Svnepttsts. And sacraroentalism informs the great discourses
com^ming rebirth by water and the spirit, and feeding on tbe
Living Bread, Jesus' flesh and blood, and the narrative of the
Issue of blood and water from the dead Jesus' side. Indeed so
•evert a stress is laid upon the explicitly Christian life and its
sjKMtic means, that orthodoxy itself interprets the rebirth by
water and spirit, and the eating the flesh and drinking the
blood to which entrance into the Kingdom and possession of
(utfrior life are here exclusively attached, as often represented
by a simple sincere desire and will for spiritual purification and
a keen hunger and thirst for God's aid, together with such cultual
•Ats as »uih souls can know or find, even without any knowledge
of the Christian rites. Thus there is many " a pedagogue to
Christ," snd the Christian visible means and expressions are
the culmination and measure of what, in various degrees and
hums, accompanies every sincerely striving soul throughout all
human history.
tv«|ia 4*4 Authorship.— The question as to the book's origin
has hat Us poignancy through the ever-increasing recognition
W the book's intrinsic character. Thus the recent defenders of
the apottobc authorship, the Unitarian Tames Drummond (1003),
I s * Anglican William Sandfly (1005), the Roman Catholic
\ Wlure Calmes (1004), can tell us, the first, that " the evangelist
4kJ «a aim st an illustrative picture of what was most charac-
Vouw of Jesus"; the second, that "the author sank into his
**« tvtuciousness and at last brought to light what he found
»^ w » t l»t third, that " the Gospel contains an entire theological
* ,4^* *• history is seen through the intervening dogmatic
xu.1jl)"Mil ** ** tne Samaritan woman is ... a personifica-
*77\ ^ feehavio*" U entirely natural in such
We thus get at cross-purposes with this p ow erful ,
profound work. Only some such position as Abbe Levy's
critical summing up (1903) brings out its specific greatness*
" What the author was, his book, in spite of himself, tells us to
some extent: a Christian of J udeo- Alexandrine formation, a
believer without, apparently, any personal reminiscence of what
had actually been the life, preaching and death of Jesus; a
theologian far removed from every historical preoccupation*
though he retains certain principal facts of tradition without
which Christianity would evaporate into pure ideas; and a seer
who has lived the Gospel which he propounds." M To find hit
book beautiful and true, we need but take it as it is and under-
stand iC " Tbe church, which has never discussed the literary
problem of this Gospel, in nowise erred as to its worth."
Several traditional positions have indeed been approximately
maintained or reconquered against the critics. As to the
Gospel's date, critics have returned from 160-170 (Baur), 150
(Zeller), 130 (keim), to 1 10-11 5 (Renan) and 80-110 (Harnack):
since Irenaeus says its author lived into the times of Trajan
(90-117), a date somewhere about 105 would satisfy tradition.
As to the place, tbe critics accept proconsular Asia with practical
unanimity, thus endorsing Irenaeus'* declaration that the
Gospel was published in Ephesus. As to the author's ante-
cedents, critics have ceased to hold that he could not have been &
Jew-Christian (so Bretschneidcr, 1820), and admit (so Srhmiedrl,
(loot) that he must have been by birth a Jew of the Dispersion,
or the son of Christian parents who had been such Jews. And
as to the vivid accuracy of many of his topographical and social
details, the predominant critical verdict now is that he betrays
an eye-witness's knowledge of the country between Sichem and
Jordan and as to Jerusalem; be will have visited these places,
say in 00, or may have lived in Jerusalem shortly before it* faH
But the reasons against the author being John the Zebedean or
any other eyewitness of Jesus' earthly life have 1
to a practical demonstration.
As to the external evidence for the book's early date, we 1
remember that the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of
Revelation, though admittedly earlier, are of the same school,
and, with the great Pauline Epistles, show many preformations
of Johannine phrases and ideas. Other slighter prolusions will
have circulated in that Philonian centre Fghesus, before the
great Gospel englobed and superseded them. Hence the pre-
cariousness of the proofs derived from more or less close parallels
to Johannine passages in the apostolic fathers. Justin Martyr
(163-167) certainly uses the Gospel; but his conception of Jesus'
life is so strictly Synoptic that he can hardly have accepted it
as from an apostolic eyewitness. Papias of Hierapolis, in Ins
Exposition oj the Lord's Sayings (145-160) appears nowhere to
have mentioned it, and clearly distinguishes between "what
Andrew, Peter, . . . John or Matthew or any other of the
Lord's disciples spoke," and " what Aristion and the presbyter
John, the Lord's disciples, say." Thus Papias, as Eusebius
about 314 insists, knew two Johns, and the apostle was to him
a far-away figure; indeed early medieval chroniclers recount
that Papias " in the second book of the Lord's sayings" asserted
that both the sons of Zebcdee were "slain by Jews," so that
the apostle John would have died before 70. Irenaeus's testi-
mony is the earliest and admittedly the strongest we possess for
the Zebedean authorship; yet, as Calmes admits, " it cannot be
considered decisive." In his work against the Heresies and in
his letter to Florin us, about 185-191, he tells how he had himself
known Bishop Polycarp of Smyrna, and how Polycarp " used to
recount his familiar intercourse with John and the others who
had seen the Lord "; and explicitly identifies this John with the
Zebedean and the evangelist. But Irenaeus was at most fifteen
when thus frequenting Polycarp; writes thirty-five to fifty years
later in Lyons, admitting that he noted down nothing at the
time; and, since his mistaken description of Papias as " a hearer
of John " the Zebedean was certainly reached by mistaking the
presbyter for the apostle, his additional words " and a companion
of Polycarp" point to this same mistaken identification having
also operated in his mind with regard to Polycarp. In any esse,
JOHN, GOSPEL OF ST
457
the very real tad important presbyter fa completely unknown to
Irenaeus, and his conclusion as to the book's authorship resulted
apparently from 4 comparison of its contents with Polycarp's
teaching. If the presbyter wrote Revelation and was Polycarp's
master, such a mistake could easily arise. Certainly Pblycrates,
bishop of Ephesus, made a precisely similar mistake when about
190 he described the Philip " who rests in Hierapoks " as u one
of the twelve apost l es , " since Eusebius rightly identifies this
Philip with the deacon of Acts xxL A positive testimony for
the critical conclusion is derived from the existence of a group
of Asia Minor Christians who about 165 rejected the Gospel as
not by John but by Cerintbus. The attribution is doubtless
mistaken. But could Christians sufficiently numerous to
deserve a long discussion by St Epiphanius in 374-377, who
upheld the Synoptists, stoutly opposed the Gnostics and Mon-
tanists, and had escaped every special designation till the
bishop nicknamed them the " Alogoi " (irrational rejectors of
the Logos-Gospel), dare, in such a time and country, to hold
such views, had the apostolic origin been incontestable ? Surely
hot. The Alexandrian Clement, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius,
Jerome and Augustine only tell of the Zebedean what is trace-
able to stories told by Papias of others, to passages of Revelation
and the Gospel, or to the assured fact of the long-lived Asian
presbyter.
As to the internal evidence, if the Gospel typifies various im-
perfect or sinful attitudes in Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman
and Thomas; if even the mother appears to symbolize faithful
Israel: then, profoundly spiritual and forward-looking as it is,
a type of the perfect disciple, not all unlike Clement's perfect
" Gnostic," could hardly be omitted by it; and the precise details
of this figure may well be only ideally, mystically true. The
original work nowhere identifies this disciple with any particular
historic figure. " He who saw " the lance-thrust " hath borne
witness, and his witness is true," is asserted (xix. 35) of the
disciple. Yet " to see " is said also of intuitive faith, " whoso
hath seen Me, hath seen the Father " (xiv. 9); and " true "
appears also in " the true Light," " the true Bread from heaven,"
as characterizing the realities of the upper, alone fully true
world, and equals " heavenly " (iii. 12); thus a " true wit-
ness" testifies to some heavenly reality, and appeals to the
reader's " pneumatic," i.e. allegorical, understanding.
Only in the appendix do we find any deliberate identification
with a particular historic person: " this is the disciple who
witnessed to and who wrote these things " (24) refers doubtless
to the whole previous work and to " the disciple whom Jesus
loved," identified here with an unnamed historic personage
whose recent death had created a shock, evidently because
he was the last of that apostolic generation which had so keenly
expected the second coming ( 1 8-23). This man was so great that
the writer strives to win bis authority for this Gospel; and
yet this man was not John the Zebedean, else why, now he is
dead and gone, not proclaim the fact? If the dead man was
John the presbyter— if this John had in youth just seen Jesus
and the Zebedean, and in extreme old age had still seen and
approved the Gospel— to attribute this Gospel to him, as is done
here, would not violate the literary ethics of those times. Thus
the heathen philosopher Iamblichus (d. c. 330) declares: " this
was admirable" amongst the Neo- Pythagoreans "that they
ascribed everything to Pythagoras; but few of them acknowledge
their own works as their own " (de Pythag. vita, 198). And as to
Christians, Tertullian about 210 tells how the presbyter who,
in proconsular Asia, had "composed the Acts of Paul and
Thecla " was convicted and deposed, for how could it be credible
that Paul should confer upon vgemen the power to "teach and
baptize " as these AcU averred ? The attribution as such, then,
was not condemned.
The facts of the problem would all appear covered by the
hypothesis that John the presbyter, the eleven being all dead,
wrote the book of Revelation (its more ancient Christian por-
tions) say in 69, and died at Ephesus say in 100; that the author
of the Gospel wrote the first draft, here, say in 97; that this
book, expanded by him, first circulated within a select Ephesian
JOHN ALBERT— JOHN FREDERICK
458
Letter to Spirit (1903). Joannnus Vocabulary (1904) and Grammar
f 1006) overflow with statistical details and ever acute, often fanciful,
Johiecture. Professor F. C. Burkitfs The Gospel History (1906) vigor-
ousfy sketches the book's dominant characteristics and true function.
E. F. Scott's The Fourth Gospel (1906) gives a lucid, critical and
religiously tempered account of the Gospel's ideas, aims, affinities,
difficulties and abiding significance. (F. v. H.)
JOHN ALBERT (1459-1501), king of Poland, third son of
Casimir IV. king of Poland and Elizabeth of Austria. As
crown prince he distinguished himself by his brilliant victory
over the Tatars at Kopersztyn in 1487. He succeeded his father
in 1492. The loss of revenue consequent upon the secession of
Lithuania placed John Albert at the mercy of the Polish Scjmiki
or local diets, where the sdachta, or country gentry, made their
subsidies dependent upon the king's subservience. Primarily a
warrior with a strong taste for heroic adventure, John Albert
desired to pose as the champion of Christendom against the
Turks. Circumstances seemed, moreover, to favour him. In
his brother Wladislaus, who as king of Hungary and Bohemia
possessed a dominant influence in Central Europe, he found a
counterpoise to the machinations of the emperor Maximilian,
who in 1492 had concluded an alliance against him with Ivan III.
of Muscovy, while, as suzerain of Moldavia, John Albert was
favourably situated for attacking the Turks. At the conference
of Leutschau in 1494 the details of the expedition were arranged
between the kings of Poland and Hungary and the elector
Frederick of Brandenburg, with the co-operation of Stephen,
bospodar of Moldavia, who had appealed to John Albert for
assistance. In the course of 1496 John Albert with great
diskulty collected an army of 80,000 men in Poland, but the
cx\&**de was deflected from its proper course by the sudden
invasion of Galicia by the hospodar, who apparently— for the
«nck subject is still very obscure— had been misled by reports
*gam Hungary that John Albert was bent upon placing his
^ !f y f brother Sigismund on the throne of Moldavia, Be
vj>u *s »* aaay, the Poles entered Moldavia not as friends, but
t- ^ tmi. after the abortive siege of Suczawa, were compelled
x i2e*t through the Bukowina to Sniatyn, harassed all the
' ' s r At forces of the hospodar. The insubordination of
^ Jjlssu seems to have been one cause of this disgraceful
•ad mt J«ta Albert confiscated hundreds of their estates
'^^ j± :*tia; in spite of which, to the end of his life he
— ""*—>* ** estraordiaary popularity. When the new grand
- 9 ^ r ^ -Jto tfetttoak order, Frederic of Saxony, refused to
*^**, l^tf^t to t!he Polish crown, John Albert compelled
* , $ ^ Kb intention of still further humiliating the
** ' tr^ -wm& trestrated by his sudden death in 1501. A
• Mfci a aaa of much enlightenment, John Albert
, recklessly sacrificing the future to the
t
1
di
tc
ow.
tht:
iyst«
devr.
r% 3*^t? t/ Jefai Albert and Alexander JoruBo
of Thessalonica. In
father Theodore, who,
ed his authority, but
lake John the nominal
- the aggressions of the
s, who laid siege to
pon John Angelus con-
" for the subordinate
„ :i877).
in 1543 Coburg was surrendered to form an apanage for his
brother, John Ernest (d. 1553). John Frederick, who was an
ardent Lutheran and had a high regard for Luther, mntinnrd
the religious policy of his father. In 1534 he assisted to make
peace between the German king Ferdinand L and Ulrich,
duke of Wurttemberg, but his general attitude was one of
vacillation between the emperor and his own impetuous col*
league in the league of Schmalkalden, Philip, landgrave of
Hesse. He was often at variance with Philip, whose bigamy he
disliked, and his belief in the pacific intentions of Charles V.
and his loyalty to the Empire prevented him from pursuing any
definite policy for the defence of Protestantism. In 154 1 his
kinsman Maurice became duke of Saxony, and cast covetous
eyes upon the electoral dignity. A cause of quarrel soon arose.
In 1 54 1 John Frederick forced Nicholas Amsdorf into the see of
Naumburg in spite of the chapter, who had elected a Roman
Catholic, Julius von Pflug; and about the same time he seized
Wurzen, the property of the bishop of Meissen, whose see was
under the joint protection of electoral and ducal Saxony.
Maurice took up arms, and war was only averted by the efforts of
Philip of Hesse and Luther. In 1542 the elector assisted to drive
Henry, duke of Brunswick- Wolfenbuttel, from bis duchy, but in
spite of this his relations with Charles V. at the diet of Spires in
1544 were very amicable. This was, however, only a lull m the
storm, and the emperor soon began to make preparations for
attacking the league of Schmalkalden, and especially John
Frederick and Philip of Hesse. The support, or at least the
neutrality, of Maurice was won by the hope of the electoral
dignity, and in July 1546 war broke out between Charles and
the league. In September John Frederick was placed under the
imperial ban, and in November Maurice invaded the electorate.
Hao-ning from southern Germany the elector drove Maurice from
the land, took his ally, Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth,
prisoner at Rochlitz, and overran ducal Saxony. His progress,
however, was checked by the advance of Charles V. Notwith-
standing his valour he was wounded and taken prisoner at
Miihlberg on the 24th of April x 547, and was condemned to death
in order to induce Wittenberg to surrender. The sentence was
not carried out, but by the capitulation of Wittenberg (May
1547) he renounced the electoral dignity and a part of his
lands in favour of Maurice, steadfastly refusing however to
make any concessions on religious matters, and remained in
captivity until May 155a, when he returned to the Thuringian
lands which his sons had been allowed to retain, his return
being bailed with wild enthusiasm. During his imprisonment
he bad refused to accept the Interim, issued from Augsburg
in May 1548, and had urged his sons to make no peace with
Maurice. After his release the emperor had restored his
dignities to him, and his assumption of the electoral arms and
title prevented any arrangement with Maurice. However, after
the death of this prince in July 1553, a treaty was made at
Naumburg in February 1 554 with his successor Augustus. John
Frederick consented to the transfer of the electoral dignity, but
retained for himself the title of " born elector," and received some
lands and a sum of money. He was thus the last Ernestine
elector of Saxony. He died at Weimar on the 3rd of March
1554, having had three sons by his wife, Sibylla (d. 1554),
daughter of John III., duke of Cleves, whom he had married in
x 527, and was succeeded by his eldest son, John Frederick. The
elector was a great hunter and a hard drinker, whose brave and
dignified bearing in a time of misfortune won for him his surname
of Magnanimous, and drew eulogies from Roger Ascham and
Melanchthon. He founded the university of Jena and was a
benefactor to that of Leipzig.
JOHN GEORGE
undertook the g o ve rnme nt of the remnant of electoral Saxony
which the emperor allowed the Ernestine branch of theWettin
family to keep. Released in 1552 John Frederick the elder
died two years later, and his three sons ruled Ernestine Saxony
together until 1557, when John Frederick was made sole ruler.
This arrangement lasted until 1565, when John Frederick shared
his lands with his surviving brother, John William (1530-1573),
retaining for himself Gotha and Weimar. The duke was a strong,
even a fanatical, Lutheran, but his religious views were gradually
subordinated to the one Idea of regaining the electoral dignity
then held by Augustus I. To attain this end he lent a willing
ear to the schemes of Wilhelm von Grumbaeh, who came to his
court about 1557 and offered to regain the electoral dignity and
even to acquire the Empire for his patron. In spite of repeated
warnings from the emperor Ferdinand I., John Frederick con-
tinued to protect Grumbaeh, and in 1566 his obstinacy caused
him to be placed under the imperial ban. Its execution was
entrusted to Augustus who, aided by the duke's brother, John
William, marched against Gotha with a strong force. In conse-
quence of a mutiny the town surrendered in April 1567, and
John Frederick was delivered to the emperor Maximilian IL
He was imprisoned in Vienna, his lands were given to his
brother, and he remained in captivity until bis death at Steyer
on the 6th of May 1595. These years were mainly occupied
with studying theology and in correspondence. John Frederick
married firstly Agnes (d. 1555) daughter of Philip, landgrave of
Hesse, and widow of Maurice, elector of Saxony, and secondly
Elizabeth (d. 1594) daughter of Frederick III., elector palatine
of the Rhine, by whom he left two sons, John Casimir (1564-
1633) and John Ernest (1566-1638). Elizabeth shared her
husband's imprisonment for twenty-two years.
See A. Beck, Johann Friedrieh der Mittlere, Henog tu Sachun
(Vienna, 1858); and F. Ortloff, Geschkklg dtr Cr um b ac kiuhen
U6*d*l (Jena, 1868-1870).
JOHN GEORGE I. (1585-1656), elector of Saxony, second son
of the elector Christian I., was born on the 5th of March 1585,
succeeding to the electorate in June 161 1 on the death of his
elder brother, Christian XL The geographical position of
electoral Saxony hardly less than her high standing among the
German Protestants gave her ruler much importance during
the Thirty Years' War. At the beginning of his reign, however,
the new elector took up a somewhat detached position. His
personal allegiance to Lutheranism was sound, but be liked
neither the growing strength of Brandenburg nor the increasing
prestige of the Palatinate; the adherence of the other branches
of the Saxon ruling house to Protestantism seemed to him to
suggest that the head of electoral Saxony should throw his weight
infb the other scale, and be was prepared to favour the advances
of the Habsburgs and the Roman Catholic party. Thus he was
easily induced to vote for the election of Ferdinand, archduke
of Styria, as emperor in August 1619, an action which nullified
the anticipated opposition of the Protestant electors. The new
emperor secured the help of John George for the impending
campaign in Bohemia by promising that he should be undisturbed
in his possession of certain ecclesiastical lands. Carrying out
his share of the bargain by occupying Silesia and Lusatia, where
he displayed much clemency, the Saxon elector had thus some
part in driving Frederick V., elector palatine of the Rhine, from
Bohemia and in crushing Protestantism in that country, the
crown of which he himself had previously refused. Gradually,
however, he was made uneasy by the obvious trend of the im-
perial policy towards the annihilation of Protestantism, and by
a dread lest the ecclesiastical lands should be taken from him;
and the issue of the edict of restitution in March 1629 put the
coping-stone to his fears. Still, although clamouring vainly
for the exemption of the electorate from the area covered by the
edict, John George took no decided measures to break his
alliance with the emperor. He did, indeed, in February 1631
call a meeting of Protestant princes at Leipzig, but in spite
of the appeals of the preacher Matthias Hoe" von Hohenegg
(1 580-164 5) he contented himself with a formal protest. Mean-
while Gustavus Adolpbus had landed in Germany/and the elector
459
had refused to allow Mm to cross the Elbe at Wittenberg, thus
hindering his attempt to relieve Magdeburg. But John George's
reluctance to join the Protestants disappeared when the imperial
troops under Tilly began to ravage Saxony, and in September
1631 he concluded an alliance with the Swedish king. The
Saxon troops were present at the battle of Bfeitenfeld, but were
routed by the imperialists, the elector himself seeking safety in
flight. Nevertheless he soon took the offensive. Marching into
Bohemia the Saxons occupied Prague, but John George soon
began to negotiate for peace and consequently his soldiers
offered little resistance to Watlenstein, who drove them back
into Saxony. However, for the present the efforts of Gustavus
Adolphus prevented the elector from deserting him, but the
position was changed by the death of the king at LiiUen in 1631,
and the refusal of Saxony to join the Protestant league under
Swedish leadership. Still letting his troops fight in a desultory
fashion against the imperialists, John George again negotiated
for peace, and in May 1635 he concluded the important treaty
of Prague with Ferdinand II. His reward was Lusatia and
certain other additions of territory; the retention by his son
Augustas of the archbishopric of Magdeburg; and some conces-
sions with regard to the edict of restitution. Almost at once he
declared war upon the Swedes, but in October 1636 he was beaten
at Wittstock; and Saxony, ravaged impartially by both sides,
was soon in a deplorable condition. At length in September
1645 the elector was compelled to agree to a truce with the
Swedes, who, however, retained Leipzig; and as far as Saxony
was concerned this ended the Thirty Years' War. After the
peace of Westphalia, which with regard to Saxony did little
more than confirm the treaty of Prague, John George died
on the 8th of October 1656. Although not without political
acumen, he was not a great ruler; bis character appears to
have been harsh and unlovely, and he was addicted to drink.
He was twice married, and in addition to his successor John
George II. he left three sons, Augustus (161 4-1680), Christian
(d. 1691) and Maurice (d. 1681) who were all endowed with
lands in Saxony, and who founded cadet branches of the Saxon
house.
John Gbokge II. (1613-1680), elector of Saxony, was born
on the 31st of May 1613. In 1657, just after his accession, he
made an arrangement with bis three brothers with the object of
preventing disputes over their separate territories, and in 1664 he
entered into friendly relations with Louis XIV. He received
money from the French king, but the existence of a strong anti-
French party in Saxony induced him occasionally to respond
to the overtures of the emperor Leopold L The elector's
primary interests were not in politics, but in music and art.
He adorned Dresden, which under him became the musical centre
of Germany; welcoming foreign musicians and others he
gathered around him a large and splendid court, and his capital
was the constant scene of musical and other festivals. His
enormous expenditure compelled him in 1661 to grant greater
control over monetary matters to the estates, a step which
laid the foundation of the later system of finance in Saxony.
John George died at Freiberg on the 22nd of August 1680.
John George III. (1647-1691), elector of Saxony, the
only son of John George II., was born on the 20th of June 1647.
He forsook the vacillating foreign policy of his father and in
June 1683 joined an alliance against France. Having raised the
first standing army in the electorate he helped to drive the Turks
from Vienna in September 1680, leading his men with great
gallantry; but disgusted with the attitude of the emperor
Leopold I. after the victory, he returned at once to Saxony.
However, he sent aid to Leopold in 1685. When Louis XIV.'s
armies invaded Germany in September 1688 John George was one
of the first to take up arms against the French, and after sharing
in the capture of Mainz he was appointed commander-in-chief
of the imperial forces. He had not, however, met with any
notable success when he died at Tubingen on the 1 2th of Septenv
ber 1691. Like his father, he was very fond of music, but he
appears to have been less extravagant than John George II.
His wife was Anna Sophia, daughter of Frederick I1L king of
4.60 JOHN MAURICE— JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY
X>enmark, and both his sons, John George and Frederick
Augustus, became electors of Saxony, the latter also becoming
king of Poland as Augustus II.
Jobk Geobgb IV. (1668-1694), elector of Saxony, was born on
the 1 8th of October 1668. At the beginning of his reign his
c | 1 | e f adviser was Hans Adam von Schdning (1641-1606), who
counselled a union between Saxony and Brandenburg and a more
Independent attitude towards the emperor. In accordance
with tb« advice certain proposals were put before Leopold I.
to which he refused to agree; and consequently the Saxon troops
withdrew from the imperial army, a proceeding which led the
chagriacd emperor to seize and imprison Schdning in July 1692.
Although John George was unable to procure his minister's
release, Leopold managed to allay the elector's anger, and early
in 1693 the Saxon soldiers rejoined the imperialists. This
elector is chiefly celebrated for his passion for Magdalene Sibylle
von NeidschUtz (d. 1694), created in 1693 countess of Rochhu,
whom on his accession be publicly established as his mistress.
John George left no legitimate issue when he died on the 27th
of April 1694.
JOHN 1 MAURICE OF NASSAU (1604- 16 79), surnamed the
Brazilian, was the son of John the Younger, count of Nassau-
Sjegen-Dillenburg, and the grandson of John, the elder brother
of William the Silent and the chief author of the Union of
Utrecht. He distinguished himself in the campaigns of his
cousin, the stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange, and was by
biro recommended to the directors of the Dutch West India
company in 1636 to be governor-general of the new dominion in
praail recently conquered by the company. He landed at the
Recife* the port of Pernambuco, and the chief stronghold of the
Dutch, in January 1637. By a series of successful expeditions
be gradually extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on
the south to S. Luis de Maranham in the north. He likewise
conquered the Portuguese possessions of St George del Mina and
$l Thomas on the west coast of Africa. With the assistance of
th* famous architect, Pieter Post of Haarlem, be transformed the
Rrvtfe by building a new town adorned with splendid public
cvlinct* and gardens, which was called after his name Mauri 1st ad.
g\ his statesmanlike policy he brought the colony into a most
fc>uriahinf condition and succeeded even in reconciling the
IVituguctt settlers to submit quietly to Dutch rule. His large
tttwoM* and lavish expenditure alarmed however the parsi-
ftK*M*>u» directors of the West India company, but John Maurice
tv«u*«*l *° **tain n * P ^ unless he was given a free hand, and be
k turned to Europe in July 1644. He was shortly afterwards
AitpotatvU by Frederick Henry to the command of the cavalry
m 1 lw States army, and he took part in the campaigns of 1645 and
km* *'**" the War was cndcd by toe ***" of MUn5tcr in
KiauAiy 164& ** accepted from the elector of Brandenburg the
"*' *" ~d Ravensberg, and later also
leland was as great as it had
If a most able and wise ruler,
head of the order of St John
In 1664 he came back to
with England supported by
ster, he was appointed corn-
on land. Though hampered
is of the states-general, he
p>, Christoph von Galen, was
ipaigning was not yet at an
the stadtholder William III.
nd Groningen, and to defend
*. In 1675 his health com-
ry service, and he spent his
where he died on the 20th
rich he built at the Hague,
, now contains the splendid
a to all admirers of Dutch
1 V>*x the form tned by the
■ ;** lacskult in Netacber's Us
..--.» fl-.w*- If 1
Bibuog raphv.— Caspar Barlaeus, Rtrum per octatuistm m Brasilia
ft alibi nuper testarum historic,, sub praefectura illustrissimi ccmiHs
J. Mauritti Nassovuu (Amsterdam, 1647); L. Driessen, Uben da
FirsUn Johann Mortis von Nassau (Berlin, I&49); D. Veeeeaa,
Levcn mm Joan Mounts, Craaf van NassauSieg<tn (Haarlem,
1840).
JOHN 0* GROATS HOUSE, a spot on the north coast of Caith-
ness, Scotland, 14 m. N. of Wick and if m. W. of Duncansby
Head. It is the mythical site of an octagonal house said to have
been erected early in the 16th century by one John Groot, a
Dutchman who had migrated to the north of Scotland by per-
mission of James IV. According to the legend, other members
of the Groot family followed John, and acquired lands around
Duncansby. When there were eight Groot families, disputes
began to arise as to precedence at annual feasts. These squabbles
John Groot is said to have settled by building an octagonal bouse
which had eight entrances and eight tables, so that the head of
each family could enter by his own door and sit at the head of his
own table. Being but a few miles south of Dunnet Head, John
o' Groat's is a colloquial term for the most northerly point of
Scotland. The site of the traditional building is marked by an
outline traced in turf. Descendants of the Groot family, now
Groat, still live in the neighbourhood. The cowry-shell, Cypraea
curopaea, is locally known as " John o' Groat's bucky."
JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, an American educational
institution at Baltimore, Maryland, U.S. A. Its trustees, chosen
by Johns Hopkins (1704*1873), a successful Baltimore merchant,
were incorporated on the 24th of August 1867 under a general
act " for the promotion of education in the state of Mary-
land." But nothing was actually done until after the death of
Johns Hopkins (Dec. 24, 1873), when his fortune of $7,000,000
was equally divided between the projected university and a
hospital, also to bear his name, and intended to be an auxiliary
to the medical school of the university. The trustees of the
university consulted with many prominent educationists,
notably Charles W. Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of
Cornell, and James B. Angell of the university of Michigan; on
the 30th of December 1874 they elected Daniel Coit Gilman (q.v.)
president. The university was formally opened on the 3rd of
October 1876, when an address was delivered by T. H. Huxley.
The first year was largely given up to consultation among the
newly chosen professors, among whom were — in Greek, B. L.
Gildersleeve; in mathematics, J. J. Sylvester; in chemistry, Ira
Remsen; in biology, Henry Newell Martin (1848-1896); in
zoology, William Keith Brooks (1848- 1908); and in physics,
Henry Augustus Rowland (1848-1001). Prominent among later
teachers were Arthur Cayley in mathematics, the Semitic scholar
Paul Haupt (b. 1858), Granville Stanley Hall in psychology,
Maurice Bloomfield in Sanskrit and comparative philology, James
Rendel Harris in Biblical philology, James Wilson Bright in
English philology, Herbert B. Adams in history, and Richard
T. Ely (b. 1854) in economics. The university at once became
a pioneer in the United States in teaching by means of seminary
courses and laboratories, and it has been eminently successful
in encouraging research, in scientific production, and in preparing
its students to become instructors in other colleges and univer-
sities. It includes a college in which each of five parallel courses
leads to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, but its reputation has been
established chiefly by its other two departments, the graduate
school and the medical school. The graduate school offers
courses in philosophy and psychology, physics, chemistry and
biology, historical and economic science, language and literature,
and confers the degree of Doctor of Philosophy after at least three
years' residence. From its foundation the university had novel
features and a liberal administration. Twenty annual fellow-
ships of $500 each were opened to the graduates of any college.
Petrography and laboratory psychology were among the new
sciences fostered by the new university. Such eminent out-
siders were secured for brief residence and lecture courses as
J. R. Lowell, F. J. Child; Simon Newcomb, H. E. von Hoist,
F. A. Walker, William James, Sidney Lanier, James Bryce,
E. A. Freeman, W. W. Goodwin, and Alfred Russel Wallace.
President Gilman gave up his presidential duties on the 1st of
JOHNSON, A.
461
September 1901, Ira Remten 1 succeeding htm in the office.
The medical department, inaugurated in 1893, is closely affiliated
with the excellently equipped Johns Hopkins Hospital (opened
in 1889), and is actually a graduate school, as it admits only
students holding the bachelor's degree or its equivalent. The
degree of Doctor of Medicine is conferred after four years of
successful study, and advanced courses are offered. The depart-
ment's greatest teachers have been William Osier (b. 1849) and
William Henry Welch (b. 1850).
The buildings of the university -were in 1902 an unpretentious
group on crowded ground near the business centre of the city.
In 1003 a new site was secured, containing about 125 acres amid
pleasant surroundings in the northern suburbs, and new build-
ings were designed in accordance with a plan formed with a view
to secure harmony and symmetry. In 1907 the library contained
more than 133,000 bound volumes. Among the numerous
publications issued by the university press are; American
Journal of Mathematics, Studies in Historical and Political
Science, Reprint of Economic Tracts, American Journal of Philo-
logy, Contributions to Assyriology and Semitic Philology, Modern
Language Notes, American Chemical Journal, American Journal
of Insanity, Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity,
Reports of the Maryland Geological Survey, and Reports of the
Maryland Weather Service. The institution b maintained
chiefly with the proceeds of the endowment fund. It also receives
aid from the state, and charges tuition fees. Its government is
entrusted to a board of trustees, while the direction of affairs of
a strictly academic nature is delegated to an academic council
and to department boards. In 1907-1908 the regular faculty
numbered 175, and there was an enrolment of 683 students, of
whom 518 were in post-graduate courses.
On'the history of the university see Daniel C. GHman, The Launch'
ingofa University (New York, 1 906), and the annual reports of the
president.
JOHNSON. ANDREW (1808-1875), seventeenth president of
the United States, was born at Raleigh, North Carolina, on the
19th of December 1808. His parents were poor, and his father
died when Andrew was four years old. At the age of ten he was
apprenticed to a tailor, his spare hours being spent in acquiring
the rudiments of an education. He learned to read from a book
which contained selected orations of great British and American
statesmen. The young tailor went to Laurens Court House,
South Carolina, in 1824, to work at his trade, but returned to
Raleigh in 1826 and soon afterward removed to Greeneville in
the eastern part of Tennessee. He married during the same year
Eliza McCardlc (1810-1876), much his superior by birth and
education, who taught him the common school branches of
learning and was of great assistance in his later career. In East
Tennessee most of the people were small farmers, while West
Tennessee was a land of great slave plantations. Johnson began
in politics to oppose the aristocratic element and became the
spokesman and champion of the poorer and labouring classes.
In 1828 he was elected an alderman of Greeneville and in 1830-
1834 was mayor. In 1834, in the Tennessee constitutional con-
vention he endeavoured to limit the influence of the slaveholders
by basing representation in the state legislature on the white
population alone. In 1835-1837 and 1839-1841 Johnson was
a Democratic member of the state House of Representatives, and
in 1841-1843 of the state Senate; in both houses he uniformly
upheld the cause of the " common people," and, in addition,
opposed legislation for "internal improvements." He soon
was recognized as the political champion of East Tennessee.
Though his favourite leaders became Whigs, Johnson remained
a Democrat, and in 1840 canvassed the state for Van Buren for
president.
1 Ira Remsen was born in New York City on the loth of February
1846, graduated at the college of the City of New York in 1865,
studied at the New York college of physicians and surgeons and at
the university of Gottingen, was professor of chemistry at Williams
College in 1872-1876. and in 1876 became professor of chemistry
at Johns Hopkins University. He published many textbooks of
Chemistry, organic and inorganic, which were republished in England
and were translated abroad. In 1879 he founded the American
Chemical Journal.
In 1843 he wa» elected to the national House of Representatives
and there remained for ten years until his district was gerry-
mandered by the Whigs and be lost his seat. But he at once
offered himself as a candidate -for governor and was elected and
re-elected, and was then sent to the United States Senate, serving
from 1857 to 1862. As governor (1853-1857) be proved to be able
and non-partisan. He championed popular education and recom-
mended the homestead policy to the national government, and
from his sympathy with the working classes and bis oft-avowed
pride in his former calling he became known as the " mechanic
governor." In Congress he proved to be a tireless advocate of
the claims of the poorer whites and an opponent of the aristo-
cracy. He favoured the annexation of Texas, supported the
Polk administration on the issues of the Mexican War and the
Oregon boundary controversy, and though voting for the admis-
sion of free California demanded national protection for slavery.
He also advocated the homestead law and low tariffs, opposed
the policy of " internal improvements," and was a zealous worker
for budget economies. Though opposed to a monopoly of politi-
cal power in (he South by the great slaveholders, he deprecated
anti-slavery agitation (even favouring denial of the right of
petition on that subject) as threatening abolition or the dissolu-
tion of the Union, and went with his sectional leaders so far as to
demand freedom of choice for the Territories, and protection
for slavery where it existed— this even so late as i860. He
supported in i860 the ultra-Democratic ticket of Breckinridge
and Lane, but he did not identify the election of Lincoln with
the ruin of the South, though he thought the North should give
renewed guarantees to slavery. But he followed Jackson
rather than Calhoun, .and above everything else set his love of
the Union, though believing the South to be grievously wronged.
He was the only Southern member of Congress who opposed
secession and refused to " go with his state " when it withdrew
from the Union in 1 86 1 . In the judgment of a leading opponent
(0. P. Morton) " perhaps no man in Congress exerted the same
influence on the public sentiment of the North at the beginning
of the war " as Johnson. During the war he suffered much for
his loyalty to the Union. In March 1862 Lincoln made him
military governor of the part of Tennessee captured from the
Confederates, and after two years of autocratic rule (with much
danger to himself) he succeeded in organizing a Union govern-
ment for the state. In 1864, to secure the votes of the war
Democrats and to please the border states that had remained
in the Union, Johnson was nominated for vice-president on the
ticket with Lincoln.
A month after the inauguration the murder of Lincoln left
him president, with the great problem to solve of reconstruction
of the Union. All his past career and utterances seemed to
indicate that he would favour the harshest measures toward ex-
Confederates, hence his acceptability to the most radical republi-
cans. But, whether because he drew a distinction between the
treason of individuals and of states, or was influenced by Seward,
or simply, once in responsible position, separated Republican
party politics from the question of constitutional interpretation,
at least be speedily showed that be would be influenced by
no acrimony, and adopted the lenient reconstruction policy of
Lincoln. In this he had for some time the cordial support of
his cabinet. During the summer of 1865 he set up provisional
civil governments in all the seceded states except Texas, and
within a few months all those states were reorganized and
applying for readmission to the Union. The radical congress
(Republican by a large majority) sharply opposed, this plan
of restoration, as they had opposed Lincoln's plan: first,
because the members of Congress from the Southern States
(when readmitted) would almost certainly vote with the Demo*
crats;" secondly, because relatively few of the Confederates
were punished; and thirdly, because the newly organized
Southern States did not give political right* to the negroes.
The question of the status of the negro proved the crux of the
issue. Johnson was opposed to general or immediate negro
suffrage. A bitter contest began in Feb. 1866, between the presi-
dent and the Congress, which refused to admit representatives
4 6a JOHNSON, B.— JOHNSON, R.
:nt Johnson's leading political principles were a. rever«
ndrew Jackson, unlimited confidence in the people, and
e veneration for the constitution. Throughout his life
icd in some respects a " backwoodsman." He lacked
i of systematic education. But his whole career saffi*
oves him to have been a man of extraordinary qualities,
ot rise above untoward circumstances by favour, nor—
x his election as senator — by fortunate and fortuitous
i with great events, but by strength of native talent*,
I purpose, and an iron will. He had strong, rugged
ivas a close reasoner and a forcible speaker. Unfor-
his extemporaneous speeches were commonplace, in very
:, fervently intemperate and denunciatory; and though
probably due largely to temperament and habits of
caking formed in early life, it was attributed by his
to drink. Resorting to stimulants after illness, his
ixcess in this respect on the occasion of his inauguration
resident undoubtedly did him harm with the public
personality were his great handicap. Though approach-
not without kindliness of manner, he seemed hard and
; and while president, physical pain and domestic
, added to the struggles of public life, combined to accen-
naturally somewhat severe temperament. A lifelong
Democrat, he was forced to lead (nominally at least) a
Northern Republicans, with whom he had no bond of
y save a common opposition to secession; and his
aggressive convictions and character, above all his
lack of tact, unfitted him to deal successfully with the
;e partisanship of Congress. The absolute integrity
inching courage that marked his career were always
ngly admitted by his greatest enemies.
Foster. The Life and Speeches of Andrew Johnson (1866);
Witt, The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson (1003):
idsey. The Struggle between President Johnson and Congress
nstruction (1896); and W. A. Dunning, Essays on the Cwil
Reconstruction (1898). Also see VV. A. Dunning'* paper
ght on Andrew Johnson" (in the A merican Historical RrAas.
16), in which apparently conclusive evidence is presented
that Johnson's first inaugural, a notable state paoer, was
y the historian George Bancroft.
JON, BENJAMIN (c. 1665-1742), English actor, was first
painter, then acted in the provinces, and appeared in
in 1695 at Drury Lane after Betterton's defection. He
original Captain Driver in Oronooko (1696), Captain
in Farquhar's Sir Harry Wildair (1701), Sable in Steele's
(1702), &c; as the First Gravedigger in Hamlet and
1 characters in the plays of Ben Jonson he was particu-
d. He succeeded, also, to Thomas Doggett's rfiles.
SON, EASTMAN (1824-1006), American artist, was born
1, Maine, on the 29th of July 1824. He studied at
>rf, Paris, Rome and The Hague, the last city being his
r four years. In i860 he was elected to the National
f of Design, New York. A distinguished portrait and
inter, he made distinctively American themes his own,
j the negro, fisherfolk and farm life with unusual interest,
tures as " Old Kentucky Home " (1867), " Husking
B76), " Cranberry Harvest, Nantucket " (1880), and his
group " The Funding Bill " (1881) achieved a national
>n. Among his sitters were many prominent men,
5 Daniel Webster; Presidents Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland
rison; William M. Evarts, Charles J. Folger; Emerson,
>w, Hawthorne, James McCosh, Noah Porter and Sir
Archbald. He died in New York City on the 5th of
96.
SON. REVBRDY (1 706-1 876), American political leader
►t, was born at Annapolis, Maryland, on the aist of May
Sis father, John Johnson ^770-1824), was a distinguished
who served in both bouses of the Maryland General
y, as attorney-general of the state (1806-181 x), as a judge
ourt of appeals (1811-1821), and as a chancellor of bis
121-1824). Reverdy graduated from St John's college in
He then studied law in his father's office, was admitted
u in 1815 and began to practise in Upper Marlborough,
JOHNSON, &— JOHNSON, SAMUEL
4^3
Prince George's county. In 1817 he removed to Baltimore,
where he became the professional associate of Luther Martin,
William Pinkney and Roger B. Taney; with Thomas Harris he
reported the decisions of the court of appeals in Bonis and
Jiknso*'* Reports (1830-1827); and in 1818 be was appointed
chief commissioner of insolvent debtors. From 1821 to 1825
he was a state senator; from 1825 to 1845 he devoted himself to
his practice; from 2845 to 1840, as a Whig, he was a member of
the United States Senate; and from March 1849 to Jury 1850
he was attorney-general of the United States. In 1856 he became
identified with the conservative wing of the Democratic party,
and four years later supported Stephen A. Douglas for the
presidency. In 1861 he was a delegate from Maryland to the
peace convention at Washington; in 1861-1862 he was a member
of the Maryland House of Delegates. After the capture of New
Orleans he was commissioned by Lincoln to revise the decisions
of the military commandant, General B. F. Butler, in regard
to foreign governments, and reversed all those decisions to the
entire satisfaction of the administration. In 1863 he again
took his seat in the United States Senate. In 1868 he was
appointed minister to Great Britain and soon after his arrival
in England negotiated the Johnson-Clarendon treaty for the
settlement of disputes arising out of the Civil War) this, however,
the Senate refused to ratify, and he returned home on the acces-
sion of General U. S. Grant to the presidency. Again resuming
his practice he was engaged by the government in the prosecu-
tion of Ku-Klux cases. He died on the 10th of .February
1876 at Annapolis. He repudiated the doctrine of secession,
and pleaded for compromise and conciliation. Opposed to the
Reconstruction measures, he voted for them on the ground that
it was better to accept than reject them, since they were probably
the best that could be obtained. As a lawyer he was engaged
during his later years in most of the especially important cases
in the Supreme Court of the United States and in the courts of
Maryland.
J0HK80N, RICHARD (1573-1659?), English romance writer,
was baptized in London on the 24th of May 1573. His most
famous romance is The Famous Historic of the Stave* Champions
of Christendom (1596?). The success of this book was so great
that the author added a second and a third part in 1608 and 161 6.
His other stories include: The Nine Worthies of London (1592);
The Pleasant Walks of Moorefields (1607)* The Pleasant Concedes
of Old Hob son (1607), the hero being a well-known haberdasher
in the Poultry; The Most Pleasant History of Tom a Lincolne
(1607); A Remembrance of . . . Robert Eorle of Salisbury (161 2);
Looke on Me, London (1613); The History of Tom Thumbe (1621).
The Crown Garland of Golden Roses . . . set forth in Many
Pleasant new Songs and Sonnets (161 2) was reprinted for the
Percy Society (1842 and 1845).
JOHNSON, RICHARD MENTOR (1781-1850), ninth vice-
president of the United States, was born at Bryant's Station,
Kentucky, on the 17th of October 1781. He was admitted to
thebarin i8oo,and became prominent asalawycrand Democratic
politician, serving in the Federal House of Representatives and
in the Senate for many years. From 1837 to 184 1 he was vice-
president of the United States, to which position be was elected
over Francis Granger, by the Senate, none of the four candidates
for the vice-presidency having received a majority of the elec-
toral votes. The opposition to Johnson within the party greatly
increased during his term, and the Democratic national conven-
tion of 1840 adopted the unprecedented course of refusing to
nominate anyone for the vice-presidency. In the ensuing elec-
tion Johnson received most of the Democratic electoral votes,
but was defeated by the Whig candidate, John Tyler. He died
in Frankfort, Kentucky, on the 19th of November 1850.
JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784), English writer and lexico-
grapher, was the son of Michael Johnson (1656-1731), bookseller
and magistrate of Lichfield, who married in 1706 Sarah Ford
(1669-1759). Michael's abilities and attainments seem to have
been considerable. He was so well acquainted with the con-
tents of the volumes which he exposed for sale that the country
rectors of Staffordshire and Worcestershire thought him an
oracle on points of learning. Between him and the clergy,
indeed, there was a strong religious and political sympathy, lie
was a sealous churchman, and, though he had qualified himself
for municipal office by taking the oaths to the sovereigns in
possession, was to the last a Jacobite in heart. The social
position of Samuel's paternal grandfather, William Johnson,
remains obscure; his mother was the daughter of Cornelius Ford,
" a little Warwickshire Gent/'
At a house (now the Johnson Museum) in the Market Square,
Lichfield, Samuel Johnson was born on the 18th of September
1 709 and baptised on the same day at St Mary's, Lichfield. In
the child the physical, intellectual- and moral peculiarities which
afterwards distinguished the man were plainly discernible:
great muscular strength accompanied by much awkwardness and
many infirmities; great quickness of parts, with a morbid pro-
pensity to sloth and procrastination; a kind and generous heart,
with a gloomy and irritable temper. He had inherited from his
ancestors a scrofulous taint, and his parents were weak enough
to believe that the royat touch would. cure him. In his third
year he was taken up to London, inspected by the court surgeon,
prayed over by the court chaplains and stroked and presented
with a piece of gold by Queen Anne. Her hand was applied in
vain. The boy's features, which were originally noble and not
irregular, were distorted by his malady. His cheeks were
deeply scarred. He lost for a time the sight of one eye; and he
saw but very imperfectly with the other. But the force of his
mind overcame every impediment. Indolent as he was, he
acquired knowledge with such ease and rapidity that at every
school (such as those at Lichfield and Stourbridge) to which he
was sent he was soon the best scholar. From sixteen to eighteen
he resided at home, and was left to his own devices. He learned
much at this time, though his studies were without guidance and
without plan. He ransacked his father's shelves, dipped into a
multitude of books, read what was interesting, and passed over
what was duD An ordinary lad would have acquired little or
no useful knowledge in such a way; but much that was dull to
ordinary lads was interesting to SamueL He read little Greek;
for hit proficiency in that language was not such that he could
take much pleasure in the masters of Attic poetry and eloquence.
But he had left school a goed Latinist, and he soon acquired an
extensive knowledge of Latin literature. He was peculiarly
attracted by the works of the great restorers of learning. Once,
while searching for some apples, he found a huge folio volume of
Petrarch's works. The name excited his curiosity, and he eagerly
devoured hundreds of pages. Indeed, the diction and versifi-
cation of his own Latin compositions show that he had paid at
least as much attention to modern copies from the antique as to
the original models.
While he was thus irregularly educating himself, his family was
sinking into hopeless poverty. Old Michael Johnson was much
better qualified to pore over books, and to talk about them, than
to trade in them. His business declined; his debts increased;
it was with difficulty that the daily expenses of his household
were defrayed. It was out of his power to support his son at
either university; but a wealthy neighbour offered assistance;
and, in reliance on promises which proved to be of very little
value, Samuel was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford. When
the young scholar presented himself to the rulers of that society,
they were amazed not more by his ungainly figure and eccentric
manners than by the quantity of extensive and curious inform-
ation which he had picked up during mahy months of desultory
but not unprofitable study. On the first day of his residence he
surprised his teachers by quoting Macrobius; and one of the most
learned among them declared that he had never known a fresh-
man of equal attainments.
At Oxford Johnson resided barely over two years, possibly
less. He was poor, even to ragged ness; and his appearance
excited a mirth and a pity which were equally intolerable to his
haughty spirit. He was driven from the quadrangle of Christ
Church by the sneering looks which the members of that aristo*
cratical society cast at the holes in his shoes. Some charitable
person placed a new pair at his door; but he spumed then away
462
from tl
number
Act and
Fourteei
promino
of 1866,
In 18*7
eeedcd *
disfrancb
negroes,
president
dent fror
Senate an
of that be
appropria
president
military c
cally all r>
General G
to remove,
and, finally
rua.ry-Ma\
disregard «.
against hir
evidence \
A two-thii
votes being
favour on t
animus of
soon very $
in securing
dential elc
ovcr-estima
tivcly quiet
in Tennesse
to the Unite
died at Cart
only speech
President Gr
•The char.
Stanton, his 1
paign specche
Tenure of O
the first was
of Office Act;
violation of tl.
the ConstitUti-
"to hinder anc
of secretary for
conspired with
the Tenure of
Thomas " to s
States in the dt
Act; the seven
the eichth, th.
unlawfully to c«
for the military
that he had ins
department of V,
for the army wr-
1866 constituted
fhe " omnibus "
in saying that th
that its legi&lad,
incapable of prop
joth of March (f>
e*C **" ^
and 00 the 14th ©
•fswons in which t
chief justice as tot
counsel showed V
f«S«
impeachment faihe
t?*™* voting
After ten day,' inlet
«>«nsel atcempted,
•o«'w of thom vodn,
uken on r*
ihcclcvt
■"^••vodn.
Jl
.***
by patronizing the young
person, unpolished manners and
stay of the petty aristocracy of the
or disgust. At Lichfield, however,
j* way of earning a livelihood. He became
school in Leicestershire; he resided as a
m the house of a country gentleman; but a
was insupportable to his haughty spirit.
and there earned a few guineas by
In that town he printed a translation, little
...•».. jk ume, and long forgotten, of a Latin book about
. -— j*> dc then put forth proposals for publishing by sub-
« .at Mens of Politian, with notes containing a history
-^».r -um verse; but subscriptions did not come in, and
*_jk ocver appeared.
:j muting this vagrant and miserable life, Johnson fell in
^ ^ object of his passion was Mrs Elizabeth Porter (i6S8-
•mow of Harry Porter (d. 1734), whose daughter Lucy
_ ls oniy six years after Johnson himself. To ordinary
^ ^«> the lady appeared to be a short, fat, coarse woman,
. .** uil an inch thick, dressed in gaudy colours, and fond
_jt»ing provincial airs and graces which were not exactly
.** ,* the Queensberrys and Lepels. To Johnson, however,
were strong, whose eyesight was too weak to
rouge from natural bloom, and who had seldom or
m the same room with a woman of real fashion, his
r .». 4» he called her, was the most beautiful, graceful and ac-
..*^o«£oibersex. That his admiration was unfeigned cannot
» ,A.«x*i» she had, however, a jointure of £000 and perhaps a
< vtre; she came of a good family, and her son Jervis
xs v\>mmandedH.M.S." Hercules." The marriage, in spite
. ^aNvoal wranglings, proved happier than might have been
. H *xtv>jl The lover continued to be under the illusions of the
wu«i£^by (July 9, 1735) till the lady died in her sixty-fourth
„ u \ On her monument at Bromley he placed an inscription
u w*2u* the charms of her person and of her manners; and
^•s*k *vog after her decease, he had occasion to mention her, he
^ ^med with atendcrness half ludicrous, half pathetic, " Pretty
„ ^41*!"
,t»* ■aarriage made it necessary for him to exert himself more
^ x *«*>u4y than he had hitherto done. He took a house- at
„** war Lichfield and advertised for pupils. But eighteen
^ovV passedaway, and only three pupils came to his academy.
.V ' uces " that Johnson habitually made (probably nervous
wwriKM* due to his disorder) may well have alarmed parents.
x ^ scholar though he was, these twit chings had lost him u&her-
j.^ in 173$ and 1736. David Garrick, who was one of the
,^>Jn used, many years later, to throw the best company of
v»on\ into convulsions of laughter by mimicking the master
m *i* Udy.
At length Johnson, in the twenty-eighth year of his age,
<vv h wined to seek his fortune in London as a literary adventurer.
S» *t out with a few guineas, three acts of his tragedy of Irau
* Manuscript, and two or three letters of introduction from his
kW Waltncslcy. Never since literature became a calling in
V«4Und had it been a less gainful calling than at the time when
teuton took up his residence in London. In the preceding
v> *H?/*tion a writer of eminent merit was sure to be munificently
vwatdtd by the Government. The least that he could expect
*«% a pension or a sinecure place; and, if he showed any apti-
^tt (or politics, he might hope to be a member of parliament, a
\»i4 of the treasury, an ambassador, a secretary of state. But
Mature had ceased to nourish under the patronage of the great,
44*1 hat) not yet begun to flourish under the patronage of the
public. One man of letters, indeed, Pope, had acquired by his
u#m *h*t was then considered as a handsome fortune, and lived
1 1** ft ("" m * °' "JUfthty wilh ooblcs aod ministers of state. But
I v |ku * A* a solitary exception. Even an author whose reputation
j *«» tftUUUhtd. and whose works were popular— such an author
N oae Seasons was in every library, such an author
P*sf*i* had bad a greater run than any drama
t Optra — was sometimes glad to obtain, by
++ % *
.*■ * *
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
465
pawning Us bat coat, the meant of dining on tripe at a cookshop
underground, where he could wipe his hands, alter his greasy
meal, on the back of a Newfoundland dog. It is easy, therefore,
to imagine what humiliations and privations must have awaited
the novice who had still to earn a name. One of the publishers
to whom Johnson applied for employment measured with a
scornful eye that athletic though uncouth frame, and exclaimed,
" You had better get a porter's knot and carry trunks.*' Nor
was the advice bad, for a porter was likely to be as plentifully
fed, and as comfortably lodged, as a poet.
Some time appears to have elapsed before Johnson was able
to form any literary connexion from which he could expect more
than bread for the day which was passing over him. He never
forgot the generosity with which Hervey, who was now residing
in London, relieved his wants during this time of trial " Harry
Hervey/' said Johnson many years later, " was a vicious man;
but he was very kind to me. If you caU a dog Hervey, I shall
love him." At Herve/s table Johnson sometimes enjoyed
feasts which were made more agreeable by contrast. But in
general he dmm. and thought that he dined well, on- sixpenny-
worth of meat and a pennyworth of bread at an alehouse near
PruryLane.
The effect of the privations and sufferings which he endured
at this time was discernible to the last in his temper and his
deportment. His manners had never been courtly. They now
became almost savage. Being frequently under the necessity of
wearing shabby coats and dirty shirts, he became a confirmed
sloven. Being often very hungry when he sat down to bis
meals, he contracted a habit of eating with ravenous greediness.
Even to the end of his life, and even at the tables of the great,
the sight of food affected him as it affects wild beasts and birds
of prey. His taste in cookery, formed in subterranean ordinaries
and a la mode beef shops, was far from delicate. Whenever he
was so fortunate as to have near him a hare that had been kept
too long, or a meat pie made with rancid butter, he gorged himself
with such violence that his veins swelled and the moisture broke
out on his forehead. The affronts which his poverty emboldened
stupid and low-minded men to offer to him would have broken a
mean spirit into sycophancy, but made him rude even to ferocity.
Unhappily the insolence which, while it was defensive, was par-
donable, and iff some sense respectable, accompanied him into
societies where he was treated with courtesy and kindness. He
was repeatedly provoked into striking those who had taken
liberties with him. All the sufferers, however, were wise enough
to abstain from talking about their beatings, except Osborne,
the most rapacious and brutal of booksellers, who proclaimed
everywhere that he had been knocked down by the huge fellow
whom he had hired to puff the Harletan Library.
- About a year after Johnson had begun to reside in London he
was fortunate enough to obtain regular employment from Edward
Cave (9. t.) on the Gentleman's Magaunc. That periodical, just
entering on the ninth year of its long existence, was the only one
in the kingdom which then had what would now be called a large
circulation. Johnson was engaged to write the speeches in the
41 Reports of the Debates of the Senate of Lilliput " (see Report-
ing), under which thin disguise the proceedings of parliament
were published. He was generally furnished with notes, meagre
indeed and inaccurate, of what had been said; but sometimes he
had to find arguments and eloquence both for the ministry and
for the opposition. He was himself a Tory, not from rational
conviction— for his serious opinion was that one form of govern-
ment was just as good or as bad as another— but from mere
passion, such as inflamed the Capulets against the Montagues, or
the Blues of the Roman circus against the Greens. In his infancy
be had heard so much talk about the villainies of the Whigs, and
the dangers of the Church, that he had become a furious partisan
when he could scarcely speak. Before be was three he had in-
sisted on being taken to hear Sacbeverel preach at Lichfield
Cathedral, and had listened to the sermon with as much respect
and probably with as much intelligence, as any Staffordshire
squire in the congregation. The work which had been begun,
in the nursery had been completed by the university. Oxford,
XV 8*
when Johnson resided there, was the most Jacobkical place in
England; and Pembroke was one of the most Jacobkical colleges
in Oxford. The prejudices which he brought up to London
were scarcely less absurd than those of his own Tom Tempest.
Charles II. and James II. were two of the best kings that ever
reigned. Laud was a prodigy of parts and learning over
whose tomb Art and Genius still continued to weep. Hampden
deserved no more honourable name than that of the " zealot of
rebellion." Even the ship-money Johnson would not pronounce
to have been an unconstitutional impost. Under a government
which allowed to the people an unprecedented liberty of speech
and action, be fancied that he was a slave. He hated Dissenters
and stock-jobbers, the excise and the army, septennial parlia-
ments, and Continental connexions. He long had an aversion
to the Scots, an aversion of which he could not remember the
commencement, but which, he owned, had probably originated
in his abhorrence of the conduct of the nation during the Great
Rebellion. It is easy to guess in what manner debates on great
party questions were likely to be reported by a man whose
judgment was so much disordered by party spirit. A show of
fairness was indeed necessary to the prosperity of the Magazine.
But Johnson long afterwards owned that, though he had saved
appearances, he had taken care that the Whig dogs should not
have the best of it; and, in fact, every passage which has lived,
every passage which bears the marks of his higher faculties, is
put into the mouth of some member of the opposition.
A few weeks after Johnson had entered on these obscure
labours, he published a work which at once placed him high
among the writers of his age. It is probable that what he had
suffered during his first year in London had often reminded him
of some parts of the satire in which Juvenal had described the
misery and degradation of a needy man of letters, lodged among
the pigeons' nests in the tottering garrets which overhung the
streets of Rome. Pope's admirable imitations of Horace's
Satires and Epistles had recently appeared, were in every hand,
and were by many readers thought superior to the originals.
What Pope had done for Horace, Johnson aspired to do for
Juvenal.
Johnson's London appeared without his name in May 1738.
He received only ten guineas for this stately and vigorous poem;
but the sale was rapid and the success complete. A second
edition was required within a week. Those small critics who
are always desirous to lower established reputations ran about
proclaiming that the anonymous satirist was superior to Pope
in Pope's own peculiar department of literature. It ought to
be remembered, to the honour of Pope, that he joined heartily
in the applause with which the appearance of a rival genius was
welcomed. He made inquiries about the author of London.
Such a man, he said, could not long be concealed. The name
was soon discovered; and Pope, with great kindness, exerted
himself to obtain an academical degree and the mastership of a
grammar school for the poor young poet. The attempt failed,
and Johnson remained a bookseller's hack.
It does not appear that these two men, the most eminent
writer of the generation which was going out, and the most
eminent writer of the generation which was coming in, ever saw
each other. They lived in very different circles, one surrounded
by dukes and earls, the other by starving pamphleteers and index-
makers. Among Johnson's associates at this time may be men-
tioned Boyse, who, when his shirts were pledged, scrawled Latin -
verses sitting up in bed. with his arms through two holes in his
blanket, who composed very respectable sacred poetry when he
was sober, and who was at last run over by a hackney coach when
he was drunk; Hoole, surnamed the metaphysical tailor, who,
instead of attending to his measures, used to trace geometrical
diagrams on the board where he sat cross-legged ; and thepenitent
impostor, George Psalmanazar, who, after poring all day, in a
humble lodging, on the folios of Jewish rabbis and Christian
fathers, indulged himself at night with literary and theological
conversation at an alehouse in the City. But the most remark-
able of the persons with whom at this time Johnson consorted
was Richard Savage, an earl's son, a shoemaker's apprentice,
466
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
2*
who had sees fife in all its forms, who had feasted among bine
ribands in St James's Square, and bad lain with fifty pounds
weight of irons on his kgs in the condemned ward of Newgale.
This man had, after many vicissitudes of fortune, sunk at last
huo abject and hopekss poverty. His pen had failed him.
IBs pat mm bad been taken away by death, or estranged by the
tattoos profusion with whkh be squandered their bounty, and
the asgratcral insolence with which be rejected their advice.
fie asw Svcd by begging. He dined on venison and champagne
w^emrrcr kt had been so fortunate as to borrow a guinea. If
bs ^oeiC.2* W been unsuccessful, be appeased the rage of
*--a4« w*h mk scraps of broken meat, and lay down to rest
«r\:or tV rui^sa ot Coves* Garden in warm weather, and, in
v -..c wc-4.h«^ as near as be could get to the furnace of a glass
>ourss. \ « A jj^ iDcscry he was still an agreeable companion,
v'. W xx .^vSa^fj^ik store of anecdotes about that gay and
-. -<ku %wtc :noan which he was now an outcast. He had
^^x>vvi xW fcra men of both parties in hours of careless
^ .wvi. v*> W «*** :** loaders of opposition without the mask
^ m *v«.>jk 4»vi Vfcd heard the prime minister roar with
_* ^'Vvw 4 n.' a>L 5Cv*o« »ot over-decent. During some months
5^ . ^«t aw .* .V* cV*sest familiarity with Johnson; and then
~>w :*^ivi^ ?*:\.n1 wt wuhout tears. Johnson remained in
" _.->jva v ^.*v<^ nx Can*, Savage went to the west of Eng-
, ivvv , Kvt « W had Evcd everywhere, and in 1743 died,
• .0* t*c Ku \.Vv*«su in Bristol GaoL
^v* * *•,% > x % >.**V» mkOc the public curiosity was strongly
. tX-v V > *v;r*swi.»arY character and his not less extra-
> K-\v i,,^* :.** d him appeared widely different from
* >»> » V *\v* W <wi»cnt men which were then a staple
a ?.-* '*.**<** * C**b Street. The style was indeed
•s * *«< a#si \arwo . and the writer was evidently too
- X X *. ,* **<ac*: ot vw language. But the Utile work,
., x fc.. , x »<** a masterpiece. No finer specimen of
* V V v <>> <\ .^n\1 in *ny language, living or dead; and a
^ x . s % v 4>s h*\* confidently predicted that the
» *^ A^.^w^ the fcumferd a new sch«>l of English
% . x s^ *«» a**ny»©us; but it was well known in
\ „\U w*Tv>*K>n was the writer. During the three
% w\ v. v*vv, W voxluced no important work; but he
„ v ..v w\v xvvKi **>* be. idle. The fame of his abilities
>sv , v vN » ^ jr\*w. Warburton pronounced him a
" * N \^ x •, ». *»*l the praise of Warburton was then
\ \.\ s>\ **% Johnson's reputation that, in 1747,
^ — "v >•* V.vJ^»<** combined to employ him in the
r < ' * ^^ >4 * l**tio*ary of the English Language,
% v v^ -^ ' v **** which ***** a « recd lo **y him
W -■ >^ f*w***» an( ^ out °^ tm ^ sum ^ e ** a< * lo
^ ^ \hwo who assisted him in the humbler
' *' %N \ H v ;v»*Mitfry he addressed to the earl of
N ' ^ NN \^^ voNA ( *ad long been celebrated for the
\*»*.»s> v «*f ^Uiancy of his wit, and the delicacy
» v "" * \ "^** ^<^*Vdgcd to be the finest speaker in the
** *^ Vss >N\H»tly governed Ireland, at a moraen-
" v v v ^ :^>^ firmness, wisdom and humanity;
of state. He received John-
ng affability, and requited it
less in a very graceful manner,
all his carpets blackened with
»d wines thrown to right and
d the waistcoats of fine gentle-
i, who gave strange starts and
i like a scarecrow and ate like
Johnson continued to call on
tedly told by the porter that
;b< hint, and ceased to present
>*t he should have completed
l4tt U was not till 17 55 that he
, I)* world. During the seven
Ih
of
years which be passed in the drudgery of penning deinkkms
and marking, quotations for transcription, he sought for relaxa-
tion in literary labour of a more agreeable kind. In January 1 749
he published The Vanity of Human Wishes, an excellent imitation
of the tenth satire of Juvenal, for which he received fifteen
guineas.
A few days after the publication of this poem, his tragedy of
Irene, begun many years before, was brought on the stage by his
old pupil, David Garrick, now manager of Drury Lane Theatre.
The relation between him and his old preceptor was of a very
singular kind. TheyrepeUed each otherstrongly, and yet attracted
each other strongly. Nature had made them of very different
clay; and circumstances had fully brought out the natural
peculiarities of both. Sudden prosperity had turned Garrick's
head. Continued adversity had soured Johnson's temper.
Johnson saw with more envy than became so great a man the
villa, the plate, the china, the Brussels carpet, which the little
mimic had got by repeating, with grimaces and gesticulations,
what wiser men had written; and the exquisitely sensitive vanity
of Garrick was galled by the thought that, while all the rest of the
world was applauding him, he could obtain from one morose
cynic, whose opinion it was impossible to despise, scarcely any
compliment not acidulated with scorn. Yet the two Lichfield
men had so many early recollections in common, and sympathized
with each other on so many points on which they sympathized
with nobody else in the vast population of the capital, that,
though the master was often provoked by the monkey-like
impertinence of the pupil, and the pupil by the bearish rudeness
of the master, they remained friends till they were parted by
death. Garrick now brought Irene out, with alterations sufficient
to displease the author, yet not sufficient to make the piece
pleasing to the audience. After nine representations the play
was withdrawn. The poet however cleared by his benefit nights,
and by the sale of the copyright of his tragedy, about three
hundred pounds, then a great sum in his estimation.
About a year after the representation of Irene, he began to
publish a series of short essays on morals, manners and literature.
This species of composition bad been brought into fashion by the
success of the Taller, and by the still more brilliant success of the
Spectator. A crowd of small writers had vainly attempted to rival
Addison. The Lay Monastery, the Censor, the Freethinker, the
Plain Dealer, the Champion, and other works of the same kind
had had their short day. At length Johnson undertook the
adventure in which so many aspirants had failed. In the thirty-
sixth year after the appearance of the last number of the Spectator
appeared the first number of the Rambler. From March 2750
to March 1752 this paper continued to come out every Tuesday
and Saturday.
From the first the Rambler was enthusiastically admired by a
few eminent men. Richardson, when only five numbers had
appeared, pronounced it equal if not superior to the Spectator.
Young and Hartley expressed their approbation not less warmly.
In consequence probably of the good offices of Bubb Dodington,
who was then the confidential adviser of Prince Frederick, two
of his royal highness's gentlemen carried a gracious message to
the printing office, and ordered seven copies for Leicester House.
But Johnson had had enough of the patronage of the great to last
him all his life, and was not disposed to haunt any other door as
he had haunted the door df Chesterfield.
By the public the Rambler was at first very coldly received.
Though the price of a number was only twopence, the sale did
not amount to five hundred. The profits were therefore very
small. But as soon as the flying leaves were collected and re-
printed they became popular. The author lived to see thirteen
thousand copies spread over England alone. Separate editions
were published for the Scotch and Irish markets. A large party
pronounced the style perfect, so absolutely perfect that in some
essays it would be impossible for the writer himself to alter a
single word for the better. Another party, not less numerous,
vehemently accused hire of having corrupted the purity of the
English tongue. The best critics admitted that his diction was
too monotonous, too obviously artificial, and now and then turgid
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
467
even to absurdity. But they did justice to the acuteness of his
observations on morals and manners, to the constant precision
and frequent brilliancy of his language, to the weighty and
magnificent eloquence of many serious passages, and to the solemn
yet pleasing humour of some of the lighter papers.
The last RambUr was written in a sad and gloomy hour. Mrs
Johnson had been given over by the physicians. Three days
later she died. 3he left her husband almost broken-hearted.
Many people had been surprised to see a man of his genius and
learning stooping to every drudgery, and denying himself almost
every comfort, for the purpose of supplying a silly, affected old
woman with superfluities, which she accepted with but little
gratitude. But all his affection had been concentrated on her.
He had neither brother nor sister, neither son nor daughters
Her opinion of his writings was more important to him than the
voice of the pit of Drury Lane Theatre, or the judgment of the
Monthly Review. The chief support which had sustained him
through the most arduous labour of his life was the hope that she
would enjoy the fame and the profit which he anticipated from
his Dictionary. She was gone; and in that vast labyrinth of
streets, peopled by eight hundred thousand human beings, he
was alone. Yet it was necessary for him to set himself, as be
expressed it, doggedly to work. After three more laborious
years, the Dictionary was at length complete.
• It had been generally supposed that this great work would be
dedicated to the eloquent and accomplished nobleman to whom
die prospectus had been addressed. Lord Chesterfield well knew
the value of such a compliment; and therefore, when the day of
publication drew near, he exerted himself to soothe, by a show
of zealous and at the same time of delicate and judicious kindness,
the pride which he bad so cruelly wounded. Since the Rambler
had ceased to appear, the town had been entertained by a journal
called the World, to which many men of high rank and fashion
contributed. In two successive numbers of the World, the
Dictionary was, to use the modern phrase, puffed with wonderful
skill The wri tings of Johnson were warmly praised. It was pro-
posed that he should be invested with the authority of a dictator,
nay, of a pope, over our language, and that his decisions about
the meaning and the spelling of words should be received as
final His two folios, it was said, would of course be bought by
everybody who could afford to buy them. It was soon known
that these papers were written by Chesterfield. But the just
resentment of Johnson was not to be so appeased. In a letter
written with singular energy and dignity of thought and language,
be repelled the tardy advances of his patron. The Dictionary
came forth without a dedication. In the Preface the author truly
declared that he owed nothing to the great, and described the
difficulties with which he had been left to struggle so forcibly and
pathetically that the ablest and most malevolent of all the enemies
of his fame, Home Tooke, never could read that passage without
tears.
; Johnson's Dictionary was hailed with an enthusiasm such as
no similar work has ever excited. It was. indeed the first
dictionary which could be read with pleasure. The definitions
show so mnch acuteness of thought and command of language,
and the passages quoted from poets, divines and philosophers are
so skilfully selected, that a leisure hour may always be very agree-
ably spent in turning over the pages. The faults of the book
resolve themselves, for the most part, into one great fault. John-
son was a wretched etymologist. He knew little or nothing of
any Teutonic language except English, which indeed, as he wrote
it, was scarcely a Teutonic language; and thus be was absolutely
at the mercy of Junius and Skinner.
The Dictionary, though it raised Johnson's fame, added no-
thing to his pecuniary means. The fifteen hundred guineas which
the booksellers had agreed to pay him had been advanced and
spent before the last sheets issued from the press. It is painful
to relate that twice m the course of the year which followed the
publication of this great work he was arrested and carried to
sponging-houses, and that he was twice indebted for his liberty
to his excellent friend Richardson. It was still necessary for
the man who had been formerly saluted by the highest authority
as dictator of the English language to supply his wants by con-
stant toil. He abridged his Dictionary. He proposed to bring out
an edition of Shakespeare by subscription, and many subscriber*
sent in their names and laid down their money; but he toon
found the task so little to his taste that he turned to more attrac-
tive employments. He contributed many papers to a new
monthly journal, which was called the Literary Magaom. Few
of these papers have much interest; but among them was one ef
the best things that be ever wrote, a masterpiece both of reason-
ing and of satirical pleasantry, the review of Jenyns' /«f»jry
into the Nature and Origin of Evil.
In the spring of 1758 Johnson put forth the first of a series of
essays, entitled the Idler. During two years these essays con-
tinued to appear weekly. They were eagerly read, widely
circulated, and indeed impudently pirated, while they were still
in the original form, and had a large sale when collected into
volumes. The Idler may be described as a second part of the
Rambler, somewhat livelier and somewhat weaker than the fiat
part.
While Johnson was busied with his Idlers, his mother, who
had accomplished her ninetieth year, died at Lichfield It was
long since he had seen her, but he -had not failed to contribute
largely out of his small means to her comfort. In order to defray
the charges of her funeral, and to pay some debts which she had
left, he wrote a little book in a single week, and sent off the sheets
to the press without reading them over. A hundred pounds
were paid him for the copyright, and- the purchasers had great
cause to be pleased with their bargain, for the book was Rasselas,
and it had a great success.
The plan of Rassdas might, however, have seemed to invite
severe criticism. Johnson has frequently blamed Shakespeare
for neglecting the proprieties of time and place, and for ascribing
to one age or nation the manners and opinions of another. Yet
Shakespeare has not sinned in this way more grievously than
Johnson. Rasselas and Imlac, Nekayah and Pekuah, are
evidently meant to be Abysstnians of the 18th century; for the
Europe which Imlac describes is the Europe of the 18th century,
and the inmates of the Happy Valley talk familiarly of that law
of gravitation which Newton discovered and which was not fuUy
received even at Cambridge till the 18th century. Johnson, not
content with turning fihhy savages, ignorant of their letters, and
gorged with raw steaks cut from living cows, into philosophers
as eloquent and enlightened as himself or his friend Burke, and
into ladies as highly accomplished as Mrs Lennox or Mrs Sheridan,
transferred the whole domestic system of England to Egypt.
Into a land of harems, a land of polygamy, a land where women
are married without ever being seen, be introduced the flirtations
and jealousies of our ball-rooms. In a land where there is bound-
less liberty of divorce, wedlock is described as the indissoluble
compact. " A youth and maiden meeting by chance, or brought
together by artifice, exchange .glances, reciprocate civilities, go
home, and dream of each other. Such," says Rasselas, " is the
common process of marriage.' 1 A writer who was guilty of such
improprieties had little right to blame the poet who made Hector
quote Aristotle, and represented Julio Romano as flourishing in
the days of the Oracle of Delphi.
By such exertions as have been described Johnson supported
himself till the year 176s. In that year a great change in his
circumstances took place. He had from a child been an enemy
of the reigning dynasty. His Jacobite prejudices had been
exhibited with little disguise both in his works and in his con-
versation. Even in his massy and elaborate Dictionary he had,
with a strange want of taste and judgment, inserted bitter and
contumelious reflexions on the Whig party. The excise, which
was a favourite resource of Whig financiers, he had designated
as a hateful tax. He bad railed against the commissioners of
excise in language so coarse that they had seriously thought of
prosecuting him. He had with difficulty been prevented from
holding up the lord privy seal by name as an example of the
meaning of the word " renegade." A pension he had defined as
pay given to a state hireling to betray his country; a pensioner
as a slave of state hired by a stipend to obey a master. It
+68
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
teemed unlikely that the author of these definitions would him-
self be pensioned. But that was a time of wonders. George III.
had ascended the throne, and had, in the course of a few months,
disgusted many of the old friends, and conciliated many of the old
enemies of his house. The city was becoming mutinous; Oxford
was becoming loyal. Cavendishes and Bentincks were murmur-
ing; Somersets and Wyndhams were hastening to kiss hands.
The head of the treasury was now Lord Bute, who was a Tory,
and could have no objection to Johnson's Toryism. Bute wished
to be thought a patron of men of letters; and Johnson was one of
the most eminent and one of the most needy men of letters in
Europe. A pension of three hundred a year was graciously
offered, and with very little hesitation accepted.
This event produced a change in Johnson's whole way of life.
For the first time since his boyhood he no longer felt the daily
goad urging him to the daily toil He was at liberty, after thirty
years of anxiety and drudgery, to indulge his constitutional
indolence* to tie in bed till two in the afternoon, and to sit up
talking till four in the morning, without fearing either the
Mutter's devil or the sheriff's officer.
One laborious task indeed he had bound himself to perform.
He had received large subscriptions for his promised edition of
Sttttamie; he had lived on those subscriptions during some
\*sr» and he could not without disgrace omit to perform his
wvrn v-4 the o»tract» His friends repeatedly exhorted him to
•M.U *<< effvwt, and he repeatedly resolved to do so. But, not-
%-;V AiKt.*g their exhortations and his resolutions, month
fcs&wd «KV«h> year followed year, and nothing was done.
1W a *>vvl fcAvenlty against his idleness; he determined, as often
a* W tvv«v«d the sacrament, that he would no longer doze away
*»vi < t*t ***>• h» time; but the spell under which he lay resisted
r* V v< *^**-**ent. Happily forhishonour, the charm which
£* \.m s^**x* was at length broken by no gentle or friendly
a*** tt* had Wen weak enough to pay serious attention to a
*.** aW* a **<«* which haunted a house in Cock Lane, and had
*a,*3\ *ni» htnurtt. with some of his friends, at one in the
L*«-«* rs^ k*»* Church, ClerkenweU, in the hope of receiving
4 ,v-J« \ ^v»* <**» the perturbed spirit. But the spirit,
***** M>*rtd *tih all solemnity, remained obstinately silent;
jlTl*** uveawd that a naughty girl of eleven had been amus-
u* !ikWt S w*k*C fools of so many philosophers. Churchill,
C5L **ad*«t ** *»» powers, drunk with popularity, and burning
^TV Im*. *»mt> was looking for some man of established fame
la tw* iXin* * *»uU, celebrated the Cock Lane ghost in
V^ ^ XauUsn*^ Johnson Pomposo, asked where the book
V V v *1 H-^i a««* m> long promised and so liberally paid for,
W Itl^ f"* 1 BK>r,dJst of <*«**"*• • This terrible
* "^wld «d*t»*l *»* m October '7*5 appeared, after a
y, but
. The
lis best
had an
many
speci-
o good
ination
cult to
r great
hat he
en, be-
tsity of
tiispre-
sd that
siraftle
.he two
single
y Lord
Raleigh
hnson's
rse and
tangled
passage quoted from any dramatist of the Elizabethan age except
Shakespeare and Ben Jonson. Even from Ben the quotations
are few. Johnson might easily in a few months have made him-
self well acquainted with every old play that was extant. But
it never seems to have occurred to. him that this was a necessary
preparation for the work which he had undertaken. He would
doubtless have admitted that it would be the height of absurdity
in a man who was not familiar with the works of Aeschylus and
Euripides to publish an edition of Sophocles. Yet he ventured
to publish an edition of Shakespeare, without having ever in his
life, as far as can be discovered, read a single scene of Massinger,
Ford, Dekker, Webster, Marlow, Beaumont or Fletcher. . His
detractors were noisy and scurrilous. He had, however, acquitted
himself of a debt which had long lain heavy on his conscience and
he sank back into the repose from which the sting of satire bad
roused him. He long continued to live upon the fame which he
had already won. He was honoured by the university of Oxford
with a doctor's degree, by the Royal Academy with a professor-
ship, and by the king with an interview, in which bis majesty
most graciously expressed a hope that so excellent a writer would
not cease to write. In the interval between 1765 and 1775 John-
son published only two or three political tracts.
But, though his pen was now idle, his tongue was active. The
influence exercised by his conversation,, directly upon those with
whom he lived, and indirectly on the whole literary world, was
altogether without a parallel. His colloquial talents were indeed
of the highest order. He had strong sense, quick discernment,
wit, humour, immense knowledge of literature and of life, and an
infinite store of curious anecdotes. As respected style, he spoke
far better than he wrote. Every sentence which dropped from
his lips was as correct in structure as the most nicely balanced
period of the Rambler. But in his talk there were no pompons
triads, and little more than a fair proportion of words in -escry
and -ction. All was simplicity, ease and vigour. He uttered
his short, weighty, and pointed sentences with a power of voice,
and a justness and energy of emphasis, of which the effect was
rather increased than diminished by the rollings of his huge form,
and by the asthmatic gaspings and puffings in which the peals of
his eloquence generally ended. Nor did the laziness which made
him unwilling to sit down to his desk prevent him from giving in-
struction or entertainment orally. To discuss questions of taste,
of learning, of casuistry, in language so exact and so forcible that
it might have been printed without the alteration of a word, was
to him no exertion, but a pleasure. He loved, as be said, to fold
his legs and have his talk out. He was ready to bestow the over-
flowings of his full mind on anybody who would start a subject:
on a fellow-passenger in a stage coach, or on the person who sat
at the same table with him in an eating-house. But his conversa-
tion was nowhere so brilliant and striking as when he was sur-
rounded by a few friends, whose abilities and knowledge enabled
them, as he once expressed it, to send him back every ball that
he threw. Some of these, ini 764, formed themselves into a dub,
which gradually became a formidable power fn the common-
wealth of letters. The verdicts pronounced by this conclave on
new books were speedily known over all London, and were suffi-
cient to sell off a whole edition in a day, or to condemn the sheets
to the service of the trunkmaker and the pastrycook. Gold-
smith was the representative of poetry and light literature,
Reynolds of the arts, Burke of political eloquence and political
philosophy. There, too, were Gibbon the greatest historian
and Sir William Jones the greatest linguist of the age. Garrick
brought to the meetings his inexhaustible pleasantry, his incom-
parable mimicry, and his consummate knowledge of stage effect.
Among the most constant attendants were two high-born and
high-bred gentlemen, closely bound together by friendship, but
of widely different characters and habits— Bennet Langton,
distinguished by his skill in Greek* literature, by the orthodoxy
of his opinions, and by the sanctity of his life, and Tophani
Beauderk, renowned for his amours, his knowledge of the gay
world, his fastidious taste and his sarcastic wit.
Among the members of this celebrated body was one to whosa
it has owed the greater part of its celebrity, yet who was
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
469
regarded with KtUt respect by bh brethren, and had not without
difficulty obtained a seat among them. This was James Boswell
(q. v.) t a young Scots lawyer, heir to an honourable name
and a fair estate. That he was a coxcomb and a bore, weak,
vain, pushing, curious, garrulous, was obvious to all who were
acquainted with him.
To a man of Johnson's strong understanding and irritable
temper, the siHy egotism and adulation of Boswell must have
been as teasing as the constant buzz of a fly. Johnson hated to
be questioned; and Boswell was eternally catechizing him on all
kinds of subjects, and sometimes propounded such questions as,
" What would you do, sir, if you were locked up in a tower with
a baby ? " Johnson was a water-drinker and Boswell was a wine-
bibber, and indeed little better than an habitual sot. It was im-
possible that there should be perfect harmony between two such
companions. Indeed, the great man was sometimes provoked
into fits of passion, in which he said things which the small man,
during a few hours, seriously resented. Every quarrel, how-
ever, was soon made up. During twenty years the disciple con-
tinued to worship the master; the master continued to scold the
disciple, to sneer at him, and to love him. The two friends
ordinarily resided at a great distance from each other. Boswell
practised in the Parliament House of Edinburgh, and could pay
only occasional visits to London. During those visits his chief
business was to watch Johnson, to discover all Johnson's habits,
to turn the conversation to subjects about which Johnson was
likely to say something remarkable, and to fill quarto notebooks
with minutes of what Johnson had said. In this way were
gathered the materials out of which was afterwards constructed
the most interesting biographical work in the world.
Soon after the club began to exist, Johnson formed a connexion
less important indeed to his fame, but much more important
to his happiness, than his connexion with Boswell. Henry
Thrale, one of the most opulent brewers in the kingdom, a man
of sound and cultivated understanding, rigid principles, and
liberal spirit, was married to one of those clever, kind-hearted,
engaging, vain, pert young women who are perpetually doing or
saying what is not exactly right, but who, do or say what they
may, are always agreeable. In 176s the Thxales became ac-
quainted with Johnson, and the acquaintance ripened fast into
friendship. They were astonished and delighted by the brilliancy
of his conversation. They were nattered by finding that a man
so widely celebrated preferred their house to any other in London.
Johnson soon had an apartment at the brewery in Soutbwark,
and a still more pleasant apartment at the villa of his friends on
Streatham Common. A large part of every year he passed in
those abodes, which must have seemed magnificent and luxurious
indeed, when compared with the dens in which he had generally
been lodged. But his chief pleasures were derived from what
the astronomer of his Abyssinian tale called " the endearing
elegance of female friendship." Mrs Thrale rallied him, soothed
him, coaxed him, and if she sometimes provoked him by her
flippancy, made ample amends by listening to his reproofs with
angelic sweetness of temper. When he was diseased in body
and in mind, she was the most tender of nurses. No comfort
that wealth could purchase, no contrivance that womanly in-
genuity, set to work by womanly compassion, could devise, was
wanting to his sick room. It would seem that a full half of
Johnson's life during about sixteen years was passed under the
roof of the Thrales. He accompanied the family sometimes to
Bath, and sometimes to Brighton, once to Wales and once to
Paris. But he had at the same time a bouse in one of the
narrow and gloomy courts on the north of Fleet Street. In the
garrets was his library, a large and miscellaneous collection of
books, falling to pieces and begrimed with dust. On a lower
floor he sometimes, but very rarely, regaled a friend with a plain
dinner — a veal pie, or a leg of lamb and spinach, and a rice pud-
ding. Nor was the dwelling uninhabited during his long absences.
It was the home of the most extraordinary assemblage of inmates
that ever was brought together. At the head of the establish-
ment Johnson had placed an old lady named Williams, whose
chief recommendations were her blindness and her poverty. But,
in spite of her murmurs and reproaches, he gave aa asylum to
another lady who was as poor as herself, Mrs Desmoulins, whose
family he had known many years before in Staffordshire. Room
was found for the daughter of Mrs Desmoulins, and for another
destitute damsel, who was generally addressed as Miss Car-
michael, but whom her generous host called Polly. An old quack
doctor named Levett, who had a wide practice, but among the
very poorest class, poured out Johnson's tea in the morning and
completed this strange menagerie. All these poor creatures
were at constant war with each other, and with Johnson's negro
servant Frank. Sometimes, indeed, tbey transferred their
hostilities from the servant to the master, complained that a
better table was not kept for them, and railed or maundered
till their benefactor was glad to make his escape to Streatham
or to the Mitre Tavern. And yet he, who was generally the
haughtiest and most irritable of mankind, who was but too prompt
to resent anything which looked like a slight on the part of a
purse-proud bookseller, or of a noble and powerful patron, bore
patiently from mendicants, who, but for his bounty, must have
gone to the workhouse, insults more provoking than those for
which he had knocked down Osborne and bidden defiance to
Chesterfield. Year after year Mrs Williams and Mrs Desmoulins,
Polly and Levett, continued to torment him and to Hve upon him.
The course of life which has been described was interrupted
in Johnson's sixty-fourth year by an important event. He
had early read an account of the Hebrides, and had been much
interested by learning that there was so near him a land peopled
by a race which was still as rude and simple as in the Middle Ages.
A wish to become intimately acquainted with a state of society
so utterly unlike all that he had ever seen frequently crossed his
mind. But it is not probable that his curiosity would have over?
come his habitual sluggishness, and his love of the smoke, the
mud, and the cries of London, had not Boswell importuned him to
attempt the adventure, and offered to be his squire. At length,
in August 1773, Johnson crossed the Highland line, and plunged
courageously into what was then considered, by most Englishmen,
as a dreary and perilous wilderness. After wandering about two
months through the Celtic region, sometimes in rude boats which
did not protect him from the rain, and sometimes on small shaggy
ponies which could hardly bear his weight, he returned to his old
haunts with a mind full of new images and new theories. During
the following year he employed himself in recording his adven-
tures. About the beginning of 1775 his Journey to the Hebrides
was published, and was, during some weeks, the chief subject
of conversation in all circles in which any attention was paid to
literature. His prejudice against the Scots had at length
become little more than matter of jest; and whatever remained
of the old feeling had been effectually removed by the kind and
respectful hospitality with which he had been received in every
part of Scotland. It was, of course, not to be expected that an
Oxonian Tory should praise the Presbyterian polity and ritual,
or that an eye accustomed to the hedgerows and parks of England
should not be struck by the bareness of Berwickshire and East
Lothian. But even in censure Johnson's tone is not unfriendly.
The most enlightened Scotsmen, with Lord Mansfield at their
head, were well pleased. But some foolish and ignorant Scots-
mer* were moved to anger by a little unpalatable truth which was
mingled with much eulogy, and assailed him whom they chose to
consider as the enemy of their country with libels much more
dishonourable to their country than anything that he had ever
said or written. - They published paragraphs in the newspapers,
articles in the magazines, sixpenny pamphlets, five-shilling books.
One scribbler abused Johnson for being blear-eyed, another for
being a pensioner; a third informed the world that one of the doc-
tor's uncles had been convicted of felony in Scotland, and had
found that there yr%& in that country one tree capable of support-
ing the weight of an Englishman. Macpherson, whose Fingal had
been treated in the Joufney as an impudent forgery, threatened
to take vengea nee with a cane. The only effect of this threat was
that Johnson reiterated the charge of forgery in the most con-
temptuous terms, and walked about, during some time, with a
cudgeL
JOHNSON, SAMUEL
whatever. He
into controversy; and be
which is the more
and morally,
I* conversation
disputant.
to sophistry;
of
he took an pen in bis band, his
a «r -iwajiJ A awadml bad writers
■at one of the hundred
by ham worthy of a refuta-
Onw Scatsamwa. bent aw vindicating^
in a detest-
adc
Prt
mm
opp-
yeai
men
fa to
ofH
"-*** ^^^
adjustment
awd the ministers
* Johnson might with
in* natwo against theopposi-
mb Vyoaii the Atlantic. He
of the foreign
though
to the crowd of
at .Oman and Stockdale.
was a puuhat tattare. Even
a\ ^sn» wnvctwnate piece be could
Ihe general cytmoo was
W.* ami *p*frR*d the Pfcrtmiry and
» xo tht t& ect of time and of
_ i nuniit Vest c^w^t fens credit by
ja*. wm * **•*» neuit. Johnson bad
> waa- "■* jb» ^tveons than when he
jacstiap x a wee*. W because he bad
«** aAhs >* cwmk fee him, a subject
jk aw* Vo caw»<f?<nt to treats He
,«t At arm* *»-"^p*y reod or thought
i 4ttu* wit v**>l **<er*f>hy, literary
Vat jv^j^tl *K*v>or was posi-
7>r ^«acva at «$$** between the
jn^aa? *•* * fKAwi about %hkh he
^w W*?*> K^wm soon had an
^ <^*»T> Jhu V» u£ur* was not to
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cause
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*^ ***• * *t *>**>• ***** troan
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» >** * r<wwb vaults;
^ 0&N«* *** •^
had rendered services of no very honourable kind to Pope. The
biographer therefore sat down to his task with a mind full of
matter. He had at first intended to give only a paragraph to
every minor poet, and only four or five pages to the greatest name.
But the flood of anecdote and criticism overflowed the narrow
channel The work, which was originally meant to consist only
of a few sheets; swelled into]ten volumes— small volumes, it is true,
and not closely printed. The first four appeared in 1779, the
remaining six in 1781.
The Lives of the Poets sat, on the whole, the best of Johnson's
works. The narratives are as entertaining as any novel The
remarks on life and on human nature are eminently shrewd and
profound. The criticisms are often excellent, and, even when
grossly and provokingly unjust, well deserve to be studied.
Savage's Life Johnson reprinted nearly as it had appeared in 1744*
Whoever, after reading that life, will turn to the other lives will
be struck by the difference of style. Since Johnson had been at
ease in his circumstances he had written little and had talked
much. When therefore he, after the lapse of years, resumed his
pen, the mannerism which he had contracted while he was in the
constant habit of elaborate composition was less perceptible than
formerly, and his diction frequently had a colloquial ease which
it had formerly wanted. The improvement may be discerned
by a skilful critic in the Journey to the Hebrides, and in the Lhes
of the Poets is so obvious that it cannot escape the notice of the
most careless reader. Among the Lives the best are perhaps
those of Cowley, Dryden and Pope. The very worst is, beyond all
doubt, that of Gray; the most controverted that of Milton.
This great work at once became popular. There was, indeed,
much just and much unjust censure; but even those who were
loudest in blame were, attracted by the book in spite of them-
selves. Malone computed the gains of the publishers at five or
six thousand pounds. But the writer was very poorly remuner-
ated. Intending at first to write very short prefaces, he bad
stipulated for only two hundred guineas. • The booksellers, when
they saw how far his performance had surpassed his promise,
added only another hundred. Indeed Johnson, though be did
not despise or affect to despise money, and though his strong
sense and long experience ought to have qualified him to protect
his own interests, seems to have been singularly unskilful and
unlucky in his literary bargains. He was generally reputed the
first English writer of his time. Yet several writers of his time
sold their copyrights for sums such as he never ventured to ask.
To give a single instance, Robertson received £4500 for the
History of Charles V.
Johnson was now in his seventy-second year. The infirmities
of age were coming fast upon him. That inevitable event of
which he never thought without horror was brought near to him;
and his whole life was darkened by the shadow of death. The
strange dependants to whom he had given shelter, and to whom,
in spite of their faults, he was strongly attached by habit,
dropped off one by one; and, in the silence of his home, he re-
gretted even the noise of their scolding matches. The kind and
generous Tbrale was no more; and it was soon plain that the old
Streatham intimacy could not be maintained upon the same foot-
ing. Mrs Thrale herself confessed that without her husband's
assistance she did not feel able to entertain Johnson as a constant
inmate of her bouse.. Free from the yoke of the brewer, she fell
in love with a music master, high in his profession, from Brescia,
named Gabriel Pioxxi, in whom nobody but herself could discover
anything to admire. The secret of this attachment was soon
discovered by Fanny Buroey, but Johnson at most only sua*
petted it.
In September 178a the place at Streatham was from motives
of economy let to Lord Shelburne, and Mrs Thrale took a bouse
at Brighton, whither Johnson accompanied her; they remained
for sit weeks on the old familiar footing. In March 1783 Boswell
was gUd to discover Johnson well looked after and staying with
Mrs Vhrale in Argyll Street, but in a bad state of health. Im«
patience of Johnson's criticisms and infirmities had been steadily
growing with Mrs Thrale since 1774- She now went to Bath
rth her daughters, partly to escape his supervision. Johnson
JOHNSON, SIR T.
was very HI in hit lodgings during the summer, but he still corre-
sponded affectionately with his" mistress " and received many
favours from her. He retained the full use of his senses during
the paralytic attack, and in July he was sufficiently recovered
to renew his old club life and to meditate further journeys. In
June 1 784 be went with Bpswell to Oxford for the last time. In
September he was in Lichfield. On his return his health was
rather worse; but he would submit to no dietary regime. His
asthma tormented him day and night, and dropsical symptoms
made their appearance. His wrath was excited in no measured
terms against the re-marriage of his old friend Mrs ThraLe, the
news of which he heard this summer. The whole dispute seems,
to-day, entirely uncalled-for, but the marriage aroused some of
Johnson's strongest prejudices. He wrote inconsiderately on
the subject, but we must remember that he was at the time
afflicted in body and mentally haunted by dread of impending
change. Throughout all his troubles he had clung vehemently
to life. The feeling described in that fine but gloomy paper
which closes the series of his Idlers seemed to grow stronger in
him as his last hour drew near. He fancied that he should be
able to draw his breath more easily in a southern climate, and
would probably have set out for Rome and Naples but for his
fear of the expense of the journey. That expense, indeed, he
had the means of defraying; for he had laid up about two thou-
sand pounds, the fruit of labours which had made the fortune of
several publishers. But he was unwilling to break in upon this
hoard, and he seems to have wished even to keep its existence
a secret. Some of his friends hoped that the Government might
be induced to increase his pension to six hundred pounds a year,
but this hope was disappointed, and he resolved to stand one
English winter more.
That winter was his last. His legs grew weaker; his breath
grew shorter; the fatal water gathered fast, in spite of incisions
which he, courageous against pain but timid against death, urged
his surgeons to make deeper and deeper. Though the tender
care which had mitigated his sufferings during months of sickness
at Streatham was withdrawn, and though Boswell was absent,
he was not left desolate. The ablest physicians and surgeons
attended him, and refused to accept fees from him. Burke
parted from bim with deep emotion. Windham sat much in the
sick-room. Frances Burney, whom the old man had cherished
with fatherly kindness, stood weeping at the door; while Langton,
whose piety eminently qualified him to be an adviser and com-
forter at such a time, received the last pressure of his friend's
hand within. When at length the moment, dreaded through
so many years, came close, the dark cloud passed away from
Johnson's mind. Windham's servant, who sat up with him
during his last night, declared that " no man could appear more
collected, more devout or less terrified at the thoughts of the
approaching minute." At hour intervals, often of much pain,
he was moved in bed and addressed himself vehemently to
prayer. In the morning he was still able to give his blessing,
but in the afternoon he became drowsy, and at a quarter past
seven in the evening on the 13th of December 1 784, in his seventy-
sixth year, he passed away. He was laid, a week later, in West-
minster Abbey, among the eminent men of whom he had been
the historian— Cowley and Denham, Dryden and Congreve,
Gay, Prior and Addison. (M.)
Bibliography.— The splendid example of hisstyle which Macaulay
contributed in the article on Johnson to the 8th edition of this ency-
clopaedia has become classic, and has therefore been retained above
with a few trifling modifications in those places In which his invincible
love of the picturesque has drawn him demonstrably aside from the
dull line of veracity. Macaulay, it must be noted, exaggerated
persistently the poverty of Johnson's pedigree, the squalor of his
early married life, the grotesquencss of his entourage in Fleet Street,
the decline and fall from complete virtue of Mrs Thrale. the novelty
and success of the Dictionary, the complete failure of the Shakespeare
and the political tracts. Yet this contribution is far more mellow
than the article contributed on Johnson twenty-five years before
to the Edinburgh Review in correction of Croker. Matthew Arnold,
who edited six selected Lives of the poets, regarded it as one of
Macaulay '• happiest and ripest efforts. It was written out of friend-
ship for Adam Black, and " payment was not so much as mentioned."
The big reviews, especially the quarterlies, have always been the
47 »
natural home of Johnsonian study. Sir Walter Scott, Croker. Hay-
ward, Macaulay,. Thomas Carlyle (whose famous Frascr article was
reprinted in 1853) and Whitwell Elwin have dongas much as any-
body perhaps to sustain the zest for Johnsonian studies. Macaulay's
prediction that the interest in the man would supersede that in his
''Works" seemed and seems likely enough to justify itself; but
his theory that the man alone mattered and that a portrait painted
by the hand of an inspired idiot was a true measure of the man has
not worn better than the common run of literary propositions.
Johnson's prose is not extensively read. But the same is true of
nearly all the great prose masters of the 18th century. As in the
case of all great men, Johnson has suffered a good deal at the hands
of his imitators and admirers. His prose, though not nearly so
uniformly monotonous or polysyllabic as the parodists would have
us believe, was at one time greatly overpraised. From the " Life
of Savage " to the " Life of Pope it developed a great deal, and in
the main improved. _ To the last he sacrificed expression rather too
mi
S
JOHNSON, SIR THOMAS (1664-1739)* English merchant, was
born in Liverpool in November 1664. He succeeded his father
in 1680 as bailiff and in 1695 as mayor. From 1 701, to 1723 be
represented Liverpool in parliament, and he was knighted by
Queen Anne in 1708. He effected the separation of Liverpool
from the parish of Walton-on-the-Hill; from the Crown he ob-
tained the grant to the corporation of the site of the old castle
where he planned the town market; while the construction of the
first floating dock (1708) and the building of St Peter's and St
George's churches were due in great measure to his efforts. He
was interested in the tobacco trade; in 1715 he conveyed 130
Jacobite prisoners to the American plantations. In r 723, having
lost in speculation the fortune which he had inherited from his
father, he went himself to Virginia as collector of customs on
the Rappahannock river. He died in Jamaica in 1720. A
Liverpool street is named Sir Thomas Buildings after him.
4?*
pHNSON, T.— JOHNSTON, A. S.
*>•
* t-T A-sjpn.- Ot cv»t ^:i "x -»-..* as a craftsman atd
*» * - a< *» *ww» ha- <rc^Uk vw»kxw«*« xai hit nd»£>&aiMas
«t ,\>vt am s wk*. wm- nw i 1 1 h t«r tVrx emott fnaa-
>v***ofe *** vr ;*t »««%*"« wa.<s*et i» wfcjc* he oxxxfanded
,"Km* %»: » .> * tv tv-:^ -ws» <v-)A»cai Ptrhaps his most
»**•-■* An^i ^ .hi** vc a u^« a m>jvfc* c^dfc or goose is dis-
r»- - *** ***« .>*;**-* v v4 * rusotrti, seated, wkh hts head on
' wv ^* v>» sW -»i Sc*>«. N* kv*: school of Italian rococo
<" "•'* % nv *sxm »kvc eu?ava£a,r: ai^^ci^es. His docks bore
K-s trt , h*».- **$«* *=xi iU^a* swabenans* together with
x **c v>M^v..>Ma and norwtcd niwntati without end.
<> ,Vr w Vr haj>* he occkstocvxlN prod u ced a mirror frame or
* ^v»N-:-xvTt %*vh w* sutp* and dignified. The art of
*-..^-n ,vfi-s» k» never been so weB understood or so
jtc \ ,- nx-n^ »v ** «a*d as b> the iSlh-oentury designers of English
**"<«▼ %** ^iim «n«ws to haw so far exceeded his
^v*^*****'*-** that W mast bt called a barefaced thief. The
t v "** fc^s* ' motixTS " of the lime— Chinese, Gothic and Lotus
■J^yy ~"^m* an»xed up in his work in the most amazing
^*****> **d W w« exceedingly fond of introducing human
f^* XT9 ^ *t»ui^ Krvts and fishes in highly incongruous places.
1 • * * ?** " *"* "*** defcaded his enormities on the ground that
^ ^H m«* var> a c^euoa, and a fault in the eye of one may be
I***? in that of another; *tis a duty incumbent on an author
^- <******«* «t phasing every taste." Johnson, who was in
*\ - ***** * *»* " GoMcn Boy M in Grafton Street, Westminster,
*-*" %^htd « fob* vahuae of Designs for Picture Frames, Candelabra,
IT* „ «*** *** U?5$\ **i Om Hwmdred and Fifty New Designs
«* mJUAM (1715-1774), British soldier and
.*^a» fMMin, was born in Smithtown, County Meath Ire-
*- \J •• tM<. the son of Christophet Johnson, a country gentle-
I* * U a tv\ he wns educated for a commercial career, but
^. * ,< W *r«*+\*J to America for the purpose of managing a
.-* \ v i*^ * *•♦ Mohawk Valley, New York, belonging to his
•- "*V V**** ^* ^ Vmm (1703-1752). He esublisbed
»••""„* A *• ^ v »»«» bank of the Mohawk river, about 25 m.
9 , • ^ S^^ Kefore 1743 he removed to the north side
^ >r * ,VM ^ ^^ "^^ *rti^nent prospered from the start, and
w* 'j. 1 **** ^'^^ ^« bn* up with the Indians, over whom
m Z. t-** twvwe^ an immense influence. The Mohawks
•*-** ^^Jl »Mk *"** ckvteJ him a sachem. In 1744 he was ap-
V^*! *4 ^* vWvt*iwr George Clinton (d. 1761) superintendent
^---^^www^tiW^ Nations (Iroquois). In 1746 he wasmade
^i p# , «a*x ^ *V p«»^b<T for Indian affairs, and was influential
*-^'\>i-»« **** ^^'W"* ^ ^ Nations for participation in
-* * 1- »**af* *«» >>««« Canada, two years later (1748) being
**"'.** * ««***** *l a hne of outposts on the New York
v .--%< TV r*** of \it-U-Chapctle put a stop to offensive
V-"* ^^rnVv^Sthad begun. In May i7soby royalappoint-
Jm - ' **^ >«v*»» * wenabec lot life of the governor's council, and
^- *V» %>•» v, * r ^* ««**»^ lh« post of superintendent of
-r - , ^ta**. t* 1 T ka he was one of the New York delegates
1 ..^*ifc*-»Jvv»vtniMn *t Albany, N.Y. In 1755 General
,.- ^ **-*sk^k* l»* i\»mmander of the British forces in
~* xV s »<-»A"*.<«ed him nujor-gencral, in which capacity he
"* V ixy^*"^^ a**mst Crown Point, and in September
• ■" *" »W r^^*^* ***** Indwns under Baron Ludwig A.
\. -^ vi ^* ,x u lhe ^* u,e °f Lake George, where he
**•"*"" m wvo>^ ^^ lm * success he received the thanks
^ » ** "»grt. %** *** «w**«^ * baronet (November 1755).
\ .■* ••** 1 *** vV*tb he was " sole superintendent of
o. * ,** W^ **^** N<«o«™ Indians." He took part in
#v ^* V * ' ^ WWK*w» W V disastrous campaign against Ticon-
■ ** ^ .jfc, D *^ he was second in command in General
k v 31fcsV.cn against Fort Niagara, succeeding to
, . ~ tL - jo i^at ^Acer's death, and capturing the fort.
\ 1. "-** «?*•««.* )«*wy Amherst (1717-1797) »t the
^ . ^v\xwdforhisserviccsthekinggranted
- "" . ^ ^^ d knd north of the Mohawk river.
— ^ . w** Oa«i the Iroquois refused to join
Pntiic in his conspiracy, and he was instrumental in arranging
the treaty of Fort Sianwix in 1768. After the war Sir William
retired to his estates, where, on the site of the present Johnstown,
he buflt his residence, Johnson Hall, and lived in all the style of
an English baron. He devoted himself to cofoniring his exten-
sive lands, and is said to have been the first to introduce sheep
and blood horses into the province. He died at Johnstown,
N.Y., on the itth of July 1774. In 1730 Johnson had married
Catherine Wisenberg, by whom he had three children. After
her death he had various mistresses, including a niece of the
Indian chief Hendrick, and Molly Brant, a sister of the lamous
chief Joseph Brant.
His son, Sir John Johnson (1742-1830), who was knighted
in 1765 and succeeded to the baronetcy on his father's death,
took part in the French and Indian War and in the border warfare
during the War of Independence, organizing a loyalist regiment
known as the " Queen's Royal Greens," which he led at the battle
of Oriskany and in the raids (1778 and 1780) on Cherry Valley
and in the Mohawk Valley. He was also one of the officers of
the force defeated by General John Sullivan in the engagement
at Newtown (Elmira), N.Y., on the 29th of August 1770. He was
made brigadier-general of provincial troops in 1782. His estates
had been confiscated, and after the war he lived in Canada, where
he held from 1791 until his death the office of superintendent-
general of Indian affairs for British North America. He received
£45,000 from the British government for his losses.
Sir William's nephew, Guy Johnson (1740-1788), succeeded
his uncle as superintendent of Indian affairs in 1774, and served
in the French and Indian War and, on the British side, in the
War of Independence.
See W. L. Stone, Life of Sir William Johnson (2 vols.. 1865);
W. E. Griffis, Sir William Johnson and the Six Nations (1801)
Makers of America " •erics; Augustus C. BueU, Sir Wii
Johnson (1903) in " Historic Lives Series " ; and J. Watts De Peyster,
" The Life of Sir John Johnson. Bart.," in The Orderly Booh of Sir
John Johnson durtnr Ihe Oriskany Campaign, 1776-1777, annotated
by William U Stone (1882).
JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY (1803-1862), American Con-
federate general in the Civil War, was born at Washington,
Mason county, Kentucky, on the 3rd of February 1803. He
graduated from West Point in 1826, and served for eight years
in the U.S. infantry as a company officer, adjutant, and staff
officer. In 1834 he resigned his commission, emigrated in 1830
to Texas, then a republic, and joined its army as a private. Hb rise
was very rapid, and before long he was serving as commander-
in-chief in preference to General Felix Huston, with whom he
fought a duel From 1838 to 1840 be was Texan secretary for war,
and in 1839 he led a successful expedition against the Cherokee
Indiana. From 1840 to the outbreak of the Mexican War he lived
in retirement on his farm, but in 1846 be led a regiment of Texan
volunteers in the field, and at Monterey, as a staff officer, he bad
three horses shot under him. In 1840 be returned to the United
States army as major and paymaster, and in 1855 became colonel
of the and U.S. Cavalry (afterwards 5th), in which his heut.-
colonel was Robert E. Lee, and his majors were Hardee and Thomas.
In 1857 he commanded the expedition sent against the Mormons,
and performed his difficult and dangerous mission so successfully
that the objects of the expedition were attained without blood-
shed. He was rewarded with the brevet of brigadier-general.
At the outbreak of the Qvfl War in 1861 Johnston, then in
command of the Pacific department, resigned his commission and
made his way to Richmond, where Pres. Jefferson Davis, whom
he had known at West Point, at once made him a full general in
the Confederate army and assigned him to command the depart*
raent of Kentucky. Here he had to guard a long and weak line
from the Mississippi to the Alleghany Mountains, which was
dangerously advanced on account of the political necessity of
covering friendly country. The first serious advance of the
Federals forced him back at once, and he was freely criticiied
and denounced for what, in ignorance of the facts, the Southern
press and people regarded as a weak and irresolute defence^
Johnston himself, who had entered upon the Civil War with the
reputation of being the foremost soldier on either side, bore with
JOHNSTON, A.— JOHNSTON, SIR H. H.
473
fortitude the reproaches of his countrymen, And Davis loyally
supported his old friend. Johnston then inarched to join
Beauregard at Corinth, Miss., and with the united forces took
the offensive against Grant's army at Pittsburg Landing. The
battle of Shiloh {q v.) took place on the 6th and 7th of April, 186a.
The Federals were completely surprised, and Johnston was in the
full tide of success when he fell mortally wounded. He died a few
minutes afterwards. President Davis said, in his message to the
Confederate Congress," Without doing injustice to the living, it
may safely be said that our loss is irreparable," and the subse-
quent history of the war in the west went far to prove the truth
of his eulogy.
His son, William Preston Johnston (1831-1809), who
served on the staff of General Johnston and subsequently on that
of President Davis, was a distinguished professor and president
of Tulane University. His chief work is the Life of Central
Albert Sidney Johnston (1878), a most valuable and exhaustive
biography.
JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER (1840-1889), American historian,
was born in Brooklyn, New York, on the 29th of April 1849. He
studied at the Polytechnic institute of Brooklyn, graduated at
Rutgers College in 1870, and was admitted to the bar in 1875 in
New Brunswick, New Jersey, where he taught in the Rutgers
College grammar school from 1876 to 1879. He was principal
of the Latin school of Norwalk, Connecticut, in 1879-1883, and
was professor of jurisprudence and political economy in the
College of New Jersey (Princeton University) from 1884 until
his death in Princeton, N.J., on the- 21st of July 1889. He
wrote A History of American Politics (1881); The Genesis of
a Nru> England State— Connecticut (1883), in " Johns Hopkins
University Studies "; A History of the United Stales for Schools
(1886); Connecticut (1887) in the " American Commonwealths
% Series ", the article on the history of the United States for the
9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, reprinted as The
United States: Its History and Constitution (1887); a chapter
on the history of American political parties in the seventh
volume of Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of America,
and many articles on the history of American politics in Lalor's
Cyclopaedia of Political Science, Political Economy, and Political
History of the United States (1881-1884). These last articles,
which like his other writings represent much original research
and are excellent examples of Johnston's rare talent for terse
narrative and keen analysis and interpretation of facts, were
republished in two volumes entitled American Political History
1763-1876 (1905-1906), edited by Professor J. A. Woodburn.
JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER KEITH (1804-1871), Scottish
geographer, was born at KirkhiU near Edinburgh on the 28th
of December 1804. After an education at the high school and the
university of Edinburgh he was apprenticed to an engraver;
and in 1826 joined his brother (afterwards Sir William Johnston,
lord provost of Edinburgh) in a printing and engraving business,
the well-known cartographical firm of W. and A. K. Johnston.
His interest in geography had early developed, and Ins first
important work was the National Atlas of general geography,
which gained for him in 1843 the appointment of Geographer-
Royal for Scotland. Johnston was the first to bring the study
of physical geography into competent notice in England. His
attention had been called to the subject by Humboldt; and after
years of labour he published his magnificent Physical Atlas in
1848, followed by a second and enlarged edition in 1856. This,
by means of maps with descriptive letterpress, illustrates the
geology, hydrography, meteorology, botany, zoology, and
ethnology of the globe. The rest of Johnston's life was devoted
to geography, his later years to its educational aspects especially.
His services were recognized by the leading scientific societies of
Europe and America. He died at Ben Rhydding, Yorkshire,
on the 9th of July 1871. Johnston published a Dictionary of
Geography in 1850, with many later editions; The Royal Atlas of
Modem Geography, begun in 1855; an atlas of military geography
to accompany Alison's History of Europe in 1848 seq.; and a
variety of other atlases and maps for educational or scientific
purposes. His ion of the same name (1844-1879) was also the
October 1885 Johnston was appointed British vice-consul in
"inn* Ha rcrxefs la
r-srritt in 1000 he was
-ase zz& ' era :omiened
=naaaa.ajjd. ~ool
^t^'squ, Imericaa
_ s iA.m near Faxnrvifle.
-- ** Tihniaiy iior.
vima-a < * 'rottisli
=— *- -cie -t ?airkk
- - -ae toss witk
* "~s -'atjeeant. aLi
— -— --K -aa ^rmtnafc
t-tt . . -anncer, bat
- .mr is ant
- ~""~ '—-^ta^sicrhis
- --z. «r Te was
^~ - -~*~' >"^o. :Sx7»
- ^ • .-miera*,
r :S6o lie
1
f
P
fr
oj
m
in
In
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E<h
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dircc
dcfca
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bimse)
of pan
From J
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deroga (i
John Prid
the chief c<
In 1 760 he
ctptureofAj
kimatractc
It was dot j
:r raai .k.-'m m ' ne ■ ^^ _*
-ae :—z. -j "^
aav, n* ^reat
*mc.*ri wynnw
r-=eii -j«uie, Tot *fce *
-»-i8M rum *he *3s*iiit:e
. __ .3.000 mm , JomsKoir"*
■assace tranmrn ni Jokmioo Tr '-be
«b^"-' vuajuuai more r ban one safe * li^ ^V
■»tev « lever acerptatte so in eager peape, „* ^^
ail *ea .lnven iac* to Atlanta be was miwi wihit
»;ia iriers o n#x a bank. Tbe wisdom m Jcfct
a *3« '4Ma linnrdamiy dear T and tie Cawiederase
vaa streairr «t when Lee mnsiited hatt oa tie ajs^ «f
— id**. With a handfal of men be o pp o se d SoenaaaTs
he Gustfnav, and at BeotooTiDe, X.C, focxfa
-. -*- a moat gaiUm and skJfal battle agsiax beavy
t Ae Cniw tnopa oeadrfy advanced, grow™ ta
tajry vat, wed a few h«ts after Lee's sumadcr at
JOHNSTONE— JOHOR
Appomattox Johnston advised President Davis that it was in
his opinion wrong and useless to continue the conflict, and he was
authorized to make terms with Sherman. The terms entered
into between these generals, on the 18th of April, having been
rejected by the United States government, another agreement
was signed on the 26th of April, the new terms being similar to
those of the surrender of Lee. After the close of the war
Johnston engaged in civil pursuits. In 1874 he published a
Narrative of Military Operations during the Civil War. In 1877
he was elected to represent the Richmond district ot Virginia in
Congress. In 1887 he was appointed by President Cleveland
U.S. commissioner of railroads. Johnston was married in
early life to Louisa (d. 1886), daughter of Louis M'Lane. He
died at Washington, D.C., on the aist of March 1891, leaving no
children.
It was not the good fortune of Johnston to acquire the prestige
which so mucn assisted Lee and Jackson, nor indeed did he pos-
sess the power of enforcing his will on others in the same degree,
but his methods were exact, his strategy calm and balanced, and,
if he showed himself less daring than hfe comrades, he was un-
surpassed in steadiness. The duel of Sherman and Johnston
is almost as personal a contest between two great captains as
were the campaigns of Turenne and Montecucculi. To Monte-
cucculi, indeed, both in his military character and in. the incidents
of his career, Joseph Johnston bears a striking resemblance.
See Hughes, General Johnston, In " Great Commanders Series "
(1893).
JOHNSTONE, a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland, on
the Black Cart, 1 1 m. W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-
western railway. Pop. (1901), 10,503. The leading industries
include flax-spinning, cotton manufactures (with the introduction
of which in 1 781 the prosperity of the town began), paper-making,
shoe-lace making, iron and brass foundries and engineering
works. There are also coal mines and oil works in the vicinity.
Elderslic, 1 m. E., is the reputed birthplace of Sir William
Wallace, but it is doubtful if "Wallace's Yew," though of
great age, and " Wallace's Oak," a fine old tree that perished
in a storm in 1856, and the small castellated building (tradi-
tionally his house) which preceded the present mansion in the
west end of the village, existed in his day.
JOHNSTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Fulton county,
New York, U.S.A., on Cayadutta Creek, about 4 m. N. of the
Mohawk river and about 48 m. N.W. of Albany. Pop. (1890),
7768; (r90o), 10,130 (1653 foreign-born); (1905, state census),
9765; (roio) 10447. It is served by the Fonda, Johnstown &
Gloversville railroad, and by an electric line to Schenectady.
The city has a Federal building, a Y.M.C.A. building, a city
hall, and a Carnegie library (1902). The most interesting building
is Johnson Hall, a fine old baronial mansion, built by Sir William
Johnson in 1762 and his home until his death; his grave is just
outside the present St John's episcopal church. Originally
the hall was flanked by two stone forts, one of which is still
standing. In 1007 the hall was bought by the state and was
placed in the custody of the Johnstown Historical Society,
which maintains a museum here. In the hall Johnson estab-
lished in 1766 a Masonic lodge, one of the oldest in the United
States. Other buildings of historical interest are the Drumm
House and the Fulton county court house, built by Sir WilKam
Johnson in 1763 and 1772 respectively, and the gaol (1772), at first
used for all New YoTk west of Schenectady county, and during
the War of Independence as a civil and a military prison. The
court house is said to be the oldest in the United States. Three
miles south of the city is the Butler House, built in 1742 by
Colonel John Butler (d. 1 794) , a prominent Tory leader during the
War of Independence. A free school, said to have been the first
in New York state, was established at Johnstown by Sir William
Johnson in 1764. The city is (after Gloversville, 3 ra. distant)
the principal glove-making centre In the United States, the
product being valued at $2,581,274 in 1905 and being 14*6%
of the total value of this industry in the United States. The
manufacture of gloves in commercial quantities was introduced
into the United States and Johnstown in 1809 by Tahnadge
475
Edwards, who was burie4 there in the colonial cemetery. The
value of the total factory product in 1905 was $4,543,272 (a
decrease of 11*3% since 1900). Johnstown was settled about
1760 by a colony of Scots brought to America by Sir William
Johnson, within whose extensive grant it was situated, and in
whose honour, in 1771, it was named, A number of important
conferences between the colonial authorities and the Iroquois
Indians were held here, and on the 28th of October 1781, during
the War of Independence, Colonel Marinus Willett (1740-1830)
defeated here a force of British and Indians, whose leader,
Walter Butler, a son of Colonel John Butler, and, with him, a
participant in the Wyoming massacres, was mortally wounded
near West Canada creek during the pursuit. Johnstown was
incorporated as a Village in 1808, and was chartered as a city
in 1895.
JOHNSTOWN, a city of Cambria county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.,
at the confluence of the Conemaugh river and Stony creek, about
75 m. E. by S. of Pittsburg. Pop. (1890), 21,805; (1900), 35,936,
of whom 7318 were foreign-born, 2017 being Hungarians,
1663 Germans, and 923 Austrians; (1910 census) 55482.
It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore & Ohio
railways. The city lies about 11 70 ft. above the sea, on level
ground extending for some distance along the river, and nearly
enclosed by high and precipitous hills. Among the public
buildings and institutions are the Cambria free library (containing
about 14,000 volumes in 1008), the city hall, a fine high school,
and the Conemaugh Valley memorial hospital. Roxbury Park,
about 3 m. from the city, is reached by electric lines. Coal,
irdn ore, fire clay and limestone abound in the vicinity, and the
city has large plants for the manufacture of iron and steel.
The total value of the factory product in 1905 was $28^891,806,
an increase of 35*2% since 1000. A settlement was established
here in 1791 by Joseph Jahns, in whose honour it was named,
and the place was soon laid out as a town, but it was not incor-
porated as a city until 1889, the year of the disastrous Johnstown
flood. In 1852 a dam (700 ft. long and 100 ft. high), intended
to provide a storage reservoir for the Pennsylvania canal, had
been built across the South Fork, a branch of the Conemaugh
river, 12 m. above the city, but the Pennsylvania canal was
subsequently abandoned, and in 1688 the dam was bought and
repaired by the South Fork hunting and fishing club, and Cone-
maugh lake was formed. On the 31st of May 1889, during a
heavy rainfall, the dam gave way and a mass of water so ft. or
more in height at its head swept over Johnstown at a speed of
about 20 m. an hour, almost completely destroying the city.
The Pennsylvania railroad bridge withstood the strain, and
against it the flood piled up a mass of wreckage many feet in
height and several acres in area. On or in this confused mass
many of the inhabitants were saved from drowning, only to be
burned alive when it caught fire. Seven other towns and
villages in the valley were also swept away, and the total loss
of lives was 2000 or more. A relief fund of nearly $3,000,000
was raised, and the dty was quickly rebuilt.
JOHOR (Johore is the local official, but incorrect spelling),
an independent Malayan state at the southern end of the
peninsula, stretching from a° 40' S. to Cape Romania (Ramunya),
the most southerly point on the mainland of Asia, and including
all the small islands adjacent to the coast which He to the south
of parallel a° 4c/ S. It is bounded N. by the protected native
state of Pahang, N.W. by the Negri Sembilan and the territory
of Malacca, S. by the strait which divides Singapore island from
the mainland, E. by the China Sea, and W. by the Straits of ^
Malacca. The province of MOar was placed under the admin-'
istration of Johor by the British government as a temporary
measure in 1877, and was still a portion of the sultan's dominions
in 1910. The coast-line measures about 250 m. The greatest
length from N.W. to S.E. is 165 m., the greatest breadth from
E. to W. 100 m. The area is estimated at about 9000 sq. m.
The principal rivers are the Muar, the most important waterway
in the south of the peninsula; the Johor, up which river the old
capital of the state was situated; the Endau, which marks the
boundary with Pahang; and the Bfttu Pihat and SSdeli, of
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JOINERY
treats of the projection and description of lines, surfaces and
solids, as well as an intimate knowledge of the structure and
nature of wood. A man may be a good carpenter without being
a joiner at all, but he cannot be a joiner without being competent,
at least, to supervise all the operations required in carpentry.
The rough labour of the carpenter renders him in some degree
unfit to produce that accurate and neat workmanship which is
expected from a modern joiner, but it is no less true that the
habit of neatness and the great precision of the joiner make him
a much slower workman than the man practised in works of
carpentry. In carpentry framing owes its strength mainly to
the form and position of its parts, but in joinery the strength of
a frame depends to a larger extent upon the strength of the
joinings. The importance of fitting the joints together as
accurately as possible is therefore obvious. It is very desirable
that a joiner shall be a quick workman, but it is still more so
that he shall be a good one, and that he should join his materials
with firmness and accuracy. It is also of the greatest importance
that the work when thus put together shall be constructed of
such sound and dry materials, and on such principles, that the
whole shall bear the various changes of temperature and of
moisture and dryness, so that the least possible shrinkage or
swelling shall take place; but provision must be made so that,
if swelling or shrinking does occur, no damage shall be done to
the work.
In early times every part was rude, and jointed in the most
artless manner. The first dawnings of the art of modern
joinery appear in the thrones, stalls, pulpits and screens of early
Gothic cathedrals and churches, but even in these it is indebted
to the carver for everything that is worthy of regard. With the
revival of classic art, however, great changes took place in every
sort of construction. Forms began to be introduced in architec-
ture which could not be executed at a moderate expense without
the aid of new principles, and these principles were discovered
and published by practical joiners. These authors, with their
scanty geometrical knowledge, had but confused notions of
these principles, and accordingly their descriptions are often
obscure, and sometimes erroneous. The framed wainscot of
small panels gave way to the large bolection moulded panelling.
Doors which were formerly heavily framed and hung on massive
posts or in jambs of cut stone, were now framed in light panels
and hung in moulded dressings of wood. The scarcity of oak
timber, and the expense of working it, subsequently led to
the importation of fir timber from northern Europe, and
this gradually superseded all other material save for special
work.
Tools and M alcriols.— The joiner operates with saws, planes,
chisels, gouges, hatchet, adze, gimlets and other boring instru-
ments (aided and directed by chalked lines), gauges, squares,
hammers, wallets, floor cramps and a great many other tools.
His operations consist principally of sawing and planing in all
their varieties, and of setting out and making joints of all
kinds. There is likewise a great range of other operations-
such as paring, gluing up, wedging, pinning, fixing, fitting
and hanging— and many which depend on nailing and screwing,
such as laying floors, boarding ceilings, wainscoting walls,
bracketing, cradling, fining, and the like. In addition to the
wood on which the joiner works, he requires also glue, white
lead, nails, brads, screws and hinges, and accessorily he applies
bolts, locks, bars and other fastenings, together with pulleys,
lines, weights, holdfasts, wall hooks, itc. The joiner's work for
a house is for the most part prepared at the shop, where there
should be convenience for doing everything in the best and
readiest manner, so that little remains when the carcase is ready
and the floors laid but to fit, fix and hang. The sashes, frames,
doors, shutters, linings and soffits are all framed and put together,
i.e. wedged up and cleaned off at the shop; the flooring is planed
and prepared with rebated or grooved edges ready for laying,
and the moulded work— the picture and dado rails, architraves,
skirtings and panelling— is all got out at the shop. On a new
building the joiner fits up a temporary workshop with benches,
•awing stools and a stove for his glue pot. Here he adjusts the
+77
work for fitting up and makes any small portions that may still
be required.
The preparation of joinery entirely by hand is now the exeep*
tion— a fact due to the ever- increasing use of machines, which
have remarkably shortened the time required to execute the
ordinary operations. Various machines rapidly and perfectly
execute planing and surfacing, mortising and moulding, leaving
the craftsman merely to fit and glue up. Large quantities of
machine-made flooring, window-frames and doors are now
imported into England from Canada and the continent of Europe.
The timber is grown near the place of manufacture, and this,
coupled with the fact that labour at a low rate of wages is easily
obtainable on the Continent, enables the cost of production to
be kept very low.
The structure and properties of wood should be thoroughly
understood by every joiner. The man who has made the nature
of timber his study has always a decided advantage over those
who have neglected this. Timber shrinks considerably in the
width, but not appreciably in the length. Owing to this shrink-
age certain joints and details, hereinafter described and illus-
trated, are in common use for the purpose of counteracting the
bad effect this movement would otherwise have upon all joinery
work.
The kinds of wood commonly employed in joinery are the different
species of North European and North American pine, oak, teak and
mahogany (sec Timber). The greater part of English joiners' work
is exccui d in the northern pine exported from the Baltic countries.
Hence the joiner obtains the planks, deals, battens and strips from
which he shapes his woik. The timber reaches the workman from
the sawmills in a size convenient for the use he intends, considerable
time and labour being saved in this way.
A log of timber sawn to a square section is termed a balk. In
section ic may range from I to i J ft. square. Planks are formed by
sawing the balk into sections from II to 1 8 in. wide and 3 to 6 in.
thick, and the term deal is applied to sawn stuff 9 in. wide and 2 to
4§ in. thick. Battens are boards running not more than 3 in. thick
and 4 to 7 in. wide. A strip is not thicker than 1 J in., the width
be' L — * ' '-
i used for joining boards together
ed ployed in flooring. In the square
jo carefully shot, the two edges to be
jo lue applied hot, and the boards
wl th
th in
go ds
be
112
to
gr
gr
an
Tl
M»uh«U * Vjwm
Fic. 1.
bc_... r ... _ — „
and placed about 18 in. apart.
The matched joint is shown in
two forms, beaded and jointed.
Matched boarding is frequently
used as a less expensive substitute
for panelled framing. Although of coi
compare with the latter, it has a sonw
and the moulded joints allow shrinkage
ment to the appearance of the work,
the meeting styles of casements and fol
excluding draughts and preventing oba
Of the angle joints (fig. 2)in common i
are the most important. The mttre is
so well known as to need little deser
needs a practised and accurate hand f<
common mitre is essentially weak unless
into the angle at the back of it, and is
with a feather of wood or iron. Others
mitre and bull, used where the pieces co • ...
ness; the mitre and rebate, with a square section which facilitates
nailing or screwing; the mitre rebate and feather, similar to the latter,
with a feather giving additional strength to the joint ; and the mitre
groove and tongue, having a tongue worked on the material itself in
place of the feather of the last-named joint. The last two methods
+7»
JOINERY
arc used in the best work. and. carefully worked and glued, with
the assistance of angle blocks glued at the back, obviate the neces-
sity of face screws or nails. The keyed mitre consists of a simple
mitre joint, which after being glued up has a number of pairs of
saw cuts made across the angle,
into which arc fitted and glued
thin triangular slips of hard wood,
or as an alternative, pieces of brass
or other metal. Other forms of
angle joints are based on the
rebate with a bead worked on in
such a position as to hide any
bad effects caused by the joint
opening by shrinkage. They may
be secured cither T>y nailing or
screwing, or by glued angle blocks.
The dovetail is a most important
joint; its most usual forms arc
illustrated in fig. 3. The mitre
dovetail is used in the best work.
It will be seen that the dovetail
is a tenon, shaped as a wedge, and it
is this distinguishing feature which
gives it great strength irrespec-
tive of glue or screws. It is invalu-
able in framing together joiners'
fittings; its use in drawers espe-
cially provides a good example of
its purpose and structure.
Warping in Wide Boards.— It is
necessary to prevent the tendency
to warp, twist and split, which
boards of great width, or several
boards glued together edge to edge, naturally possess. On the other
hand, swelling and shrinking due to changes in the humidity of the
atmosphere must not be checked, or the result will be disastrous.
To effect this end various simple devices arc available. The direction
Fic. a.
Cosmos dovotaJL Lapped dovttafl.
Fic. 3.— Dovetails.
^
BIKroor
Socrtt dovcUO.
of the annular ringi in alternate boards mav be reversed, and when
the boards have been carefully jointed with tongues or dowels and
glued up, a hard-wood tapering key, dovetail in section, mav be let
into a wide dovetail at the back (fig. 4). It must be accurately fitted
and driven tightly home, but,
of course, not glued. Battens
of hard wood may be used for
the same purpose, fixed cither
with hard-wood buttons or by
means of brass slots and
screws, the slots allowing for
any slight movement that
may take place. With boards
3 of a substantial thickness light
iron rods mav be used, holes
being bored through the thick-
ness of the boards and rods
passed through; the edges arc
then glued up. This method
r. r*__ .• 1 tif is very effective and neat in
Flo. 4.-Prcvcntion of Warping. appearancCf and is 9pcc j ally
suitable when a smooth surface is desired on both sides of the work.
XtvulJiHfS arc used in joinery to relieve plain surfaces by the
contrast* ol light ami shade formed by their members, and to orna-
ment or accentuate those particular portions which the designer may
wi\h to bring into prominence. Great skill and discrimination are
required in eloigning and applying mouldings, but that matter falls
to the qualified designer and is perhaps outside the province of the
practical workman, whose work is to carry out tn an accurate
anil finished manner the ideas of the draughtsman. The character
o( a moulding is greatly affected by the nature and appearance of the
wood in which it is worked. A section suitable for a hard regularly
Brained wood, such as mahogany, would probably look insignificant
« worked in a softer wood with pronounced markings. Mouldings
worked on woods of the former type may consi*t of small and delicate
members; woods of the latter class require boU treatment.
The mouldings of joinery, as well as of all other moulded work
Used in connexion with a building, arc usually worked in accordance
with full-sued detail drawings prepared by the architect, mod a*t
designed by him to conform with the style and class of building.
There arc, however, a number of moulded forms in common use
which have particular names; sections arc shown of many of these
in fig. 5. Most of them occur in the classic architecture of both)
Greeks and Romans. A
striking distinction, how-
ever, existed in the mould-
ings of these two peoples,
the curves of the Greek
mouldings were cither de-
rived from conic sections
or drawn in freehand,
while in typical Roman
work the curved compo-
nents were segments of a
circle. Numerous exam-
f)les of the use of these
orms occur in ordinary
joinery work, and may
be recognized on refer-
ence to the illustrations,
which will be easily un-
derstood without further _ «. ...
description. FlC 5.— Mouldings.
Mouldings may be either stuck or planted on. A stuck moulding
is worked directly on to the framing it is used to ornament; a planted
moulding is separately worked and fixed in position with nails or
screws. Beads and other small mouldings should always be stuck;
larger ones arc usually planted on. In the case of mouldings planted
on panelled work, the nails should be driven through the moulding
into the style or rail of the framing, and on no account into the pancL
By adopting the former method the panel is free to shrink — as it
undoubtedly will do — without altering the good appearance of the
work, but should the moulding be fixed to the panel it will, when the
latter shrinks, be pulled out of place* leaving an unsightly gap
between it and the framing.
Flooring. — When the bricklayer, mason and carpenter have
prepared the carcase of a building for the joiner, one of the first
operations is that of laying the floor boards. They should have been
stacked under cover on the site for some considerable time, in order
to be thoroughly well seasoned when the time to use them arrives.
The work of laying should take place in warm dry weather. The
joints of flooring laid in winter time or during wet weather are
sure to open in the following summer, however tightly they may be
cramped up during the process of laying. An additional expense
will then be incurred by the necessity of filling in the opened joints
with wood slips glued and driven into place. Boards of narrow width
are better and more expensive than wide ones. They may be ol
various woods, the kinds generally preferred, on account of their
low comparative cost and ease of working, being yellow deal and
white deal. White deal or spruce is an inferior wood, but is fre-
quently used with good results for the floors of less important apart-
ments. A better floor is obtained with yellow deal, which, when of
Sood quality and well seasoned, is lasting and wears well. For
oors where a fine appearance is desired, or which will be subjected
t0 L L _ j 3 . _ .j. matcr j a | t suc j, z& pitch
pi [ be laid. These woods are
ca inished in this way, form a
be
fig. 1 are applied to flooring
be ly glued up. The heart side
of as so that in drying the tcn-
dc c tightly to the joists instead
of iiould be used only on ground
flc is, dust and water will drop
th ceiling beneath. Dowdlcd
jo nc of t he best a nd most ccono-
m \ued joint. The tongue may
be _. _ . _ latter, which is stronger and
occupies very narrow grooves. The tongue should be placed as
near the bottom of the board as is practicable, leaving as much
wearing material as possible. Two varieties of secret joints are
shown in fig. 1. — the splayed, rebated, grooved and lonruea, and the
rebated, grooved and tongued. Owing to the waste of material in
forming these joints and thecxtra labour involved in laying the boards,
they arc costly and arc only used when it is required that no heads
of nails or screws should appear on the surface. The heading joints
of flooring arc often specified to be splayed or bevelled, but it is
far better to rebate them.
Wood block floors are much used, and are exceedingly solid. The
blocks arc bid directly on a smoothed concrete bed or floor in a
damp-proof mastic having bitumen as its base; this fulfils the double
purpose of preventing the wood from rotting, and securing the blocks
in their places. To check any inclination to warp and rise, however,
the edges of the blocks in the better class of floors are connected by
dowels of wood or metal, or by a tongued joint. The blocks may be
from l to 3 in. thick, and are usually 9 or 12 in. long by 3 in. wide.
Parquet floor; arc made of hard woods of variom kinds, laid in
patterns on a deal sub- floor, and may be of any thickness from \ to
JOINERY
t| rff. Great care should be taken in laying the sob-floor, especially
for the thinner parquet. The boards should be in narrow widths
Of well-seasoned stun and well nailed, for any movement in the sub-
floor due to warping: or shrinking may have disastrous results on the
parquet which is laid upon it. Plated parouet consists of selected
hard woods firmly fixed on a framed deal backing. It is made
in sections for easy transport, and these are fitted together in the
apartment for which they are intended. When secured to the joists
tnese form a perfect floor.
Skirtings.— -In joinery, the skirting is a board fixed around the
base of internal walls to form an ornamental base for the wall
(sec fig. 7). It also covers the joint between the flooring and the
wall, and protects the base of the wall from injury.
Skirtings may be placed in two classes — those
formed from a plain board with its upper edge
chher left square or moulded, and those formed of
two or more separate members and termed a
built-up skirting (fig. 6). ' Small angle fillets or
mouldings are often used as skirtings. The skirt-
ing should be worked so as to allow it to be fixed
with the heart side of the wood outwards; any ten-
dency to warp will then only serve to press the top
edge more closely to the wall. In good work a
— » groove should be formed in the floor and the skirt-
Fig. 6. — Built- ing tongued into it so that an open joint is avoided
up Skirting should shrinkage occur. The skirting should be
tongued to nailed only near the top to wood grounds fixed to
floor.. wood plugs in the joints of the brickwork. These
grounds are about } to I in. thick, i.e. the same
thickness as the plaster, anc* are generally splayed or grooved on
the edge to form a key for the plaster, A rough coat of plaster
should always be laid on the wall behind the skirting in order to
prevent the space becoming a harbourage for vermin.
Dados. — A dado, like a skirting, is useful both in a decorative
1
479
and a pr otecti v e sense. It is filed In to ornament and protect that
portion of the wall between the chair or dado rail and the skirting.
It may be of horizontal boards battened at the back and with cross
tongued and glued joints, presenting a perfectly smooth surface, or
of matched boarding fixed vertically, or of panelled framing. The
last method is of course the most ornate ana admits of great variety
of design. The work is fixed to rough framed wood grounds which
are nailed to plugs driven into the joints of the brickwork. Fig. 7
shows an example of a panelled dado with capping moulding and
skirting. A picture rail also is shown ; it is a small moulding with the
top edge grooved to take the metal hooks from which pictures are
hung.
Walls are sometimes entirely sheathed with panelling, and very
fine effects are obtained in this way. The fixing is effected to rough,
grounds in a manner similar to that adopted in the case of dados. In
England the architects of the Tudor period made great use of oak
framing, panelled and richly carved, as a wall covering and decora-
tion, and many beautiful examples may be seen in the remaining
buildings of that period.
Windows. — The parts of a window sash are distinguished by the
same terms as are applied to similar portions of ordinary framing,
being formed of rails and styles, with sash, bars rebated for glazing.
The upright sides are styles; the horizontal ones, which arc tenoned
into the styles, are rails (fig. 7).
Sashes hung by one of their vertical edges are called casements
(fig. 8). They are really a kind of glazed door and sometimes indeed
are used as such, as for example French casements (fig. 9). They may
be made to open cither outwards or inwards. It is very difficult
with the latter to form perfectly water-tight joints ; with those opening
outwards the trouble does not exist to so great an extent* This
form of window, though almost superseded in England by the
case frame with hung sashes, is in almost universal use on the
Continent. Yorkshire sliding sashes move in a horizontal direction
upon grooved runners with the meeting styles vertical. They are
Biiisaa
J— w^fL— ■ JL— BLm li M 11 f\
F r i e x 9
ffiiif ' ^JjfSmUZf '■■ -
00 OD
DQQQDQQD
Elevation of internal door.
B
££ Hfl .Floor. Sk.rtin, »"- ""
g^s l " "ft ^ Bt ^^r ri i u u M V u
<P~r Internal Elevation of cased double-hung window. Elevation of intern
Section. "-^^-t-**
Out ltd* Q*t»M*»m»9 J || Warffyj^^ ])
Plan of window. JSfigji Plan of do*
Fio. 7.
Enlargement of B.
480
JOINERY
little used, and are apt to admit draughts and wet unlets efficient
checks are worked upon the sashes and frames.
Lights in a position difficult of access are often hung on centre
pivots. An example of this method is shown in fig. 8; metal pivots
are fixed to the frame and the sockets in which these pivots work
are screwed to the sash. Movement is effected by means of a cord
casement. centre hnnf •ash.
Fig. 8. — Casement window fitted with shutters,
fixed so that a slight pull opens or closes the window to the desired
extent, and the cord is then held by being tied to, or twisted round,
a small metal button or clip, or a geared fanlight opener may be
used. For the side sashes of lantern lights and for stables and
factories this form of window is in general use.
In the British Isles and in America the most usual form of window
is the cased frame with double kunf sliding sashes. This style has
many advantages. It is efficient in excluding wet and draughts,
ventilation may be easily regulated and the sashes can be lowered
and raised with ease without interference with any blinds, curtains
or other fittings, that may be applied to the windows. In the
ordinary window of this style, however, difficulty is experienced
in cleaning the external glass without assuming a dangerous position
on the sill, but there are many excellent inventions now on the market
which obviate this difficulty by allowing — usually on the removal
of a small thumb-screw — the reversal of the sash on a pivot or hinge.
Section. Details of A. DettJbafB.
Fig. 9. — Details of French Casement to open inwards.
For a small extra cost these arrangements may be provided; they
will be greatly appreciated by those who clean the windows. The
cased frames are in the form of boxes to enclose the iron or lead
wrights which balance the sashes (fig. 7), and consist of a pulley style
—which takes the wear of the sashes and is often of hard wood on
this account — an inside lining, and an outside lining; these three
members arc continued to form the head of the frame. The sashes are
connected with the weights by flax lines working over metal pulleys
fixed in the pulley styles. For heavy sashes with plate glass, chains
arc sometimes used instead of line*. Access to the weights for the
purpose of fitting new cords is obtained by removing the pocket
piece. A thin back lining is provided to the sides only and is not
required in the head. The till is of oak weathered to throw off
the water. A parting bead separates the sashes, and the inside
bead keeps them in position. A parting slip hung from the head
inside the cased frame separates the balancing weights and ensures
their smooth working. The inside lining is usually grooved to take
the elbow and soffit linings, and the window board is fitted into a
groove formed in the sill. The example shown in fig. 7 has an extra
deep bottom rail and bead; this enables the lower sash to be raised
so as to permit of ventilation between the meeting rails without
causing a draught at the bottom of the sash. This is a considerable
improvement upon the ordinary form, and the cost of constructing
the sashes in this manner is scarcely greater.
are balanced by weights enclosed with casings in the manner de-
scribed for double hung sashes. The panels are of course filled in
with wood and not glazed. The shutters are fixed by means of a
thumb-screw through the meeting rails, the lower sash being sup-
ported on the window board which is closed down when the sashes
nave been lifted out. Shutters sliding horizontally are also used in
some cases, but they are not so convenient as the forms described
above.
Shop-fronts. — The forming of shop-fronts may almost be considered
a separate branch of joiner's work. The design and construction
arc attended by many minor difficulties, and, the requirements
greatly varying with almost every trade, careful study and close
attention to detail are necessary. In the erection of shop-fronts,
in order to allow the maximum width of glass with the minimum
amount of obstruction, many special sections of sash bars and
stanchions are used, the former often being reinforced by cast iron
or steel of suitable form. For these reasons the construction of
shop-fronts and fittings has been specialized by makers having a
knowledge of the requirements of different trades and with facilities
for making the special wood and metal fittings and casings necessary.
Fig 10 shows an example of a simple shop-front in Spanish mahogany
with rolling shutters and spring roller blind; it indicates the typical
construction of a front, and reference to it will inform the reader on
many points which need no further description. The London Build-
ing Act 1894 requires the following regulations to be complied
with in shop-fronts: — (1) In streets of a width not greater than 30 ft.
a shop-front may project 5 in. beyond the external wall of the build-
ing to which it belongs, and the cornice may project 13 in. (?) In
streets of a width greater than 30 ft., the projections of the shop-
front may be 10 in. and of the cornice 18 in. beyond the building
line. No woodwork of any shop-front shall be fixed higher than 25 ft.
above the level of the public pavement. No woodwork shall be
fixed nearer than 4 in. to the centre of the party wall. The pier of
brick or stone must project at least an inch in front of the woodwork.
These by-laws will be made clear on reference to fig. 10, which is of
a shop-front designed to face on to a road more than 30 ft. wide.
Rolling shutters for shop-fronts arc made by a number of firms,
and are usually the subject of a separate estimate, being fixed by the
makers themselves. The shutter consists of a number of narrow
strips of wood, connected with each other by steel bands hinged at
every joint, or it may be formed in iron or steel. This construction
allows it to be coiled upon a cylinder containing a strong spring and
usually fixed on strong brackets behind the fa»cia. The shutter
JOINERY
481
It guided into position by the edges working in metal grooves is little
under an inch wide. When the width of the opening to be closed
renders it necessary to divide the shut ters into more than one portion,
grooved movable pilasters are used, and when the shutters have to be"
lowered these are fixed in position with bolts, the shutter working
on the grooved edges of the pilasters. Spring toller canvas blinds
work on a similar principle. The wrought-iron blind arms are
capable, when the blind is extended, of being pushed up by means of
a sliding arrangement, and Axed with a pin at a level high enough to
.allow foot passengers to pass along the pavement under them.
The latter would need to be worked and framed In the shop and fixed
entire. Polished hard wood architraves may be secretly fixed, i*.
without the heads of nails or screws showing on the face, by putting
screws into the grounds with their heads slightly projecting, and hang-
ingthe moulding on them by means of keyhole slots formed in the back.
Doors may be made in a variety of ways. The simplest form,
the common Udftd door, consists of vertical boards with plain or
matched joints nailed to horizontal battens which co rre sp o n d to the
rails in framed doors. For openings over a ft. 3 in. wide, the doors
should be furnished with braces. Ledgtd and bractd doors are
Section on AA.
'LLl I fill**
Petail of Shop-front.
Plan above Stallboard
^Fig. 10.— Shop-front.
ed
Doors.-— Externa.] doom
in the reveals of the brick
the door and ornamented
The Jambs or posts are te
the feet secured to the si
window frames are of sin
casements and sashes hun
doors are hung to jamb lir
thick and rebated for the
panelling may be introdu
are nailed or screwed to
plugged or nailed to th
borders or finishing moi „_ _ _. or
opening, and screwed or nailed to wood grounds. They are variously
moulded according to the fancy of the designer. The ordinary form
of architrave is shown in the illustration of a cased window frame
(fig 8). and a variation appears in the combined architrave and over
door frieae and rapping fitted around the six-panelled door (fig. 7).
similar, but have, in addition to the ledges at the back, oblique
br ., . , ,_.._*_„._..„_ ^
en
th
to
ha
Fr
of
an
be
Tr
an
sh
ca
rJorary purposes, and stables, farm buildings and outhouses of all
descriptions. They are usually hung by wrought-iron cross garnet
or strap hinges fixed with screws or through bolts and nuts. /
4&a
JOINERT
Fie. u.-
ot Panelling.
The doom In dwe lang -houaea and other buildings of a like character
•re commonly ft o m t d and panelled in one of the many ways possible.
The framing consists of styles, rails and muntins or mounting,
and these members are grooved to receive and hold the panels, which
are insetted previously to the door being glued ana wedged up.
The common forms are doors in four or six rectangular panels, and
although they may be made wtth any form and
[number of panels, the principles of construction
remain the same. The example shown in fig. 7
is of a six-panel door, with bolection moulded
raised panels on one side, and moulded and flat
. panels on the other (fig. 11).
L A clear idea of the method of jointing the
k various members may be obtained from fig. 12.
'The tongues of raised panels should be of
1 parallel thickness, the bevels being stopped at
the moulding. The projecting ends or horns of
the styles are cut off after the door has been
5 glued and wedged, as they prevent the ends
of the styles being damaged by the wedging
process.
Where there is a great deal of traffic in both directions svoint doors,
either single or double, are used. To open them it is necessary simply
w> push, the inconvenience of turning a handle and shutting the door
fter passing through being avoided, as a spring causes the door to
turn to its original position without noise. They are usually
special ability and some artistic feeling for its suc c essfu l execution.
But even in this work machinery has found a place, and carved
ornaments of all descriptions are rapidly wrought with its aid.
Small carved mouldings especially are evolved in this manner, and,
being incomparably cheaper than those worked by manual labour,
are used freely where a rich effect is desired. Elaborately carved
panels also are made by machines and a result almost equal to work
done entirely by hand is obtained if, after machinery has done all in
its power, the hand worker with his chisels and gouges puts the
finishing touches to the work.
Ironmongery. — In regard to the finishing of a building, no detail
calls for greater consideration than . the selection and accurate
fixing of suitable ironmongery, which includes the hinges, bolts,
locks, door and window fittings, and the many varieties of metal
finishings required for the completion of a building The task of the
selection belongs to the employer or the architect ; the fixing b
performed by the joiner
Of hinges, the variety termed bulls are in general use for hanging
doors, and are so called from being fitted to the butt edge of the door
They should be of wrought iron, cast-iron butts being liable to snap
should they sustain a shock. Lifting bulls are made with a removable
pin to enable the door to be removed and replaced without unscrew-
ing. Ruing butts have oblique joints which cause the door to rise
and clear a thick carpet and yet make a close joint with the floor
when shut. Hinges of brass or gun-metal are used in special cir-
cumstances. Common forms of hinges used on ledged doors are the
cross garnet and the strap There are many varieties of spring
hinges designed to bring the door automatically to a desired position.
With such hinges a rubber stop should be fixed on the floor or other
convenient place to prevent undue strain through the door being
forced back.
Among locks and fastenings the ordinary band or tower bolt needs
no description The flush barrel is a bolt let in flush with the face
of a door The espagnolttu is a development of the tower bolt and
extends the whole height of the door; a handle at a convenient
height, when turned, snooting bolts at the top and bottom simul-
taneously. Their chief use is for French casements. The padlock
is used to secure. doors by means of a staple and eye. The stock
lock is a large nm lock with hard wood casing and is used for stables,
church doors, &c. ; it is in the form of a dead lock opened only by a
key. and is often used in conjunction with a Norfolk latch. The
metal cased run lock is a cheap form for domestic and general use.
The use of a rim lock obviates the necessity of forming a mortice
in the thickness of the door which is required when a mortice lock
is used, finger plates add greatly to the good appearance oi a door*
JOINT— JOINTS
483
andprotc
ing raits <
from the
gether
inserted 1
are fitted
in many
Fanlight 1
may bed
Thefol
J. Gwilt.
slructton :
Adams, E
Robinson
Construct
Ecclestast
Nicholsoi . . _
JOINT (through Fr. from Lzt. junctum, jun^ere, to join), that
which joins two parts together or the place where two parts are
joined. (See Joinery; Joints.) In law, the word is used
adjectivally as a term applied to obligations, estates, &c,
implying that the rights in question relate to the aggregate of
the parties joined. Obligations to which several are parties
may be several, i.e enforceable against each independently of
the others, or joint, i.e. enforceable only against all of them
taken together, or joint and several , i.e. enforceable against each
or all at the option of the claimant (see Guarantee). So an
interest or estate given to two or more persons for their joint
lives continues only so long as all the lives are in existence.
Joint-tenants are co-owners who take together at the same time,
by the same title, and without any difference in the quality or
extent of their respective interests; and when one of the joint-
tenants dies his share, instead of going to his own heirs, lapses
to his co-tenants by survivorship. This estate is therefore to
be carefully distinguished from tenancy in common, when the
co-tenants have each a separate interest which on death passes
to the heirs and not to the surviving tenants. When several
take an estate together any words or facts implying severance
will prevent the tenancy from being construed as joint.
• JOINTS, in anatomy. The study of joints, or articulations,
is known as Arthrology (Gr. apdpov), and naturally begins with
the definition of a joint. Anatomically the term is used for any
connexion between two or more adjacent parts of the skeleton,
whether they be bone or cartilage. Joints may be immovable,
like those of the skull, or movable, like the knee.
Immovable joints, or synarthroses, are usually adaptations to
growth rather than mobility, and are always between bones. When
growth ceases the bones often unite, and the ioint is then obliterated
by a process known as synostosis, though whether the union of the
bones is the cause or the effect of the stoppage of growth is obscure.
Immovable joints never have a cavity between the two bones;
there is simply a layer of the substance in which the bone has been
laid down, and this remains unaltered. If the bone is being deposited
in cartilage a layer of cartilage intervenes, and the joint is called
synchondrosis (fig. i), but if in membrane a thin layer of fibrous
tissue persists, and the joint is then known as a suture (fig. a). Good
[Fig. 1. — Vertical
section through a
synchondrosis, b, b,
the two bones; 5c,
the interposed car-
tilage ;/, t he fibrous
membrane which
plays the part of a
ligament.
,.- Fie. 2.— Vertical section'
through a cranial suture, b, b t
the two bones; s, opposite the
suture; /, the fibrous mem-
brane, or periosteum, passing
between the two bones, which
plays the part of a ligament,
and which is continuous with
the interposed fibrous mem-.
, brane.
examples of synchondroses are the epiphysial lines which separate
the epiphyses from the shafts of developing long bones, or the occipito-
sphenoid synchondrosis in the base of the skull. Examples of
sutures are plentiful in the vault of the skull, and are given special
names, such as sutura dentata, s. serrata, s. squamosa, according to
the plan of their outline. There are two kinds of fibrous syn-
arthroses, which differ from sutures in that they do not synostose.
One of these is a schindylesis, in which a thin plate of one bone is
received into a slot in another, as in the joint b et wee n the sphenoid
and vomer. The. other is a peg and socket joint, or gomphosis,
found where the fangs of the teeth fit into the alveoli or tooth sockets
in the jaws.
Movable joints, or diarthroses, are divided into those in which
there is much and little movement. When there is little movement
the term half-joint or amphiarthrosis is used. The simplest kind of
amphiarthrosis is that in which two booes are connected by bundles
of fibrous tissue which pass at right angles from the one to the other;
such a joint only differs from a suture in the fact that the intervening
fibrous tissue is more plentiful and is organised into definite bundles,
to which the name of interosseous ligaments is given, and also that
it does not synostose when growth stops. A joint of this kind is
called a syndesmosis, though probably the distinction is a very
arbitrary one, and depends upon the amount of movement which is
brought about by the muscles on the two bones. As an instance of
this the inferior tibiofibular joint of mammals may be cited. In
man this is an excellent example of a syndesmosis, and there is only
a slight play between the two bones. In the mouse there is no move-
ment, and the two bones form a syn-
chondrosis between them which speed-
ily becomes a synostosis, while in many
Marsupials there is free mobility be-
tween the tibia and fibula, and a definite
synovial cavity b established. The
other variety of amphiarthrosis or half-
joint is the symphysis, which differs
from the syndesmosis in having both
_,___ .,__.. _=.._ -^.^ and
ayerof FlC. 3— Vertical section 1
n often through an a mphiarth radial
pnovial j j nt . (,, b, the two bones;
e sym- c> c% tne p j ate f cartilage
nt r*u on l ^ c art ' cu ' ar surface of
of the each bone; Fc, the inter-
mediate fibro-cartilage; /, /,
nts in the external ligaments.
ree or
>posing surfaces of the bones are
uch is the unossificd remnant of the
ihey arc formed and is called the
1. Between the two cartilages is the
the joint is the capsule (fig. 4, /),
uperficial layers of the original peri-
it may be strengthened externally {
es, such as the tendons of muscles,
icquire fresh attachments for the
. — _, „ lly that the greater the intermittent
strain on any part of the capsule the more it responds by increasing
in thickness. Lining the interior of the capsule, and all other parts
Fio. 4. — Vertical section
through a diarthrodial
joint, b, b, the two bones;
c, c, the plate of cartilage
on the articular surface of,
each bone; /, /, the invest-
ing ligament, the dotted 1
line within which repre-
sents the synovial mem-;
brane. The letter s is
placed in the cavity of the
joint.
Fig. 5.— Vertical sec-
tion through a diarthro-
dial joint, in which the
'cavity is subdivided into
two by an interposed
fibro-cartilage or men-
iscus, Fc. The other
; letters as in fig. 4.
of the joint cavity except where the articular cartilage Is present. is»
the synovial membrane (fig. 4, dotted line); this is a layer of endo-
thelial cells which secrete the synovial fluid to lubricate the interior
of the joint by means of a small percentage of mucin, albumin and
fatty matter which it contains.
A compound diarthrodial joint is one in which the joint cavity b
divided partly or wholly into two by a meniscus or inter-articular
fibro-cartilage (fig. 5, Fc).
The shape of the joint cavity vanes greatly, and the different
divisions of movable joints depend upon it. It is often assumed that
the structure of a joint determines its movement, but there b some-
thing to be said for the view that the movements to which a joint b
4 8 4
JOINTS
subject determine its shape. As an example of this ft has been found
that the mobility of the metacarpophalangeal joint of the thumb
in a large number of working men is less than it is in a large number
of women who use needles and thread, or in a large number of
medical students who use pens and scalpels, and that the slightly
movable thumb has quite a differently shaped articular surface from
the freely movable one (see J. Anal, and Phys. xxix. 446). R. Ficlc.
too. has demonstrated that the concavity or convexity of the joint
surface depends on the position of the chief muscles which move
the joint, and has enunciated the law that when the chief muscle
or muscles are attached close to the articular end of the skeletal
element that end becomes concave, while, when they are attached
far off or are not attached at all. as in the case of the phalanges, the
articular end is convex. His mechanical explanation is ingenious
and to the present writer convincing (see Handbuch der Cetenke,
by R. Fick, Jena. 1904). Bernays, however, pointed out that the
articular ends were moulded before the muscular tissue was differen-
tiated (At or ph. Jahrb. iv. 403). but to this Fick replies by pointing
out that muscular movements begin before the muscle fibres are
formed, and may be seen in the chick as early as the second day of
incubation.
The freely movable joints (true diarthrosis) are classified as
follows- —
h the articular surfaces are
1 e elbow and interphalangea 1
1 allowing flexion and ext en-
rotation. The metacarpo-
, of this.
rliaris), allowing the same
;th. The carpo- metacarpal
. allowing free movement in
>.
ily rotation round a longitu-
Embryology. .
Joints are developed in the mesenchyme, or that part of the
mesoderm which is not concerned in the formation of the serous
cavities. The synarthroses may be looked upon merely as a
delay in development, because, as the embryonic tissue of the
mesenchyme passes from a fibrous to a bony state, the fibrous
tissue may remain along a certain line and so form a suture, or,
when chondrification has preceded ossification, the cartilage may
remain at a certain place and so form a synchondrosis. The
diarthroses represent an arrest of development at an earlier stage,
for a part of the original embryonic tissue remains as a plate of
round cells, while the neighbouring two rods chondrify and ossify.
This plate may become converted into fibro-cartilage, in which
case an amphiarthrodial joint results, or it may become absorbed
in the centre to form a joint cavity, or, if this absorption occurs
in two places, two joint cavities with an intervening meniscus
may result. Although, ontogenetically, there is little doubt that
menisci arise in the way just mentioned, the teaching of com-
parative anatomy suggests that, phylogenetically, they originate
as an ingrowth from the capsule pushing the synovial membrane
in front of them. The subject will be returned to when the
comparative anatomy of the individual joints is reviewed. In
the human foetus the joint cavities are all formed by the tenth
week of intra-uterine life.
Anatomy
Joints of the Axial Skeleton.
The bodies of the vertebrae except those of the sacrum and
coccyx are separated, and at the same time connected, by the
intervertebral disks These are formed of alternating concentric
rings of fibrous tissue and fibro-cartilage, with an elastic mass in
the centre known as the nucleus pulposus. The bodies are also
bound together by anterior and posterior common ligaments.
The odontoid process of the axis fits into a pivot joint formed by
the anterior arch of the atlas in front and the transverse ligament
behind, it is attached to the basioccipiial bone by two strong
lateral check ligaments, and, in the mid line, by a feebler middle
check ligament which is regarded morphologically as containing
the remains of the notochord. This atlantoaxial joint is the
one which allows the head to be shaken from side to side. Nod-
ding the head occurs at the occipUo-al l an l a l joint, which consists
of the two occipital condyles received into the cup-shaped
articular facets on the atlas and surrounded by capsular liga-
ments. The neural arches of the vertebrae articulate one with
another by the articular facets, each of which has a capsular
ligament. In addition to these the laminae are connected by
the very elastic ligamenta subflava. The spinous processes are
joined by inter spinous ligaments, and their tips by a supraspinous
ligament, which in the neck is continued from the spine of the
seventh cervical vertebra to the external occipital crest and
protuberance as the ligamentum nuchae, a thin, fibrous, median
septum between the muscles of the back of the neck.
The combined effect of all these joints and ligaments is to
allow the spinal column to be bent in any direction or to be
rotated, though only a small amount of movement occurs
between any two vertebrae.
The heads of the ribs articulate with the bodies of two con-
tiguous thoracic vertebrae and the disk between. The liga-
ments which connect them are called costo-eentral, and are two
in number. The anterior of these is the stellate ligament, which
has three bands radiating from the head of the rib to the two
vertebrae and the intervening disk. The other one is the inter-
articular ligament, which connects the ridge, dividing the two
articular cavities on the head of the rib, to the disk; it is absent
in the first and three lowest ribs.
The costo~tr ansver se ligaments bind the ribs to the transverse
processes of the thoracic vertebrae. The superior costo-trans*
terse ligament binds the neck of the rib to the transverse process
of the vertebra above; the middle or interosseous connects the
back of the neck to the front of its own transverse process; while
the posterior runs from the tip of the transverse process to the
outer part of the tubercle of the rib. The inner and lower part
of each tuberde forms a diarthrodial joint with the upper and
fore part of its own transverse process, except m the eleventh
and twelfth ribs. At the junction of the ribs with their cartilages
no diarthrodial joint is formed; the periosteum simply becomes
perichondrium and binds the two structures together. Where
the cartilages, however, join the sternum, or where they join one
another, diarthrodial joints with synovial cavities are estab-
lished. In the case of the second rib this is double, and in that
of the first usually wanting. The mesostemal joint, between the
pre- and mesosternum. has already been given as an example
of a symphysis.
Comparative Anatomy.— Tor the convexity or concavity of the
vertebral centra in different classes of vertebrates, sec Skeleton:
axial. The intervertebral disks first appear in the Crocodilia. the
highest existing order of reptilia. In many Mammals the middle
fasciculus of the stellate ligament is continued right across the
ventral surface of the disk into the ligament of the opposite side,
and is probably serially homologous with the ventral arch of the
atlas. A similar ligament joins the heads of the ribs dorsal to the
disk. To these bands the names of anterior (ventral) and posterior
(dorsal) conjugal ligaments have been given, and they may be demon-
strated in a seven months' human foetus (see B. Sutton. Ligaments,
London. 1902). The ligamentum nuchae is a strong elastic band ia
the Ungulata which supports the weight of the head. In the
Carnivore it only reaches as far forward as the spine of the axis.
The Jaw Joint, or lemporo-mandibular articulation, occurs
between the sigmoid cavity of the temporal bone and the
condyle of the jaw. Between the two there is an intcranicular
fibro-cartilage or meniscus, and the joint is surrounded by a
capsule of which the outer part is the thickest. On first opening
the mouth, the joint acts as a hinge, but very soon the condyle
begins to glide forward on to the emmentia articularis (see Skull)
and takes the meniscus with it. This gliding movement between
the meniscus and temporal bone may be separately brought
about by protruding the lower teeth in front of the upper, or, on
one side only, by moving the jaw across to the opposite side.
Comparative A naJomy— The joint between the temporal and mandi-
bular bones is only found in Mammals; in the lower vertebrates the
taw opens between the quadrate and articular bones. In the
Carnivore it is a perfect hinge; in many Rodents only the antero-
posterior gliding movement is present ; while in the Ruminants the
lateralizing movement is the chief one. Sometimes, as in Che
Oraithorbynchus. the 1
JOINTS
485
Joints of the Upper Extremity.
The stemo-davicular articulation, between the presternum and
clavicle, fa a gliding joint, and allows slight upward and down-
ward and forward and backward movements. The two bony
surfaces are separated by a meniscus, the vertical movements
taking place outside and the antero-posterior inside this. There
is a well-marked capsule, of which the anterior part is strongest.
The two clavicles are joined across the top of the presternum by
an interclavicular ligament.
The acromioclavicular articulation is also a gliding joint, but
allows a swinging or pendulum movement of the scapula on the
clavicle. The upper part of the capsule is strongest, and from
it hangs down a partial meniscus into the cavity.
Comparative A natomy. — Bland Sutton regards the inter-clavicular
ligament as a vestige of the interctavicle of Reptiles and Monotremes.
The menisci are only found in the Primates, but it must be borne in
mind that many Mammals have no clavicle, or a very rudimentary
one. By some the meniscus of the stcr no-clavicular joint is regarded
as the homologue of the lateral part of the interclavtclc, but the fact
that it only occurs in the Primates where movements in different
planes are fairly free is suggestive of a physiological rather than a
morphological origin for it.
The shoulder joint is a good example of the ball and socket
or enarthrodial variety. Its most striking characteristic is
mobility at the expense of strength. The small size of the
glenoid cavity in comparison with the head of the humerus, and
the great laxity of the capsule, favour this, although the glenoid
cavity is slightly deepened by a fibrous Up, called the glenoid
ligament, round its margin. The presence of the coracoid and
acromial processes of the scapula, with the corace-acromial liga-
ment between them, serves as an overhanging protection to the
joint, while the biceps tendon runs over the head of the humerus,
inside the capsule, though surrounded by a sheath of synovial
membrane, Were it not for these two extra safeguards the
shoulder would be even more liable to dislocation than it is.
The upper part of the capsule, which is attached to the base of
the coracoid process, is thickened, and known as the coraco-
humeral ligament, while inside the front of the capsule are three
folds of synovial membrane, called gtene-kumeral folds.
Comparative Anatomy. — In the lower Vertebrates the shoulder
is adapted to support rather than prehension and is not so freely
movable as in the Primates. The tendon of (he biceps has evidently
sunk through the capsule into the joint, and even when it is intra-
capsular there is usually a double fold connecting its sheath of
synovial membrane with that lining the capsule. In Man this has
been broken through, but remains of it persist in the superior gleno-
humeral fold. The middle gfcuo-humeralfold is the vestige of a strong
Kgament which steadies and limits the range of movement of the
joint in many lower Mammals.
The elbow joint is an excellent example of the ginglymus or
hinge, though its transverse axis of movement is not quite at
right angles to the central axis of the limb, but is lower internally
than externally. This tends to bring the forearm towards the
body when the elbow is bent. The elbow is a great contrast to
the shoulder, as the trochlea and capitellum of the humerus are
closely adapted to the sigmoid cavity of the ulna and head of the
radius (see Skeleton: appendicular); consequently movement
in one plane only is allowed, and the joint is a strong one. The
capsule is divided into anterior, posterior, and two lateral liga-
ments, though these are all really continuous. The joint cavity
communicates freely with that of the superior radio-ulnar
articulation.
The radio-ulnar joints are three: the upper one is an example
of a pivot joint,, and in it the disk-shaped bead of the radius
rotates in a circle formed by the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna
internally and the orbicular ligament in the other three quarters.
The middle radio-ulnar articulation is simply an interosseous
membrane, the fibres of which run downward and inward from
the radius to the ulna.
The inferior radio-ulnar joint is formed by the disk-shaped
lower end of the ulna fitting into the slightly concave sigmoid
cavity of the radius. Below, the cavity of this joint is shut off
from that of the wrist by a triangular fibro-cartilage. The move-
ments allowed at these three aiticulatioiis are called pronation
and supination of the radius. The head of that bone twists/
in the orbicular ligament,round its central vertical axis for about
half a circle. Below, however, the whole lower end of the radius
circles round the lower end of the ulna, the centre of rotation
being close to the styloid process of the ulna. The radius, there-
fore, in its pronation, describes half a cone, the base of which is
below, and the hand follows the radius.
rearm is
ns , instead
of ulna, is
tn me place
th \ type of
ell 1, is best
se attached
to nt. since
th >ination.
Tl guide or
gu example
of ehcnsion
br lie Sheep
or of these
ty y stated
th rtcr of a
cii
The wrist joint, or radiocarpal articulation, lies between the
radius and triangular fibro-cartilage above, and the scaphoid,
semilunar, and cuneiform bones below. It is a condyloid joint
allowing flexion and extension round one axis, and slight lateral
movement (abduction and adduction) round the other. There
is a well-marked capsule, divided into anterior,, posterior, and
lateral ligaments. The joint cavity is shut off from the inferior
radio-ulnar joint above, and the intercarpal joints below.
The intercarpal joints are gliding articulations, the various
bones being connected by palmar, dorsal, and a few interosseous
ligaments, but only those connecting the first row of bones are
complete, and so isolate one joint cavity from another. That
part of the intercarpal joints which lies between the first and
second rows of carpal bones is called the transverse carpal joint,
and at this a good deal of the movement which seems to take
place at the wrist really occurs.
The earpo-mctacarpal articulations are, with the exception of
that of the thumb, gliding joints, and continuous with the great
intercarpal joint cavity. The carpo-metacarpal joint of the
thumb is the best example of a saddle-shaped joint in Man. It
allows forward and backward and lateral movement, and is very
strong.
The mttacarpo- phalangeal joints are condyloid joints like the
wrist, and are remarkable for the great thickness of the palmar
ligaments of their capsules. In the four inner fingers these
glenoid ligaments, as they are called, are joined together by the
transverse metacarpal ligament.
The inter phalangeal articulations are simple hinges surrounded
b] " the dorsal part is very thin.
. — The wrist joint of the lower Mammals
al lent than does that of Man, while the lower
et developed and is received into a cup-shaped
so ineiform and pisiform bones. At the same
tii y free pronation and supination, the triangu-
la y represented by an interosseous ligament,
wl us above with the interosseous membrane
b< ulna, and suggests the possibility that tho
fil a derivative of this membrane. In most
M ivided into two lateral parts, as it is in the
hi pronation and supination seem to cause
th septum.
Joints of the Lower Extremity.
The saero-innominale articulation consists of the sacro-Uiac
joint and the sacro-sciatic ligaments. The former is one of the
amphiarthroses or half -joints by which the sacrum is bound to
the ilium. The mechanism of the human sacrum is that of a
suspension bridge slung between the two pillars or ilia by the
very strong posterior sacro-iliac ligaments which represent the
chains. The axis of the joint passes through the second sacral
vertebra, but the sacrum is so nearly horizontal that the weight
of the body, which is transmitted to the first sacral vertebra,
tends to tilt that part down. This tendency is corrected by the
4^6
JOINTS
great and small sacro-seiatic ligaments, which fasten the lower
part of the sacrum to the tuberosity and spine of the ischium
respectively, so that, although the sacrum is a suspension bridge
when looked at from behind, it is a lever of the first kind when
seen from the side or in sagittal section.
The pubic symphysis is the union between the two pubic bones.
It has all the characteristics of a symphysis, already described,
and may have a small median cavity.
The hip joint, like the shoulder, is a ball and socket, but does
not allow such free movement; this is due to the fact that the
socket or acetabulum is deeper than the glenoid cavity and that
the capsule is not so lax. At the same lime the loss of mobility
is made up for by increased strength. The capsule has three
Fie. 6.— Dissection of the Hip Joint from the front.
thickened bands, of which the most important is the Mo-femoral
or Y-shaped ligament of Bigelow. The stalk of the Y is attached
to the anterior inferior spine of the ilium, while the two limbs are
fastened to the upper and lower parts of the spiral line of the
femur. The ligament is so strong that it hardly ever ruptures
in a dislocation of the hip. As a plumb-line, dropped from the
centre of gravity of the body, passes behind the centre of the hip
joint, this ligament, lying as it does in front of the joint, takes the
strain in Man's erect position. The other two thickened parts
of the capsule are known as pubo-femoral and ischio-femoral, from
their attachments. Inside the capsule, and deepening the margin
of the acetabulum, is a fibrous rim known as the cotyloid ligament,
which grips the spherical head of the femur and is continued
across the cotyloid notch as the transverse ligament. The floor
at* :he acetabulum has a horseshoe-shaped surface of articular
cx-2ige. concave downward, and, occupying the " frog " of the
Vrcc** hoof, is a mass of fat called the Haversian pad. Attached
•u .K sxaer margin of the horseshoe, and to the transverse liga-
wes ^ «ocrt that is deficient, is a reflexion of synovial membrane
«rrvi mcss a covering for the pad and is continued as a tube
: tr mil niifMi o« the head of the femur called the fossa capitis.
•~r» -c&'ctiQ carries blood-vessels and nerves- to the femur, and
^ -re. -us* aJxv«s tissue from outside the joint. It is known
- -^t— Bknd Sutton regards the Uio-femoral
- -—acK the scansorius, though against this
j*e cues in which a scansorius is present in
^as usual, and indeed, if it were not
there in these cases, the erect position would be difficult to «»«*-»»»r
He also looks upon the ligamentum teres as the divorced tendon of
the pectineus muscle. The subject requires much more investiga-
tion, but there is every reason to believe that it is a tendon which bas
sunk into the joint, though whether that of the pectineus is doubtful,
since the intra-capsular tendon comes from the ischium ia Reptiles.
In many Mammals, and among them the Orang, there is no ligamen-
tum teres. In others, such as the Armadillo, the structure has not
sunk right into the joint, but is connected with the jxibo-fetnoral
part of the capsule.
The knee joint is a hinge formed by the condyles and trochlea
of the femur, the patella, and the head of the tibia. The capsule
is formed in front by the ligamentum patellae, and on each side
special bands form the lateral ligaments. On the outer side t here
are two of these: the anterior or long external lateral ligament is a
round cord running from the external condyle to the head of the
fibula, while the posterior is slighter and passes from the same
place to the styloid process of the fibula. The internal lateral
ligament is a flat band which runs from the inner condyle of the
femur to the internal surface of the tibia some two inches below
the level of the knee joinL The posterior part of the capsule is
strengthened by an oblique bundle of fibres running upward and
outward from the semimembranosus tendon, and called the
posterior ligament of Winslow.
The intra-articular structures are numerous and interesting.
Passing from the bead of the tibia, in front and behind the spine,
are the anterior and posterior crucial ligaments; the former ia
attached to the outer side of the intercondylar notch above, and
the latter to the inner side. These two ligaments cross like an X.
The semilunar fibre~cartUoges— external and internal — are partial
menisci, each of which has an anterior and a posterior cornu by
which, they are attached to the head of the tibia in front and
behind the spine. They are also attached round the margin of
the tibial head by a coronary ligament, but the external one is
more movable than the internal, and this perhaps accounts for
its coronary ligament being less often ruptured and the cartilage
displaced t han the inner one is. In addition to these the external
cartilage has a fibrous band, called the ligament of Wrisberg,
which runs up to the femur just behind the posterior crucial liga-
ment. The external cartilage is broader, and forms more of a
circle than the internal. The synovial cavity of the knee runs
up, deep to the extensor musdes of the thigh, for about two inches
above the top of the patella, forming the bursa suprapateUaris.
At the lower part of the patella it covers a pad of fat, which lies
between the ligamentum patellae and the front of the head of the
tibia, and is carried up as a narrow tube to the lower margin of
the trochlear surface of the femur. This prolongation is known
as the ligamentum mucosum, and from the sides of its base spring
two lateral folds called the ligamenta alaria. The tendon of the
popliteus muscle is an intracapsular structure, and is therefore
covered with a synovial sheath. There arc a large number of
bursae near the knee joint, one of which, common to the inner
head of the gastrocnemius and the semimembranosus, often
communicates with the joint. The hinge movement of the knee
is accompanied by a small amount of external rotation at the end
of extension, and a compensatory internal rotation during flexion.
This slight twist is enough to tighten up almost all the ligamenta
so that they may take a share in resisting over-extension, because,
in the erect position, a vertical line from the centre of gravity of
the body passes in front of the knee.
Comparative Anatomy.— \n some Mammals, e.g. Bradypus and
Ornithorhynchus, the knee is divided into three parts, two condylo-
tibial and one trochleo-patellar, by synovial folds which in Man are
represented by the ligamentum mucosum. In a typical Mammal the
external semilunar cartilage is attached by its posterior horn to the
internal condyle of the femur only, and this explains the ligament
of Wrisberg already mentioned. In the Monkeys and anthropoid
Apes this cartilage is circular. The semilunar cartilages first appear
in the Amphibia, and, according to B. Sutton, are derived from
muscles which are drawn into the joint. When only one kind of
movement (hinge) is allowed, as b the fruit bat, the cartilages
are not found. In most Mammals the superior tibio-fibular joint
communicates with the knee.
The tibio-fibular articulations resemble the Vadio-uln&r in position
but are much less movable. The superior in Man is usually cut off
from the knee and is a gliding joints the middle is the into
JOINTS
487
tibial
External lateral ligament
of biceps flexe*
cruris muscle
membrane, whfle the lover has been already ueed as an example
of a syndesmosis or fibrous hall joint.
The ankle joint is a hinge, the astragalus being received into
a lateral arch loaned by thejower ends of the tibia and fibula.
Backward dislocation is prevented by the articular surface of the
astragalus being broader in front than behind. The anterior
and posterior parts of the capsule are feeble, but the lateral liga-
ments are very strong, the external consisting of three separate
fasciculi which bind the fibula to the astragalus and cakaneum.
To avoid confusion it is best to speak of the movements of the
ankle as dorsal and plantar flexion.
The tarsal joints resemble the carpal in being gliding articula-
tions. There are two between the astragalus and cakaneum, and
at these inversion and eversion of the foot largely occur. The
inner arch of the foot is maintained by a very important ligament
called the calcaneo-navicular or spring ligament; it connects the
sustentaculum tali of the cakaneum with the navicular, and
upon it the head of the astragalus rests. When it becomes
stretched, flat-foot results. The tarsal bones are connected by
dorsal, plantar and
interosseous liga-
ments. The long
and short calcaneo-
cuboid sic plantar
ligament* Of Special fapcwJaaclertmiiliaBl.
importance, and ^ '•■— — •"--
maintain the outer
arch of the foot.
The tarso-meto-
tarsal, met a tar so-
phalangeal and in-
Urfhalangeal joints
closely resemble
those of the hand,
except that the
UJSO- m e t a t a r S a 1 Amtcrior tvperwr tibip^buJ at
joint of the great
toe is not saddle-
shaped.
Comparative Ana-
tomj.-The anterior **<****
fasciculus Of the ex- B^b/anelaraaioiar tibial
ternal lateral liga- vomLi
ment of the ankle is
only found in Man*
and is probably an
adaptation to the
erect position. In
animals with a long
foot, such as the (From D. Hepbnrn. Cnaatafbam'a T*±bock 0/ Amtsmy.)
ItSSSSZZ thette^ Fw. 7-Dissection of the Knee-joint
ligaments of the
ankle at 1st
lateral n cd
between ;in
from th< tie
can be he
fibula on le.
Forfi *e
(Jena, I >)j
Quaio's, ad
Sutton, e) :
F. C. P >.
Joum,J
Diseases and Injuries op Joints
, The affection of the joints of the human body by specific
diseases is dealt with under various headings (Rheumatism, &c.) ;
in the present article the more direct forms of ailment are dis-
cussed. In most joint-diseases the trouble starts either in the
synovial lining or in the bone — rarely in the articular cartilage
or ligaments. As a rule, the disease begins after an injury.
There are three principal types of injury: (1) sprain or strain,
in which the ligamentous and tendinous structures are stretched
or lacerated; (2) contusion, in which the opposing bones are
• oC
External lateral UcaiaeoJ
driven forcibly together; {3) dislocation, in which the articular
surfaces are separated from one another.
A sprain or strain of a joint means that as the result of violence the
ligaments holding the bones together have been suddenly stretched
or even torn. On the inner aspect the ligaments are lined by a
synovial membrane, so when the ligaments are stretched the syno-
vial membrane is necessarily damaged. Small blood-vessels are
also torn, and bleeding occurs into the joint, which may become full
and distended. If, however, bleeding does not take place, the swell-
ing is not immediate, but synovitis having been set up, serous effu-
sion comes on sooner or later. There is often a good deal of heat
of the surrounding skin and of pain accompanying the synovitis.
In the case of a healthy individual the effects of a sprain may quickly
pass off. but in a rheumatic or gouty person chronic synovitis may
obstinately remain. In a person with a tuberculous history, or of
tuberculous descent, a sprain is apt to be the beginning of serious
disease of the joint, and it should, therefore, be treated with continu-
ous rest and prolonged supervision. In a person of health and
vigour, a sprained joint should be at once bandaged. This mav be
the only treatment needed. It gives support and comfort, and the
even pressure around the joint checks effusion into it. Wide pieces
of adhesive strapping, layer on layer, form a still more useful support,
and with the joint so treated the person may be able at once to use
the limb. If strap-
ping is not employed,
the bandage may be
takeo off from time
to time in order that
the limb and the
cidla joint may be mas-
saged. If the sprain
is followed by much,
synovitis a plaster of
Paris or leather splint
may be applied, com-
plete rest beine se-
cured for the limb.
Later on, blistering
or even " firing "
may be found advis-
able.
Synovitis. — When
a joint has been in-
jured, inflammation
occurs in the damaged
tissue; that is inevit-
able. But sometimes
the attack of inflam-
mation is so slight
and transitory as to
be scarcely notice-
able. This is specially
likely to occur if the
joint-tissues were in
a state of perfect
nutrition at the time
of the hurt. But if the
individual or the joint
were at that time in
a state of imperfect
nutrition, the effects
are likely to be more
serious. As a rule, it is
the synovial membrane lining the fibrous capsule of the joint which
first and chiefly suffers, the condition is termed synovitis Syno-
vitis may. however, be due to other causes than mechanical injury,
as when the interior of the joint is attacked by the micro-organisms
of pyemia (blood-poisoning), typhoid fever, pneumonia, rheuma-
tism, gonorrhoea or syphilis. Under judicious treatment the
synovitis generally clears up. but it may linger on and cause the
formation of adhesions which may temporarily stiffen the joint;
or it may. especially in tuberculous, septic or pyaemic infections,
involve the cartilages, ligaments and bones in such serious changes
as to destroy the joint, and possibly call for resection or amputation.
The symptoms of synovitis include stiffness and tenderness in
the joint. The patient notices that movements cause pain. Effu-
sion of fluid takes place, and there is marked fullness in the neigh-
bourhood. If the inflammation is advancing, the skin oyer the joint
may be flushed, and if the hand is placed on the skin it feels hot.
Especially is this the edse if the joint is near the surface, as at the
knee, wnst or ankle.
, The treatment of an inflamed joint demands rest. This may
be conveniently obtained by the use of a light wooden splint,
padding and bandages. Slight compression of the joint by a
Bandage is useful in promoting absorption of the fluid. If the
inflamed joint is in the lower extremity, the patient had best
remain in bed, or on the sofa; if in the upper extremity, he should
wear his arm in a sling. The muscles acting on the joint must be
kept in complete control If the inflammation is extremely acute.
from the front : Patella thrown down.
488
JOINTS
a few leeches, followed by a fomentation, will give relief; or an ice-
bag or an evaporating lotion may. by causing constriction of the
blood-vessels, lessen toe congestion of the part and the associated
pain. As the inflammation is passing off, massage of the limb
and of the joint will prove useful. If the inflammation is long
continued, the limb must still be kept at rest. By this time it may
be found that some other material for the retentive apparatus is
more convenient and comfortable, as, for instance, undressed
leather which has been moulded on wet and allowed to dry and
harden; poro-plastic felt, which has been softened by beat and
applied limp, or house-flannel which has been dipped in a creamy
mixture of plaster-of-Paris and water, and secured by a bandage.
Chronic Disease of a Joint may be the tailing off of an acute
affection, and under the influence of alternate douching* of hot and
cold water, of counter-irritation by blistering or " firing," and of
massage, it may eventually clear up, especially if the general health
of the individual is looked after. But if chronic disease lingers in
the joint of a child or young person, the probability of its being under
the influence of tuberculous infection must be considered. In such
a case prolonged and absolute rest is the one thing necessary. If
the disease be in the hip, knee, ankle or foot, the patient may be
fitted with an appropriate Thomas's splint and allowed to walk
about, for it is highly important to have these patients out in the
fresh air. If the disease be in the shoulder, elbow, wrist or hand,
a leather or poro-plastic splint should be moulded on, and the arm
worn in a sling. There must be no hurry; convalescence will needs
be slow. And if the child can be sent lo a bracing sea-side place it
will be much in his favour.
As the disease clears up, the surface heat, the pains and the tender-
ness having disappeared, and the joint having so diminished in size
as to be scarcely larger than its fellow — though the wasting of the
muscles of the limb may cause it still to appear considerably en-
larged — the splint may be gradually left off. This remission may
be for an hour or two every other day; then every other night;
then every other day, and so on, the freedom bang gained little by
little, and the surgeon watching the case carefully. On the slightest
indication of return of trouble, the former restrictive measures
must be again resorted to. Massage and gentle exercises may be
given day by day, but there must be no thought of "breakingdown
the stiffness." Many a joint has in such circumstances been wrecked
by the manipulations of a " bone-setter. "
Permanent Stiffness. — During the treatment of a case of chronic
disease of a joint, the question naturally arises as to whether the joint
will be left permanently stiff. People have the idea that if an in-
flamed joint is kept long on a splint, it may eventually be found
permanently stiff. And this is quite correct. But it should be
chsirry understood that it is not the rest of the inflamed joint which
causes the stiffness. The matter should be put thus: in tuber-
culous and other forms of chronic disease stiffness may ensue in
Hit* ©i long-continued rest. It is the destructive disease, not the
entNjrcrd rest which causes it, for inflammation of a joint rest is
4t*».>tutifjy necessary.
H* C*us*s of permanent Stiffness are the destructive changes
*n»v^M by the inflammation. In one case it may be that the
v>.tv%t*l membrane is so far destroyed by the tuberculous or septic
.•s >.«*» that its future usefulness is lost, and the joint ever aftcr-
.». . - v. ♦vufc* at its work and easily becomes tired and painful. Thus
h .m.k ># crippled but not destroyed. In another case the liga-
, ..x umJ the cartilages are implicated as well as the synovial
, . v>>...ks ami when the disease clears up, the bones are more or
v> v^\. vMity a small range of motion being left, which forcible
s , ni vHh«c methods of vigorous treatment are unable materi-
• k «v»t«t In another set of cases the inflammatory germs
x . \wvy the soft tissues of the joint, and then invade the
. „. «. ** Jt**ae having at last come to an end, the softened
< x4« *>bdly join together like the broken fragments in
^ k «m«» \» a result, osseous solidification of the joint
- .. k. .-*•» trthouti of course, the possibility of any move-
, ^rtMM^ias the surgeon cannot tell in any case whether
mmm ... ^* frjvance in this direction, he is careful to place
- , nw*Lw* ut which it will be most useful if the bony
% „. Thus* the leg is kept straight, and the elbow
of a joint,
imed area,
*rms being
ilts, which
c suppura-
r to excise
his disease
:, vigorous
ulcerating
rms. The
eatmem of
injections
may need
rid of the
necessarv.
sas*-
tion, and the treatment by serum In jectioiit will probably have bejtn
tried. If a joint is left permanently stiff in an awkward and useless
position, the limb may be greatly improved by excision of the joint.
Thus, if the knee is left bent and the joint is excised a useful, straight
limb may be obtained, somewhat shortened, and, of course,, per-
manently stiff. If after disease of the hip-joint the thigh remains
fixed in a faulty position, it may be brought down straight by divid-
ing the bone near the upper end. A stiff shoulder or elbow may be
converted into a useful, movable joint by excision of the articular
ends of the bones.
A stiff joint may remain as the result of long continued inflamma-
tion; the unused muscles are wasted and the joint in consequence
looks large. Careful measurement, however, may show that it is
not materially larger than its fellow. And though all tenderness
may have passed away, and though the neighbouring slrin is no
longer hot, still the joint remains stiff and useless. No pr o gress
being made under the influence of massage, or of gentle exercises,
the surgeon may advise that the lingering adhesion be broken down
under an anaesthetic, after which the function of the joint may
quickly return.
There are the cases over which the " bone-setter " secures his
greatest triumphs. A qualified practitioner may have been for
months judiciously treating an inflamed joint by rest, and then feeb
a hesitation with regard to suddenly flexing the stiffened limb.
The " bone-setter," however, has no such qualms, and when the
case passes out of the hands of the perhaps over-careful surgeon, the
unqualified practitioner (because he, from a scientific point of view,
knows nothing) fears nothing. and, breaking down inflammatory
adhesions, sets the ioint free. And his manipulations prove triumph-
antly successful. But, knowing nothing and fearing nothing, he is
apt to do grievous harm in carrying out his rough treatment in other
cases. Malignant disease at the end of a bone (sarcoma), tuber-
culosis of a joint, and a joint stiffened by old inflammation are
to him the same thing. " A small bone is out of place," or, " The
bone is out of its socket; it has never been put in, and a breaking
down of everything that resists his force is the result of the case
being taken tojiim. For the " bone-setter " has only one line of
treatment. Of t he improvement which he often effects as if by magic
the public are told much. Of the cases over which the doctor has
been too long devoting skill and care, and which are set free by the
" bone-setter." everybody hears — and sometimes to the discomfiture
of the medical man. But of the cases in which irreparable damage
follows his vigorous manipulation nothing is said— of his rough
usage of a tuberculous hip, or of a sarcomatous shoulder-joint,
and of the inevitable disaster and disappointment, those most con-
cerned are least inclined to talk 1 A practical surgeon with commoa-
sense has nothing to learn from the bone-setter."
Rheumatoid Arthritis, or chi
in persons beyond middle age
though with them it need no
too often is in their elders. 1 1
covering the joint surfaces of
the bones and the ligaments,
or hip, and when one large joir
escape. But when the hands
all the small joints are apt to
small, the cartilages wear awai
ends of the bones, so that tf
fingers being knotted and th<
is affected it becomes bowed
has crippled the old people
and with them it is steadily pr
and creaking or cracking in 1
after exercise, and with a little
As regards treatment, medicines
damp being bad for the patio
a dry, bright, sunny place, ar
there is no better place for hi
is not so suitable as it used t<
its climate was drier. For the _, „
Continental watering-places serve well. But if this luxury cannot
be afforded, the patient must make himself as happy as he can with
such hot douchings and massage as he can obtain, keeping himself
warm, and his joints covered by flannel bandages and rubbed with
stimulating liniments. In people advanced or advancing in years,
the disease, as a rule, gets slowly worse, sometimes very slowly,
but sometimes rapidly, especially when its makes its appearance in
the hip, shoulder or knee as the result of an injury. In young people*,
however, its course may be cut short by attention being given to the
principles stated above*.
Charcot's Disease resembles osteo-arthritis in that it causes destruc-
tion of a joint and greatly deforms it. The deformity, however,
comes on rapidly and without pain or tenderness. It is usually
associated with the symptoms of locomotor ataxy, and depends upon
disease of the nerves which preside over the nutrition of the joint*.
It is incurable.
A Loose Cartilage, or a Displaced Cartilage in the Knee Joint is apt to
become caught in the hinge between the thigh bone and the leg bone,
•using a sudden stretching of the ligaments of the joint to
intense pain. When this happens the individual it
PINTS
4*9
«pt to be OtfttFBdowm a* be waller (or Ucoomi on with grtat sudden-
ness. And thus he feels himself to be in a condition of perpetual
insecurity. After the joint has thus gone wrong, bleeding and
serous effusion take place into it, and tt becomes greatly swollen.
And if the cartilage still remains in the grip of the bones he is unable
to straighten or bend his knee. But the surgeon by suddenly
flexing and twisting the leg may manage to unhitch the cartilage
and restore comfort and usefulness to the limb. As a rule, the
slipping of a cartilage first occurs as the result of a serious fall or
of a sudden and violent action— of tan It happens when the man is
"dodging " at football, the foot being firmly fixed on the ground
and the body being violently twisted at the knee. After the slipping
has occurred many times, the amount of swelling, distress and lame-
ness may diminish with each subsequent slipping, and the individual
may become somewhat reconciled to hb condition. As regards
treatment, a tightly fitting steel cage-like splint, which, gripping the
thigh and leg, limits the movements of the knee to flexion and exten-
sion, may prove useful. But for a muscular, athletic individual
the wearingof thb apparatus may prove vexatious and disappointing.
The only alternative is to open the joint and remove the loose car-
tilage. The cartilage may be found on operation to be split, torn
or crumpled, and lying nght across between the joint-surfaces of
the bones, from which nothing but an operation could possibly have
removed it. The Operation is almost sure to give complete and
Permanent relief to the condition, the individual being able to resume
is old exercises and amusements without fear of the knee playing
him false. It is, however, one that should not be undertaken
without due consideration and circumspection, and the details
of the operation should be carried out with the utmost care and
cleanliness.
An accidental wound of a joint, as from the blade of a knife, or a
•pike, entering the knee is a very serious affair, because of the risk
of septic germs entering the synovial cavity cither at the time of
the injury or later. If the joint becomes thus infected there is
great swelling of the part, with redness of the skin, and with the
escape of blood-stained or purulent synovia. Absorption takes place
of the poisonous substances produced by the action of the germs,
and, as a result, great constitutional disturbance arises. Blood-
poisoning may thus threaten life, and in many cases life is saved
only by amputation. The best treatment is freely to open the joint,
to wash it out with a strong antiseptic fluid, and to make arrange-
ment for thorough drainage, the limb being, fixed on a splint. Help
may also be obtained by increasing the patient's power of resistance
to the effect of the poisoning by injections of a serum prepared by
cultivation of the septic germs in question. If the limb is saved,
there is a great chance of the knee being permanently stiff.
Dislocation.— The ease with which the joint-end of a bone is
dislocated varies with its form and structure, and with the position
in which it happens to be placed when the violence is applied.
The relative frequency of fracture of the bone and dislocation of
the joint depends on the strength of the bones above and below the
joint relatively to the strength of the joint itself. The strength of
the various joints in the body is dependent upon either ligament or
muscle, or upon the shape of the bones. In the hip, for instance,
all three sources of strength are present: therefore, considering the
great leverage of the long thigh Done, the hip is rarely dislocated.
The shoulder, in order to allow of extensive movement, has no
osseus or ligamentous strength ; it is, therefore, frequently dislocated.
The wrist and ankle are rarely dislocated'; as the result of violence
at the wrist the radius gives way, at the ankle the fibula, these bones
being relatively weaker than the respective joints. The wrist owes
its strength to ligaments, the elbow and the ankle to the shape of the
bones. The symptoms of a dislocation are distortion and limited
movement, with absence of the grating sensation felt in fracture when
the broken ends of the bone are rubbed together. The ireatment
consists in reducing the dislocation, and the sooner this replacement
is effected the better— the longer the delay the more difficult it
becomes to put things right. After a variable period, depending on
the nature of the joint and the age of the person, it may be impossible
to replace the bones. The result will be a more or less useless
joint The administration of an anaesthetic, by relaxing the muscles,
greatly assists the operation of reduction. The length of time that
a joint has to be kept quiet after it has been restored to its normal
shape depends on its form, but, as a rule, early movement is advis-
able. But when by the formation of the bones a joint is weak,
as at the outer end of the collar-bone, and at the elbow-end of the
radius, prolonged rest for the joint is necessary or dislocation may
recur.
Congenital Dislocation at the Hip.— Possibly as a result of faulty
position of the subject during intrauterine life, the head of the thigh-
Done leaves, or fails throughout to occupy, its normal situation on
the haunch-bone The defect, which is a very serious one, is prob-
ably not discovered until the child begins to walk, when its peculiar
rolUng gait attracts attention. The want of fixation at the joint
permits of the surgeon thrusting up the thigh-bone, or drawing it
down in a painless, characteristic manner.
The first thing to be done is to find out by means of the X-rays
whether a socket exists into which, under an anaesthetic, the
surgeon may fortunately be enabled to lodge the end of the thigh-
bone. If this offers no prospect of success, there are three courses
opem First, Co tsy under an anaesthetic to manipulate the Bmb
until the head of the thigh-bone rests as nearly as possible in its
normal position, and then to endeavour to fix it there by splints,
weights and bandaging until ? new joint is formed; second, to cut
down upon the site of the joint, to scoop out a new socket in the
haunch-bone, and thrust the end of the thigh-bone into it, keeping it
fixed there as just described; and third, to allow the child to run
about as it pleases, merely raising the sole of the foot of the short
leg by a thick boot, so as to keep the lower part of the trunk fairly
level, lest secondary curvature of the spine ensue. The first and
second methods demand many months of careful treatment in bed.
The ultimate result of the second is so often disappointing that the
surgeon now rarely advises its adoption. But, if under an anaes-
thetic, as the resuk of skilful manipulation the head of the thigh-bone
can be made to enter a more or less rudimentary socket, the case
is* worth all the time, care and attention bestowed upon it. Some-
times the results of prolonged treatment are so good that the child
eventually is able to walk with scarce a limp. But a vigorous
attempt at placing the head of the bone in its proper position
should be made in every case. (E. O.*)
JOINTS, in engineering, may be dassed either (a) according to
their material, as in stone or brick, wood or metal; or (6) accord-
ing to their object, to prevent leakage of air, steam or water, or
to transmit force, which may be thrust, pull or shear; or (c) ac-
cording as they are stationary or moving (■• working " in technical
language). Many joints, like those of ship-plates and boiler-
plates, have simultaneously' to fulfil both objects mentioned
undpr (b).
All stone joints of any consequence are stationary. It being
uneconomical to dress the surfaces of the stones resting on each
other smoothly and so as to be accurately flat, a layer of mortar
or other cementing material is laid between them. This hardens
and serves to transmit the pressure from stone to stone without
its being concentrated at the " high places." If the ingredients
of the cement are chosen so that when hard the cement has about
the same coefficient of compressibility as the stone or brick, the
pressure will be nearly uniformly distributed. The cement also
adheres to the surfaces of the stone or brick, and allows a certain
amount of tension to be borne by the joint. It likewise prevents
the stones from slipping one on the other, i.e. it gives the joint
very considerable shearing strength. The composition of the
cement is chosen according as it has to " set " in air or water.
The joints are made impervious to air or water by " pointing "
their outer edges with a superior quality of cement.
Wood joints are also nearly all stationary. They are made
partially fluid-tight by " grooving and tenoning," and by " caulk-
ing " with oakum or similar material. If the wood is saturated
with water, it swells, the edges of the joints press closer together,
and the joints become tighter the greater the water-pressure is
which tends to produce leakage. Relatively to its weaker general
strength.wood is a better material than iron so far as regards the
transmission of a thrust past a joint. So soon as a heavy pressure
comes on the joint all the small irregularities of the surfaces in
contact are crushed up, and there results an approximately uni-
form distribution of the pressure over the whole area (i.e. if there
be no bending forces), so that no part of the material is unduly
Stressed. To attain this result the abutting surfaces should be
well fitted together, and the bolts binding the pieces together
should be arranged so as to ensure that they wfll not interfere
with the timber surfaces coming into this close contact. Owing
to its weak shearing strength on sections parallel to the fibre,
timber is peculiarly unfitted for tension joints. If the pieces
exerting the pull are simply bolted together with wooden or iron
bolts, the joint cannot be trusted to transmit any considerable
force with safety. The stresses become intensely localized in
the immediate neighborhood of the bolts. A tolerably strong
timber tension-joint can, however, be made by making the two
pieces abut, and connecting them by means of iron plates cover-
ing the joint and bolted to the sides of the timbers by bolts pass-
ing through the wood. These plates should have their surfaces
which lie against the wood ribbed in a direction transverse to the
pull. The bolts should fit their holes slackly, and should be well
tightened up so as to make the ribs sink into the surface of the
timber. There will then be very little localized shearing stress
brought upon the interior portions of the wood.
Iron and the other commonly used metals possess in variously
4190 JOINTS
high degrees the qualities desirable in substances out of which
joints are to be made. The joint ends of metal pieces can easily
be fashioned to any advantageous form and size without waste
of material. Also these metals offer peculiar facilities for the
cutting of their surfaces at a comparatively small cost so smoothly
and evenly as to ensure the close contact over their whole areas
of surfaces placed against each other. This is of the highest
importance, especially in joints designed to transmit force.
Wrought iron and mild steel are above all other metals suitable
for tension joints where there is not continuous rapid motion.
Where such motion occurs, a layer, or, as it is technically termed,
a " bush," of brass is inserted underneath the iron. The joint
then possesses the high strength of a wrought-iron one and at the
same time the good frictional qualities of a brass surface. Leak-
age past moving metal joints can be prevented by cutting the
surfaces very accurately to fit each other. Steam-engine slide-
valves and their seats, and piston " packing-rings " and the
cylinders they work to and fro in, may be cited as examples.
A subsidiary compressible " packing " is in other situations em-
ployed, an instance of which may be seen in the " stuffing boxes"
which prevent the escape of steam from steam-engine cylinders
through the piston-rod hole in the cylinder cover. Fixed metal
joints are made fluid tight — (a) by caulking a riveted joint, i.e.
by hammering in the edge of the metal with a square-edged chisel
(the tighter the joint requires to be against leakage the closer
must be the spacing of the rivets — compare the rivet-spacing in
bridge, ship and boiler-plate joints) ;(&) by the insertion between
the surfaces of a layer of one or other of various kinds of cement,
the layer being thick or thin according to circumstances; (c) by
the insertion of a layer of soft solid substance called " packing "
or " insertion."
Apart from cemented and glued joints, most joints are formed
by cutting one or more holes in the ends of the pieces to be joined,
and inserting in these holes a corresponding number of pins.
The word " pin " is technically restricted to mean a cylindrical
pin in a movable joint. The word " bolt " is used when the
cylindrical pin is screwed up tight with a nut so as to be im-
movable. When the pin is not screwed, but is fastened by being
beaten down on either end, it is called a " rivet." The pin is
sometimes rectangular in section, and tapered or parallel length-
wise. " Gibs " and " cottars " are examples of the latter. It
is very rarely the case that fixed joints have their pins subject
to simple compression in the direction of their length, though
they are frequently subject to simple tension in that direction.
A good example is the joint between a steam cylinder and its
cover, where the bolts have to resist the whole thrust of the
steam, and at the same time, to keep the joint steam-tight.
JOINTS, in geology. All rocks ate traversed more or less
completely by vertical or highly inclined divisional planes termed
joints, Soft rocks, indeed, such as loose sand and uncompacted
day, do not show these planes; but even a soft loam after stand-
ing for some time, consolidated by its own weight, will usually
be found to have acquired them. Joints vary in sharpness of
definition, in the regularity of their perpendicular or horizontal
course, in their lateral persistence, in number and in the direc-
tions of their intersections. As a rule, they are most sharply
defined in proportion to the fineness of grain of the rock. They
are often quite invisible, being merely planes of potential weak-
ness, until revealed by the slow disintegrating effects of the
weather, which induces fracture along their planes in preference
to other directions in the rock; it is along the same planes that
a rock breaks most readily under the blow of a hammer. In
coarse-textured rocks, on the other hand, joints are apt to show
themselves as irregular rents along which the jock has been
shattered, so that they present an uneven sinuous course, branch-
ing off in different directions. In many rocks they descend
vertically at not very unequal distances, so that the spaces
between them are marked off into so many wall-like masses.
But this symmetry often gives place to a more or less tortuous
course with lateral joints in various apparently random direc-
tions, more especially where in stratified rocks the beds have
diverse litbological characters. A singlo joint may be traced
sometimes -for many yardsor even for several miles, more parried
larly when the rock is fine-grained and fairly rigid, as in lime-
stone. Where ihe texture is coarse and unequal, the joints,
though abundant, run into each other in such a way that no one
in particular can be identified for so great a distance. The
number of joints in a mass of rock varies within wide limits.
Among rocks which have undergone little disturbance the joints
may be separated from each other by intervals of several yards.
In other cases where the terrestrial movement appears to have
been considerable, the rocks are so jointed as to have acquired
therefrom ,a fissile character that has almost obliterated their
tendency to split along the lines of bedding.
The Cause of Jointing in Rocks.— The continual state of movement
in the crust of the earth is the primary cause of the majority of
joints. It is to the outermost layers of the lithosphcrc that joints
are confined; in what van Hise has described as the " zone of frac-
ture," which he estimates may extend to a depth of 12,000 metres
in the case of rigid rocks. Below the zone of fracture, joints cannot
be formed, for there the rocks tend to flow rather than break. The
rocky crust, as it slowly accommodates itself to the shrinking interior
of ( the earth, is subjected unceasingly to stresses which induce
jointing by tension, compression and torsion. Thus joints are
produced during the slow cyclical movements of elevation and de-
pression as well as by the more vigorous movements of earthquakes.
Tension-joints are the most widely spread ; they are naturally most
numerous over areas of upheaval. Compression-joints arc generally
associated with the more intense movements which have involved
shearing, minor-faulting and slaty cleavage. A minor cause of
tension-jointing is shrinkage, due either to cooling or to desiccation.
The most striking type of jointing is that produced by the cooling
of igneous rocks, whereby a regularly columnar structure is developed,
often called basaltic structure, such as is found at the Giant's Cause-
way. This structure is described in connexion with modern volcanic
rocks, but it is met with in igneous rocks of all ages. It is as weO
displayed among the felsites of the Lower Old Red Sandstone, and
the basalts of Carboniferous Limestone age as among the Tertiary
lavas of Auvergne and Vivarais. This type of jointing may cause
the rock to split up into roughly hexagonal prisms no thicker than a
lead pencil; on the other hand, in many dolerites and diorites the
prisms arc much coarser, having a diameter of 3 ft. or more t and they
are more irregular in form ; they may be so long as to extend up the
face of a cliff for 300 or 400 ft. A columnar jointing has often been
superinduced upon stratified rocks by contact with intrusive igneous
masses. Sandstones, shales and coal may be observed in this condi-
tion. The columns diverge perpendicularly from the surface of the
injected altering substance, so that when the latter is vertical, the
columns are horizontal; or when it undulates the columns follow its
curvatures. Beautiful examples of this character occur among the
coal-seams of Ayrshire. Occasionally a prismatic form of jointing may
be observed in unaltered strata ; in this case it is usually among those
which have been chemically formed, as in gypsum, where, as noticed
by Jukes in the Paris Basin, some beds are divided from top to
bottom by vertical hexagonal prisms. Desiccation, as shown by the
cracks formed in mud when it dries, has probably been instrumental
in causing jointing in a limited number of cases among stratified
rocks.
the joints
m surround-
in y them as
sh chine. A
sii embedded
in y through
m to which
th consider-
at d by the
ru rs, termed
si; T.
m natural
ps can water
ar : obtained
di contami-
m pact rock
th lany lime-
st 1 exposed
au iand type
of ice water.
w! 9 ice and
w< joints the
m njunction
wi drangular
bl »n in the
sc » scenery.
N leathering
aj i by large
st In hme-
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JOINTURE— JOINVILLE, PRINCE DE
joint* are liable to be gradually enlarged along the course of the under-
ground waterflow unf ' ' ' '
Infilled Joints. — Jc \
are sometimes filled s
brought thither in sol
barytes and ore* of 1 s
way many valuable a s
may also be filled in I 1
portions of the crust. ' 5
the planes of least re ft
may be forced up ioi 1
" sandstone dykes. '
Practical Utility of Joints. — An important feature in the joints of
stratified rocks is the direction in which they intersect each other.
As the result of observations we learn that they possess twodominant
trends, one coincident in a general way with the direction in which
the strata arc inclined to the horizon, the other running transversely
approximately at right angles. The former set is known as dip-
joints, because # t hey run with the dip or inclination of the rocks,
the latter is termed strike- joints, inasmuch as they conform to the
Sneral strike or mean outcrop. It is owing to the existence of this
uble series of joints that ordinary quarrying operations can be
carried on. Large quadrangular blocks can be wedged off that would
be shattered if exposed to the risk of blasting. A quarry is utually
worked on the dip of the rock, hence strike-joints form clean-cut
Joints in Limestone Quarry near Mallow, co. Cork.
(G. V. Du Noyer.)
faces in front of the workmen as they advance. These are known as
backs, and the dip-joints which traverse them as cutters. The way
in which this double set of joints occurs in a quarry may be seen in
the figure, where the parallel lines which traverse the shaded and
unshaded faces mark the successive strata. The broad white spaces
running along the length of the quarry behind the seated figure are
strike-joints or backs, traversed by some highly inclined lines
which mark the position of the dip-joints or cutters. The shaded
ends looking towards the spectator are cutters from which the rock
has been quarried away on one side, la crystalline (igneous) rocks,
bedding is absent and very often there is no horizontal Jointing to
take its place; the joint planes break up the mass more irregularly
than in stratified rocks. Granite, for example, is usually traversed
by two sets of chief or master-joints cutting each other somewhat
obliquely. Their effect is to divide the rock into long quadrangular,
rhomboidal, or even polygonal columns. But a third set may
often be noticed cutting across the columns, though less continuous
and dominant than the others. When these transverse joints are
few in number, columns many feet in length can be quarried out
entire. Such monoliths have been from early times employed in the
construction cf obelisks and pillars. (J* A* H.)
JOINTURE, in law, a provision for a wife after the death of her
husband. As defined by Sir E. Coke, it is " a competent liveli-
hood of freehold for the wife, of lands or tenements, to take effect
presently in possession or profit after the death of her husband,
for the life of the wife at least, if she herself be not the cause of
determination, or forfeiture of it " (Co, Litl. 36b). A jointure
is of two kinds* legal and equitable. A legal jointure was first
authorized by the Statute of Uses. Before this statute a husband
had no legal seisin in such lands as were vested in another to his
" use," but merely an equitable estate, Consequently it was
usual to make settlements on marriage, the most general form
being the -settlement by deed of an estate to the use of the
husband and wife for their lives in joint tenancy (or " jointure "),
so that the whole would go to the survivor Although, strictly
speaking, a jointure is a joint estate limited to both husband and
wife, in common acceptation the word extends also to a sole
estate limited to the wife only. The requisites of a legal jointure
are: fi) the jointure must lake effect immediately after the
husband's death; (a) it must be for the wife's life or for a greater
4.91
estate, or be determinable by her own act; (3) It must be made
before marriage—if after, it is voidable at the wife's election, on
the death of the husband; (4) it must be expressed to be in satis-
faction of dower and not of part of it. In equity, any provision*
made for a wife before marriage and accepted by her (not being
an infant) in lieu of dower was a bar to such. If the provision
was made after marriage, the wife was not barred by such pro-
vision, though expressly stated to be in lieu of dower; she was
put to her election between jointure and dower (see Dower).
JOINVILLE, the name of a French noble family of Champagne,
which traced its descent from £tienne de Vaux, who lived at
the beginning of the nth century. Geoffroi III. (d. 1x84), sire
de Joinville, who accompanied Henry the Liberal, count of
Champagne, to the Holy Land in 1147, received from him the
office of seneschal, and this office became hereditary in the house
of Joinville. In 1 203 Geoffroi V., sire de Joinville, died while on
a crusade, leaving no children. He was succeeded by his brother
Simon, who married Beatrice of Burgundy, daughter of the count
of Auxonne, and had as his son Jean (?.».), the historian and
friend of St Louis. Henri (d. 1374), sire de Joinville, the grand-
son of Jean, became count of Vaudemont, through his mother,
Marguerite de Vaudimoht. His daughter, Marguerite de Join-
ville, married in 1393 Ferry of Lorraine (d. 14 15), to whom she
brought the lands of Joinville. In 155a, Joinville was made
into a principality for the house of Lorraine. Mile de Mont-
pensier, the heiress of Mile de Guise, bequeathed the principality
of Joinville to Philip, duke of Orleans (1693). The castle, which
overhung the Marne, was sold in 1791 to be demolished. The
title of prince de Joinville (g.v.) was given later to the third son
of King Louis Philippe. Two branches of the house of Joinville
have settled in other countries: one in England, descended from
Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Vaucouleurs, and brother of the
historian, who served under Henry III. and Edward I.; the other,
descended from Geoffroi de Joinville, sire de Briquenay, and son
of Jean, settled in the kingdom of Naples.
See J. Simonnet, Essai sur Vkistoire et la gbtialoeje des seigneurs
de Joinville (1875) ; H. F. Delaborde, Jean de Joinville et Us seigneurs
de Joinville (1894). (M. P.*)
JOINVILLE, FRANCOIS FERDINAND PHILIPPE LOUIS
MARIE, Prince de (181&-1900), third son of Louis Philippe,
due d'Orleans, afterwards king of the French, was born at Neuilly
on the 14th of August 18 18. He was educated for the navy, and
became lieutenant in 1836. His first conspicuous service was
at the bombardment of San Juan de UUoa, in November 18384
when he headed a landing party and took the Mexican general
Arista prisoner with his own hand at Vera Cruz. He was pro-
moted captain, and in 1840 was entrusted with the charge of
bringing the remains of Napoleon from St Helena to France. In
1844 he conducted naval operations on the coast of Morocco,
bombarding Tangier and occupying Mogador, and was recom-
pensed with the grade of vice-admiraL In the following year be
published in the Revue des deux mondes an article on the defici-
encies of the French navy which attracted considerable attention,
and by his hostility to the Guizot ministry, as well as by an
affectation of ill-will towards Great Britain, he gained consider-
able popularity. The revolution of 1848 nevertheless swept him
away with the other Orleans princes. He hastened to quit
Algeria, where be was then serving, and took refuge at Claremont,
in Surrey, with the rest of his family. In 1861, upon the break-
ing out of the American Civil Wax, he proceeded to Washington,
and placed the services of his son and two of his nephews at the
disposal of the United States government. Otherwise, be was
little heard of until the overthrow of the Empire in 1870, when
he re-entered France, only to be promptly expelled by the
government of national defence. Returning incognito, he joined
the army of General d'Aurelle de Paladines, under the assumed
name of Colonel Lutherod, fought bravely before Orleans, and
afterwards, divulging his identity, formally sought permission
to serve. Gambretta, however, arrested him and sent him back
to England. In the National Assembly, elected in February 1871,
the prince was returned by two departments and elected to sit
for the Haute Marne, but, by an arrangement with Thiers, did
49*
not take his seat until the latter had been chosen president of the
provincial republic. His deafness prevented him from making
any figure in the assembly, and he resigned his seat in 1876. In
1886 the provisions of the law against pretenders to the throne
deprived him of his rank as vice-admiral, but he continued to live
in France, and died in Paris on the 16th of June 1000. He had
married in 1843 the princess Francisca, sister of Pedro II.,
emperor of Brazil, and had a son, the due de Penthievre (born in
184s), also brought up to the navy, and a daughter Francoise
(1844- ) who married the due de Chartres in 1863.
The prince de Joinville was the author of several essays and
pamphlets on naval affairs and other matters of public interest,
which were originally published for the most part either unsigned
or pseudonymously, and subsequently republished under his own
name after the fall of the Empire. They include Essais sur la marine
francaise (1853); Etudes sur la marine (1859 and 1870); La Guerre
d'Amirique, tampapie du Potomac (1862 and 1872); Encore un mot
sur Sadowa (Brussels, 1868); and Vieux souvenirs (1894).
JOIMVILLE, JBAN, Sire de (1224-13x9), was the second
great writer of history in Old French, and in a manner occupies
the interval between Villehardouin and Froissart, Numerous
minor chroniclers till up the gaps, but no one of them has the
idiosyncrasy which distinguishes these three writers, who illus-
trate the three periods of the middle ages— adolescence, complete
manhood, and decadence. Joinville was the head of a noble
family of the province of Champagne (see Joinville, above).
The provincial court of the counts of Champagne had long been
a distinguished one, and the action of Thibaut the poet, together
with the proximity of the district to Paris, made the province
less rebellious than most of the great feudal divisions of France
to the royal authority. Joinville's first appearance at the king's
court was in 1241, on the occasion of the knighting of Louis IX.'s
younger brother Alphonse. Seven years afterwards he took the
cross, thereby giving St Louis a valuable follower, and supplying
himself with the occasion of an eternal memory. The crusade,
in which he distinguished himself equally by wisdom and prowess,
taught his practical spirit several lessons. He returned with
the king in 1254. But, though his revetence for the personal
character of his prince seems to have known no bounds, he had
probably gauged the strategic faculties of the saintly king, and
he certainly had imbibed the spirit of the dictum that a man's
first duties are those to his own house. He was in the intervals
of residence on his own fief a constant attendant on the court,
but he declined to accompany the king on his last and fatal
expedition. In 1282 he was one of the witnesses whose testimony
was formally given at St Denis in the matter of the canonization
of Louis, and in 1208 he was present at the exhumation of the
saint's body. It was not till even later that he began his literary
work, the occasion being a request from Jeanne of Navarre, the
wife of Philippe le Bel and the mother of Louis le Hutin. The
great interval between his experiences and the period of the
composition of his history is important for the due comprehen-
sion of the latter. Some years passed before the task was com-
pleted, on its own showing, in October 1309. Jeanne was by
this time dead, and Joinville presented his book to her son Louis
the Quarreller. This original manuscript is now lost, whereby
hangs a tale. Great as was bis age, Joinville had not ceased to
be actively loyal, and in 13x5 he complied with the royal sum-
mons to bear arms against the Flemings. He was at Joinville
again in 1317, and on the nth of July 1319 he died at the age of
ninety-five, leaving his possessions and bis position as seneschal
of Champagne to his second son Anselm. He was buried in the
neighbouring church of St Laurent, where during the Revolution
his bones underwent profanation. Besides his Hutoire de Saint
Louis and his Credo or " Confession of Faith " written much
earlier, a considerable number, relatively speaking, of letters and
business documents concerning the fief of Joinville and so forth
are extant. These have an importance which we shall consider
further on; but Joinville owes his place in general estimation
only to his history of his crusading experiences and of the subse-
quent fate of St Louis.
Of the famous French history hooks of the middle ages
JomvtUe 1 * bears the most vivid impress of the personal character*
JOINVILLE, SIRE DE
istics of its composer. It does not, Kke VHienardonta, g£w on
a picture of the temper and habits of a whole order or cast of
men during a heroic period of human history; it falls far short
of Froissart in vivid portraying of the picturesque and external
aspects of social life; but it is a more personal book than either.
The age and circumstances of the writer must not be forgotten
in reading it. He is a very old man telling of circumstances
which occurred in his youth. He evidently thinks that the times
have not changed for the better— what with the frequency with
which the devil is invoked in modern France, and the sinful
expenditure common in the matter of embroidered silk coats.
But this laudation of times past concentrates itself almost wholly
on the person of the sainted king whom, while with feudal inde-
pendence he had declined to swear fealty to him, " because I was
not his man," he evidently regarded with an unlimited reverence.
His age, too, while garrulous to a degree, seems to'have been fret
from the slightest taint of boasting. No one perhaps ever took
less trouble to make himself out a hero than Joinville. He is
constantly admitting that on such and such an occasion he was
terribly afraid; be confesses without the least shame that, when
one of bis followers suggested defiance of the Saracens and
voluntary death, he (Joinville) paid not the least attention to
him; nor does he attempt to gloss in any way his refusal to ac-
company St Louis on his unlucky second crusade, or his invin-
cible conviction that it was better to be in mortal sin than to have
the leprosy, or his decided preference for wine as little watered
as might be, or any other weakness. Yet he was a sincerely
religious man, as the curious Credo, written at Acre and forming a
kind of anticipatory appendix to the history, sufficiently shows.
He presents himself as an altogether human person, brave enough
in the field, and, at least when young, capable of extravagant
devotion to an ideal, provided the ideal was fashionable, bat
having at bottom a sufficient respect for his own skin and a full
consciousness of the side on which his bread is buttered. Nor
can he be said to be in all respects an intelligent traveller. There
were in him what may be called glimmerings of deliberate litera-
ture, but they were hardly more than glimmerings. His famous
description of Greek fire has a most provoking mixture of circum-
stantial detail with absence of verifying particulars. It is as
matter-of-fact and comparative as Dante, without a touch of
Dante's genius. " The fashion of Greek fire was such that it
came to us as great as a tun of verjuice, and the fiery tail of it was
as big as a mighty lance; it made such noise in the coming that
it seemed like the thunder from heaven, and looked like a dragon
flying through the air; so great a light did it throw that through-
out the host men saw as though it were day for the light it threw."
Certainly the excellent seneschal has not stinted himself of com-
parisons here, yet they can hardly be said to be luminous. That
the thing made a great flame, a great noise, and struck terror
into the beholder is about the sum of it all Every now and then
indeed a striking circumstance, strikingly told, occurs in Joinville,
such as the famous incident of the woman who carried in one
hand a chafing dish of fire, in the other a phial of water, that she
might burn heaven and quench hell, lest in future any man should
serve God merely for hope of the one or fear of the other. But
in these cases the author only repeats what he has heard from
others. On his own account he is much more interested in small
personal details than in greater things. How the Saracens, when
they took him prisoner, he being half dead with a complication
of diseases, kindly left him " un mien couverture d'ecarlate "
which his mother bad given him, and which he pot over him,
having made a hole therein and bound it round him with a cord;
how when he came to Acre in a pitiable condition an old
servant of his house presented himself, and " brought me dean
white hoods and combed my hair most comfortably "; how he
bought a hundred tuns of wine and served it— the best first,
according to high authority— well-watered to his private soldiers,
somewhat less watered to the squires, and to the knights neat,
but with a suggestive phial of the weaker liquid to mix " si
comme OS voulotent "—these are the details in which he seems
to take greatest pleasure, and for readers six hundred years after
date perhaps they are not the least interesting details.
JOIST
493
It would, however, be a mistake to imagine that Jolnvfllc's
book is exclusively or even mainly a chronicle of small beer. If
he is not a VQlehardouin or a Carlyle, his battlepieces are vivid
and truthful, and he has occasional passages of no small episodic
importance, such as that dealing with the Old Man of the Moun-
tain. But, above all, the central figure of his book redeems it
from the possibility of the charge of being commonplace or
ignoble. To St Louis Joinville is a nobler Boswell; and hero-
worshipper, hero, and heroic ideal all have something of the
sublime about them. The very pettiness of the details in which
the good seneschal indulges as to his own weakness only serves
to enhance the sublime unworldliness of the king. Joinville is
a better warrior than Louis, but, while the former frankly prays
for his own safety, the latter only thinks of his army's when they
have escaped from the hands of the aliens. One of the king's
knights boasts that ten thousand pieces have been " forcontes "
(counted short) to the Saracens; and it is with the utmost trouble
that Joinville and the rest can persuade the king that this is a
joke, and that the Saracens are much more likely to have got
the advantage. He warns Joinville against wine-bibbing,
against bad language, against all manner of foibles small and
great; and the pupil acknowledges that this physician at any rate
had healed himself in these respects. It is true that he is severe
towards infidels; and his approval of the knight who, finding a
Jew likely to get the better of a theological argument, resorted to
the baculine variety of logic, does not meet the views of the 20th
century. But Louis was not of the 20th century but of the 13th,
and after his kind he certainly deserved Joinville's admiration.
Side by side with his indignation at the idea of cheating his
Saracen enemies may be mentioned his answer to those who after
Taillebourg complained that he had let off Henry III. too easily.
•' He is my man now, and he was not before," said the king, a
most unpractical person certainly, and in some ways a sore saint
for France. But it is easy to understand the half-despairing
adoration with which a shrewd and somewhat prosaic person like
Joinville must have regarded this flower of chivalry born out of
due time. He has had his reward, for assuredly the portrait of
St Louis, from the early collection of anecdotes to the last hearsay
sketch of the woeful end at Tunis, with the famous enseignement
which is still the best summary of the theoretical duties of a
Christian king in medieval times, is such as to take away all
charge of vulgarity or mere commlra%t from Joinville, a charge
to which otherwise he might perhaps have been exposed.
The arrangement of the book is, considering its circumstances
and the date of its composition, sufficiently methodical. Accord-
ing to its own account it is divided into three parts — the first
dealing generally with the character and conduct of the hero;
the second with his acts and deeds in Egypt, Palestine, &c, as
Joinville knew them; the third with his subsequent life and death.
Of these the last is very brief, the first not long; the middle con-
stitutes the bulk of the work. The contents of the first part are,
as might be expected, miscellaneous enough, and consist chiefly
of stories chosen to show the valour of Louis, his piety, his justice,
his personal temperance, and so forth. The second part enters
upon the history of the crusade itself, and tells how Joinville
pledged all his land save so much as would bring in a thousand
livres a year, and started with a brave retinue of nine knights
(two of whom besides himself wore bannerets), and shared a ship
with the sire d'Aspremont, leaving Joinville without raising his
eyes," pour ce que le cucr ne me attendrisist du biau chastel que
je lessoie et de mes deux enfans "; how they could not get out of
sight of a high mountainous island (Lampedusa or Pantellaria)
till they had made a procession round the masts in honour of the
Virgin; how they reached first Cyprus and then Egypt ; how they
took Damietta, and then entangled themselves in the Delta.
Bad generalship, which is sufficiently obvious, unwholesome
food— it was Lent, and they ate the Nile fish which had been
feasting on the carcases of the slain— and Greek fire did the rest,
and personal valour was of little a vail, not merely against superior
numbers and better generals,but against dysentery and a certain
" mal de 1'ost " which attacked the mouth and the legs, a curious
Jbuman version of a well-known bestial malady. After ransom
+94
The Mid. £ng. form of the word was giste or gysto, and was
adapted from 0. Fr. giste, modern gUe, a beam supporting the
platform of a gun. By origin the word meant that on which
anything lies or rests (gestr, to lie; L&l.jaccre).
The English word " gist," in such phrases as " the gist of the
matter," the main or central point in an argument, is a doublet
of joist. According to Skcat, the origin of this meaning is an
O. Fr. proverbial expression, Je sqay bien ou gist Ultfvre, I know
well where the hare lies, i.e. I know the real point of the matter.
J6KAI, MAURUS (182 5-1 904), Hungarian novelist, was born
at Riv-Komarom on the 19th of February 1825. His father,
Joseph, was a member of the Asva branch of the ancient J6kay
family; his mother was a scion of the noble Pulays. The lad
was timid and delicate, and therefore educated at home till his
tenth year, when he was sent to Pressburg, subsequently com-
pleting his education at the Calvinist college at Papa, where he
first met Petofi, Alexander Kozma, and several other brilliant
young men who subsequently became famous. His family had
meant him to follow the law, his father's profession, and accord-
ingly the youth, always singularly assiduous, plodded conscien-
tiously through the usual curriculum at Kecskemet and Pest,
and as a fullblown advocate actually succeeded in winning his
first case. But the drudgery of a lawyer's office was uncon-
genial to the ardently poetical youth, and, encouraged by the
encomiums pronounced by the Hungarian Academy upon his
first play, Zsidd fiu (" The Jew Boy "), he flitted, when barely
twenty, to Pest in 1845 with a MS. romance in his pocket; he
was introduced by Petdfi to the literary notabilities of the Hun-
garian capital, and the same year his first notable romance
HltkSznapok (" Working Days "), appeared, first in the columns
of the Pesti Dievatlap, and subsequently, in 1846, in book form.
Hilkdtnapok, despite its manifest crudities and extravagances,
was instantly recognized by all the leading critics as a work of
original genius, and in the following year J6kai was appointed
the editor of tlcikipek, the leading Hungarian literary journal,
and gathered round him all the rising talent of the country. On
the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 the young editor enthusi-
astically adopted the national cause, and served it with both pen
and sword. Now, as ever, he was a moderate Liberal, setting his
face steadily against all excesses; but, carried away by the
Hungarian triumphs of April and May 1840, he supported
Kossuth's fatal blunder of deposing the Hapsburg dynasty, and
though, after the war was over, his life was saved by an ingenious
stratagem of his wife, the great tragic actress, Roza Benke
Laborfalvi, whom he had married on the 20th of August 1848,
he lived for the next fourteen years the life of a political suspect.
Yet this was perhaps the most glorious period of his existence,
for during it he devoted himself to the rehabilitation of the pro-
scribed and humiliated Magyar language, composing in it no
fewer than thirty great romances, besides innumerable volumes of
tales, essays, criticisms and facetia. This was the period of such
masterpieces as Erd&y Arany Kord (" The Golden Age of Tran-
sylvania "), with its seqoel Tdrdkvildg Magyororszdgon (" The
Turks in Hungary"), EgyMagyar Ndbob{"A Hungarian Nabob"),
Karp&lhy Zolldn, Janicsdrok vignapjai (" The Last Days of the
Janissaries"), Stomoru napok (" Sad Days "). On the re-estab-
lishment of the Hungarian constitution by the Composition of
1867, J6kai took an active part in politics. As a constant sup-
porter of the Ti&za administration, not only in parliament,
where he sat continuously for more than twenty years, but also
as the editor of the government organ, Hon, founded by him in
1863, he became a power in the state, and, though he never took
office himself, frequently extricated the government from difficult
places. In 1897 the emperor appointed him a member of the
upper house. As a suave, practical and witty debater he was
particularly successful. Yet it was to literature that be con-
tinued to devote most of his time, and his productiveness after
1870 was stupendous, amounting to some hundreds of volumes.
Stranger still, none of this work is slipshod, and the best of it
deserves to endure. Amongst the finest of his later works may
be mentioned the unique and incomparable At arany ember
(" A v * ,n of Cold ")— translated into English under the title of
J6KAI— joliet
Timor's Two World*— and A UngenemU hSlgy (" Eyes Eke the
Sea "), the latter of which won the Academy's prize in 1890.
He died at Budapest on the 5th of May 1004; his wife having
predeceased him in 1886. J6kai was an arch-romantic, with *
perfervid Oriental imagination, and humour of the purest, rarest
description. If one can imagine a combination, in almost equal
pans, of Walter Scott, William Beckford, Dumas pire, and
Charles Dickens, together with the native originality of an
ardent Magyar, one may perhaps form a fair idea of the great
Hungarian romancer's indisputable genius.
See Nevy Uszlo. Jokat MSr. Hegedusis Sandor. J6kai AfSrrSi;
H. W Tcmperley, " Maurus Jolcai and the Historical Novel," Corn-
temporary Review (July 1904).
JOKJAKARTA, or Jokjokabta (more correctly Jokyakabta;
Du. Djokjakarta), a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded N by Kedu and Surakarta, £. by Surakarta,
S. by the Indian Ocean, W by Bagclen. Pop. (1897), 858,392.
The country is mountainous with the exception of a wedge -like
strip in the middle between the rivers Progo and Upak. In the
north-west are the southern slopes of the volcano Merapi, and
in the east the Kidul bills and the plateau of Sewu. The last-
named is an arid and scantily populated chalk range, with numer-
ous 6mall summits, whence it is also known as the Thousand
Hills. The remainder of the residency is well-watered and fer-
tile, important irrigation works having been carried out. Sugar,
rice and indigo are cultivated; salt-making is practised on the
coast. The minerals include coal-beds in the Kidul hills and near
Nangulan, marble and gold in the neighbourhood of Kalasan.
The natives arc poor, owing chiefly to maladministration, the
use of opium and the usury practised by foreigners (Chinese,
Arabs, &c). The principality is divided between the sultan
(vassal of the Dutch government) and the so-called independent
prince Paku Alam, Ngawen and Imogiri are enclaves of Sura-
karta. There are good roads, and railways connect the chief
town with Batavia, Samarang, Surakarta, &c. The town of
Jokjakarta (see Java) is the seat of the resident, the sultan and
the Paku Alam princes, its most remarkable section is the kraton
or citadel of the sultan. Imogiri, S.W of the capital, the burial-
place of the princes of Surakarta and Jokjakarta, is guarded by
priests and officials. Sentolo, Nangulan, Brosot, Kalasan,
Tempel, Wonosari are considerable villages. There are numerous
remains of Hindu temples, particularly in the neighbourhood of
Kalasan near the border of Surakarta and Prambanan, which is
just across it. Remarkable sacred grottoes are found on the
coast, namely, the so-called Nyabi Kidul and Rongkob, and at
Selarong, south-east of Jokjakarta.
JOLIET, a city and the county-seat of Will county, Minors,
U.S.A., in the township of Joliet, in the N E. part of the state,
on the Des Plaines river, 40 m. S.W of Chicago. Pop. (1800),
23.264; (1900), 29,353, of whom 8536 were foreign-born, 1889
being German, 1579 Austrian, 1206 Irish and 951 Swedish;
(1910 census) 34,670. In addition there is a large population
in the immediate suburbs: that of the township .including the
city was 27,438 in 1800, and 50,640 in 1910. Joliet is served by
the Atchison, Topcka & Santa Fi, the Chicago & Alton, the
Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Michigan Central, the
Illinois, Iowa & Minnesota, and the Elgin, Joliet & Eastern
railways, by interurban electric lines, and is on the Illinois &
Michigan canal and the Chicago Sanitary (ship) canal. The
city is situated in a narrow valley, on both sides of the river. It
is the seat of the northern Illinois penitentiary, and has a public
library (in front of which is a statue, by S. Asbjornscn, of Louis
Joliet), the township high school, two hospitals, two Catholic
academies and a club-house, erected by the Illinois Steel Company
for the use of its employees. There are two municipal parks,
West Park and Highland Park; Dell wood Park is an amusement
resort, owned by the Chicago & Joliet Electric Railway Company.
In the vicinity are large deposits of calcareous building stone,
cement and fireclay, and there are coal mines 20 m. distant.
Mineral resources and water-power have facilitated the develop-
ment of manufactures. The factory product in 1905 was valued
at $33*788*700 (293% more than in xooo), a large pan of which
JOLLY— JOMINI
was represented by iron and steel goods. There are large
industrial establishment* just outside the city limits. The first
settlement on the site of Joliet (1833) was called Juliet, in
honour of the daughter of James B. Campbell, one of the settle*.
The present name was adopted in 1845, in memory of Lonfe
Joliet (1645-1700), the French Canadian explorer of the Missis-
sippi, and in 185a a city charter was secured.
JOLLY (from O. Ft, joUf, Fr.joii, the French word is obscure
in origin; it may be from late Lat. gaudnms, from gaudere,
to rejoice, the change of d to / being paralleled by cigada
and eigaie, or from O. Norte jel t Eng. " yule," the northern
festival of midwinter), and adjective meaning gay, cheerful, jovial,
high-spirited. The colloquial use of the term as an intensive
adverb, meaning extremely, very, was in early usage quite
literary; thus John Trapp (1 601-1 660), Commentaries en Ike
Hem Testament, Matthew (1647), writes, " All was jolly quiet
at Ephesus before St Paul came hither." In the royal navy
" jolly " used as a substantive, is the slang name for a marine.
To " jolly M Is a slang synonym for " chaff." The word ■• jolly-
boat," the name of a ship's small broad boat, usually clinker-
built, is of doubtful etymology. It occurs in English in the
1 8th century, and is usually connected with Dan. or Swed.
jotle, Dutch jot t * small ship's boat; these words are properly
represented in English by " yawl " originally a ship's small boat,
now chiefly used of a rig of sailing vessels, with a cutter-rigged
foremast and a small mizzen stepped far aft, with a spanker
•aH <see Rigging). A connexion has been suggested with a
word of much earlier appearance in English, joiyvat, or grUywctle.
This occurs at the end of the 15th century and is used of a smaller
type of ship's boat. This is supposed to be a corruption of
the French galiete or Dutch goljooi, galliot (see Galley). The
galliot was, however, a large vessel.
JOLT DE LOTBINlfcRB, SIR HENRI 6USTAVB (1839-1008),
Canadian politician, was born at Epemay in France on the 5th
of December i8ao. His father, Gaspard Pierre Gustave Joly,
the owner of famous vineyards at Epemay, was of Huguenot
descent, and married Julie Christine, grand-daughter of Eustache
Gaspard Michel Chartier de Lotbiniere, marquis de Lotbiniere
(one of Montcalm's engineers at Quebec); he thus became
seigneur de Lotbiniere. Henri Gustave adopted the name of de
Lotbiniere in 1888, under a statute of the province of Quebec.
He was educated in Paris, and called to the bar of lower Canada
in 1858. On the 6th of May 1856 he married Margaret t a Josepha
(d. 1004), daughter of Hammond Go wen, of Quebec. At the
general election of i86r he was elected to the house of assembly
of the province of Canada as Liberal member for the county of
Lotbiniere, and from 1867 to 1874 he represented the same
county in the House of Commons, Ottawa, and in the legislative
assembly, Quebec. Joly was opposed to confederation and
supported Dorion in the stand which he took on this question.
In 1878 he was called by Luc Lctellier de'St Just, lieutenant-
governor of Quebec, to form an administration, which was de-
feated in 1879, and until 1883 he was leader of the opposition
During his brief administration he adopted a policy of retrench-
ment, and endeavoured to abolish the legislative council In
j 88s, ** a protest against the attitude of his party towards
Louis Riel, who was tried and executed for high treason, he
retired from public life. Early in the year 1895 be was induced
again to take an active part in the campaign of his party, and at
the general election of 1896 he was returned as member for the
county of Portneuf. He had already in 1895 been created
K.C.M.G On the formation of Sir Wilfrid Laurier's adminis-
tration he accepted the office of controller of inland revenue, and
a year later he became, a privy councillor, as minister of inland
revenue. From 1900 to 1906 he was lieutenant-governor of the
province of British Columbia. He twice declined a seat in the
senate, but rendered eminent service to Canada by promoting
the interest of agriculture, horticulture and of forestry He
died on the 17th of November 1008. (A G. D.)
JOMINI. ANTOtlfE HENRI, Baion (1770-1869). general in
the French and afterwards in the Russian service, and one of
the most celebrated writers on the art of war, was born on the
495
6th of March 1779 at Payemein the canton of Vaud, Switzerland,
where his father was syndic. His youthful preference for a
military life was disappointed by the dissolution of the Swiss
regiments of France at the Revolution. For some time be was a
clerk in a Paris banking-house, until the outbreak of the Swiss
revolution. At the age of nineteen he was appointed to a post
on the Swiss headquarters staff, and when scarcely twenty->one to
the command of a battalion. At the peace of LuneVille in 1801
he returned to business life m Paris, but devoted himself chiefly
to preparing the celebrated Traiti des grandes operations mfti-
taires, which was published in 1 804-1805. Introduced to Marshal
Ney, he served in the campaign of Austerlitz as a volunteer
aide-de-camp on Ney's personal staff. In December 1805
Napoleon, being much impressed by achapter in Jomini's treatise,
made him a colonel in the French service. Ney thereupon made
him hfs principal aide-de-camp. In 1806 Jomini published his
views as to the conduct of the impending war with Prussia, and
this, along with his knowledge of Frederick the Great's campaigns,
which he had described in the Train, led Napoleon to attach him
to his own headquarters. He was present with Napoleon at
the battle of Jena., and at EylaU won the cross of the" Legion 6?
Honour. After the peace of Tilsit he was made chief of the staff
to Ney, and created a baron. In the Spanish campaign of
1808 his advice was often of the highest value to the marshal,
but Jomini quarrelled with his chief, and was left almost at the
mercy of his numerous enemies, especially Berthier, the emperor's
chief of staff. Overtures had been made to him, as early as
1807, to enter the Russian service, but Napoleon, hearing of his
intention to leave the French army, compelled him to remain in
the service with the rank of general of brigade. For some years
thereafter Jomini held both a French and a Russian commission,
with the consent of both sovereigns. But when war between
France and Russia broke out, he was in a difficult position,
which he ended by taking a command on the line of communica-
tion. He was thus engaged when the retreat from Moscow and
the uprising of Prussia transferred the seat of war to central
Germany. He promptly rejoined Ney, took part in the battle
of Liitzcn and, as chief of the staff of Ney's group of corps,
rendered distinguished services before and at the battle of Baut-
zen, and was recommended for the rank of general of division.
Berthier, however, not only erased Jomini's name from the list,
but put him under arrest and censured him in array orders for
failing to supply certain returns that had been called for. How
far Jomini was held responsible for certain misunderstandings
which prevented the attainment of all the results hoped for from
Ney's attack (see Bautzen) there is no means of knowing. But
the pretext for censure was trivial and baseless, and during the
armistice Jomini did as he had intended to do in 1809-10, and
went into the Russian service. As things then were, this
was tantamount to deserting to the enemy, and so it was
regarded by Napoleon and by the French army, and by
not a few of his new comrades. It must be observed, in
Jomini's defence, that he had for years held a dormant
commission in the Russian army, that he had declined to
take part in the invasion of Russia in 1812, and that he was a
Swiss and not a Frenchman. His patriotism was indeed un-
questioned, and he withdrew from the Allied Army in 1814 when
he found that he could not prevent the violation of Swiss neu-
trality. Apart from love of his own country, the desire to study,
to teach and to practise the art of war was his ruling motive.
At the critical moment of the battle of Eylau he exclaimed,
"If I were the Russian commander for two hours!" On
joining the allies he received the rank of lieutenant-general and
the appointment of aide-de-camp from the tsar, and rendered
important assistance during the German campaign, though the
charge that he betrayed the numbers, positions and intentions
of the French to the enemy was later acknowledged by Napoleon
to be without foundation. He declined as a Swiss patriot and
as a French officer to take part in the passage of the Rhine at
Basel and the subsequent invasion of France.
In 1815 he was with the emperor Alexander in Paris, and
attempted In vain to save the fife of his old commander Ney.
49»
JOMMELLI— JONAH
This almost cost him his position in the Russian service, but
he succeeded in making bead against his enemies, and took part
in the congress of Vienna. Resuming, after a period of several
years of retirement and literary work, his post in the Russian
army, he was about 1823 made a full general, and thenceforward
until his retirement in 1829 he was principally employed in the
military education of the tsarevich Nicholas (afterwards emperor)
and in the organization of the Russian staff college, which was
opened in 1832 and still bears its original name of the Nicholas
academy. In 1828 be was employed in the field m the Russo*
Turkish War, and at the siege of Varna he was given the grand
cordon of the Alexander order. This was his last active service.
In 1829 he settled at Brussels where he chiefly lived for the next
thirty yean. In 1853, after trying without success to bring
about a political understanding between France and Russia,
Jomini was called to St Petersburg to act as a military adviser
to the tsar during the Crimean War. He returned to Brussels
on the conclusion of peace in 1856 and some years afterwards
settled at Passy near Paris. He was busily employed up to the
end of his life in writing treatises, pamphlets and open letters
on subjects of military art and history, and in 1859 he was asked
by Napoleon III. to furnish a plan of campaign in the Italian
War. One of his last essays dealt with the war of 1866 and the
influence of the breech-loading rifle, and he died at Passy on
the 34th of March 1869 only a year before the Franco-German
War. Thus one of the earliest of the great military theorists
lived to speculate on the tactics of the present day.
Amongst his numerous works the principal, besides the Tniti,
are: Hisloire critique el mUitaire des campagnes de la Revolution
(1806; new ed. 1819-1824); Vie politique el milttaire de N a potion
racontie par lui-mime (1827) and, perhaps the best known of all his
publications, the theoretical Pricis de I'art de la tuerre (1836).
See Ferdinand Lecomte, Le Central Jomtm, sa tie el ses icrits
(1861 ; new ed. 1888) ; C. A. Saint -Beuve.L* CSuiral Jomini ( 1869) j
A. Pascal, Observations kistoriques sur la vie, &c, du §Sniral J c mini
(1842).
JOMMELU, N1CC0LA (1714-1774)1 Italian composer, was
born at A versa near Naples on the 10th of September 1714
He received his musical education at two of the famous music
schools of that capital, being a pupil of the Conservatorio de'
poveri di Gesu Cristo under Feo, and also of the Conservatorio
delta pieti dei Turchini under Prota, Mancini and Leo. His
first opera, V Error e amoroso, was successfully produced at
Naples (under a pseudonym) when Jommelli was only twenty-
three. Three years afterwards he went to Rome to bring out
two new operas, and thence to Bologna, where he profited by the
advice of Padre Martini, the greatest contrapuntist of his age.
In the meantime Jommelli's fame began to spread beyond the
limits of his country, and in 1748 he went for the first time to
Vienna, where one of bis finest operas, Did one, was produced
Three years later he returned to Italy, and in 1753 he obtained
the post of chapel-master to the duke of WUrttemberg at Stutt-
gart, which city he made his home for a number of years. In
the same year he had ten commissions to write operas for princely
courts. In Stuttgart he permitted no operas but his own to be
produced, and be modified his style in accordance with German
taste, so much that, when after an absence of fifteen years he
returned to Naples, his countrymen hissed two of his operas off
the stage. He retired in consequence to his native village, and
only occasionally emerged from his solitude to take part in the
musical life of the capital. His death took place on the 25th of
August 1774, his last composition being the celebrated Miserere,
a setting for two female voices of Saverio Mattel's Italian para-
phrase of Psalm li. Jommelli is the most representative com-
poser of the generation following Leo and Durante. He ap-
proaches very closely to Mozart in his style, and is important as
one of the composers who, by welding together German and
Italian characteristics, helped to form the musical language of
the great composers of the classical period of Vienna.
JONAH, in the Bible, a prophet born at Gath-hepher in
Zebulun, perhaps under Jeroboam (2) (781-741 B.c ?), who fore-
told the deliverance of Israel from the Aramaeans (2 Kings xiv
14). This prophet may also be the hero of the much later book of
Jonah, but how different a man is he! It is, however, the later
Jonah who chiefly interests us. New problems have arisen out
of the book which relates to him, but here we can only attempt
to consider what, in a certain sense, may be called the surface
meaning of the text.
This, then is what we appear to be told. The prophet Jonah
is summoned to go to Nineveh, a great and wicked city (d. 4
Eadras ii. 8, 9), and prophesy against it. Jonah, however, is
afraid (iv. 2) that the Ninevites may repent, so, instead of going
to Nineveh, he proceeds to Joppa, and takes his passage in a
ship bound for Tarshish. But soon a storm arises, and, suppli-
cation to the gods failing, the sailors cast lots to discover the
guilty man who has brought this great trouble. The lot falls
on Jonah, who has been roughly awakened by the captain, and
when questioned frankly owns that he is a Hebrew and a wor-
shipper of the divine creator Yahweh, from whom he has sought
to flee (as if He were only the god of Canaan). Jonah advises
the sailors to throw him into the sea. This, after praying to
Yahweh, they actually do; at once the sea becomes calm and
they sacrifice to Yahweh. Meantime God has " appointed a
great fish " which swallows up Jonah, Three days and three
nights he is in the fish's belly, till, at a word from Yahweh,
it vomits Jonah on to the dry ground. Again Jonah receives
the divine call. This time he obeys. After delivering his
message to Nineveh he makes himself a booth outside the walls
and waits in vain for the destruction of the city (probably iv.
5 is misplaced and should stand after iii. 4). Thereupon Jonah
beseeches Yahweh to take away bis worthless life. As an
answer Yahweh " appoints " a small quickly-growing tree with
large leaves (the castor-oil plant) to come up over the angry
prophet and shelter him from the sun. But the next day the
beneficent tree perishes by God's " appointment " from a worm-
bite. Once more God " appoints " something; it is the east
wind, which, together with the fierce heat, brings Jonah again to
desperation. The close is fine, and reminds us of Job. God
himself gives short-sighted man a lesson. Jonah has pitied
the tree, and should not God have pity on so great a city?
Two results of criticism are widely accepted. One relates to
the psalm in ch. ii., which has been transferred from some other
place ; it is in fact an anticipatory thanksgiving for the deliverance
of Israel, mostly composed of phrases from other psalms. The
other is that the narrative before us is not historical but an
imaginative story (such as was called a Mid rash) based upon
Biblical data and tending to edification. It is, however, a story
of high type. The narrator considered that Israel bad to be
a prophet to the " nations" at large, that Israel had, like Jonah,
neglected its duty and for its punishment was " swallowed up "
in foreign lands. God bad watched over His people and prepared
its choicer members to fulfil His purpose. This company of
faithful but not always sufficiently charitable men represented
their people, so that it might be said that Israel itself (the second
Isaiah's " Servant of Yahweh "—see Isaiah) had taken up its
duty, but in an ungenial spirit which grieved the All-merciful
One. The book, which is post -exilic, may therefore be grouped
with another Midrash, the Book of Ruth, which also appears to
represent a current of thought opposed to the exclusive spirit
of Jewish legalism.
Some critics, however, think that the key of symbolism needs
to be supplemented by that of mythology. The " great fish n
especially has a very mythological appearance. The Babylonian
dragon myth (see Cosmogony) is often alluded to in the Old
Testament, e.g in Jer. li. 44. which, as the present writer long
since pointed out, may supply the missing link between Jonah i.
17 and the original myth. For the " great fish " is ultimately
Tiamat, the dragon of chaos, represented historically by Nebu-
chadrezzar, by whom for a time God permitted or M appointed "
Israel to be swallowed up.
For further details see T. K. Cheyne, Eiicy. Bib., " Jonah ":
and his article " Jonah, a Study in Jewish Folklore and Religion, -
Tkeoloruol Review (1877K pp. 211-219. KOnig, Hastings's Did
Bible. n " Jonah," is full but not lucid; C. H. H. Wright, BihUcai
Studies ( 1 886) argues ably for the symbolic theory. Against Cheyo%
see Mam s work on the Minor Prophets (1894); the " great fish "
JONAH— JONES, A. G.
»od the " three day? aid three sights " remain unexplained by this
writer. On these points see Zimmern, K.A .T. (3), pp. 366, 380, 508.
The difficulties of the mission of a Hebrew prophet to Asthur
are diminished by Cheyne's later theory, Criiica Bibtica (1904),
pp. 150-15*. (T.K.C.)
JONAH, RABBI (Abulwalid Merwan Ibn Janah, also R.
Maunus) (c. 090-c. 1050), the greatest Hebrew grammarian and
lexicographer of the middle ages. He was born before the year
goo, in Cordova, studied in Lucena, left his native city m 1012,
and, after somewhat protracted wanderings, settled in Saragossa,
where be died before 1050. He was a physician, and Ibn Abi
Usaibia, in his treatise on Arabian doctors, mentions him as the
author of a medical work. But Rabbi Jonah saw the true
vocation of his life in the scientific investigation of the Hebrew
language and in a rational biblical exegesis based upon sound
linguistic knowledge. It is true, he wrote no actual commentary
on the Bible, but his philological works exercised the greatest
influence on Judaic exegesis. His first work— composed, like
all the rest, in Arabic — bears the title Almustalha, and forms,
as is indicated by the word, a criticism and at the same time a
supplement to the two works of Yehuda 'tfayyuj on the verbs
with weak-sounding and double-sounding roots. These two trac-
tates, with which 'IJayyuj had laid the foundations of scientific
Hebrew grammar, were recognised by Abulwalid as the basis
of his own grammatical investigations, and Abraham Ibn Daud,
when enumerating the great Spanish Jews in his history, sums
up the significance of R. Jonah in the words: " He completed
what 'Hayyuj had begun." The principal work of R. Jonah is
f he Kilabal Tankih (" Book of Exact Investigation "), which con-
sists of two parts, regarded as two distinct books — the Kilab al~
Luma (" Book of Many-coloured Flower-beds ") and the Kitabal-
nsnl (" Book of Roots "). The former (ed. J. Derenbourg, Paris,
1886) contains the grammar, the latter (ed. Ad. Neubauer, Oxford,
1875) the lexicon of the Hebrew language. Both works are also
published in the Hebrew translation of Yehuda Ibn Tibbon
(Sefer Ha-Rikmah, ed. B. Goldberg, Frankfurt am Main, 1855;
Sefer Ho-Schoraiehim, ed. W. Bacher, Berlin, 1897). The other
writings of Rabbi Jonah, so far as extant, have appeared in an
edition of the Arabic original accompanied by a French transla-
tion {Opuscules el traitis d'Abou'l Walid, ed. Joseph and Hart wig
Derenbourg, Paris 1880). A few fragments and numerous
quotations in his principal book form our only knowledge of the
Kitab al-Taskwir (" Book of Refutation ") a controversial work
in four parts, in which Rabbi Jonah successfully repelled the
attacks of the opponents of his first treatise. At the head of
this opposition stood the famous Samuel Ibn Nagdela (S. Ha-
Nagid) a disciple of 'IJayyuj. The grammatical work of Rabbi
Jonah extended, moreover, to the domain of rhetoric and
biblical herraeneutics, and his lexicon contains many exeget-
ical excursuses. This lexicon is of especial importance by reason
of its ample contribution to the comparative philology of
the Semitic languages — Hebrew and Arabic, in particular.
Abulwalid's works mark the culminating point of Hebrew
scholarship during the middle ages, and be attained a level
which was not surpassed till the modern development of philo-
logical science in the 10th century.
See S. Munk, Notice sur About Walid (Paris, 1851); W. Bacher,
Leben und Werke des A bulwalid und die Quellen seiner Schriflerkldrung
(Leipzig, 1885); id., A us der Sckrifterkarung des Abulwalid (Leip-
zig, 1889); id., Die kebr.-arabiscke Sprackverglekkuue des Abulwalid
(Vienna, 1884) ; id.. Die kebrdisch-neuhebraische und hebr.-aramdiscke
SprackcergUkhung des Abulwalid (Vienna, 1885). (W. Ba.)
JONAS, JUSTUS (1493*1555)1 German Protestant reformer,
was born at Nordhausen in Thuringia, on the 5th of June 1493.
His real name was Jodokus (Job**) Koch, which he changed
according to the common custom of German scholars in the
1 6th century, when at the university of Erfurt. He entered
that university in 1506, studied law and the humanities, and
became Master of Arts in 1 5 tp. In 1 5 1 1 he went to Wittenberg,
where he took his bachelor's degree in law. He returned to
Erfurt in 1514 or 1515, was ordained priest, and in 1518 was
promoted doctor in both faculties and appointed to a well-
endowed canonry in the church of St Sevcrus, to which a profes-
XV 9
+97
sorship of law was attached. His great admiration for Erasmus
first led him to Greek and biblical studies, and his election in
May 1 519 as rector of the university was regarded as a triumph
for the pa r t is ans of the New Learning. It was not, however,
until after the Leipzig disputation with Eck that Luther won
his allegiance. He accompanied Luther to Worms in 1531, and
there was appointed by the elector of Saxony professor of canon
law at Wittenberg. During Luther's stay in the Wartburg
Jonas was one of the most active of the Wittenberg reformers.
Giving himself up to preaching and polemics, he aided the
Reformation by his gift as a translator, turning Luther's and
Melanchthon's works into German or Latin as the case might
be, thus becoming a sort of double of both. He was busied in
conferences and visitations during the next twenty years, and
in diplomatic work with the princes. In 1541 he began a
successful preaching crusade in Halle; he became superintendent
of its churches in 1542. In 1546 he was present at Luther's
deathbed at Eisleben, and preached the funeral sermon; but
in the same year was banished from the duchy by Maurice,
duke (later elector) of Saxony. From that time until his death,
Jonas was unable to secure a satisfactory living. He wandered
from place to place preaching, and finally went to Eisfeld (1553)*
where he died. He had been married three times.
See Brief swechsel des Justus Jonas, gesammeU und bearbeilet von
C. Kawerau (2 vols., Halle, 1 884-1885) ;Kawerau*s article in Hcxxog-
Hauck, Realencyklop&die, ed. 3, with bibliography.
JONATHAN (Heb. "Yah [weh] gives")- Of the many
Jewish bearers of this name, three are well known: (1) the
grandson of Moses, who was priest at Dan (Judg. xviii. 30),
The reading Manassch (see R.V. mg.; obtained by inserting
n above the consonantal text in the Hebrew) is apparently
intended to suggest that he was the son of that idolatrous king*
(2) The eldest son of Saul, who, together with his father,
freed Israel from the crushing oppression of the Philistines
(1 Sam. xiii. seq.). Both are lauded in an elegy quoted from the
Book of Jashar (2 Sam. i.) for their warm mutual love, their
heroism, and their labours on behalf of the people. Jonathan's
name is most familiar for the firm friendship which subsisted
between him and David (1 Sam. xviii. 1-4; xix. 1-7; xx., xxii. 8;
xxiii. 16-18), and when he fell at the battle of Gilboa and left
behind him a young child (1 Sam. xxxi.; 2 Sam. iv. 4), David
took charge* of the youth and gave him a place at his court
(2 Sam. ix.). See further David, Saul. (3) The Maccabce
(see Jews; Maccabees).
JONCIERES, VICTORIN (183 0-1003), French composer, was
born in Paris on the 12th of April 1839. He first devoted his
attention to painting, but afterwards took up the serious study
of music. He entered the Paris Conservatoire, but did not
remain there long, because he had espoused too warmly the
cause of Wagner against his professor. He composed the
•following operas: Sardanapak (1867), Le Dernier jour de
Pampti (1869), Dimitri (1876), La Reine Berthe (1878), Le
Chevalier Jean (1885), Lancelot (1900). He also wrote incidental
music to Hamlet, a symphony, and other works. Joncieres'
admiration for Wagner asserted itself rather in a musical than a
dramatic sense. The Influence of the German master's earlier
style can be traced in his operas. Joncieres, however, adhered
to the recognized forms of the French opera and did not
model his works according to the later developments of the
Wagnerian " music drama." He may indeed be said to have
been at least as much influenced by Gounod as by Wagner.
From 187 1 he was musical critic for La Liber U. He died on
the 26th of October 1903. 1 -
JONES, ALFRED GILPIN (18 24-1 006), Canadian politician,
was born at Weymouth, Nova Scotia, in September 1824, the
son of Guy C. Jones of Yarmouth, and grandson of a United
Empire Loyalist. In 1865 he opposed the federation of the
British American provinces, and, in his anger at the refusal of
the British government to repeal such portions of the British
North America Act as referred to Nova Scotia, made a speech
which won for him the name of Haul-down- the- flag Jones. He
was for many years a member of the Federal Parliament, and
2a
+9*
JONES, SIR A. L.— JONES, INIGO
for a few months in 1878 was minister of militia under the Liberal
government. Largely owing to his influence the Liberal party
refused in 1878 to abandon its Free Trade policy, an obstinacy
which led to its defeat in that year. In 1000 he was appointed
lieutenant-governor of his native province, and held this position
till his death on the 15th of March 1006.
JONES, SIR ALFRED LEWIS (1 845-1909), British shipowner,
was born in Carmarthenshire, in 1845. At the age of twelve he
was apprenticed to the managers of the African Steamship
Company at Liverpool, making several voyages to the west
coast of Africa. By the time he was twenty-six he had risen
to be manager of the business. Not finding sufficient scope in
this post, he borrowed money to purchase two or three small
sailing vessels, and started in the shipping business on his own
account. The venture succeeded, and he made additions to his
fleet, but after a few years' successful trading, realizing that
sailing ships were about to be superseded by steamers, he sold
his vessels. About this time (1891) Messrs. Elder, Dempster
& Co., who purchased the business of the old African Steamship
Company, offered him a managerial post. This offer he accepted,
subject to Messrs. Elder, Dempster selling him a number of their
shares, and he thus, acquired an interest in the business, and
subsequently, by further share purchases, its control. See
further Steamship Lines. In 1901 he was knighted. Sir
Alfred Jones took a keen interest in imperial affairs, and was
instrumental in founding the Liverpool school of tropical
medicine. He acquired considerable territorial interests in
West Africa, and financial interests in many of the companies
engaged in opening up and developing that part of the world.
He also took the leading part in opening up a new line of com-
munication with the West Indies, and stimulating the Jamaica
fruit trade and tourist traffic. He died on the 13th of December
1009, leaving large charitable bequests.
JONES, EBBNEZER (1820-1860), British poet, was born in
Islington, London, on the 20th of January 1820. His father,
who was of Welsh extraction, was a strict Calvinist, and Ebcnezer
was educated at a dull, middle-class school. The death of his
father obliged him to become a clerk in the office of a tea
merchant. Shelley and Carlyle were his spiritual masters, and
be spent all his spare time in reading and writing; but he
developed an exaggerated style of thought and expression, due
partly to a defective education. The unkind reception of his
Studies of Sensation and Event (1843) seemed to be the last drop
in his bitter cup of life. Baffled and disheartened, he destroyed
his manuscripts. He earned his living as an accountant and by
literary hack work, and it was not until he was rapidly dying of
consumption that he wrote his three remarkable poems, " Winter
Hymn to the Snow," " When the World is Burning" and "To
Death." The fame that these and some of the pieces in the
early volume brought to their author came too late. He died
on the 14th of September i860.
It was not till 1870 that Dante Gabriel Rossetti praised his work
in Notes and Queries. Rossetti's example was followed by W. B.
Scott, Theodore Watts-Dunton, who contributed tome papers
on the subject to the Athenaeum (September and October 1878),
and R. H. Shcppard, who edited Studies of Sensation and Event
in 1879.
JONES, ERNEST CHARLES (1810-1869), English Chartist,
was born at Berlin on the 25th of January 181 9, and educated
In Germany. His father, an officer in the British army, was then
equerry to the duke of Cumberland — afterwards king of Hanover.
In 1838 Jones came to England, and in 1841 published anony-
* mously The Wood Spirit, a romantic novel. This was followed
by some songs and poems. In 1844 he was called to the bar at
the Middle Temple. In 1845 he joined the Chartist agitation,
quickly becoming its most prominent figure, and vigorously
carrying on the party's campaign on the platform and in the
press. His speeches, in which he openly advocated physical
force, led to his prosecution, and he was sentenced in 1848 to
two years' imprisonment for sedition. While in prison he wrote,
jt is said in his own blood on leaves torn from a prayer-book,
The Revolt of Hindustan, an epic poem. On his release he again
became the leader of what remained of the Chartist party and
editor of its organ. But he was almost its only public speaker:
he was out of sympathy with the other leading Chartists, and
soon joined the advanced Radical party Thenceforward lie
devoted himself to law and literature, writing novels, tales and
political songs. He made several unsuccessful attempts to
enter parliament, and was about to contest Manchester, with
the certainty of being returned, when be died there on the 26th
of January 1869. He is believed to have sacrificed a consider-
able fortune rather than abandon his Chartist principles. His
wife was Jane At her ley, and his son, Llewellyn Atberley-Jones,
K.C. (b. 185 1 ), became a well-known barrister and Liberal
member of parliament.
JONES, HENRY (1831-1899), English author, well known ass
writer on whist under his nom de guerre " Cavendish," was bora
in London on the 2nd of November 183 1, being the eldest son of
Henry D. Jones, a medical practitioner. He adopted his father's
profession, established himself in 1852 and continued for sixteen
years in practice in London. The father was a keen devotee of
whist, and under his eye the son became early in life a good player.
He was a member of several whist dubs, among them the " Caven-
dish," and in 1862 appeared his Principles of Whist, stated end
explained by " Cavendish, 1 which was destined to become the
leading authority as to the practice of the game. This work
was followed by treatises on the laws of piquet and ecart6.
" Cavendish " also wrote on billiards, lawn tennis and croquet,
and contributed articles on whist and other games to the ninth
edition of the Encyclopaedia Britonnica. " 'Cavendish ' was not
a law-maker, but he codified and commented upon the laws which
bad been made during many generations of card -playing." One
of the most noteworthy points in his character was the manner
in which he kept himself abreast of improvements in his favourite
game. ■ He died on the 10th of February 1899.
JONES, HENRY ARTHUR (1851- ), English dramatist,
was born at Grandborough, Buckinghamshire, on the 28th of
September 185 1 the son of Silvanus Jones, a farmer. He began
to earn his living early, his spare time being given to literary
pursuits. He was twenty-seven before his first piece, Only
Round the Corner, was produced at the Exeter Theatre, but within
four years of his dCbut as a dramatist he scored a great success by
The Silver King (November 1882), written with Henry Herman, a
melodrama produced by Wilson Barrett at the Princess's Theatre.
Its financial success enabled the author to write a play " to
please himself." Saints and Sinners (1884), which ran for two
hundred nights, placed on the stage a picture of middle-class bio
and religion in a country town, and the introduction of the
religious element raised considerable outcry. The author de-
fended himself in an article published in the Nineteenth Century
(January 1885), taking for his starting-point a quotation from
the preface to Moliere's Tartuffe. His next serious piece was
The Middleman (1889), followed by Judah (1800), both power-
ful plays, which established his reputation. Later plays were
The Dancing Girl (1891), The Crusaders (1891), The Bauble Shop
(1893), The Tempter (iig 3 ), The Masquer aders{\S<^), The Case of
Rebellious Susan (1894), The Triumph of the Philistines (1895),
Michael and his Lost Angel (1896), The Rogue's Comedy (iS^6), The
Physician (1897), The Liars (r897), Comae Sahib (1809), The
Manentvres of Jane (1899), The Lackeys* Carnival (1900), Mrs
Dane's Defence (1900), The Princess's Nose (1002), Chonce the Idol
(1902), Whitewashing Julia (1003), Joseph Entangled (1904), The
Chevalier (1904), &c. A uniform edition of his plays began to be
issued in 1891; and his own views of dramatic art have been
expressed from time to time in lectures and essays, collected in
1895 as The Renascence of the English Drama.
JONES, INIGO (1573-1651). .English architect, sometimes
called the " English Palladio," the son of a cloth-worker, was
born in London on the 15th of July 1573. It is stated that he
was apprenticed to a joiner, but at any rate his talent for drawing
attracted the attention of Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel
(some say William, 3rd earl of Pembroke), through whose help he
went to study landscape-painting in Italy. His preference soon
transferred itself to architecture, and, following chiefly the style
JONES, J.— JONES, J. P.
+99
of Palladio, he acquired at Venice such a reputation that in 1604
he was invited by Christian IV. to Denmark, where he is said to
have designed the two great royal palaces of Rosenborg and
Frederiksborg. In the following year he accompanied Anne of
Denmark to the court of James I. of England, where, besides
being appointed architect to the queen and Prince Henry, he was
employed in supplying the designs and decorations of the court
masques. After a second visit to Italy in 1612, Jones was ap-
pointed surveyor-general of royal buildings by James I., and was
engaged to prepare designs for a new palace at Whitehall. In 1620
he was employed by the king to investigate the origin of Stone-
henge, when he came to the absurd conclusion that it had been a
Roman temple. Shortly afterwards he was appointed one of
the commissioners for the repair of St Paul's, but the work was
not begun till 1633. Under Charles I. he enjoyed the same offices
as under his predecessor, and in the capacity of designer of the
masques he came into collison with Ben Jonson, who frequently
made him the butt of his satire. After the Civil War Jones was
forced to pay heavy fines as a courtier and malignant. He died
in poverty on the 5th of July 1651.
A list of the principal buildings designed by Jones b given in
Dallaway's edition of Walpole's Anecdotes of Panting, and for an
estimate of him as an architect see Fergusson's History of Modern
Architecture. The Architecture of Pailadio, in 4 books, by Inigo
Jones, appeared in 1715; The Most Notable Antiquity of Great Britain,
called Stonehenge, restored by Inigo Jones, in 1655 (cd. with memoir,
K25); the Designs of Inigo Jones, by W. Kent, tn 1727; and The
'signs of Inigo Jones, by J. Ware, in 1757. See also C. H. Birch,
London Churches of the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries (1896);
W. J . Lof tie, Inigo Jones and Wren, or the Rise and Decline of Modern
Architecture in England (1893).
JONES, JOHN (c. 1 800- 1 88 2), English art collector, was born
about 1800 in or near London. He was apprenticed to a tailor,
and about 1825 opened a shop of his own in the west-end of
London. In 1850 he was able to retire from active management
with a large fortune. When quite a young man he had begun to
collect articles of tcrtu. The rooms over his shop in which he
at first lived were soon crowded, and even the bedrooms of his
new house in Piccadilly were filled with art treasures. His
collection was valued at approximately £250,000. Jones died
in London on the 7th of January 1882, leaving his pictures,
furniture and objects of art to the South Kensington Museum.
A Catalogue of the Jones Bequest was published by the Museum in
1882, and a Handbook, with memoir, in 1883.
JONES, JOHN PAUL (1747-1792), American naval officer,
was born on the 6th of July 1747, on the estate of Arbigland, in
the parish of Kirkbean and the stewartry of Kirkcudbright,
Scotland. His father, John Paul, was gardener to Robert Craik,
a member of parliament; and his mother, Jean Macduff, was the
daughter of a Highlander. Young John Paul, at the age of
twelve, became shipmaster's apprentice to a merchant of White-
haven, named Younger. At seventeen he shipped as second
mate and in the next year as first mate in one of his master's
vessels; on being released from his indentures, he acquired an
interest in a ship, and as first mate made two voyages between
Jamaica and the Guinea coast, trading in slaves. Becoming dis-
satisfied with this kind of employment, he sold his share in the
ship and embarked for England. During the voyage both the
captain and the mate died of fever, and John Paul took command
and brought the ship safely to port. The owners gave him and
the crew 10% of the cargo; after 1768, as captain of one of their
merchantmen, John Paul made several voyages to America;
but for unknown reasons he suddenly gave up his command to
live in America in poverty and obscurity until 177s. During
this period he assumed the name of Jones, apparently out of
regard for Willie Jones, a wealthy pUnter and prominent political
leader of North Carolina, who had befriended John Paul in his
days of poverty.
When war broke out between England and her American
colonies, John Paul Jones was commissioned as a first lieutenant
by the Continental Congress, on the 22nd of December 1775. In
1776 he participated in the unsuccessful attack on the island of
New Providence, and as commander first of the " Providence "
and then of the '* Alfred " he cruised between Bermuda and
Nova Scotia, inflicting much damage on British whipping and
fisheries. On the 10th of October 1776 he was promoted captain.
On the ist of November 1777 he sailed in the sloop-of-war
" Ranger " for France with despatches for the American com-
missioners, announcing the surrender of Burgoyne and asking
that Jones should be supplied with a swift frigate for harassing
the coasts of England. Failing to secure a frigate, Jones sailed
from Brest in the " Ranger " on the xoth of April 1778. A lew
days later he surprised the garrisons of the two forts commanding
the harbour of Whitehaven, a port with which he was familiar
from boyhood, spiked the guns and made an unsuccessful attempt
to fire the shipping. Four days thereafter he encountered the
British sloop-of-war " Drake," a vessel slightly superior to his in .
fighting capacity, and after an hour's engagement the British X*
ship struck her colours and was taken to Brestr^Byihrsxxploit j V
Jones became a great hero in the eyes of the French, just begin- j
ning a war with Great Britain. With the rank of commodore he j
was now put at the head of-a squadron of five ships. His flagship, j
the " Duras," a re-fitted East Indiaman, was re-named by him j
the " Bonhomme Richard," as a compliment to Benjamin Frank-]
lin, whose Poor Ricltard's Almanac was then popular in France/
On the 14th of August the five ships sailed from L 'Orient, accom-
panied by two French privateers. Several of the French com-
manders under Jones proved insubordinate, and the privateers
and three of the men-of-war soon deserted him. With the others,
however, he continued to take prizes, and even planned to attack
the port of Leitb, but was prevented by unfavourable winds. On
the evening of the 23rd of September the three men-of-war
sighted two British men-of-war, the" Serapis"and the " Countess
of Scarbrough," off Flamborough Head. The "Alliance,"
commanded by Captain Landais, made off, leaving the " Bon-
homme Richard " and the " Pallas " to engage the Englishmen.
Jones engaged the greatly superior " Serapis," and after a des-
perate battle of three and a half hours compelled the English ship
to surrender. The " Countess of Scarbrough " had meanwhile
struck to the more formidable " Pallas." Jones transferred his
men and supplies to the " Serapis," and the next day the " Bon-
homme Richard " sank.
During the following year Jones spent much of his time
in Paris. Louis XVI. gave him a gold- hiked sword and
the royal order of military merit, and made him chevalier of
France. Early in 1781 Jones returned to America to secure
a new command. Congress offered him the command of the
" America," a frigate then building, but the vessel was shortly
afterwards given to France; In November 1783 he was sent to
Paris as agent lor the prizes captured in European waters under
his own command, and although he gave much attention to
social affairs and engaged in several private business enter-
prises, he was very successful in collecting the prize money.
Early in 1787 he returned to America and received a gold
medal from Congress in recognition of his services.
In 1788 Jones entered the service of the empress Catherine of
Russia, avowing his intention, however, " to preserve the con-
dition of an American citizen and officer." As a rear-admiral he
took part in the naval campaign in the Liman (an arm of the [
Black Sea, into which flow the Bug and Dnieper rivers) against {,
the Turks, but the jealous intrigues of Russian officers caused 1
him to be recalled to St Petersburg for the pretended purpose of
being transferred to a command in the North Sea. Here he was !
compelled to remain in idleness, while rival officers plotted \
against him and even maliciously assailed his private character, 4.
In August 1789 he left St Petersburg a bitterly disappointed j
man. In May 1790 he arrived in Paris, where he remained in J
retirement during the rest of his life, although he made several
efforts to re-enter the Russian service.
Undue exertion and exposure had wasted his strength before
he reached the prime of life, and after an illness, in which he
was attended by the queen's physician, be died on the 18th of
July 1792. His body was interred in the St Louis cemetery
for foreign Protestants, the funeral expenses being paid from
the private purse of Pierrot Francois Simmoneau, the king's
500
commissary. In the confusion during the following years the
burial place of Paul Jones was forgotten; but in June 1809
General Horace Porter, American ambassador to France,
began a systematic search for the body, and after excavations on
the site of the old Protestant cemetery, now covered with houses,
a leaden coffin was discovered, which contained the body in a
remarkable state of preservation. In July 1005 a fleet of
American war-ships carried the body to Annapolis, where it
now rests in one of the buildings of the naval academy.
Jones was a seaman of great bravery and technical ability,
but over-jealous of his reputation and inclined to be querulous
and boastful. The charges by the English that he was a pirate
were particularly galling to him. Although of unprepossessing
appearance, 5 ft. 7 in. in height and slightly round-shouldered,
he was noted for his pleasant manners and was welcomed into
the most brilliant courts of Europe.
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JONES, MICHAEL (d. 1649), British soldier. His father was
bishop of Killaloe in Ireland. At the outbreak of the English
Civil War he was studying law, but he soon took service in
the army of the king in Ireland. He was present with Ormonde's
army in many of the expeditions and combats of the devastating
Irish War, but upon the conclusion of the " Irish Cessation M
(see Ormonde, James Butler, Duke of) he resolved to leave
the king's service for that of the parliament, in which he soon
distinguished himself by his activity and skill. In the Welsh
War, and especially at the last great victory at Rowton Heath,
Jones's cavalry was always far superior to that of the Royalists,
and in reward for his services he was made governor of Chester
when that city fell into the hands of the parliament. Soon
afterwards Jones was sent again to the Irish War, in the capacity
of commander-in-chief. He began his work by reorganizing
the army in the neighbourhood of Dublin, and for some time he
carried on a desultory war of posts, necessarily more concerned
for his supplies than for a victory. But at Dungan Hill he
obtained a complete success over the army of General Preston,
and though the war was by no means ended, Jones was able to
bold a large tract of country for the parliament. But on the
execution of Charles I., the war entered upon a new phase, and
garrison after garrison fell to Ormonde's Royalists. Soon Jones
was shut up in Dublin, and then followed a siege which was
regarded both in England and Ireland with the most intense
interest. On the and of August 1649 the Dublin garrison
relieved itself by the brilliant action of Rathmines, in which
the royal army was practically destroyed. A fortnight later
Cromwell landed with heavy reinforcements from England.
Jones, his lieutenant-general, took the field*, but on the 19th
of December 1649 be died, worn out by the fatigues of the
campaign.
JONES, OWEN (1 741-1814), Welsh antiquary, was born
on the 3rd of September 1741 at Llanvihangcl Glyn y Myvyr in
Denbighshire. In 1760 he entered the service of a London
firm of furriers, to whose business he ultimately succeeded.
He had from boyhood studied Welsh literature, and later
devoted time and money to its collection. Assisted by Edward
William of Glamorgan (Iolo Morganwg) and Dr. Owen Pughe, he
published, at a cost of more than £1000, the well-known Myvyrian
Arckaiology of Wales (1801-1807), a collection of pieces dating
from the 6th to the 14th century. The manuscripts which he
had brought together are deposited in the British Museum;
the material not utilized in the Myvyrian Arckaiology amounts
to 100 volumes, containing 16,000 pages of verse and 15,300
pages of prose. Jones was the founder of the Gwyneddigion
JONES, M.— JONES, T. R.
Society (1774) in London for the encouragement of Welsh
studies and literature; and he began in 1805 a miscellany — the
Grcal—oi which only one volume appeared. An edition of
the poems of Davydd ab Gwilym was also issued at his expense.
He died on the 36th of December 1814 at his business premises in
Upper Thames Street, London.
JONES, OWEN (1809-1874), British architect and art decora-
tor, son of Owen Jones, a Welsh antiquary, was born in London.
After an apprenticeship of six years in an architect's office,
he travelled for four years in Italy, Greece, Turkey, Egypt
and Spain, making a special study of the Alhambra. On his
return to England in 1836 he busied himself in his professional
work. His forte was interior decoration, for which his formula
was: " Form without colour is like a body without a soul."
He was one of the superintendents of works for the Exhibi-
tion of 1851 and was responsible for the general decoration of
the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. Along with Digby Wyatt,
Jones collected the casts of works of art with which the palace
was filled. He died in London on the 19th of April 1874.
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JONES, RICHARD (1 790-1855), English economist, was
born at Tunbridge Wells. The son of a solicitor, he was intended
for the legal profession, and was educated at Caius College,
Cambridge. Owing to ill-health, he abandoned the idea of the
law and took orders soon after leaving Cambridge. For several
years he held curacies in Sussex and Kent. In 1833 he was
appointed professor of political economy at King's College,
London, resigning this post in 1835 to succeed T. R. Malthus in
the chair of political economy and history at the East India
College at Haileybury. He took an active part in the commuta-
tion of tithes in 1836 and showed great ability as a tithe
commissioner, an office which he filled till 185 1. He was for some
time, also, a charity commissioner. He died at Haileybury,
shortly after he had resigned his professorship, on the 26th of
January 1855. In 1831 Jones published his Essay on the Distri-
bution of Wealth and on Ike Sources of Taxation, his most important
work. In it he showed himself a thorough-going critic of the
Ricardian system.
Jones's method is inductive; his conclusions are founded on a wide
observation of contemporary facts, aided by the study of history.
The world he professed to study was not an imaginary world, in-
habited by abstract "economic men," but the real world with the
different forms which the ownership and cultivation of land, and, in
Scneral , the conditions of production and distribution, assume at
ifferent times and places. His recognition of such different
systems of life in communities occupying different stages in the
progress of civilization led to his proposal of what he called a
u political economy of nations." This was a protest against the
practice of taking the exceptional state of facts which exists, and
is indeed only partially realized, in a small corner of our planet
as representing the uniform type of human societies, and ignoring
the effects of the early history and special development of each
community as influencing its economic phenomena. Jones is re-
markable for his freedom from exaggeration and one-sidca statement ;
thus, whilst holding Malthus in, perhaps, undue esteem, he declines
to accept the proposition that an increase of the means of subsistence
is necessarily followed by an increase of population; and he main-
tains what is undoubtedly true, that with the growth of population,
jn all well-governed and prosperous states, the command* over food*
instead of diminishing, increases.
A collected edition of Jones's works, with a preface by W.WbeweuV
was published in 1859,
JONES, THOMAS RUPERT (1810- ), English geologist
and palaeontologist, was born in London on the 1st of October
1819. While at a private school at Ihninstcr, his attention was
attracted to geology by the fossils that are so abundant in the
Lias quarries. In 1835 he was apprenticed to a surgeon at
Taunton, and he completed his apprenticeship in 1841 at
JONES, W.— JONK6PING
Newbury in Berkshire. He was then engaged ta practitsmsinly
In London, till in 1849 he was appointed assistant secretary
to the Geological Society of London. In 1862 he was made
professor of geology at the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.
Having devoted his especial attention to fossil microzoa, he now
became the highest authority in England on the Foraminifera
and Entomostraca. He edited the 2nd edition of MantelTs
Medals of Creation (1854), the 3rd edition of Mantell's Geological
Excursions round the Isle of Wight (1854), and the 7th edition
of ManteH's Wonders of Geology (1857); he also edited the 2nd
edition of Dixon's Geology of Sussex (1878)., He was elected
F.R.S. in 1872 and was awarded the LyeU medal by the Geologi-
cal Society in 1890. For many years he was specially interested
in the geology of South Africa.
His publications include A Monograph of the Entomostraca of the
the Foraminifera of the Crag (ibid. 1866, &c., with H. B. Brady),
and numerous articles in the Annals and Magasine of Natural
History, the Geological Magazine, the Proceedings of the Geologists*
Association, and other journals.
JONES, WILLIAM (1726-1800), English divine, was bora at
Lowick, in Northamptonshire on the 30th of July 1726. He was
descended from an old Welsh family and one of his progenitors
was Colonel John Jones, brother-in-law of Cromwell. He was
educated at Charterhouse School, and at University College,
Oxford. There a kindred taste for music, as well as a similarity
in regard to other points of character, led to his close intimacy
with George Home (?.»-), afterwards bishop of Norwich,
whom he induced to study Hutchinsonian doctrines. After
obtaining his bachelor's degree in 1749, Jones held various
preferments. In 1777 he obtained the perpetual curacy of
Nayland, Suffolk, and on Home's' appointment to Norwich
became his chaplain, afterwards writing his life. His vicarage
became the centre of a High Church coterie, and Jones himself
was a link between the non-jurors and the Oxford movement.
He could write intelligibly on abstruse topics. He died on the
6th of January 1800.
In 1756 Jones published his tractate On the Catholic Doctrine of the
Trinity, a statement of the doctrine from the Hutchinsonian point
of view, with a succinct and able summary of biblical proofs. This
was followed in 1762 by an Essay on the First Principles of Natural
Philosophy, in which he maintained the theories of Hutchinson in
rosition to those of Sir Isaac Newton, and in 178 1 he dealt with
same subject in Physiological Disquisitions. Jones was also the
originator of the British Ottic (May 1793). His collected works,
with a life by William Stevens, appeared in 1801, in 12 vols., and
were condensed into 6 vols, in 1810. A life of Tones, forming pt. 5
of the Biography of English Divines, was published in 1849.
JONES, SIR WILLIAM (1 746-1 704), British Orientalist and
jurist, was born in London on the 28th of September J 746.
He distinguished himself at Harrow, and during his last three
years there appfied himself to the study of Oriental languages,
teaching himself the rudiments of Arabic, and reading Hebrew
with tolerable ease. In his vacations he improved his acquain-
tance with French and Italian. In 1764 Jones entered Uni-
versity College, Oxford, where he continued to study Oriental
literature, and perfected himself in Persian and Arabic by the aid
of a Syrian Mirza, whom he had discovered and brought from
London. He added to his knowledge of Hebrew and made
considerable progress in Italian, Spanish and Portuguese.
He began the study of Chinese, and made himself master of
the radical characters of that language. During five years he
partly supported himself by acting as- tutor to Lord Althorpe,
afterwards the second Earl Spencer, and in 1766 he obtained a
fellowship. Though but twenty-two years of age, he was already
becoming famous as an Orientalist, and when Christian VII. of
Denmark visited England in 1768, bringing with him a life of
Nadir Shah in Persian, Jones was requested to translate the
MS. into French. The translation appeared in 1770, with an
introduction containing a description of Asia and a short
history of Persia. This was followed in the same year by a TraiU
sur la poesie orientate, and by a French metrical translation of
501
the odes of Han*. In fjyt he published a Dissertation sur la
Utttrature orientals, defending Oxford scholars against the
criticisms made by Anquetil Du Perron in the introduction to his
translation of the Zend-Avesta. In the same year appeared his
Grammar of the Persian Language. In 1772 Jones published a
volume of Poems, Chiefly Translations from Asialich Languages y
together with Two Essays on the Poetry of Eastern Nations and
on the Arts commonly called Imitative, and in 1774 a treatise
entitled Poeseof Asiatics commentatorium libri sex, which defi-
nitely confirmed his authority as an Oriental scholar.
Finding that some more financially profitable occupation was
necessary, Jones devoted himself with his customary energy
to the study of the law, and was called to the bar at the Middle
Temple in 1774. He studied not merely the technicalities, but
the philosophy, of law, and within two years had acquired so
considerable a reputation that he was in 1776 appointed commis-
sioner in bankruptcy. Besides writing an Essay on the Law of
Bailments, which enjoyed a high reputation both in England and
America, Jones translated, in 1778, the speeches of Isaeus on the
Athenian right of inheritance. In 1780 he was a parliamentary
candidate for the university of Oxford, but withdrew from
the contest before the day of election, as he found he had no
chance of success owing to his Liberal opinions, especially on
the questions of the American War and of the slave trade. - i
In 1783 was published his translation of the seven ancient
Arabic poems called MoaBahdl. In the same year he was ap-
pointed judge of the supreme court of judicature at Calcutta,
then " Fort William," and was knighted. Shortly after bis arrival
in India he founded, in January 1784, the Bengal Asiatic Society,
of which he remained president till his death. Convinced as he
was of the great importance of consulting the Hindu legal
authorities in the original, he at once began the study of Sanskrit,
and undertook, in 1788, the colossal task of compiling a digest
of Hindu and Mahommedan law. This he did not live to com*!
plete, but Ik published the admirable beginnings of it in his
Institutes of Hindu Law, or the Ordinances of Menu (1704); his
Mohammedan Law of Succession to Property of Intestates; and his
Mohammedan Law of Inheritance (179a). In 1789 Jones had
completed his translation of Kfitidlsa's most famous drama,
Sakuntali. He also translated the collection of fables entitled
the Hitopadssa, the GUagptinda, and considerable portions of the
Vedas, besides editing the text of Kllidisa's poem Ritusamhara.
He was a large contributor also to his society's volumes of
Asiatic Researches.
; His unremitting literary labours, together with his heavy
judicial work, told on his health after a ten years' residence in
Bengal; and he died at Calcutta on the 17th of April 1704, An
extraordinary linguist, knowing thirteen languages well, and
having a moderate acquaintance with twenty-eight others, his
range of knowledge was enormous. As a pioneer in Sanskrit
learning and as founder of the Asiatic Society he rendered the
language and literature of the ancient Hindus accessible to
European scholars, and thus became the indirect cause of later
achievements in the field of Sanskrit and comparative philology.
A monument to his memory was erected by the East India.
Company in St Paul's, London, and a statue in Calcutta.
See the Memoir (1804) by Lord Teignmouth, published in the
collected edition of Sir W. Jones's works.
jdNKOPINO, a town of Sweden, capital of the district (Idn) of
Jonkdping, 230 m. S.W. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900),
33,143. It occupies a beautiful but somewhat unhealthy position
between the southern end of Lake Vetter and two small lakes,
Roksjd and MunksjS. Two quarters of the town, Svenska Mad
and Tyska-Mad, recall the time when the site was a marsh (mad),
and buildings were constructed on piles. The residential
suburbs among the hills, especially Dunkehallar, are attractive
and healthier than the town. The church of St Kristin*
(c. 1650), the court-houses, town-hall, government buildings, and
high school, are noteworthy. The town is one of the leading in-
dustrial centres in Sweden. The match manufacture, for which
it is principally famous, was founded by Johan Edvard Lund-
strom in 1844. The well-known brand of satoheU-tOndstichor
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ten years later (epigram 45). (A younger Benjamin died in
1635.) His wife Jonson characterized to Drummond as "a
shrew, but honest "; and for a period (undated) of five years he
preferred to live without her, enjoying the hospitality of Lord
Aubigny (afterwards duke of Lennox). Long burnings of oil
among his books, and long spells of recreation at the tavern,
such as Jonson loved, are not the most favoured accompaniments
of family life. But Jonson was no stranger to the tenderest of
affections: two at least of the several children whom his wife
bore to him he commemorated in touching little tributes of verse;
nor in speaking of his lost eldest daughter did he forget " hex
mother's tears." By the middle of 1597 we come across further
documentary evidence of him at home in London in the shape
of an entry in Philip Henslowe's diary (July 28) of 3s. 6d. " re-
ceived of Bengemenes Johnsones share." He was therefore by
this time — when Shakespeare, his senior by nearly nine years, was
already in prosperous circumstances and good esteem — at least
a regular member of the acting profession, with a fixed engage-
ment in the lord admiral's company, then performing under
Henslowe's management at the Rose. Perhaps he had previously
acted at the Curtain (a former house of the lord admiral's men),
and " taken mad Jeronimo's part " on a play-wagon in the high-
way. This latter appearance, if it ever took place, would, as was
pointed out by Gifford, probably have been in Thomas Kyd's
Spanish Tragedy, since in The First Pari of Jeronimo Jonson would
have had, most inappropriately, to dwell on the " smallness " of
his " bulk." He was at a subsequent date (1601) employed
by Hcnslowe to write up The Spanish Tragedy, and this fact
may have given rise to Wood's story of his performance as a
stroller (see, however, Flcay, The English Drama, ii. 29, 30).
Jonson's additions, which were not the first changes made in
the play, are usually supposed to be those printed with The
Spanish Tragedy in the edition of 1602; Charles Lamb's doubts
on the subject, which were shared by Coleridge, seem an instance
of that subjective kind of criticism which it is unsafe to follow
when the external evidence to the contrary is so strong.
According to Aubrey, whose statement must be taken for
what it is worth, " Jonson was never a good actor, but an ex-
cellent instructor." His physique was certainly not well adapted
to the histrionic conditions of his — perhaps of any — day; but,
in any case, it was not long before he found his place in the
organism of his company. In 1597, as we know from Henstowe,
Jonson undertook to write a play for the lord admiral's men;
and in the following year he was mentioned by Meres in his
PaUadis Tamia as one of " the best for tragedy," without any
reference to a connexion on his part with the other branch of the
drama. Whether this was a criticism based on material evidence
or an unconscious slip, Ben Jonson in the same year 1598 pro-
duced one of the most famous of English comedies, Every Man in
his Humour, which was first acted — probably in the earlier part
of September— by the lord chamberlain's company at the
Curtain. . Shakespeare was one of the actors in Jonson's comedy,
and it is in the character of Old Knowell in this very play that,
according to a bold but ingenious guess, he is represented in the
half-length portrait of him in the folio of 1623, beneath which
were printed Jonson's lines concerning the picture. Every Mam
in his Humour was published in 1601; the critical prologue first
appears in the folio of 16x6, and there are other divergences (see
Caatelain, appendix A). After the Restoration the play was
revived in 1751 by Garrick (who acted Kitely) with alterations,
and long continued to be known on the stage. It was followed
in the same year by The Case is Altered, acted by the children of
the queen's revels, which contains a satirical attack upon the
pageant poet, Anthony Munday. This comedy, which was not
included In the folio editions, is one of intrigue rather than of
character; It contains obvious, reminiscences of Sbylock and his
daughter. The earlier of these two comedies was indisputably
successful.
Uefore the year 1508 was out, however, Jonson found himself
'* prison and in danger of the gallows. In a duel, fought on the
1 of September in Hogsden Fields, he had killed an actor of
MUb'a company named Gabriel Spenser. .The quarrel with
Henslowe consequent on th?s event may account for the produc-
tion of Every Man in his Humour by the rival company. In
prison Jonson was visited by a Roman Catholic priest, and the
result (certainly strange, if Jonson's parentage is considered) was
Iris conversion to the Church of Rome, to which he adhered
for twelve years. Jonson was afterwards a diligent student of
divinity; but, though his mind was religious, it is not probable
that its natural bias much inclined it to dwell upon creeds and
their controversies. He pleaded guilty to the charge brought
against him, as the rolls of Middlesex sessions show; but, after
a -short -imprisonment, he was released by benefit of clergy,
forfeiting his " goods and chattels," and being branded on his left
thumb. The affair does not seem to have affected his reputation;
in z 509 he is found back again at work for Henslowe, receiving to-
gether with Dekker, Chettle and " another gentleman," earnest-
money for a tragedy (undiscovered) called Robert //., King of
Seats. In the same year be brought out through the lord
chamberlain's company (possibly already at the Globe, then
newly built or building) the elaborate comedy of Every Man out
of his Humour (quarto 1600; fol. 1616) — a play subsequently pre-
sented before Queen Elizabeth. The sunshine of court favour,
rarely diffused during her reign in rays otherwise than figuratively
golden, was not to bring any material comfort to the most
learned of her dramatists, before there was laid upon her the
inevitable hand of which his courtly epilogue had besought death
to forget the use. Indeed, of his Cynthia's Revels, performed by
the chapel children in 1600 and printed with the first title of The
Fountain of Self -Love in 1 fox, though it was no doubt primarily
designed as a compliment to the queen, the most, marked result
bad been to offend two playwrights of note — Dekker, with
whom he had formerly worked in. company, and who had a
healthy if rough grip of his own; and Marston, who was perhaps
less dangerous by his strength than by his versatility. Accord-
ing to Jonson, his quarrel with Marston had begun by the latter
attacking his morals, and in the course of it they came to blows,
and might have come to worse. In Cynthia's Revels, Dekker is
generally held to be satirized as Hedon, and Marston as Anaides
(Fleay, however, thinks Anaides is Dekker, and Hedon Daniel),
while the character of Crites most assuredly has some features
of Jonson himself. Learning the intention of the two -writers
whom he bad satirized, or at all events of Dekker, to wreak
literary vengeance upon him, he anticipated them in Thepdetaster
(1601), again played by the children of the queen's chapel at the
Blackfriars and printed in 1602; Marston and Dekker are here
ridiculed respectively as the aristocratic Crispinus and the vulgar
Demetrius. The play was completed fifteen weeks after its plot
was first conceived. It is not certain to what the proceedings
against author and play before the lord<hicf justice, referred to
m the dedication of the edition of 16 16, had reference, or when
they were instituted. Fleay's supposition that the " purge,"
said in the Returne from Parnassus (Pt. II. act iv. sc. iii.) to
have been administered by Shakespeare to Jonson in return for
Horace's " pill to the poets " in this piece, consisted of Troilus
and Cressida h supremely ingenious, but cannot be examined
here. As for Dekker, he retaliated on The Poetaster by the
Satiromastix, or The Untrussing of the Humorous Poet (1002).
Some more last words were indeed attempted on Jonson's part,
but in the A pologetic Dialogue added to The Poetaster in the edition
of 1616, though excluded from that of 160a, he says he intends to
turn his attention to tragedy. This intention he apparently
carried out immediately, for in 1602 he received £10 from
Henslowe for a play, entitled Richard Crookbacke, now lost—
unfortunately so, for purposes of comparison in particular, even
H it was only, as Fleay conjectures, " an alteration of Marlowe's
play." According to a statement by Overbuty, early in 1603,
"Ben Johnson, the poet, now lives upon one Townesend,"
supposed to have been the poet and masque-writer Aurelian
Townshend, at one time steward to the 1st earl of Salisbury,
"and scoroes the world." To his other early patron, Lord
Aubigny, Jonson dedicated the first of his two extant tragedies,
Sejanus, produced by the king's servants at the Globe late in
1003, Shakespeare once more taking a part in the performance.
JONSON 503
Either on its performance or on its appearing in print in 1605,
Jonson was called before the privy council by the Earl of North-
ampton. But it is open to question whether this was the occa-
sion on which, according to Jonson's statement to Druramond,
Northampton " accused him both of popery and treason ** (see
Castelain, Appendix C). Though, for one reason or another,
unsuccessful at first, the endurance of its reputation is attested
by its performance, m a German version by an Englishman,
John Michael Gtrish, at the court of the grandson of James I. at
Heidelberg.
When the reign of James I. opened in England and an adula-
tory loyalty seemed intent on showing that it had not exhausted
itself at the feet of Gloriana, Jonson's well-stored brain and ready
pen had their share in devising and executing ingenious variations
on the theme " Welcome — since we cannot do without thee!*'
With extraordinary promptitude his genius,which, far from being
11 ponderous " in its operations, was singularly swift and flexible
in adapting itself to the demands made upon it, met the new
taste for masques and entertainments — new of course in degree
rather than in kind— introduced with the new reign and fostered
by both the king and his consort. The pageant which on the
7th of May 1603 bade the king welcome to a capital dissolved in
joy was partly of Jonson's, partly of Dekker's, devising; arid he
was able to deepen and diversify the impression by the com-
position of masques presented to James I. when entertained at
houses of the nobility. The Satyr (1603) ww produced on one of
these occasions, Queen Anne's sojourn at Althorpe, the seat
of Sir Robert Spencer, afterwards Lord Althorpe, who seems
to have previously bestowed some patronage upon him. The
Penates followed on May-day 1604 at the house of Sir William
Cornwallis at Highgatc, and the queen herself with her ladies
played his Masque of Blackness at Whitehall in 1605. He was
soon occasionally employed by the court itself— already in 1606 in
conjunction with Inigo Jones, as responsible for the " painting
and carpentry "—and thus speedily showed himself master in a
species of composition for which, more than any other English
poet before Milton, he secured an enduring place in the national
poetic literature. Personally, no doubt, he derived considerable
material benefit from the new fashion— more especially if his
statement to.Drummond was anything like correct, that out of
his plays (which may be presumed to mean bis original plays) he
had never gained a couple of hundred pounds.
Good humour seems to have come back with good fortune.
Joint employment in The King's Entertainment (1604) had recon-
ciled him with Dekker, and with Marston also, who in 1604
dedicated to him his Malcontent, he was again on pleasant terms.
When, therefore, fn 1604 Marston and Chapman (who, Jcnson
told Dnrmmond, was loved of him, and whom he had probably
honoured as " Virgil " in The Poetaster, and who has, though on
doubtful grounds, been supposed to have collaborated in the
original Sejanus) produced the excellent comedy of Eastward Ho,
it appears to have contained some contributions by Jonson. At
all events, when the authors were arrested on account of one or
more passages in the play which were deemed insulting to the
Scots, he " voluntarily imprisoned himself " with them. They
were soon released, and a banquet at his expense, attended by
Camden and Selden, terminated the incident. If Jonson is to
be believed, there had been a report that the prisoners were
to have their ears and noses cut, and, with reference apparently
to this peril, " at the midst of the feast his old mother drank to
him, and showed him a paper which she had intended (if the
sentence had taken execution) to have mixed in the prison among
his drink, which was full of lusty strong poison; and that she was
no churl, she told him, she minded first to have drunk of it her-
self." Strange to say, in 1605 Jonson and Chapman, though the
fojmer, as he averred, had so "attempered " his style as to have
" given no cause to any good man of grief," were again in prison
on account of " a play "; but they appear to have been once
more speedily set free, in consequence of a very manly and
dignified letter addressed by Jonson to the Earl of Salisbury. As
to the relations between Chapman and Jonson, illustrated by
newly discovered letters, sec Bertram Dobell in the Athenaeum
5 04 JONSON
No. 3831 (March 30, xooi), and the comments of Castelain. He
thinks that the play in question, in which both Chapman and
jonson took part, was Sir Gyles Goosccoppe, and that the last
imprisonment of the two poets was shortly after the discovery
of the Gunpowder Plot. In the mysterious history of the Gun-
powder Plot Jonson certainly bad some obscure part. On the
7th of November, very soon after the discovery of the conspiracy,
the council appears to have sent for him and to have asked ham,
as a loyal Roman Catholic, to use his good offices in inducing
the priests to do something required by the council— one hardly
likes to conjecture it to have been, some tampering with the
secrets of confession. In any case, the negotiations fell through,
because the priests declined to come forth out of their hiding-
places to be negotiated with— greatly to the wrath of Ben Jonson,
who declares in a letter to Lord Salisbury that " they are all so
enweaved in It that it will make 500 gentlemen less of the reli-
gion within this week, if they carry their understanding about
them." Jonson himself, however, did not declare bis separation
from the Church of Rome for five years longer, however much
it. might have been to bis advantage to do so.
I His powers as a dramatist were at their height during the
earlier half of the reign of James I.; and by the year 1616 he had
produced nearly all the plays which are worthy of his genius.
They include the tragedy of Catiline (acted and printed 161 z),
which achieved only a doubtful success, and the comedies of
Vol pone, or the Fox (acted 1605 and printed in 1607 with a dedi-
cation " from my house in the Blackfriars "), Epkoene, or the
Silent Woman (1609; entered in the Stationers' Register 1610),
the Alchemist(i6io; printed in 1610), Bartholomew Fair and The
Devil is an Ass (acted respectively in 1614 and 1616). During
the same period he produced several masques , usually in con-
nexion with Inigo Jones, with whom, however, he seems to have
quarrelled already in this reign, though it is very doubtful
whether the architect is really intended to be ridiculed in
Bartholomew Fair under the character of Lanthorn Leatherhead.
Littlewit, according to Fleay, is Daniel. Among the most
attractive of his masques may be mentioned the Masque of Black-
ness (1606), the Masque of Beauty (1008), and the Masque of
Queens (1609), described by Swinburne as " the most splendid
of all masques " and as " one of the typically splendid monu-
ments or trophies of English literature.' 1 In 1616 a modest
pension of zoo marks a year was conferred upon him; and possi-
bly this sign of royal favour may have encouraged him to the
publication of the first volume of the folio collected edition of
bis works (z6x6), though there are indications that he had con-
templated its production, an exceptional task for a playwright
of his times to take in hand, as early as 161 a.
i He had other patrons more bountiful than the Crown, and for
a brief space of time (in 1613) had travelled to France as governor
(without apparently much moral authority) to the eldest son of
Sir Walter Raleigh, then a state prisoner in the Tower, for whose
society Jonson may have gained a liking at the Mermaid Tavern
in Cheapside, but for whose personal character he, like so many
of his contemporaries, seems to have had but small esteem. By
the year 1616 Jonson seems to have made up bis mind to cease
writing for the stage, where neither his success nor his profits had
equalled his merits and expectations. He continued to produce
masques and entertainments when called upon; but he was
attracted by many other literary pursuits, and had already
accomplished enough to furnish plentiful materials for retro-
spective discourse over pipe or cup. He was already entitled to
lord it at the Mermaid, where his quick antagonist in earlier
wit-combats (if Fuller's famous description be authentic) no
longer appeared even on a visit from his comfortable retreat at
Stratford. That on the other hand Ben carried his wicked town
habits into Warwickshire, and there, together with Drayton,
made Shakespeare drink so hard with them as to bring upon him-
self the fatal fever which ended his days, is a scandal with which
we may fairly refuse to load Jonson's memory. That he had a
share in the preparing for the press of the first folio of Shake-
speare, or in the composition of its preface, is of course a mere
conjecture.
It was m the year 16x8 that, like Dr Samuel Johnson a c
and a half afterwards, Ben resolved to have a real holiday fee
once, and about midsummer started for his ancestral country,
Scotland. He had (very heroically for a man of his habits)
determined to make the journey on foot; and he was speedily
followed by John Taylor, the water-poet, who still further handi-
capped himself by the condition that he would accomplish the
pilgrimage without a penny in his pocket. Jonson, who pat
money in his good friend's purse when he came up with him at
Leith, spent more than a year and a half in the hospitable Low-
lands, being solemnly elected a burgess of Edinburgh, and oa
another occasion entertained at a public banquet there. But
the best-remembered hospitality which he enjoyed was that of
the learned Scottish poet, William Drummond of Hawthoradea,
to which we owe the so-called Conversation*. In these famous
jottings, the work of no extenuating hand, Jonson lives for
us to this day, delivering his censures, terse as they are, in an
expansive mood whether of praise or of blame; nor is he at all
generously described in the postscript added by his fatigued and
at times irritated host as " a great lover and praiser of himself,
a contemner and scorner of others." A poetical account of this
journey, " with all the adventures,'^ was burnt with Jonson's
library. ' /~
After his return to England Jonson appears to have resumed
his former course of life. Among his noble patrons and patron-
esses were the countess of Rutland (Sidney's daughter) and
her cousin Lady Wroth; and in 1619 his visits to the country
seats of the nobility were varied by a sojourn at Oxford with
Richard Corbet, the poet, at Christ Church, on which occasion he
took up the master's degree granted to him by the university;
whether he actually proceeded to the same degree granted to him
at Cambridge seems unknown. He confessed about this time
that he was or seemed growing " restive," i.e. lazy, though it
was not long before he returned to the occasional composition of
masques. The extremely spirited Gipsies Metamorphosed (162 1)
was thrice presented before the king, who was so pleased with it
as to grant to the poet the reversion of the office of master of the
revels, besides proposing to confer upon him the honour of knight-
hood. This honour Jonson (hardly in deference to the memory
of Sir Petronel Flash) declined; but there was no reason why he
should not gratefully accept the increase of his pension in the
same year (1621) to £200— a temporary increase only, inssmufh
as it still stood at 100 marks when afterwards augmented by
Charles L
The close of King James L *s reign found the foremost of its poets
in anything but a prosperous condition. It would be unjust
to hold the Sun, the Dog, the Triple Tun, or the Old Devil with
its Apollo club-room, where Ben's supremacy must by this time
have become established, responsible for this result; taverns
were the clubs of that day, and a man of letters is not considered
lost in our own because he haunts a smoking-room in Pall MaU.
Disease had weakened the poet's strength, and the burning of his
library, as his Execration upon Vulcan sufficiently snows, must
have been no mere transitory trouble to a poor poet and scholar.
Moreover he cannot but have felt, from the time of the accession
of Charles I. early in 1625 onwards, that the royal patronage would
no longer be due in part to anything like intellectual sympathy.
He thus thought it best to recur to the surer way of writing for
the stage, and in 1625 produced, with no faint heart, but with
a very clear anticipation of the comments which would be made
upon the reappearance of the " huge, overgrown play-maker,"
The Staple of News, a comedy excellent in some respects, but lit tie
calculated to become popular. It was not printed till 1631.
Jonsoo, whose habit of body was not more conducive than were
his ways of life to a healthy ojd age, had a paralytic stroke in
1626, and a second in 1628. . In the latter year, on the death of
Middleton, the appointment of city chronologer, with a salary
of 100 nobles a year, was bestowed upon him. He appears to
have considered the duties of this office as purely ornamental;
but in 1 63 1 his salary was suspended until he should have pre-
sented some fruits of his labours in his place, or— as he more
succinctly phrased it— "yesterday the barbarous court of
aldermen fcaVe withdrawn their chandlerly pension for verjuice
■ltd mustard, £33, 6s. 8d." After being in 1628 arrested by mistake
on the utterly false charge of haying written certain verses in
approval of the assassination of Buckingham, he was soon allowed
to return to Westminster, where it would appear from a letter of
his " son and contiguous neighbour," James Howell, he was living
in 1620, and about this time narrowly escaped another conflagra-
tion. In the same year (1620) he once more essayed the stage
with the comedy of The New Inn, which was actually, and on its
own merits not unjustly, damned on the first performance. It
was printed in 163 1, " as it was never acted but most negligently
played "; and Jonson defended himself against his critics in his
spirited Ode to Himself. The epilogue to The New Inn having
dwelt not without dignity upon the neglect which the poet had
experienced at the hands of " king and queen," King Charles
immediately sent the unlucky author a gift of £100, and in
response to a further appeal increased his standing salary to
the same sum, with the addition of an annual tierce of canary
— the poet-laureate's customary royal gift, though this designa-
tion of an office, of which Jonson discharged some of what became
the ordinary functions, is not mentioned in tho warrant dated
the 26th of March 1630. In 1634, by the king's desire, Jonson'*
salary as chronologer to the city- was again paid. To bis later
years belong the comedies, The Magnetic Lady ( 163 2) and The Tale
of a Tub (1633), both printed in 1640, and some masques, none of
which met with great success. The patronage of liberal-minded
men, such as the earl, afterwards duke, of Newcastle — by whom
be must have been commissioned to write his last two masques
Love's Welcome at Wdbcch (1633) and Love's Welcome at Bolsover
(1634) — and Viscount Falkland, was not wanting, and his was
hardly an instance in which the fickleness of time and taste could
have allowed a literary veteran to end his career in neglect. He
was the acknowledged chief of the English world of letters, both at
the festive meetings where he ruled the roast among the younger
authors whose pride it was to be " sealed of the tribe of Ben, " and
by the avowal of grave writers, old or young, not one of whom
would have ventured to dispute his titular pre-eminence. Nor
was be to the last unconscious of the claims upon him which his
position brought with it. When, nearly two years after he had
lost his surviving son, death came upon the sick old man on the
6th of August 1637, he left behind him an unfinished work of
great beauty, the pastoral drama of The Sad Shepherd (printed in
164 1 ). For forty years, he said in the prologue, he had feasted
the public; at first he could scarce hit its taste, but patience had
at last enabled it to identify itself with the working'of his pen.
We are so accustomed to think of Ben Jonson presiding,
attentive to his own applause, over a circle of younger followers
and admirers that we are apt to forget the hard struggle which
he had passed through before gaining the crown now universally
acknowledged to be his. Howell records, in the year before Ben's
death, that a solemn supper at the poet's own bouse, where the
host had almost spoiled the relish of the feast by vilifying others
and magnifying himself, " T. Ca. "(Thomas Carew) buzzed in the
writer's ear " that, though Ben had barrelled up a great deal of
knowledge, yet it seemed he had not read the Ethics ,v/hich, among
other precepts of morality, forbid self-commendation." Self-
reliance is but too frequently coupled with self-consciousness, and
for good and for evil self-confidence was no doubt the most pro-
minent feature in the character of Ben Jonson. Hence the com-
bativeness which involved him in so many quarrels in his earlier
days, and which jarred so harshly upon the less militant and in
some respects more pedantic nature of Drummond. But his
quarrels do not appear to have entered deeply into his soul, or
indeed usually to have lasted long. 1 He was too exuberant in his
vituperations to be bitter, and too outspoken to be malicious.
He loved of all things to be called " honest," and there is every
reason to suppose that he deserved the epithet. The old super-
* With tnigo Jones, however, in quarrelling with whom, as Howell
reminds Jonson, the poet was virtually quarrelling with his bread
and butter, he seems to have found it impossible to live permanently
at peace ; his satirical Expostulation against the architect was pub-
lished as late as 1 635. Chapman's satire against his old associate,
perhaps due to this quarrel, was left unfinished and unpublished.
JONSON 505
stitlon that Jonson was filled with malignant envy of the greatest
of his fellow-dramatists, and lost no opportunity of giving ex-
pression to it, hardly needs notice. Those who consider that
Shakespeare was beyond criticism may find blasphemy in the
saying of Jonson that Shakespeare '* wanted art." Occasional
jesting allusions to particular plays of Shakespeare may be found
in Jonson, among which should hardly be included the sneer at
" mouldy " Pericles in his Ode to Himself. But these amount to
nothing collectively, and to very little individually; and against
them have to be set, not only the many pleasant traditions con-
cerning the long intimacy between the pair, but also the lines,
prefixed to the first Shakespeare folio, as noble as they are
judicious, dedicated By the survivor to " the star of poets," and
the adaptation, dearly sympathetic notwithstanding all its buts,
de Shakespeare nostrat. in the Discoveries. But if Gilford had
rendered no other service to Jonson's fame he must be allowed to
have once for all vindicated it from the cruellest aspersion
which has ever been cast upon it That in general Ben Jonson
was a man of strong likes and dislikes, and was wont to manifest
the latter as vehemently as the former, it would be idle to deny.
He was at least impartial in his censures, dealing them out freely
to Puritan poets like Wither and (supposing him not to have
exaggerated his free-spokenness) to princes of his church like
Cardinal du Perron. And, if sensitive to attack, he seems to
have been impervious to flattery— to judge from the candour
with which he condemned the foibles even of so enthusiastic an
admirer as Beaumont The personage that he disliked the most,
and openly abused in the roundest terms, was unfortunately one
with many beads and a tongue to hiss in each — no other than
that " general public " which it was the fundamental mistake of
his life to fancy he could " rail into approbation " before he bad
effectively secured its goodwill. And upon the whole it may be
said that the admiration of the few, rather than the favour of .the
many, has kept green the fame of the most independent among
all the masters of an art which, in more senses than one, must
please to live.
Jonson's learning and industry, which were alike exceptional,
by no means exhausted themselves in furnishing and elaborating
the materials of his dramatic works. His enemies sneered at him
as a translator— a title which the preceding generation was
inclined to esteem the most honourable in literature. But his
classical scholarship shows itself in other directions besides his
translations from the Latin poets (the Ars poetica in particular), in
addition to which he appears to have written a version of Barclay's
Argenis; it was likewise the basis of his English Grammar ; of
which nothing but the rough draft remains (the MS. itself having
perished in the fire in his library), and in connexion with the sub-
ject of which he appears to have pursued other linguistic studies
(Howell in 1629 was trying to procure him a Welsh grammar).
And its effects are very visible in some of the most pleasing of
his non-dramatic poems, which often display that combination
of polish and simplicity hardly to be reached— or even to be
appreciated — without some measure of classical training.
Exclusively of the few lyrics in Jonson's dramas (which, with
the exception of the stately choruses in Catiline, charm, and
perhaps may surprise, by their lightness of touch), his non-
dramatic works are comprised in the following collections. The
book of Epigrams (published in the first folio of 1616) contained,
in the poet's own words, the "ripest of his studies." His notion
of an epigram was the andent, not the restricted modern one —
still less that of the critic (R. C, the author of The Times' Whistle)
in whose language, according to Jonson, 4< witty " was ""obscene."
On the whole, these epigrams excel more in encomiastic than in
satiric touches, while the pathos of one or two epitaphs in the
collection is of the truest kind. In the lyrics and epistles con-
tained in the Forest (also in the first folio), Jonson shows greater
variety in the poetic styles adopted by him; but the subject of
love, which Drydcn considered conspicuous by its absence in the
author's dramas, is similarly eschewed here. The Underwoods
(not published collectively till the second and surreptitious folio)
are a miscellaneous series, comprising, together with a few
religious and a few amatory poems, a large number of epigrams,
506
JONSON
epitaphs, elegies and "odes," including both the tributes to
Shakespeare and several to royal aud other patrons and friends,
besides the Execration upon Yukon, and the characteristic ode
addressed by the poet to himself. To these pieces in verse should
be added the Discoveries — Timber, or Discoveries made upon Men
and Mailers, avowedly a commonplace book of aphorisms noted
by the poet in his daily readings— thoughts adopted and adapted
in more tranquil and perhaps more sober moods than those which
gave rise to the outpourings of the Conversations at Hawlhornder.
As to the critical value of these Conversations it is far from being
only negative; he knew how to admire as well as how to disdain.
For these thoughts, though abounding with biographical as well
as general interest, Jonson was almost entirely indebted to
ancient writers, or (as has been shown by Professor Spingarn and
by Percy Simpson) indebted to the humanists of the Renaissance
(sec Modern Language Review, ii. 3, April 1907).
The extant dramatic works of Ben Jonson fall into three or,
if his fragmentary pastoral drama be considered to stand by
itself, into four distinct divisions. The tragedies are only two in
number— Sejanus his Fait and Catiline his Conspiracy} Of these
the earlier, as is worth noting, was produced at Shakespeare's
theatre, in all probability before the first of Shakespeare's Roman
dramas, and still contains a considerable admixture of rhyme in
the dialogue. Though perhaps less carefully elaborated in diction
than its successor, Sejanus is at least equally impressive as a
highly wrought dramatic treatment of a complex historic theme.
The character of Tiberius adds an clement of curious psychological
interest on which speculation has never quite exhausted itself
and which, in Jonson 's day at least, was wanting to the figures
of Catiline and his associates. But in both plays the action is
powerfully conducted, and the care bestowed by the dramatist
upon the great variety of characters introduced cannot, as in
some of bis comedies, be said to distract the interest of the reader.
Both these tragedies are noble works, though the relative popu-
larity of the subject (for conspiracies are in the long run more
interesting than camarillas) has perhaps secured the preference
to Catiline. Yet this play and its predecessor were alike too
manifestly intended by their author to court the goodwill of
what he calls the "extraordinary" reader. It is difficult to
imagine that (with the aid of judicious shortenings) either could
altogether miss its effect on the stage; but, while Shakespeare
causes us to forget, Jonson seems to wish us to remember, his
authorities. The half is often greater than the whole; and Jonson,
like all dramatists and, it might be added, all novelists in similar
cases, has had to pay the penalty incurred by too obvious a
desire to underline the learning of the author.
Perversity — or would-be originality — alone could declare
Jonson's tragedy preferable to his comedy. Even if the revolution
which he created in the comic branch of the drama had been mis-
taken in its principles or unsatisfactory in its results, it would be
clear that the strength of his dramatic genius lay in the power of
depicting a great variety of characters, and that in comedy alone
he succeeded in finding a wide field for the exercise of this power.
There may have been no very original or very profound discovery
in the idea which he illustrated in Every Man in his Humour, and,
as it were, technically elaborated in Every Man out of his Humour
.-that in many men one quality is observable which so possesses
them as to draw the whole of their individualities one way, and
that this phenomenon "may be truly said to be a humour."
The idea of the master quality or tendency was, as has been well
observed, a very considerable one for dramatist or novelist. Nor
£d Jonson (happily) attempt to work out this idea with any
ewvssivc scientific consistency as a comic dramatist. But, by
w^nt to apply the term " humour " (qjo.) to a mere peculiarity
^ 4 *<vUtion of manners, and restricting its use to actual or
it^vvd differences or distinctions of character, he broadened the
^va SihAi of English comedy after his fashion, as Moliere at a
^ » ^ Fall of Mortimer Jonson left only a few lines behind him;
1^. l» W »!*> left the argument of the ptay, # factious ingenuity
^O w» furbish up the relic into a libel against Queen Caroline
>.» <v***« Walpole in 1731, and to revive the contrivance by
*** h* 't^alt to the princess dowager of Wales and Lord Bute in
later date, keeping in closer touch with the common experience
of human life, with a lighter hand broadened the basis of French
and of modern Western comedy at large. It does not of course
follow that Jonson's disciples, the Bromes and the Cartwrights,
always adequately reproduced the master's conception of
" humorous " comedy. Jonson's wide and various reading
helped him to diversify the application of his theory, while perhaps
at limes it led him into too remote illustrations of it. Still.
Captain Bobadil and Captain Tucca, Macilente and Fungoso,
Volpone and Mosca, and a goodly number of other characters im-
press themselves permanently upon the memory of those whose
attention they have as a matter of course commanded. It is a
very futile criticism to condemn Jonson's characters as a mere
scries of types of general ideas; on the other hand, it is a very
sound criticism to object, with Barry Cornwall, to the "multi-
tude of characters who throw no light upon the story, and lend
no interest to it, occupying space that had better have been
bestowed upon the principal agents of the plot."
In the construction of plots, as in most other respects, Jonson's
at once conscientious and vigorous mind led him in the direction
of originality; he depended to a far less degree than the greater
part of his contemporaries (Shakespeare with the rest) upon
borrowed plots. But either his inventive character was
occasionally at fault in this respect, or his devotion to his
characters often diverted his attention from a brisk conduct
of his plot. Barry Cornwall has directed attention to the
essential likeness in the plot of two of Jonson's best comedies,
Volpone and The Alchemist; and another critic, W. Bodham
Donne, has dwelt on the difficulty which, in The Poetaster and
elsewhere, Ben Jonson seems to experience in sustaining the
promise of his actions. Tlie Poetaster is, however, a play sui
generis, in which the real business can hardly be said to begin
till the last act.
Dryden, when criticizing Ben Jonson's comedies, thought fit,
while allowing the old master humour and incontestable " plea-
santness," to deny him wit and those ornaments thereof which
Quintilian reckons up under the terms urbana, salsa, jaceia and
so forth. Such wit as Dryden has in view is the mere outward
fashion or style of the day, the euphuism or " shcerwit " or chic
which is the creed of Fastidious Brisks and of their astute
purveyors at any given moment. In this Ben Jonson was no
doubt defective; but it would be an error to suppose him, as a
comic dramatist, to have maintained towards the world around
him the attitude of a philosopher, careless of mere transient
externalisms. It is said that the scene of his Every Man in his
Humour was originally laid near Florence; and his Volpone, which
is perhaps the darkest social picture ever drawn by him, plays at
Venice. Neither locality was ill-chosen, but the real atmosphere
of his comedies is that of the native surroundings amidst which
they were produced; and Ben Jonson's times live for us in his
men and women, his country gulls and town gulls, his alchemists
and exorcists, his " skcldring " captains and whining Puritans,
and the whole ragamuffin rout of his Bartholomew Fair, the
comedy par excellence of Elizabethan low life. After he had
described the pastimes, fashionable and unfashionable, of his
age, its feeble superstitions and its flaunting naughtinesses,
its vapouring affectations and its lying effronteries, with an
odour as of " divine tabacco " pervading the whole, little might
seem to be left to describe for his "sons" and successors.
Enough, however, remained; only that his followers speedily
again threw manners and "humours" into an (indistinguishable
medley.
The gift which both in his art and in his life Jonson lacked
was that of exercising the influence or creating the effects which
he wished to exercise or create without the appearance of
consciousness. Concealment never crept over his efforts, and
he scorned insinuation. Instead of this, influenced no doubt
by the example of the free relations between author and public
permitted by Attic comedy, he resorted again and again, from
Every Man out of his Humour to The Magnetic Lady, to inductions
and commentatory intermezzos and appendices, which, though
occasionally effective by the excellence of their execution, are
JOPLIN
5°7
to be regretted as Introducing Into his dramas an exotic and
often vexatious element. A man of letters to the very core,
he never quite understood that there is and ought to be a wide
difference of methods between the world of letters and the world
of the theatre.
The richness and versatility of Jonson's genius will never be
fully appreciated by those who fail to acquaint themselves with
what is preserved to us of his " masques " and cognate enter-
tainments. He was conscious enough of his success In this
direction — " next himself," he said, " only Fletcher and Chap-
man could write a masque." He introduced, or at least estab-
lished, the ingenious innovation of the anti-masque, which
Schlegel has described, as a species of " parody added by the
poet to his device, and usually prefixed to the serious entry,"
and which accordingly supplies a grotesque antidote to the often
extravagantly imaginative main conception. Jonson's learning,
creative power and humorous ingenuity — combined, it should
not be forgotten, with a genuine lyrical gift— all found abundant
opportunities for displaying themselves in these productions.
Though a growth of foreign origin, the masque was by him
thoroughly domesticated in the high places of English literature.
He lived long enough to sec the species produce its poetic
masterpiece in Camus.
The Sad Shepherd, of which Jonson left behind him three acts
and a prologue, is distinguished among English pastoral dramas
by its freshness of tone; it breathes something of the spirit of
the greenwood, and is not unnatural even in its supernatural
element. While this piece, with its charming love-scenes
between Robin Hood and Maid Marion, remains a fragment,
another pastoral by Jonson, the May Lord (which F. G. Flcay
and J. A. Symonds sought to identify with The Sad Shepherd; sec,
however, W. W. Greg in introduction to the Louvain reprint),
has been lost, and a third, of which Loch Lomond was intended
to be the scene, probably remained unwritten.
Though Ben Jonson never altogether recognized the truth of
the maxim that the dramatic art has properly speaking no
didactic purpose, his long and laborious life was not wasted
upon a barren endeavour. In tragedy he added two works of
uncommon merit to our dramatic literature. In comedy his
aim was higher, his effort more sustained, and bis success more
solid than were those of any of his fellows. In the subsidiary
and hybrid species of the masque, he helped to open a new and
attractive though undoubtedly devious path in the field of
dramatic literature. His intellectual endowments surpassed
those of most of the great English dramatists in richness and
breadth; and in energy of application he probably left them all
behind.' Inferior to more than one of his fellow-dramatists in
the power of imaginative sympathy, he was first among the
Elizabethans in the power of observation; and there is point in
Barrett Wendell's paradox, that as a dramatist he was not
really a poet but a painter. Yet it is less by these gifts, or even
by his unexcelled capacity for hard work, than by the true ring
of manliness that he wiU always remain distinguished among
his peers.
Jonson was buried on the north side of the nave in West-
minster Abbey, and the inscription, " O Rare Ben Jonson," was
cut in the slab over his grave. In the beginning of the 18th
century a portrait bust was put up to his memory in the Poets'
Corner by Harley, earl of Oxford. Of Honthorst's portrait of
Jonson at Knole Park there is a copy in the National Portrait
Gallery; another was engraved by W. Marshall for the 1640
edition of his Poems.
Bibliography. — The date of the first folio volume of Jonson's
Works (of which title his novel but characteristic use in applying
it to pays was at the time much ridiculed) has already been men-
tioned as 1616; the second, professedly published in 1640, is de-
scribed by Gifford as " a wretched continuation of the first, printed
from MSS. surreptitiously obtained during his life, or ignorantly
hurried through the press after his death, and bearing a variety of
dates from 1631 to 1641 inclusive." The works were reprinted in
a single folio volume in 1692. in which The New Inn and The Case is
dates from 1631 to 1641 inclusive." The works were rcprint<
a single folio volume in 1692. in which The New Inn and The Ci
Altered were included for the first time, and again in 6 vols 8vo in
1713. Peter Whalley's edition in 7 vols., with a life, appeared in 1796.
but was superseded in 1816 by William Gilford's, in 9 vols, (of which
5o8
JOPPA-— JORDAN, D.
under the name Joplin; and in iBBS Joplin was chartered as a
city of the third class. The dty derives its name from the
creek, which was named in honour of the Rev. Harris G. Joplin
(c. 1810-1847), a native of Tennessee.
, JOPPA, less correctly Ja»a (Arab. Y&fS), a seaport on the
coast of Palestine. It is of great antiquity, being mentioned
in the tribute lists of Tethmosis (Thothmes) III.; but as it never
was in the territory of the pre-exilic Israelites it was to them a
place of no importance. Its ascription to the tribe of Dan
(Josh. six. 46) is purely theoretical According to the authors
of Chronicles (2 Chron. ii. x6), Ezra (in. 7) and Jonah (i. 3) it
was a seaport for importation of the Lebanon timber floated
down the coasts or for ships plying even to distant Tarshish.
About 148 b.c. it was captured from the Syrians by Jonathan
Maccabaeus (t Mace. x. 75) and later it was retaken and garri-
soned by Simon his brother (xii 33, xiii. 1 1). It was restored
to the Syrians by Pompey (Jo J., Ant. xiv. 4, 4) but again given
back to the Jews (ib. xiv. io, 6) with an exemption from tax.
St Peter ior a while lodged at Joppa, where he restored the
benevolent widow Tabitha to life, and had the vision which
taught him the universality of the plan of Christianity.
According to Strabo (xvi. ii.), who makes the strange
mistake of saying that Jerusalem is visible from Joppa, the
place was a resort of pirates. It was destroyed by Vespasian
in the Jewish War (68). Tradition connects the story of
Andromeda and the sea-monster with the sea-coast of Joppa,
and in early times her chains were shown as well as the skeleton
of the monster itself (Jos. Wars, iii. 9, 3). The site seems to
have been shown even to some medieval pilgrims, and curious
traces of it have been detected in modern Moslem legends.
In the 5th and nth centuries we hear from time to time of
bishops of Joppa, under the metropolitan of Jerusalem. In
1126 the district was captured by the knights of St John, but
lost to Saladin in 1187. Richard Cceur de Lion retook it in
1191, but it was finally retaken by Malck el 'Adil in 1196. It
languished for a time; in the z6th century it was an almost
uninhabited ruin; but towards the end of the 17th century it
began anew to develop as a seaport. In 1799 it was stormed
by Napoleon; the fortifications were repaired and strengthened
by the British.
. The modern town of Joppa derives its importance, first, as a
seaport for Jerusalem and the whole of southern Palestine, and
secondly as a centre of the fruit-growing industry. During the
latter part of the 19th century it greatly increased in size. The
old city walls have been entirely removed. Its population is
about 35,000 (Moslems 23,000, Christians 5000, Jews 7000; with
the Christians are included the " Templars/' a semi-religious,
semi-agricultural German colony of about 320 souls). The town,
which rises over a rounded hillock on the coast, about 100 ft.
high, has a very picturesque appearance from the sea. The
harbour (so-called) is one of the worst existing, being simply a
natural breakwater formed by a ledge of reefs, safe enough for
small Oriental craft, but very dangerous for large vessels, which
can only make use of the seaport in calm weather; these never
come nearer than about a mile from the shore. A railway and
a bad carriage-road connect Joppa with Jerusalem. The water
of the town is derived from wells, many of which have a
brackish taste. The export trade of the town consists of soap
of olive oil, sesame, barley, water melons, wine and especially
oranges (commonly known as Jaffa oranges), grown in the
famous and ever-increasing gardens that lie north and east of
the town. The chief imports are timber, cotton and other
textile goods, tiles, iron, rice, coffee, sugar and petroleum. The
value of the exports in xoco was estimated at £264,950, the
imports £382,405. Over 10,000 pilgrims, chiefly Russians, and
some three or four thousand tourists land annually at Joppa.
The town is the seat of a kaimakam or lieutenant-governor,
subordinate to the governor of Jerusalem, and contains vice-
consulates of Great Britain, France, Germany, America and
other powers. There are Latin, Greek, Armenian and Coptic
monasteries; and hospitals and schools under British, French
and German auspices. (R. A. S. M.)
JORDAENS, JACOB (1593*1678), Flemish painter, w
and died at Antwerp. He studied, like Rubens, under Adam
van Noort, and his marriage with his master's daughter in 1616,
the year after his admission to the gild of painters, prevented
him from visiting Rome. He was forced to content himself
with studying such examples of the Italian masters as he found
at home; but a far more potent influence was exerted upon his
style by Rubens, who employed him sometimes to reproduce
small sketches in large. Jordaens is second to Rubens alone
in their special department of the Flemish school. In both
there is the same warmth of colour, truth to nature, mastery of
chiaroscuro and energy of expression; but Jordaens is wanting
in dignity of conception, and is inferior in choice of forms, in
the character of his heads, and in correctness of drawing. Not
seldom he sins against good taste, and in some of his humorous
pieces the coarseness is only atoned for by the animation. Of
these last he seems in some cases to have painted several replicas.
He employed his pencil also in biblical, mythological, historical
and allegorical subjects, and is well-known as a portrait painter.
He also etched some plates.
See the elaborate work on the painter, by Max Rooses (1908).
JORDAN, CAMILLB (1771-1821), French politician, was born
in Lyons on the nth of January 1771 of a well-to-do mercantile
family. He was educated in Lyons, and from an early age was
imbued with royalist principles. He actively supported by
voice, pen and musket his native town in its resistance to the
Convention; and when Lyons fell, in October 1793, Jordan fled.
From Switzerland he passed in six months to England, where he
formed acquaintances with other French exiles and with pro-
minent British statesmen, and imbibed a lasting admiration for
the English Constitution. In 1706 he returned to France, and
next year he was sent by Lyons as a deputy to the Council of
Five Hundred. There his eloquence won him consideration.
He earnestly supported what he felt to be true freedom, especially
in matters of religious worship, though the energetic appeal on
behalf of church bells in his Rapport sur la liberti des cuUes
procured him the sobriquet of Jordan-Cloche. Proscribed at
the coup d'itat of the 18th Fructidor (4th of September 1 797) he
escaped to Basel. Thence he went to Germany, where he met
Goethe. Back again in France by 1800, he boldly published in
1802 his Vrai sens du vote national pour le consulat a vie, in which
he exposed the ambitious schemes of Bonaparte. He was unmo-
lested, however, and during the First Empire lived in literary
retirement at Lyons with his wife and family, producing for the
Lyons academy occasional papers on the Influence rlciproque de
I'tloquenee sur la Revolution et de la Revolution sur I eloquence;
£tudes sur Klopslock, &c. At the restoration in 1814 he again
emerged into public life. By Louis XVIII. he was ennobled
and named a councillor of state; and from 1816 he sat in the
chamber of deputies as representative of Ain. At first he sup-
ported the ministry, but when they began to show signs of re-
action he separated from them, and gradually came to be at
the head of the constitutional opposition. His speeches in the
chamber were always eloquent and powerful. Though warned
by failing health to resign, Camille Jordan lemained at his post
till his death at Paris, on the 19th of May 1821.
To his pen we owe Lettre a U. LnmouretU (1791); Histoire de la
conversion d'une dame Parisienne (1792) : La Lot et la religion vengees
(1792); Adresse d ses commettants sur la revolution du d September
*797 (1797); Sur Us troubles de Lyon (1818); La Session de 1817
(1&18). His DlscouTS were collected in 1818. The " Fragments
choUU." and translations from the German, were published in
L'Abeille franoaise. Besides the various histories of the time, see
further details vol. x. of the Revue encyclopidique; a paper on
Jordan and Madame de Stael. by C. A. Sainte-Beuve, in the Revme
des deux mondes for March 1868 and R. Boubee, " Camille Jordan
a Weimar," in the Correspondent (1901), ccv. 718-738 and 948-970.
JORDAN, DOROTHEA (1762-1816), Irish actress, was born
near Waterford, Ireland, in 1762. Her mother, Grace Phillips,
at one time known as Mrs Frances, was a Dublin actress. Her
father, whose name was Bland, was according to one account an
army captain, but more probably a stage hand. Dorothy
Jordan made her first appearance on the stage in 1777 in Dublin
JORDAN, X.— JORDAN
as Phoebe in As You Like It. After acting elsewhere in Ireland
she appeared in 1782 at Leeds, and subsequently at other
Yorkshire towns, in a variety of parts, including Lady Teazle.
It was at this time that she began calling herself Mrs Jordan.
In 1785 she made her first London appearance at Drury Lane as
Peggy in A Country Girl. Before the end of her first season she
bad become an established public favourite, her acting in comedy
being declared second only to that of Kitty Clive. Her engage-
ment at Drury Lane lasted till 1809, and she played a large
variety of parts. . But gradually it came to be recognized that
her special talent lay in comedy, her Lady Teazle, Rosalind and
Imogen being specially liked, and such " breeches " parts as
William in Rosina. During the rebuilding of Drury Lane she
played at the Haymarket; she transferred her services in 181 1
to Covent Garden. Here, in 181 4, she made her last appearance
on the London stage, and the following year, at Margate, retired
altogether. Mrs Jordan's private life was one of the scandals
of the period. She had a daughter by her first manager, in Ire-
land, and four children by Sir Richard Ford, whose name she
bore for some years. In 1700 she became -the mistress of the
duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), and bore him ten
children, who were ennobled under the name of Fits Clarence, the
eldest being created earl of Munster. In 1811 they separated
by mutual consent, Mrs Jordan being granted a liberal allowance.
In 1815 she went abroad. According to one story she was in
danger of imprisonment for debt. If so, the debt must have been
incurred on behalf of others— probably her relations, who appear
to have been continually borrowing from her—for her own per-
sonal debts were very much more than covered by her savings.
She is generally understood to have died at St Cloud, near Paris,
on the 3rd of July 1816, but the story that under an assumed
name she lived for seven years after that date in England finds
some credence.
See James Boaden. Life of Mrs Jordan (1831); The Croat IUegiH-
mates (1830); John Genest, Account of the Stage; Tate Wilkinson,
The Wandering Patentee; Memoirs and Amorous Adventures by Sea
and Land oj King William IV. (1830); The Georgian Era (1838).
JORDAN, THOMAS (1612 ?-i68 5 ), English poet and pam-
phleteer, was born in London and started life as an actor at the
Red Bull theatre in Clerkenwcll. He published in 1637 his first
volume of poems, entitled Pocticall Varieties, and in the same year
appeared A Pill to Purge Melancholy. In 1630 he recited one of
his poems before King Charles I., and from this time forward
Jordan's output in verse and prose was continuous and prolific.
He freely borrowed from other authors, and frequently re-issued
his own writings under new names. During the troubles between
the king and the parliament he wrote a number of Royalist
pamphlets, the first of which, A Medicine jor the Times, or an
Antidote against F actio tu, appeared in 1641. Dedications, occa-
sional verses, prologues and epilogues to plays poured from his
pen. Many volumes of his poems bear no date, and they were
probably written during the Commonwealth. At the Restoration
he eulogized Monk, produced a masque at the entertainment of
the general in the city of London and wrote pamphlets in his
support. He then for some years devoted his chief attention to
writing plays, in at least one of which, Money is an Ass, he himself
played a part when it was produced in 1668. In 1671 he was
appointed laureate to the city of London; from this date till
his death in 1685 he annually composed a panegyric on the lord
mayor, and arranged the pageantry of the lord mayor's shows,
which he celebrated in verse under such titles as Condon
Triumphant, or the City in Jollity and Splendour (1672), or
London in Luster, Projecting many BrigfU Beams of Triumph
(1670). Many volumes of these curious productions are pre-
served in the British Museum.
In addition to his numerous printed works, of which perhaps
A Royal Arbour of Loyall Poesie (1664) and A Nursery of Novelties in
Variety of Poetry are most deserving of mention, several volumes of
his poems exist in manuscript. W. C. Hazlitt and other 19th-century
critics found more merit in Jordan's, writings than was allowed
by hit contemporaries, who Cor the most part scornfully referred to
his voluminous productions as commonplace and dull.
See Gerard Langbaine, Account of the English Dramatic Poets
(1691) ; David Eraldne Baker, Biographia Dnmatica (4 vols., 1812);
509
W. C. Haxfitt, Handbook to the Popular, Poetical and Dramatic Litera-
ture of Great Britain Q867) ; F. W. Fairholt, Lord Mayors' Pageants
(Percy Society, 1843;, containing a memoir of Thomas Jordan;
John Gough Nichols, London Pageants (1831).
JORDAN, WILHBUf (1810-1904), German poet and novelist,
was born at Insterburg in East Prussia on the 8th of February
18 19. He studied, first theology and then philosophy and
natural science, at the universities of Konigsberg and Berlin.
He settled in Leipzig as a journalist; but the democratic views
expressed in some essays and the volumes of poems Glocke und
Kanone (1481) and Irdiscke Phantasien (1842) led to his expulsion
from Saxony in 1846. He next engaged in literary and tutorial
work in Bremen, and on the outbreak of the revolution, in Feb-
ruary 1848, was sent to Paris, as correspondent of the Bremer
Zcitung. He almost immediately, however, returned to Ger-
many and, throwing himself into the political fray in Berlin,
was elected member for Frcienwalde, in the first German parlia-
ment at Frankfort-on-Main. For a short while he sided with
the Left, but soon joined the party of von Gagern. On a vote
having been passed for the establishment of a German navy, he
was appointed secretary of the committee to deal wjth the whole
question, and was subsequently made ministerial councillor
{Mtnisterialrai) in the naval department of the government.
The naval project was abandoned, Jordan was pensioned and
afterwards resided at Frankfort-on-Main until his death on the
25th of June 1004, devoting himself to literary work, acting as
his own publisher, and producing numerous poems, novels,
dramas and translations.
JORDAN (the down-comer; Arab. esh-Sherfa, the watering-
place), the only river of Palestine and one of the most remark-
able in the world. It flows from north to south in a deep
trough-like valley, the Aulon of the Greeks and Ghdr of the
Arabs, which is usually believed to follow the line of a fault or
fracture of the earth's crust. Most geologists hold that the valley
is part of an old sea-bed, traces of which remain in numerous
shingle-banks and beach-levels. This, they say, once extended
to the Red Sea and even over N.E. Africa. Shrinkage caused
the pelagic limestone bottom to be upheaved in two ridges,
between which occurred a long fracture, which can now be traced
from Coelcsyria down the Wadi Arabia to the Gulf of Akaba.
The Jordan valley in its lower part keeps about the old level
of the sea-bottom and is therefore a remnant of the Miocene
world. This theory, however, is not universally accepted, some
authorities preferring to assume a succession of more strictly
local elevations and depressions, connected with the recent
volcanic activity of the Jaulan and Lija districts on the east
bank, which brought the contours finally to their actual form.
In any case the number of distinct sea-beaches seems to imply
a succession of convulsive changes, more recent than the great
Miocene* upheaval, which are responsible for the shrinkage of
the water into the three isolated pans now found. For more
than two-thirds of its course the Jordan lies below the level of
the sea. It has never been navigable, no important town has
ever been built on its banks, and it runs into an inland sea which
has no port and Is destitute of aquatic life. Throughout history
it has exerted a separatist influence, roughly dividing the settled
from the nomadic populations; and the crossing of Jordan, one
way or the other, was always an event in the history of Israel.
In Hebrew times its valley was regarded as a " wilderness " and,
except in the Roman era, seems always to have been as sparsely
inhabited as now. From iu sources to the Dead Sea it rushes
5io JORDANES
down a continuous inclined plane, broken here and there by
rapids and small falls; between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead
Sea its sinuosity is so great that in a direct distance of 65 m.
it traverses at least 200 m. The mean fall is about 9 ft. in the
mile. The Jordan has two great sources, one in Tell el-Kadi
(Dan) whence springs the Nahr Leddan, a stream 12 ft. broad
at its birth; the other at Banias (anc. Paneas, Caesarea-Philippi),
tome 4 m. N., where the Nahr Banias issues from a cave, about
30 ft. broad. But two longer streams with less water contest
their daim, the Nahr Barrighit from Coclesyria, which rises
near the springs of the Litany, and the Nahr Hasbany from
Hcrmon. The four streams unite below the fortress of Banias,
which once held the gate of the valley, and flow into a marshy
tract now called Huleh (Semechonitis, and perhaps Merom of
Joshua. There the Jordan begins to fall below sea-level, rushing
down 680 ft. in 9 m. to a delta, which opens into the Sea of
Galilee. Thereafter it follows a valley which is usually not above
4 m. broad, but opens out twice into the small plains of Bethshan
and Jericho. The river actually flows in a depression, the Zor,
from a quarter to 2 m. wide, which it has hollowed out for
itself in the bed of the Ghor. During the rainy season (January
and February), when the Jordan overflows its banks, the Zor
is flooded, but when the water falls it produces rich crops. The
floor of the Ghor falls gently to the Zor, and is intersected by
deep channels, which have been cut by the small streams and
winter torrents that traverse it on their way to the Jordan. As
far south as Kurn Surtabeh most of the valley is fertile* and even
between that point and the Dead Sea there are several well-
watered oases. In summer the heat in the Ghor is intense,
1 xo° F. in the shade, but in winter the temperature falls to 40 ,
and sometimes to 32 at night. During the seasons of rain and
melting snow the river is very full, and liable to freshets. After
twelve hours' rain it has been known to rise from 4 to 5 ft.,
and to fall as rapidly. In 1257 the Jordan was dammed up
for several hours by a landslip, probably due to heavy rain. On
leaving the Sea of Galilee the water is quite clear, but it soon
assumes a tawny colour from the soft marl which it washes away
from its banks and deposits in the Dead Sea. On the whole it is
an unpleasant foul stream running between poisonous banks,
and as such it seems to have been regarded by the Jews and other
Syrians. The Hebrew poets did not sing ita praises, and others
compared it unfavourably with the clear rivers of Damascus.
The clay of the valley was used for brickmaking, and Solomon
established brassfoundries there. From crusading times to this
day it has grown sugar-cane. In Roman times it had extensive
palm-groves and some small towns (e.g. Livias or Julias opposite
Jericho) and villages. The Jordan is crossed by two stone
bridges— one north of Lake Huleh, the other between that lake
and the Sea of Galilee-^and by a wooden bridge on the road
from Jerusalem to Gilcad and Moab. During the Roman
period, and almost to the end of the Arab supremacy, there were
bridges on all the great lines of communication between eastern
and western Palestine, and ferries at other places. The depth of
water varies greatly with the season. When not in flood the
river is often fordable, and between the Sea of Galilee and the
Dead Sea there are then more than fifty fords— some of them of
historic interest. The only difficulty is occasioned by the erratic
zigsag current. The natural products of the Jordan valley
—a tropical oasis sunk in the temperate zone, and overhung by
Alpine Hcrmon — are unique. Papyrus grows in Lake Huleh,
and rice and cereals thrive on its shores, whilst below the Sea of
Galilee the vegetation is almost tropical. The flora and fauna
present a large infusion of Ethiopian types; and the fish, with
which the river is abundantly stocked, have a great affinity with
those of the rivers and lakes of east Africa. Ere the Jordan
enters the Dead Sea, its valley has become very barren and for-
bidding. It reaches the lake at a minus level of 1200 ft., the
depression continuing downwards to twice that depth in the
bed of the Dead Sea. It receives two affluents, with perennial
waters, on the left, the Yannuk (Hieromax) which flows in from
the volcanic Jaulan a little south of the Sea of Galilee, and the
Zerka (Jabbok) which comes from the Belka district to a point
more than half-way down the lower course. On the right the
Jalud descends from the plain of Esdraelon to near Betsan,
and the Far'a from near Nablus. Various salt springs rise in
the lower valley. The rest of the tributaries are wadis, dry
except after rains.
Such human life as may be found in the valley now is mainly
migratory. The Samaritan villagers use it in winter as pasture-
ground, and, with the Circassians and Arabs of the east bank,
cultivate plots here and there. They retire on the approach of
summer. Jericho is the only considerable settlement in the
lower valley, and it lies some distance west of the stream on
the lower slopes of the Judaean heights.
See W. F. Lynch, Narrative of the U.S. Expedition, Ac. (1849):
H. B. Tristram, Land of Israel (1865) ; J. Macgrcgor. Rob Roy on ike
Jordan (1870); A. Neubauer, La Gcographie du Talmud (1868);
E. Robinson, Physical Geography of the Holy Land (1865); E. HuU,
Mount Stir, Ac. (1885), and Memotr on the Geology of Arabia Petraee,
&c. (1886); G. A. Smith, Hist. Geography of the Holy Land (1894):
W. Libbey and F. E. Hoskins, The Jordan Valley, &c. (1905). See
also Palestine. (C. W. W.; D. G. H.)
JORDANES, 1 the historian of the Gothic nation, flourished
about the middle of the 6th century. All that we certainly know
about his life is contained in three sentences of his history of the
Goths (cap. 50), from which, among other particulars as to the
history of his family, we learn that his grandfather Paria was
notary to Candac, the chief of a confederation of Alans and other
tribes settled during the latter half of the 5th century on the south
of the Danube in the provinces which are now Bulgaria and the
Dobrudscha. Jordanes himself was the notary of Candac's
nephew, the Gothic chief Gunthigis, until he took the vows of *
monk. This, according to the manner of speaking of that day,
is the meaning of his words ante conversionem meant, though it is
quite possible that he may at the same time have renounced
the Arian creed of his forefathers, which it is clear tha,t he no
longer held when he wrote his Gothic history. The Gdica of
Jordanes shows Gothic sympathies; but these are probably due
to an imitation of the tone of Cassiodorus, from whom he draws
practically all his material. He was not himself a Goth, belong-
ing to a confederation of Germanic tribes, embracing Alans and
Scyrians, which had come under the influence of the Ostrogoths
settled on the lower Danube; and his own sympathies are those
of a member of this confederation. He is accordingly friendly to
the Goths, even apart from the influence of Cassiodorus; but he is
also prepossessed in favour of the eastern emperors in whose terri-
tories this confederation lived and whose subject he himself was.
This makes him an impartial authority on the last days of the
Ostrogoths. At the same time, living in Mocsia, he is restricted
in his outlook to Danubian affairs. He has little to say of *he
inner history and policy of the kingdom of Theodoric: his inter-
ests He, as Mommsen says, within a triangle of which the three
points are Sirmium, Larissa and Constantinople. Finally, con-
nected as he was with the Alans, he shows himself friendly to
them, whenever they enter into his narrative.
We pass from the extremely shadowy personality of Jordanes
to the more interesting question of his works.
1. The Romana i or, as he himself calls it, De sumnta Umponm
vel origine actibuSque genlis Romanorum, was composed in 551.
It was begun before, but published after, the Getica. It is a
sketch of the history of the world from the creation, based on
Jerome, the epitome of Florus, Orosius and the ecclesiastical
history of Socrates. There is a curious reference to Iamblichus,
apparently the neo-platonist philosopher, whose name Jordanes,
being, as he says himself, agrammatus, inserts by way of a
flourish. The work is only of any value for the century 450-
550, when Jordanes is dealing with recent history. It is merely
a hasty compilation intended to stand side by side with the
Getica*
2. The other work of Jordanes commonly called De rebus
Gdicis or Getica, was styled by himself De origine actibuspte
1 The evidence of MSS. is, overwhelming against the form Jor-
nandes. The MSS. exhibit Jordanisor Jordamus; but these are only
Vulgar-Latin spellings of Jordanes.
* The terms of the dedication of this book to a certain VigiKua
make it impowible that th« pope (538-555) of that name is meant.
JORDANES
Getorum, and was also written in 5$i. He informs us that while
he was engaged upon the Romana a friend named Castalius
invited him to compress into one small treatise the twelve books
— now lost—of the senator Cassiodorus, on The Origin and Actions
of the Goths. Jordanes professes to have had the work of Cassio-
dorus in bis hands for but three days, and to reproduce the sense
not the words, but bis book, short as it is, evidently contains
long verbatim extracts from the earlier author, and it may be
suspected that the story of the triduana lectio and the apology
q%anms verba non rccolo, possibly even the friendly invitation
of Castalius, are mere blinds to cover his own entire want of
originality. This suspicion is strengthened by the fact (dis-
covered by von Sybel) that even the very preface to bis book is
taken almost word for word from Rufinus's translation of Origen's
commentary on the epistle to the Romans. There is no doubt,
even on Jordanes' own statements, that his work is based upon
that of Cassiodorus, and that any historical worth which it
possesses is due to that fact. Cassiodorus was one of the very
few men who, Roman by birth and sympathies, could yet
appreciate the greatness of the barbarians by whom the empire
was overthrown. The chief adviser of Theodoric, the East
Gothic king in Italy, be accepted with ardour that monarch's
great scheme, if indeed, he did not himself originally suggest
it, of welding Roman and Goth together into one harmonious
state which should preserve the social refinement and the
intellectual culture of the Latin-speaking races without losing
the hardy virtues of their Teutonic conquerors. To this aim
everything in the political life of Cassiodorus was subservient,
and this aim he evidently kept before him in his Gothic history.
But in writing that history Cassiodorus was himself indebted
to the work of a certain Ablabius. It was Ablabius, apparently,
who had first used the Gothic sagas (prisca carmina); it was he
who had constructed the stem of the Amals. Whether he was a
Greek, a Roman or a Goth we do not know; nor can we say when
he wrote, though bis work may be dated conjecturally in the
early part of the reign of Theodoric the Great. We can only
say that he wrote on the origin and history of the Goths, using
both Gothic saga and Greek sources; and that if Jordanes used
Cassiodorus, Cassiodorus used, if to a less extent, the work of
Ablabius.
Cassiodorus began bis work, at the request of Theodoric, and
therefore before 5*6: it was finished by 533 At the root of
the work lies a theory, whencesoever derived, which identified
the Goths with the Scythians, whose country Darius Hystaspes
invaded, and with the Getae of Dacia, whom Trajan conquered.
This double identification enabled Cassiodorus to bring the
favoured race into line with the peoples of classical antiquity, to
interweave with their history stories about Hercules and the
Amazons, to make them invade Egypt, to claim for them a share
in the wisdom of the semi-mythical Scythian philosopher
Zamolxis. He was thus able with some show of plausibility
to represent the Goths as " wiser than all the other barbarians
and almost like the Greeks " (J°rd., De reb. Get., cap. v.), and
to send a son of the Gothic king Telephus to fight at the siege of
Troy, with the ancestors of the Romans. All this we can now
perceive to have no relation to history, but at the time it may
have made the subjugation of the Roman less bitter to feel that
he was not after all bowing down before a race of barbarian up-
starts, but that his Amal sovereign was as firmly rooted in classi-
cal antiquity as any Julius or Claudius who ever wore the purple.
In the eighteen years which elapsed between 533 and the com-
position of thtGetica of Jordanes, great events, most disastrous for
the Romano-Gothic monarchy of Theodoric, had taken place. It
was no longer possible to write as if the whole civilization of the
Western world would sit down contentedly under the shadow of
East Gothic dominion and Amal sovereignty. And, moreover,
the instincts of Jordanes, as a subject of the Eastern Empire, pre-
disposed him to flatter the sacred majesty of Justinian, by whose
victorious arms the overthrow of the barbarian kingdom in
Italy had been effected. Hence we perceive two currents of
tendency in the Getica. On the one hand, as a transcriber of
the pbilo-Goth Cassiodorus, he magnifies the race of Alaric and
5"
Theodoric, and claims for them their full share, perhaps more
than their full share, of glory in the past. On the other hand he
speaks of the great anti-Teuton emperor Justinian, and of his
reversal of the German conquests of the 5th century, in language
which would certainly have grated on the ears of Totila and his
heroes. When Ravenna is taken, and Vitigis carried into cap-
tivity, Jordanes almost exults in the fact that " the nobility of
the Amals and the illustrious offspring of so many mighty men
have surrendered to a yet more illustrious prince and a yet
mightier general, whose fame shall not grow dim through all the
centuries." (Getica, lx. $ 3 15).
This laudation, both of the Goths and of their Byzantine
conquerors, may perhaps help us to understand the motive
with which the Getica was written. In the year 551 Germanus,
nephew of Justinian, accompanied by his bride, Matasuntha,
grand-daughter of Theodoric, set forth to reconquer Italy for
the empire. His early death prevented any schemes for a re-
vived Romano-Gothic kingdom which may have been based on
his personality. His widow, however, bore a posthumous child,
also named Germanus, of whom Jordanes speaks (cap. 60) as
" blending the blood of the Anicii and the Amals, and furnishing
a hope under the divine blessing of one day uniting their glories."
This younger Germanus did nothing in after life to realize these
anticipations; but the somewhat pointed way in which his name
and his mother's name are mentioned by Jordanes lends some
probability to the view that he hoped for the child's succession
to the Eastern Empire, and the final reconciliation of the Goths
and Romans in the person of a Gotho-Roman emperor.
The De rebus Geticis falls naturally into four parts. The first
(chs. i.-xiii.) commences with a geographical description of the three
quarters of the world, and in more detail of Britain and Scanzia
(Sweden), from which the Goths under their king Berig migrated to
the southern coast of the Baltic Their migration across what has
since been called Lithuania to the shores of the Euxine, and their
differentiation into Visigoths and Ostrogoths, arc nest described.
Chs. v.-xiii. contain an account of the intrusive Geto-Scythian ele-
ment before alluded to.
The second section (chs. xiv.-xxiv.) returns to the true history of
the Gothic nation, sets forth the genealogy of the Amal kings, and
describes the inroads of the Goths into the Roman Empire in the
3rd century, with the foundation and the overthrow of the great
but somewhat shadowy kingdom of Hermanric.
""* -- • >-*-- « •• history of the West
G ifall of the Gothic
ki he best part of this
se n chapters devoted
to he Mauriac plains.
H t from Cassiodorus,
wl with his narrative
la; ebrated expression
ce er from the suave
m i notary Jordanes,
bi st found utterance
th
history of the East
G st overthrow of the
G fourth section are
in me valuable details
as -elling in the region
of te Vulnlas, who is
sa x>k closes with the
al! itinian as the con-
<l l
of authors besides
G Mn to Cassiodorus.
It e can hold Jordanes
to ommsen says, the
G\ , kisloriae Colkicae
a
anes, every author
wl ensure. When he
is „. sometimes scarcely
grammatical. There are awkward gaps in his narrative and state-
ments inconsistent with each other. He quotes, as if he were
familiarly acquainted with their writings, a number of Greek and
Roman writers, of whom it is almost certain that he had not read
more than one or two. At the same time he does not quote the
chronicler Marcellinus, from whom he has copied verbatim the
history of the deposition of Augustulus. All these faults make
him a peculiarly unsatisfactory authority where we cannot check
his statements t>y those of other authors. It may, however, be
pleaded in extenuation that he is professedly a transcriber, and, if
**
JORDANUS— JORIS
a txaaweriber m peculiarly n afa vo ur able
He has also *r-»arrf w£a ul much from the in-
l>:s. B-t »xi-^g has reafiy been more unfortunate
- 3 ^tir^t'aef xsAvrisertSaaclKestremeprecioii**
., "Ar *£ — „■ ~rr^z\-n *s it* ae has smjaj s id to as. The Teutonic
^ r ~ ^ ^" *_-» ar^:** te svcords nave in the course ol centuries
w -^gf^-Tia je w t.TiTK Tke battle in the Maariac plains
*]v" rc slv uir scur Kjcorian, is now seen to have had
•_^-sac? jb tie *«r-tJO of the world. And thus the
^r * a fca*-*£acas«a Gothic ■nook has been forced
ZLze, Mtamm. mc* r^ahry with the finished productions
^^-^et* ji c. MB a -aT aar i ^ ai i^ . No wonder that it
.-^-Ka Vads tus v-th a3 its lanlts the Celico of
.jofc.n«« <«s* tc*s* its place side by side with the
* Tacevs as a chief stMice of information
of thought of our
'* 'V~iw ,-s=»aVsi «fiS» is that of Mommsen On Mon.
. .-1.% -*-*•. '■rta.-* saa^w e u Ve s the older editions,
* "«*t K-* ''J*m« M amai a if V String, wr. ItaL The
~ ^ -* *«.-tvre. V$^ «-ncm ta Germany, probably in
_ -.. * > .-v«-zAe« a the fire at Mocamsen's house.
\^ * ~»*e ac* ?Se Vatican*** Palatums of the
-^ -. • v Tv-«n*x» M5^ «f the ath.
_ . .-f ^ xs» » «■*« ;« imtAmi Jmdanis (1838);
.» >-* <»•»► „m*b*m «t Osn m aWam interctdai
\o V.iPtoc % r>*r Unsafe *Vs Konigthums
-"'*- * * * -TV r*«ff aV Gcrssaat*, vol. ii.
... ^ «*.** *- Ckrvstadt-Lateinischen LiUra-
:- _ . *.»*>*.% * , > » r» h ■ — «i GnrHrfcrnjaW/ea t'm
j? - **t :mt asavattfcsctaoa of Mommsen to his
-* (T-H.;E.Br.)
-«* CaMLan} 0^ 13*1-1330), French
^bT-*-*? *** «?»*wtr te Asia, was perhaps born
•"" % . v* >vxtst «f Toulouse. In 130a he
\^.-< *** - -1 * *"*» Ttnaaas of Tolentino, via
*~ >,:*-• ^^ *a$y alt 1311 that we definitely
"" jt •*-vt wac-w a* the company of the saihe
"* 1. * **** *^»cisca» ausstonaries on their
- ~ ^MhWtWaaat Tana in Sabette island,
'— .-. ^* Vc\toJws* conpanions ("the four
"* * v "* "T* 1 .!? ^* 06fcatt fanaticism (April 7,
^ ^■k**'* wtcfcwi aoate time at Baruch in
■L x.^^^*««*MT,a*datSnaK(?)nearSurat;
.. , . v . •> * a*ct\ r\rsia he wrote two letters
\ ^>v * 0<«fc vCV**b*r i», 1321), the second
*■* ' ,**» ^ Vt^a^-^tacribing the progress of
!1> * s ^» - v> * ^**«» ^ learn that Roman
^~" -* .- * "*«* * ?T >^ , »»1 *ot only to the Bombay
^ k ^v vn*r *«uk ol the Indian peninsula,
"~ -^**^*"* " >N»*^. •* Kolam in Travancore;
^ ».r *»V^ «W* W had already started a
•***.*-* >*>»* V*n- F^» Catholic traders he
y.>w* v'* AVmiaia and Nubia)
Y -»**• y» , | g * ** > > •* inia very time, a_
- *n ^^ v <«*«<*** Latin missionaries pene-
- ^ ' -v- j;-w*i «f Jordanus, like the con-
. . * x '** $*•*** 1*306-1321), urge the
* " » k ^ ^ ** •">•* •!?•« the Indian seas.
».** v?* v>» wot earlier), probably
.V he** centre for his future
was
^*-'*
comprises the shorelands from Malabar to Cochin China; while
India Minor stretches from Sind (or perhaps from Baluchistan)
to Malabar; and India Tenia (evidently dominated by African
conceptions in his mind) includes a vast undefined coast-region
west of Baluchistan, reaching into the neighbourhood of, but
not including, Ethiopia and Prester John's domain. JordanuV
HirabUia contains the earliest dear African identification of
Prester John, and what is perhaps the first notice of the Black
Sea under that name; it refers to the author's residence in
India Major and especially at Kulam, as well as to his travels in
Armenia, north-west Persia, the Lake Van region, and Chaldaea;
and it supplies excellent descriptions of Parsee doctrines and
burial customs, of Hindu ox-worship, idol-ritual, and suttee,
and of Indian fruits, birds, animals and insects. After the 8th
of April 1330 we have no more knowledge of Bishop Jordanua.
Of Jordanus* Epistles there is only one MS., vis. Paris, 'National
Library, 5006 Lat., fol. 182, r. and v.; of the MirabiUa also one MS.
only, via. London, British Museum, Additional MSS., 19.513, fols.
3. r.-ia r. The text of the Epistles is in Qu£tif and Echard, Scrip-
tores ordinis praedicatontm, i. 549-550 (Epistle f .) ; and in Wadding,
Annates minorum, vi. 359-361 (Epistle II.) ; the text of the MirabUta
in the Paris Geog. Soc s Retueil de voyaics, iv. 1-68 (1839). The
W m-tatfted Europe about 1328,
-.^ , *** **t*aw hutching at the great
^.„ a -^axt He was appointed a bishop
. - > r<y* }** XXII, to the see of
.„> ' v^* ^^ *** new bishop of Samar-
'* >fcfc^"*-^^ ^iff m rtai was commissioned to
,jv * On** a-\W«shop ol Sultaniyah in
'_ *.** ^***vx &ttte*» was reckoned; he was
"" . * >"v-^ *.** *< With India, both east
" K ov»*«t *» fef* John. Either before
^ -*. ^ vfeiirv « Awia g a later visit to
"_ B ....^N> *rv«* »«» XvMia, which from
V v**i wihia the period 1320-
- «^m .-W Wit account of Indian
mm** *. <w*tm%, fauna and flora
m \x^rih> \^o— superior even to
>«* * ;** ladies, India Major
359-361 (Epistle I
x. s Retueil de voyaics, iv. 1-68 (il
Papal letters referring to Jordanus are in Raynalaus, Annalcs
udesiastici, 1330, {f I v. and lvii (April 8; Feb. 14). See also Sir H.
* 'of the Mirabilia with a commentary
Yule's Jordanus, a version l. ___ _,.
(Hakluyt Soc., 1863) and the same editor's Cathay, giving a version
of the EpislUs, with a commentary, &c (HalcSoc, 1866) pp. 184-185.
192-196, 225-230; F. Kunstmann, " Die Mission in Mcliapor una
Tana and ** Die Mission in Columbo " in the Historisch-politiscke
Bldtterof PhuTipsand Gorres, xxxvii. 25-38, 135-152 (Munich, 1856)4
&c ; C. R. Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, iii. 215-235.
JORIS, DAVID, the common name of Jan Jousz or Jobiszoon
(c. 1 501-1 556), Anabaptist heresiarch who called himself later Jak
van Brugge; was born in 1501 or 150, probably in Flanders,
at Ghent or Bruges. His father, Georgius Joris de Koman, other-
wise Joris van Amersfoordt,' probably a native of Bruges, was a
shopkeeper and amateur actor at Delft; from the circumstance
that he played the part of King David, his son received the name
of David, but probably not in baptism. His mother was Marytte,
daughter of Jan de Goiter, of a good family in Delft. As a child
he was clever and delicate. He seems then or later to have
acquired some tincture of learning. His first known occupation
was that of a glass-painter; in 1522 he painted windows for the
church at Enkhuizen, North Holland (the birthplace of Paul
Potter). In pursuit of his art he travelled, and is said to have
reached England; ill-health drove him homewards in 1324, in
which year he married Dirckgen Willems at Delft. In the
same year the Lutheran reformation took hold of him, and he
began to issue appeals in prose and verse against the Mass and
against the pope as antichrist. On Ascension Day 1528 he
committed an outrage on the sacrament carried in procession;
he was placed in the pillory, had his tongue bored, and was
banished from Delft for three years. He turned to the Ana-
baptists, was rebaptized in 1533, and for some years led a
wandering life. He came into relations with John 4 Lasco, and
with Menno Simons. ' Much influenced by Mtlchior Hofman,
he had no sympathy with the fanatic violence of the Munster
faction. At the Buckholdt conference in August 1536 he played
a mediating part. His mother, in 1537, suffered martyrdom as
an Anabaptist. Soon after he took up a role of bis own, having
visions and a gift of prophecy. He adapted in his own interest
the theory (constantly recurrent among mystics and innovators,
from the time of Abbot Joachim to the present day) of three dis-
pensations, the old, with its revelation of the Father, the newer
with its revelation of the Son, and the final or era of the Spirit.
Of this newest revelation Christ us David was the mouthpiece,
supervening on Christus Jesus. From the 1st of April 1544.
bringing with him some of his followers, he took up his abode in
Basel, which was to be the New Jerusalem. Here be styled
himself Jan van Brugge. His identity was unknown to the
authorities of Basel, who had no suspicion of his heresies. By
his writings he maintained his hold on his numerous followers
in Holland and Friesland. These monotonous writings, all in
Dutch, flowed in a continual stream from 1524 (though none is
JORTIN— JOSEPH
extant before 1529) and amounted to over 200 in number. His
magnum opus was 'T Wonder Botch (jn4. 154?, divided into
two parts, 1551, handsomely reprinted, divided into four parts;
both editions anonymous). Its chief claim to recognition is its
use, in the latter part, of the phrase Restitutio Christi, which
apparently suggested to Servetus his title Christianismi Restitutio
(>SS3)> In the 1 st edition is a figure of the " new man," signed
with the author's monogram, and probably drawn asa likeness of
himself; it fairly corresponds with the alleged portrait, engraved
in 1607, reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross's Pansebeia (1655),
and idealized by P. Burckhardt in 1000. Another work, K«r-
hlaringe der Sc hep penis sen (1553) treats mystically the book of
Genesis, a favourite theme with Boehrne, Swedenborg and others.
His remaining writings exhibit all that easy dribble of triumph-
ant muddiness which disciples take as depth. His wife died on
the 22nd of August,. and his own death followed on the 25th of
August 1556. He was buried, with all religious honours, in the
church of St Leonard, Basel. Three years later, Nicolas Blesdijk,
who had married his eldest -daughter Jannecke (Susanna),
but had lost confidence in Jorisz some time before his death,
denounced the dead man to the authorities of Basel. An inves-
tigation was begun in March 1550, and as the result of a convic-
tion for heresy the exhumed body of Jorisz was burned, together
with his portrait, on the 13th of May 1559. Blesdijk's Historic,
(not printed till 1642) accuses Jorisz of having plures uxores. Of
this there is no confirmation. Theoretically Jorisz regarded
polygamy as lawful; there is no proof that his theory affected
his own practice.
The first attempt at a true account of Jorisz was by Gottfried
Arnold, in his anonymous Historic (1713), pursued with much fuller
material in his Kircheu mud Ketur Historic (best ed. 1740-1742).
See also F. Nippold. in Zeitschriflfur die historische Theologie (1863,
1864, 1868); A. van der Lindc, in Altgemeine Deutsche Biographie
(1881); P. Burckhardt, Basler Biographien (1900); Hegler.in Hauck's
Realencyklopadie (1901), and the bibliography by A. van der Linde,
1867, supplemented by E. Weller, 1869. (A. Go.*)
JORTIN, JOHN (1698- 1 7 70), English theologian, the son of a
Protestant refugee from Brittany, was born in London on the
23rd of October 1698. He went to Charterhouse School,. and in
171 5 became a pensioner of Jesus College, Cambridge, where his
reputation as a Greek scholar led to his being selected to translate
certain passages from Eustathius for the notes to Pope's Homer.
In 1722 he published a small volume of Latin verse entitled Lusus
potlici. Having taken orders in 1724, he was in 1726 presented
by his college to the vicarage of Swavesey in Cambridgeshire,
which he resigned in 1730 to become preacher at a chapel-of-ease
in New Street, London. In 1731, along with some friends, he
began a publication entitled Miscellaneous Observations on Authors
Ancient and Modern, which appeared at intervals during two
years. He was Boyle lecturer in 1749. Shortly after becoming
chaplain to the bishop of London in 1762 he was appointed to
a prebendal stall of St Paul's and to the vicarage of Kensing-
ton, and in 1764 he was made archdeacon of London. He died
at Kensington on the 5th of September 1770.
The principal works of Jortin are : Discussions Concerning the Truth
of the Christum Religion ( 1 746) : Remarks on Ecclesiastical History
(1 vols. 1 75 1 -2-4); Life of Erasmus (2 vols. 17*0, 1760) founded on
tne Life by Jean Le Clcrc; and Tracts Philological Critical and
Miscellaneous (1790). A collection of his Various Works appeared in
1805-1810. All his writings display wide learning and acutencss.
He writes on theological subjects with the detachment of a thought*
fut layman, and is witty without being flippant. See John Disney's
Life of Jortin (1792).
JOSEPH, in the Old Testament, the son of the patriarch Jacob
by Rachel; the name of a tribe of Israel. Two explanations
of the name are given by the Biblical narrator (Gen. xxx. 23 (E),
24 Ul); a third, " He (God) increases," seems preferable. Un-
like the other " sons " of Jacob, Joseph is usually reckoned as two
tribes (viz. his " sons " Ephraim and Manasseh), and closely asso-
ciated with it is the small tribe of Benjamin (?.?.), which lay
immediately to the south. These three constituted the " sons "
of Rachel (the ewe), and with the "sons" of Leah (the
antelope?) are thus on a higher level than the "sons" of
Jacob's concubines. The " house of Joseph " and its offshoots
5»3
occupied the centre of Palestine from the plain of Esdraeion to
the mountain country of Benjamin, with dependencies in Bashan
and northern Gilead (see Manasseh). Practically it comprised
the northern kingdom, and the name is used in this sense in
2 Sam. xix. 20; Amos v. 6; vi. 6 (note the prominence of
Joseph in the blessings of Jacob and Moses, Gen. xlix., Deut.
xxxiii.). Originally, however, " Joseph " was more restricted,
possibly to the immediate . neighbourhood of Shechem, Us
later extension being parallel to the development of the name
Jacob. The dramatic story of the tribal ancestor is recounted
in Gen. xxxviL-1. (see Genesis). Joseph, the younger w\
envied son, is seized by his brothers at Dothan north of Shechem,
and is sold to a party of Ishmaelites or Midianites, who carry him
down to Egypt. After various vicissitudes he gains the favour
of the king of Egypt by the interpretation of a dream, and obtains
a high place in the kingdom. 1 Forced by a famine his brothers
come to buy food, and in the incidents that follow Joseph shows
his preference for his young brother Benjamin (cf. the tribal
data above). His father Jacob is invited to come to Goshen,
where a settlement is provided for the family and their flocks.
This is followed many years later by the exodus, the conquest
of Palestine, and the burial of Joseph's body in the grave at
Shechem which his father had bought.
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JOSEPH, In the New Testament, the husband of Mary, the
mother of Jesus. He is represented as a descendant of the
house of David, and his genealogy appears in two divergent
forms in Matt. i. 1*17 and Luke iii. 23-38. The latter is pro-
bably much more complete and accurate in details. The former,
obviously artificial in structure (notice 3X14 generations), traces
the Davidic descent through kings, and is governed by an apolo-
getic purpose. Of Joseph's personal- history practically nothing
is recorded in the Bible. The facts concerning him common to
the two birth-narratives (Matt, i.-ii.; Luke i.-ii.) are: (a) that
he was a descendant of David, (b) that Mary was already
betrothed to htm when she was found with child of the Holy
Ghost, and (c) that he lived at Nazareth after the birth of
Christ; but these facts are handled differently in each case. It
is noticeable that, in Matthew, Joseph is prominent (e.g. he
receives an annunciation from an angel), while in Luke's narra-
tive he is completely subordinated. Bp Gore (The Incarnation,
Bampton lecture for 1891, p. 78) points out that Matthew
narrates everything from Joseph's side, Luke from Mary's,
and infers that the narrative of the former may ultimately be
based on Joseph's account, that of the latter on Mary's. The
narratives seem to have been current (in a poetical form)
among the early Jewish-Christian community of Palestine. * At
Nazareth Joseph followed the trade of a carpenter (Matt. xlii.
55). It is probable that he had died before the public ministry
of Christ; for no mention is made of him in passages relating
to this period where the mother and brethren of Jesus are
1 Joseph's marriage with the daughter of the priest of On might
show that the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh were believed to be
half -Egyptian by descent, but it is notoriously difficult to determine
how much is of ethnological value and how much belongs to romance
(viz. that of the individual Joseph).
5H JOSEPH OF ARIMATHAEA— JOSEPH (EMPERORS)
introduced; and from John xix. 26 it is clear that lie was not
alive at the time of the Crucifixion.
Joseph was the father of several children (Matt. ziii. 55),
but according to ecclesiastical tradition by a former marriage.
The reading of Matt. i. 16, in the Sinaitic Palimpsest (Joseph
.... begat Jesus, who is called the Christ) also makes
him the natural father of Jesus, and this was the view of certain
early heretical sects, but it seems never to have been held in
orthodox Christian circles. According to various apocryphal
gospels (conveniently collected m B. H. Cowper's The Apocryphal
Gospels, i88t), when married to Mary he was a widower already
80 years of age, and the father of four sons and two daughters;
his first wife's name was Salome and she was a connexion of
the family of John the Baptist.
In the Roman Catholic Church the 10th of March has sinee
1642 been a feast in Joseph's honour. Two other festivals in his
honour have also been established (the Patronage of St Joseph,
3rd Sunday after Easter, and the Betrothal of Mary and Joseph,
33rd of January). In December 1870 St Joseph was proclaimed
Patron of the whole Church. (C H. Bo.)
JOSEPH OP ARIMATHAEA, 1 in the New Testament, a
wealthy Jew who bad been converted by Jesus Christ . He !s men-
tioned by the Four Evangelists, who are in substantial agreement
concerning him: after the Crucifixion he went to Pilate and
asked for the body of Jesus, subsequently prepared it for burial
and laid it in a tomb. There are, however, minor differences
in the accounts, which have given rise to controversy. Matthew
(xxvii. 60) says that the tomb was Joseph's own; Mark (xv. 43
seq.), Luke (xxiii. 50 scq.) say nothing of this, while John (xix.
41) simply says that the body was laid in a sepulchre " nigh at
hand." Both Mark and Luke say that Joseph was a " council-
lor " (tbcxhuuv 0ov\iVT7fi, Mark xv. 43), and the Gospel of
Peter describes him as a *' friend of Pilate and of the Lord."
This last statement is probably a late invention, and there is
considerable difficulty as to " councillor.** That Joseph was a
member of the Sanhedrin is improbable. Luke indeed, regarding
him as such, says that ha " had not consented to their counsel
and deed," but Mark (xiv. 64) says that all the Sanhedrin
" condemned him to be worthy of death." Perhaps the phrase
" noble councillor " is intended to imply merely a man of wealth
and position. Again Matthew says that Joseph was a disciple,
while Mark implies that he was not yet among the definite
adherents of Christ, and John describes him as an adherent
" secretly for fear of the Jews." Most likely he was a disciple,
but belonged only to the wider circle of adherents. The account
given in the Fourth Gospel suggests that the writer, faced with
these various difficulties, assumed a double tradition: (1) that
Joseph of Arimathaea, a wealthy disciple, buried the body of
Christ; (2) that the person in question was Joseph of Arimathaea
a " councillor," and solved the problem by substituting Nicode*
mus as the councillor; hence he describes both Joseph and
Nicode mus (xix. 39) as co-operating in the burial. Some critics
(e.g. Strauss, New Life of Jesus, ch. 96) have thrown doubt upon
the story, regarding some of the details as invented to suit the
prophecy in Isa. liii. 0, " they made his grave with the wicked,
and with the rich in his death " (for various translations, sec
Hastings's Diet. Bible, ii. 778)* But in the absence of any
reference to this prophecy in the Gospels, this view is uncon-
vincing, though the correspondence is remarkable.
The striking character of this single appearance of Joseph of
Arimathaea led to the rise of numerous legends. Thus William
of Malmesbury says that he was sent to Britain by St Philip,
and, having received a small island in Somersetshire, there
constructed " with twisted twigs " the first Christian church in
Britain— afterwards to become the Abbey of Glastonbury. The
legend says that his staff, planted in the ground, became a thorn
flowering twice a year (see Glastonbury). This tradition—
which is given only as such by Malmesbury himself— is not
confirmed, and there is no mention of it in cither Gildas or Bede.
Generally identified with RamathainvZophim, the city of
Elkanah in the hilly district of Ephraim (1 Sam. i. I), near Diotpolis
(Lydda). Sec Eutcb., OnomaUttou, 22$. I a.
Joseph also plays a large part in the various versions of the
Legend of the Holy Crail (see Gkail, The Holy).
JOSEPH I. (1678-17 11), Roman emperor, was the elder son
of the emperor Leopold I. and his third wife, Eleanora, countess
palatine, daughter of Philip William of Neuburg. Born in
Vienna on the 16th of July 1678, be was educated strictly by
Prince Dietrich Otto von Salm, and became a good linguist.
In 1687 he received the crown of Hungary, and he was elected
king of the Romans in 1600. In 1609 he married Wilhetmin*
Amalia, daughter of Duke Frederick of Brunswick-LUncburg,
by whom he had two daughters. In 1702, on the outbreak of
the War of the Spanish Succession, he saw his only military
service. He joined the imperial general Louis of Baden in the
siege of Landau. It is said that when he was advised not to go
into a place of danger he replied that those who were afraid
might retire. He succeeded his father as emperor in 1 70s. and
it was his good fortune to govern the Austrian dominions, and
to be head of the Empire during the years in which his trusted
general Prince Eugene, either acting alone in Italy or with the
duke of Marlborough in Germany and Flanders, was beating
the armies of Louis XIV. During the whole of his reign
Hungary was disturbed by the conflict with Francis Rackocxy II.,
who eventually took refuge in France. The emperor did not
himself take the field against the rebels, but he is entitled to a
large share of the credit for the restoration of his authority. He
reversed many of the pedantically authoritative measures of his
father, thus placating all opponents who could be pacified, and
he fought stoutly for what he believed to be his rights. Joseph
showed himself very independent towards the, pope, and hostile
to the Jesuits, by whom his father had been much influenced.
He had the tastes for art and music which were almost hereditary
in his family, and was an active hunter. He began the attempts
to settle the question of the Austrian inheritance by a pragmatic
sanction, which were continued by his brother Charles VI.
Joseph died in Vienna on the 17th of April 1711, of small-pox.
See F. Krones von Marchland, Crundriss der Oesterreichisehen
GeseUehte (1882): F. Wagner, Historia Josephi Caesaris (1746);
I C. Herchenhahn, Geschtckte der Retierunje Kaiser Josephs I.
(! 786-1789) : C. van Noorden, Europaiuhe GeschichUim iS.Jahrkun-
dert (1870-1882).
JOSEPH II. ( 1 741-1790), Roman emperor, eldest son of the
empress Maria Theresa and her husband Francis I., was bom on
the 13th of March 174 r, in the first stress of the War of the
Austrian Succession. Maria Theresa gave orders that he was
only to be taught as if he were amusing himself; the result was
that he acquired a habit of crude and superficial study. His
real education was given him by the writings of Voltaire and
the encyclopaedists, and by the example of Frederick the Great.
His useful training was conferred by government officials, who
were directed to instruct him in the mechanical details of the
administration of the numerous slates composing the Austrian
dominions and the Empire. In 1761 he was made a member of
the newly constituted council of stale (Staaisrcih) and began to
draw up minutes, to which he gave the name of " reveries," for
his mother to read. These papers contain the germs of his later
policy, and of all the disasters which finally overtook him. He
was a friend to religious toleration, anxious to reduce the power
of the church, to relieve the peasantry of feudal burdens, and
to remove restrictions on trade and on knowledge. So far he
did not differ from Frederick, Catherine of Russia or his own
brother and successor Leopold 11., all enlightened rulers of the
i8th<entury stamp. Where Joseph differed from great con-
temporary rulers, and where he was very close akin to the
Jacobins, was in the fanatical intensity of his bdief in the power
of the state when directed by reason, of his right to speak for
the state uncontrolled by laws, and of the reasonableness of
his own reasons. Also he bad inherited from his mother all the
belief of the house of Austria in its " august " quality, and its
claim to acquire whatever it found desirable for its power or its
profit. He was unable to understand that his philosophical
plans for the moulding of mankind could meet with pardonable
opposition. The overweening character of the man *as obvious
JOSEPH, FATHER
to Frederick, who, after their first interview in 1769, described
him as ambitious, and as capable of setting the world on fire.
The French minister Vergennes, who met Joseph when he was
travelling incognito in 1777, judged him to be " ambitious and
despotic."
Until the death of his mother in 1780 Joseph was never quite
free to follow his own instincts. After the death of his father
in 1765 he became emperor and was made co-regent by his
mother in the Austrian dominions. As emperor he had no real
power, and his mother was resolved that neither husband nor
son should ever deprive her of sovereign control in her hereditary
dominions. Joseph, by threatening to resign his place as
co-regent, could induce his mother to abate her dislike to
religious toleration. He could, and he did, place a great strain
on her patience and temper, as in the case of the first partition
of Poland and the Bavarian War of 1778, but in the last resort
the empress spoke the final word. During these wars Joseph
travelled much. He met Frederick the Great privately at
Neisse in 1769, and again at M&hrisch-Neustadt in 1770. On
the second occasion he was accompanied by Prince Kaunitz,
whose conversation with Frederick may be said to mark the
starting-point of the first partition of Poland. To this and to
every other measure which promised to extend the dominions
of his house Joseph gave hearty approval. Thus he was eager
lo enforce its claim on Bavaria upon the death of the elector
Maximilian Joseph in 1777. Iff April of that year he paid a
visit to his sister the queen of France (see Marie Antoinette),
travelling under the name of Count Falkenstcin. He was well
received, and much flattered by the encyclopaedists, but his
observations led him to predict the approaching downfall of
the French monarchy, and he was not impressed favourably by
the army or navy. In 1778 he commanded the troops collected
to oppose Frederick, who supported the rival claimant to
Bavaria. Real fighting was averted by the unwillingness of
Frederick to embark on a new war and by Maria Theresa's
determination to maintain peace. In April 1780 he paid a visit
to Catherine of Russia, against the wish of his mother.
The death of Maria Theresa on the 17th of November 1780
left Joseph free. He immediately directed his government on a
new course, full speed ahead. He proceeded to attempt to
realize his ideal of a wise despotism acting on a definite system
for the good of all. The measures of emancipation of the
peasantry which his mother had begun were carried on by him
with feverish activity. The spread of education, the seculariza-
tion of church lands, the reduction of the religious orders and
the clergy in general to complete submission to the lay state,
the promotion of unity by the compulsory use of the German
language, everything which from the point of view of 18th-
century philosophy appeared " reasonable " was undertaken
at once. He strove for administrative unity with characteristic
haste to reach results without preparation. His anti-clerical
innovations induced Pope Pius Yl. to pay him a visit in July
1782. Joseph received the pope politely, and showed himself a
good Catholic, but refused to be influenced. So many inter-
ferences with old customs began to produce unrest in all parts
of his dominions. Meanwhile he threw himself into a succession
of foreign policies all aimed at aggrandisement, and all equally
calculated to offend his neighbours— all taken up with zeal, and
dropped in discouragement. He endeavoured to get rid of
the Barrier Treaty, which debarred his Flemish subjects from
the navigation of the Scheldt; when he was opposed by France
he turned to other schemes of alliance with Russia for the
partition of Turkey and Venice. They also had to be given up
in the face of the opposition of neighbours, and in particular of
France. Then he resumed his attempts to obtain Bavaria—
this time by exchanging it for Belgium— and only provoked the
formation of the FUrstcnbund organized by the king of Prussia.
Finally he joined Russia in an attempt to pillage Turicey. It
began on his part by an unsuccessful and discreditable attempt
to surprise Belgrade in time of peace, and was followed by the
Hi-managed campaign of 1788. He accompanied his army, but
showed no capacity for war. In November he returned to
515
Vienna with mined health, and during 1789 was a dying man.
The concentration of his troops in the east gave the malcontents
of Belgium an opportunity to revolt. In Hungary the nobles
were all but in open rebellion, and in bis other states there
were peasant risings, and a revival of particularist sentiments.
Joseph was left entirely alone. His minister Kaunitz refused
to visit his sick-room, and did not see him for two years. His
brother Leopold remained at Florence. At last Joseph, worn
out and broken-hearted, recognized that his servants could not,
or would not, carry out his plans. On the 30th of January 1700
he formally withdrew all his reforms, and he died on the 20th
of February.
Joseph II. was twice married, first to Isabella, daughter of
Philip, duke of Parma, to whom he was attached. After her
death on the 27th of November 1763, a political marriage was
arranged with Josepha (d. 1767), daughter of Charles Albert,
elector of Bavaria (the emperor Charles VII.). It proved
extremely unhappy. Joseph left no children, and was succeeded
by his brother Leopold IL
Many volumes of the emperor's correspondence have been pub-
lished. Among them are Maria Tkeresia und Joseph II. Ikre
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JOSEPH, FATHER (Francois Leclerc du Tremblay)
(1577-1638), French Capuchin monk, the confidant of Richelieu,
was the eldest son of Jean Leclerc du Trcmblay, president of
the chamber of requests of the paricment of Paris, and of Marie
Motier de Lafayette. As a boy he received a careful classical
training, and in 1595 made an extended journey through Italy,
returning to take up the career of arms. He served at the siege
of Amiens in 1597, and then accompanied a special embassy to
London. In 1599 Baron de Mafflier, by which name he was
known at court, renounced the world and entered the Capuchin
monastery of Orleans. He embraced the religious life with
great ardour, and became a notable preacher and reformer.
In 1606 he aided Antoinette d 'Orleans, a nun of Fontevrault, to
found the reformed order of the FilJes du Calvaire, and wrote a
manual of devotion for the nuns. His proselytizing zeal led him
to send missionaries throughout the Huguenot centres— he had
become provincial of Tourainc in 1613. He entered politics at
the conferences of Loudun, when, as the confidant of the queen
and the papal envoy, he opposed the Gallican claims advanced
by the parlemcnt, which the princes were upholding, and suc-
ceeded in convincing them of the schismatic tendency of Galli-
canism. In 1612 he began those personal relations with
Richelieu which have indissolubly joined in history and legend
the cardinal and the " Eminence grise," relations which research
has not altogether made clear. In 1627 the monk assisted at
the siege of La Rocbelle. A purely religious reason also made
him Richelieu's ally against the Habsburgs. He had a dream of
arousing Europe lo another crusade against the Turks, and
JOSEPHINE— JOSEPHUS
ionwe of Austria mi tbe obstacle to that
pace whkh would ntke this possible. As
therefore, this modern Peter the Hermit
I at lb* diet of Regensburg (i63o)tothwarttheaggres-
the emperor, and then advised the intervention of
i Adniphus, reconciling himself to the use of Protestant
i by tbe theory that one poison would counteract another.
Than the monk becatne a war minister and, though maintaining
a personal Austerity of life, gave himself up to diplomacy and
politics. He died in i6j8, just as the cardinalate was to be
conferred upon him. The story that Richelieu visited him
when on his deathbed and roused the dying man by the words,
•* Courage, Father Joseph, we have worn Brcfeach," is apocryphal.
See Fagniex. Le Phe Josrpk H Xichdiem (1804), a work based
largely on original and unpublished sources. Father Joseph,
sccording to this b"
^ — tisv bttgraphy, ...
Richelieu in the fashion of tbe legends, whatever his moral influence
to have lectured
lieu in t! .
pay have been in strengtheiu>g^ichelieu , s hands.
JOSEPHINE (aIaiie Ross Josephine Taschek de la
Pageus) (1 763-1814), trarirrn of tbe French, was born in
the island of Martinique on the 23rd of June 1763, being the
eldest of three daughters of Joseph Tascber de la Pagerie,
lieutenant of artiheiy. Het beauty and grace, though of a
languid Crcok styit, won the affections of the young officer the
vkowle de nVauattrnmis, and, after some family complications,
she was anarried to him. Their married life was not wholly
happy, the frivolity of Josephine occasioning her husband
snotty and jealousy. Two children, Eugene and Hortense,
wee* the tmft of the union. During Josephine's second residence
in Martini q u e whither she proceeded to tend her mother,
«».\>Mt*i the hrst troubles with tbe slaves, which resulted from
lW nt*cs?*Uie action of the constituent assembly in emancipat-
** thenv She returned to her husband, who at that time
entered into political life at Paris. Her beauty and vivacity
wvs* hit aaany admirers in the salons of the capital. As the
fcvNvntfw* ran its course her husband, as an ex-noble, incurred
tfc* suspicion and hostility of the Jacobins; and his ill-success
at the hend of a French army on the Rhine led to his arrest and
*4wu4Kmv Thereafter Josephine was in a position of much
peryfcxily and some hardship, but the friendship of Barras and
v4 MfeUw* Tnllicn, to both of whom she was then much attached,
biyughl her into notice, and she was one of the queens of
faimaa society in the year 1795, when Napoleon Bonaparte's
*H\Kes to the French convention in scattering the malcontents
of the capital (13 Vendemiaire, or October 5, 170$) brought
him to the front. There is a story that she became known to
Napoleon through a visit paid to him by her son Eugene in order
to beg his help in procuring the restoration of his father's sword,
but it rests on slender foundations. In any case, it is certain
that Bonaparte, however he came to know her, was speedily
captivated by her charms. She, on her side, felt very little
affection tor the thin, impecunious and Irrepressible suitor; but
by degrees the came to acquiesce in the thought of marriage,
her hesitations, it is said, being removed by the influence of
Barras and by the nomination of Bonaparte to the command
of the army of Italy. Tbe civil marriage took place on the
oth of March 1706, two days before the bridegroom set out for
his command. He failed to induce her to go with him to Nice
and Italy.
Bonaparte's letters to Josephine during the campaign reveal
the ardour of his love, while she rarely answered them. As he
came to realise her shallowness and frivolity his passion cooled;
but at the time when be resided at Montebello (near Milan) in
1 707 ne still showed great regard for her. During his absence
In K-gypt in 1798-1799, her relations to an officer, M. Charles,
were most compromising; and Bonaparte on his return thought
of divorcing her. Her tears and the entreaties of Eugene and
Hortense availed to bring about a reconciliation; and during
the period of the consulate (1700-1804) their relations were on
the whole happy, though Napoleon's conduct now gave his
consort grave cause for concern. His brothers and sisters more
than once begged him to divorce Josephine, and it h known that.
from the time when he became first consul for life (August 180s)
with large powers over the choice of a successor, he kept open
the alternative of a divorce. Josephine's anxieties increased
on the proclamation of the Empire (May 18, 1804); and on
the 1 st of December 1804, the eve of the coronation at Notre
Dame, she gained her wish that she should be married anew to
Napoleon with religious rites. Despite her care, the emperor
procured the omission of one formality, the presence of the
parish priest; but at the coronation scene Josephine appeared
radiant with triumph over her envious relatives. The august
marriages contracted by her children Eugene and Hortense
seemed to establish her position; but her ceaseless extravagance
and, above all, the impossibility that she should bear a son
strained tbe relations between Napoleon and Josephine. She
complained of his infidelities and growing callousness. The end
came in sight after the campaign of 1800, when Napoleon caused
the announcement to be made to her that reasons of state
compelled him to divorce her. Despite all her pleadings he
held to his resolve. The most was made of the slight technical
irregularity at the marriage ceremony of the 1st of December
1804; and the marriage was declared null and void.
At her private retreat, La Malmaison, near Paris, which she
had beautified with curios and rare plants and flowers, Josephine
closed her life in dignified retirement. Napoleon more than once
came to consult her upon matters in which he valued her tact
and good sense. Her health declined early in 1814, and after
his first abdication (April it, 1814) H was dear that her end
was not far off. The emperor Alexander of Russia and Frederick
William III. of Prussia, then in Paris, requested an interview
with her. She died on the 24th of May 18 14. Her friends,
Mine de Remusat and others, pointed out that Napoleon's
good fortune deserted him after the divorce; and it is certain
that the Austrian marriage clogged him in several ways.
Josephine's influence was used on behalf of peace and moderation
both in internal and in foreign affairs. Thus she begged Napoleon
not to execute the due d'Enghien and not to embroil himself in
Spanish affairs in 1808.
See M. A. Le Normand, Mimoires historiques el secrets de Josipkine
(2 vols., 1820) ; Letlresde NapoUond Josiphine (1833) ; J. A. Aubrnas.
Hist, de Vimpiratrite Josiphine (2 vols., 1858-1899); J» Turquan.
L'Impiratrice Josiphine (2 vols., 1895-1896); F. Masson, Josiphine
(3 vols., 1899-1902); Napoleon's Letters to Josephine (1796-1812),
translated and edited by H. F. Hall (1903). Also the Memoirs cj
Mme. de Remusat and of Bausset, and P. W. Sergeant. The Empress
Josephine (1908). (J. Hl. ft.)
JOSEPHUS, FLAVIU8 (c. 37-c. 95 ?), Jewish historian and
military commander, was born in the first year of Caligula
(37-38). His father belonged to one of the noblest priestly
families, and through his mother he claimed descent from the
Asmonaean high priest Jonathan. A precocious student of the
Law, he made trial of tbe three sects of Judaism— Pharisees,
Sadducees and Essenes— before he reached the age of nineteen.
Then, having spent three years in the desert with the hermit
Banus, who was presumably an Essene, he became a Pharisee.
In 64 he went to Rome to intercede on behalf of some priests,
his friends, whom the procurator Felix had sent to render account
to Caesar for some insignificant offence. Making friends with
Alityrus, a Jewish actor, who was a favourite of Nero, Josephus
obtained an introduction to the empress Poppaea and effected
his purpose by her help. His visit to Rome enabled him to
speak from personal experience of the power of tbe Empire,
when he expostulated with the revolutionary Jews on his return
to Palestine. But they refused to listen; and he, with all the
Jews who did not fly the country, was dragged into the great
rebellion of 66. In company with two other priests, Josephus
was sent to Galilee under orders (he says) to persuade the ill-
affected to lay down their arms and return to the Roman
allegiance, which the Jewish aristocracy had not yet renounced.
Having sent his two companions back to Jerusalem, he organized
tbe forces at his disposal, and made arrangements for the
government of his province. His obvious desire to preserve
law and order excited the hostility of John of Giscala, who
endeavoured vainly to remove him as a traitor to the national
JOSHEKAN— JOSHUA
$*7
rebellion. In his defence Josephus depart* from tbef acts as narrated
in the Jewish War and represents himself as a partisan of Rome
and, therefore, as a traitor to his own people from the beginning.
4. The two books Against Apion are a defence or apology directed
against current misrepresentations of the Jews. Earlier titles are
Concerning the A ntiauUyofthe Jems or A gainst the Creeks. Apion was
the leader of the Alexandrine embassy which opposed Philo and his
companions when they appeared in behalf of the Alexandrine Jews
before Caligula. The defence which Josephus puts forward has a
permanent value and shows him at his best.
The Greek text of Josephus' works has been edited with full collec-
tion of different readings by B. Niese (Berlin, 1 887-1895). The
Teubner text by Naber u ibased on this. The translation into English
of W. Whiston has been (superficially) revised by A. R. ShiUeto
(1 880-1800). Schurer {History of the Jewish People) gives a fall
bibliography. (J. H. A. H.)
JOSHEKAN, a small province of Persia covering about 1000
sq. m. Pop. about 5000. It has a yearly revenue of about
£1200, and Is held in fief by the family of Bahrain Mirza, Muizz
ed Dowleh (d. 1883). Its chief town and the residence of the
governor used to be Joshekan-Kali, .a large village with fine
gardens, formerly famous for its carpets (kali), but now the chief
place is Maimeh, a little city with a population of 2500, situated
at an elevation of 0670 ft., about 63 m. from Isfahan in a north-
westerly direction and 13 m. south-west of Joshekan-Kali.
JOSHUA. BOOK OP, the sixth book of the Old Testament,
and the first of the group known as the "Former Prophets."
It takes its name from Joshua 1 the son of Nun, an Ephraunite
who, on the death of Moses, assumed the leadership to which he
had previously been designated by his chief (Deut. xxxi. 14 seq.,
33), and proceeded to the conquest of the land of Canaan. The
book differs from the Pentateuch or Torah in the absence of
legal matter, and in its intimate connexion with the narrative
in the books which follow. It is, however, the proper sequel
to the origins of the people as related in Genesis, to the exodus
of the Israelite tribes from Egypt, and their jouxneyings in the
wilderness. On these and also on literary grounds it is often
convenient to class the first six books of the Bible as a unit
under the term "Hexateuch." For an exhaustive detailed
study has revealed many signs of diversity of authorship which
combine to show that the book is due to the incorporation of
older material in two main redactions; one deeply imbued with
the language and thought of Deuteronomy itself (D), the other
of the post-exilic priestly circle (P) which gave the Pentateuch
its present form. That the older sources (which often prove
to be composite) are actually identical with the Yahwist or
Judaean 0) &nd the Elohist or Ephraunite (E) narratives (on
which see Genesis) is not improbable, though, especially as
regards the former, still very uncertain. In general the literary
problems are exceedingly intricate, and no attempt can be made
here to deal with them as fully as they deserve.
The Invasion.— -The book falls naturally into two main parts,
of which the first, the crossing of the Jordan and the conquest
of Palestine (i.-xii.) is mainly due to Deuteronomic compilers.
It opens with the preparations for the crossing of the Jordan and
the capture of the powerful city Jericho. Ai, near Bethel, is
taken after a temporary repulse, and Joshua proceeds to erect
an altar upon Mt Ebal (north of Shechem). For the fullness
with which the events are recorded the writers were probably
indebted to local stories.
The Israelites are at Abel-Shittim (already reached in Num. xxv. 1).
Motes is dead, and Joshua enters upon his task with the help of
the Trans jordanic tribes who have already received their territory (i).
The narrative is of the later prophetic stamp (D; cf. Deut. iii.
18-92, xi. 24, where Moses is the speaker; xxxi. 1-8), but may be
based upon an earlier and shorter record (E; vs. 1 seq., 10, ua).
l Heb. JMshua; later JishOa; Gr. 1*rofc, whence "Jesus"
In the A.V. of Heb. iv. 8; another form of the name is Hoshea
(Num. xiii. 8, 16). The name may mean " Yah(weh) is wealth, or
is (our) war-cry, or saves." The only extra-biblical notice of
Joshua is the inscription of more than doubtful genuineness given
by Procopius ( Vand. ii. 20), and mentioned also by Moses of Chorene
(Hist. Arm. i. 18). It is said to have stood at Tingis in Mauritania,
and to have borne that those who erected it had fled before 'Ii»<ro0i
6 \vrrlft. For the medieval Samaritan Book of Joshua, see T.
Tuynboll, Chronicum Samaritanum (1846); J. A. Montgomery,
The Samaritans (1907), pp. 301 sqq.
5 i6
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entirety to Individual or tribal adtJevement*. This view can be
traced in xiii. 13. xv. 63 (cf. the parallel Judges i. 21 to contrast to
v. 8), xvi. 10 (Judges i. 29), xvii. 1 1-13 (Judge* *• *7 *&*•)< and in the
refere n ces to separate tribal or family exploits: xv. 13-19, xix. 47
(cf. Judges i. 34 eeq., xviii.).
Two dosing addresses are ascribed to Joshua, one an exhorta-
tion similar to the homilies in secondary portions of Deuteronomy
Ouiii.; d. Moses in Deut. xxviti. seq., and Samuel's last address
in 1 Sam. xii.), which virtually excludes the other (xxiv.), where
Joshua assembles the tribes at Shechem (Shiloh, in the Septua-
gint) and passes under review the history of Israel from the
days of heathenism (before Abraham was brought into Canaan)
down through the oppression in Egypt, the exodus, the conquest
in Bast Jordan and the occupation of Canaan. A few otherwise
unknown details are to be found (xxiv. a, ix seq. 14). The
address (which is extremely important for its representation of
the religious conditions) is made the occasion for a solemn
covenant whereby the people agree to cleave to Yahweh alone.
This is commemorated by the erection of a stone under the oak
by the sanctuary of Yahweh (for the tree with its sacred pillar,
aee Geo. xxxv. 4 ; Judges ix. 6). The people are then dismissed,
and the book closes in ordinary narrative style with the death of
Joshua and his burial in his inheritance at Timnath-eerah in
Mt Ephraim (d. xix. 40 seq.) ; the burial of Joseph in Shechem;
and the death and burial of Eleaxar the son of Aaron In the
u hill of Phinehas."
Chapter xxiv. presupposes the complete subjection of the Canaan-
Ites and is of a late prophetic stamp. Some signs of amplification
fag. *»• 1 16. 13. 3») suggest that it was inserted by a Deuteronomic
band, evidently distinct from the author of xxiii. But elsewhere
there are traces of secondary Deuteronomic expansion and of internal
incongruities in Deuteronomic narratives; contrast xlv. 6-15 with
Joshua's extermination of the " Anakim " in xi. 21 seq.: the use of
this name with the " Philistines " of xiii. a (see Philistines), or the
conquests in xL 16-22 with the names in x. 36-43. All these
passages are now due to D; but not only is Deuteronomy itself
composite, a twofold redaction can be traced in Judges, Samuel and
Kings, thus involving the deeper literary problems of Joshua with
the historical books generally. 1 Both Joshua xxiii. and xxiv. are
closely connected with the very complicated introduction to the
era of the " judges " in Judges ii. 6 sqq., and ii. 6-9 actually resume
Sua xxiv. 28 sqq., while the Septuagint appends to the dose of
ua the beginning of the story of thud (J udgestii. 12 seq.). Both
;es L-H.S and chap, xviL-xxi. areof poet- Deuteronomic insertion,
and they represent conditions analogous to the older notices imbedded
in the later work of P (Judges i. 21, xix. 10-12, d. Joshua xv. 63;
see Judges ad fin.). Moreover, P in its turn shows elsewhere
definite indications of different periods and standpoints, and the fluid
state of the book at a late age u shown by the presence of Deutero-
nomic elements in Joshua xx.. not found in the Septuagint, and by the
numerous and often striking readings which the latter recension
presents.
Valve of ike Book.— The vajue of the book of Joshua is
primarily religious; its fervency, its conviction of the destiny of
Israel and its inculcation of the unity and greatness of the God
of Israel give expression to the philosophy of Israelite historians.
As an historical record its value must depend upon a careful
criticism of its contents in the light of biblical history and
external information. Its description of the conquest of Canaan
comes from an age when the event was a shadow of the past.
It is an ideal view of the manner in which a divinely appointed
leader guided a united people into the promised land of their
ancestors, and, after a few brid wars of extermination (x.-xii.),
died leaving the people in quiet possession of their new inherit*
ance (xi. 23; xxi. 44 seq.; xxiii. i). a On the other hand, the
earlier inhabitants were not finally subjugated until Solomon's
reign (x Kings ix. 20); Jerusalem was taken by David from the
Jebusites (2 Sam. v.); and several sites in its neighbourhood,
together with important fortresses like Gezer, Megiddo and
Taanach, were not held by Israel at the first. There are traces
1 The dose relation between what may be called the Deuteronomic
history (Joshua-Kings) and its introduction (the legal book of
Deuteronomy) independently show the difficulty of supporting the
traditional date ascribed to the latter.
• G. F. Moore (Ency. Bib., coL 2608, note 2) draws attention to
the instructive parallel furnished by the Greek legends of the Dorian
invasion of the Peloponnesus (the "return" of the Heradeidae,
the partition of the land by lot, &c).
JOSHUA 519
of other conflicting traditions representing independent tribal
efforts which were not successful, and the Israelites are even said
to live in the midst of Canaanites, intermarrying with them and
adopting their cult (Judges i.-iii. 6). From a careful consider-
ation of all the evidence, both internal and external, biblical
scholars are now almost unanimous that the more finished picture
of the Israelite invasion and settlement cannot be accepted as
a historical record for the age. It accords with this that the
elaborate tribal-lists and boundaries prove to be of greater
value for the geography than for the history of Palestine, and
the attempts to use them as evidence for the early history of
Israel have involved numerous additional difficulties and
confusion.*
The book of Joshua has ascribed to one man conquests which
are not confirmed by subsequent history. The capture of
Bethel, implied rather than described in Joshua viii., is elsewhere
the work of the Joseph tribes (Judges i. 22 sqq., d. features in the
conquest of Jericho, Joshua vi. 25). Joshua's victory in north
Palestine has its paraUel in Judges iv. at another period (see
Deborah), and Adoni-sedek of Jerusalem (Joshua x.) can
scarcdy be severed from the Adoni-bexek taken by the tribes of
Judah and Simeon (Judges L 5-7). The prominence of Joshua as
military and religious leader, and especially his connexion with
Shechem and Shiloh, have suggested that he was a hero of the
Joseph tribes of central Palestine (via. Ephraim and Manasseh).
Moreover, the traditions in Joshua viii. 30-ix. a, and Deut. xxvii.
1-8 seem to place the arrival at Mt Ebal immediately after the
crossing of the Jordan. This implies that Israel (like Jacob in
Gen. xxxii.) crossed by the Jabbok, and in fact the Wadi Fari'i
provides an easy road to Shechem, to the south-east of which
lies Julrijil; and while this is the Gilgal of Deut. xi. 30,
the battles at Jericho and Ai (Joshua ii. seq.) occur naturally
after the encampment at the southern Gilgal (near Jericho). The
alternative view (see especially Stade, Gesck. Isr. 1. 133 sqq.)
connects itself partly with the ancestor of all the tribes (Jacob,
i.e. Israel), and partly with the eponym of the Joseph tribes
whose early days were spent around Shechem, the removal of
whose bones from Egypt must have found a prominent place in
the traditions of the tribes concerned (Gen. L 25; Exod. xiii. 19;
Joshua xxiv. 32). According to one view (Stade, Wellhausen,
Guthe, &c.) only the Joseph tribes were in Egypt, and separate
tribal movements (see Judah) have been incorporated in the
growth of the tradition; the probability that the specific tradi-
tions of the Joseph tribes have been excised or subordinated finds
support in the manner in which the Judaean P has abridged and
confused the tribal lists of Ephraim and Manasseh.
The serious character of the problems of early Israelite history
can be perceived from the renewed endeavours to present an
adequate outline of the course of events; for a criticism of the
most prominent hypotheses sec Cheyne, Ency. Bib. art. " Tribes"
(col. 5209 seq.); a new theory has been more recently advanced
by E. Meyer (Die ItroelUen u. ikre Naehborxt&mme, 1006). But
Joshua as a tribal hero does not belong to the earliest phase in
the surviving traditions. He has no place in the oldest
surviving narratives of the exodus (Wellhausen, Steuernagd);
and only later sources add him to Caleb (Num. xiv. 30; the
reference in Deut. i. 38 is part of an insertion), or regard him as
the leader of all the tribes (Deut. iii. 21 , 28). As an attendant of
Moses at the tent of meeting he appears in quite secondary
passages (Exod. xxxiii. 7-1 1; Num. xi. 28). His defeat of the
Amalekites is in a narrative (Exod. xvii. 8-16) which belongs more
* The historical problems are noticed in all bfbRcal histories, and
in the commentaries on Joshua and Judges. Against the ordinary
critical view, see J. Orr, Problem of Ike 0.7*. (1905) pp. 240 seq.
This writer (on whom see A. S. Peake, The Interpreter, 1008. pp. 252
seq.) takes the book as a whole, allowance being made for " the
generalizing tendency peculiar to all summaries. His argument
that "the circumstantiality, local knowledge and evidently full
recollection of the narratives (in Joshua) give confidence in the truth
of their statements " is one which historical criticism in no field
would regard as conclusive, and his contention that a redactor
would hardly incorporate conflicting traditions in his narrative
|* if he believed they contradicted it " begs the question and
ignores Oriental literature.
JOSHUA THE STYLITE— JOSIKA
520
-tfunlhr to the wMensess of Shuc, and k associates him with
traditions o( a movement direct into south Palestine which finds
Us counterpart when the clan Cakh (**0 is artificially treated as
possessing its seats with Joshua* permission. But points of
Semblance between Joshua ihe invader and Saul the founder
of the (north) Israelite monarchy gain in weight when the tradi-
tions of both recognise the inclusion or possession of Judah, and
thus stand upon quite another plane as compared with those of
David t he founder of the Judaean dynasty. Instead of rejecting
the older stories of Joshua's conquests it may be preferable to
infer that there were radical divergences in the historical views
of the past. Consequently, the parallels between Joshua and
Jacob l«e Steucmagels Commentary, p. 150) are more signifi-
cant when the occupation of central Palestine, already implied
in the boot of Joshua, is viewed in the light of Gen. xlviii. 22,
where Jacob as conqueror (cf . the very late form of the tradition
in Jubilees xxxiv.) agrees with features in the patriarchal
narrate** which, in implying a settlement in Palestine, are
entirety distinct from those which belong to the descent into
Kn> pt v «* especially, Meyer, op. cil. pp. S27 seq., 4x4 seq., 433J
luther, ib, toS seq.). The elaborate account of the exodus
ci\t* the prevailing views which supersede other traditions of
the tMigio both of the Israelites and of the worship of Yahweh
li;<«. iv, **). Several motives have influenced its growth, 1 and
the kernel— ihe revelation of Yahweh to Moses— has been
tWxvloped until all the tribes of Israel are included and their
history as a people now begins. The old traditions of conquest
in central Palestine have similarly been extended, and have been
adapted to the now familiar view of Israelite origins. It is
this subordination of earlier tradition to other and more predom-
inating representations which probably explains the intricacy
of a book whose present text may not have been finally fixed
until, as Dillmann held, as late as about 300 B.C.
Bibliography. — See the commentaries of Dillmann, Steuernaget
ttoliinger (German), or the concise edition by H. W. Robinson in
the Century Bible; also articles on " Joshua " by G. A. Smith,
Hastings's D. B., and G. F. Moore, Eney. Bib.; Kittel in Hist, of ike
Hebrew, i. 269 sqq. ; W. H. Bennett, in Haupt's Sacred Books of the
Old Testament; Carpenter and Harford-Battersby, Comp. of
Hexoteuch, cb. xvii; S. R. Driver, Lit, of the 0. T. (8th ed., 1909).
These give further bibliographical information, for which see also the
articles on the books of the Pentateuch. (S. A. C.)
JOSHUA THE STYLITE, the reputed author of a chronicle
which narrates the history of the war between the Greeks and
Persians in 502-506, and which is one of the earliest and best
historical documents preserved to us in Syriac The work owes
Its preservation to having been incorporated in the third part
of the history of pseudo-Dionysius of Tell-Mabre, and may
probably have had a place in the second part of the Ecclesiastical
History of John of Asia, from whom (as Nau has shown) pseudo-
Dionysius copied all or most of the matter contained in his third
part. The chronicle in question is anonymous, and Nau has
shown that the note of a copyist, which was thought to assign
it to the monk Joshua of ZuVnln near Amid, more probably
refers to the compiler of the whole work in which it was incor-
porated. Anyhow the author was an eyewitness of many of
the events which he describes, and must have been living at
Edessa during the years when it suffered so severely from the
Persian War. His view of events is everywhere characterized
by his belief in overruling Providence; and as he eulogizes
Flavian II., the Chalcedonian patriarch of Antioch, in warmer
terms than those in which he praises his great Monophysite
contemporaries, Jacob of Serugh and Philoxenus of Mabbog, he
was probably an orthodox Catholic.
J
e
theme— the history of the disturbed relations between the Persian
and Greek Empires from the beginning of the reign of Kawftd I.
(489-531). which culminated in the great war of 502-506. From
October 494 to the conclusion of peace near the end of 506, the
author gives an annalistic account, with careful specification of dates,
pf the main events in Mesopotamia, the theatre of conflict — such as
the siege and capture of Amid by the Persians (502-503), their unsuc-
cessful siege of Edessa (503), and the abortive attempt of the Greeks
to recover Amid (504-505). The work was probably written a few
years after the conclusion of the war. The style is graphic and
straightforward, and the author was evidently a man of good
education and of a simple, honest mind. (N. M.)
JOSIAH (Heb. yd' shiyyakit, perhaps " Yah [web] supports "),
in the Bible, the grandson of Manasseh, and king of Judah. He
came to the throne at the age of eight, after the murder of his
predecessor Amon. The circumstances of his minority are not
recorded, nor is anything related of the Scythian inroads which
occurred in the latter half of the 7th century B.C., although
some passages in the books of Jeremiah and Zephaniah are
supposed to refer to the events. The storm which shook the
external states was favourable to the peace of Judah; the
Assyrian power was practically broken, and that of the Chaldeans
had scarcely developed into an aggressive form. Samaria thus lay
within the grasp of Josiah, who may have entertained hopes
of forming an independent power of his own. Otherwise, it is
not clear why we find him opposing himself to the Egyptian king
Necho, since the assumption that he fought as an Assyrian
vassal scarcely agrees with the profound reforming policy
ascribed to him. At all events, at the battle of Megiddo 1 be
lost both his kingdom and his life (60S B.C.), and for a few
years Judah was in the hands of Egypt (2 Kings xxiii. 29 seq.).
The chronicler gives a rather different account of the battle,
and his allusion to the dirge uttered by Jeremiah over his death
(2 Chron. xxxv. 20-25; 1 Esd. i. 32) represents the tradition
which makes this prophet the author of the book of Lamentations.
The reign of Josiah is important for the biblical account of
the great religious reforms which began in his eighteenth year,
when he manifested interest in the repair of the Temple si
Jerusalem. In the course of this work the high priest Hilkiah
discovered a "law-book" which gave rise to the liveliest
concern. The reasons for believing that this roll was substan-
tially identical with the book of Deuteronomy were already
appreciated by Jerome, Chrysostom, Theodoret and others,'
and a careful examination shows that the character of the refor-
mation which followed agrees in all its cssentiaLfeatures with
the prescriptions and exhortations of that book. (See Deutero-
nomy.) But the detailed records in 2 Kings xxii. seq. are
evidently written under the influence of the reforms themselves,
and are not contemporary (see Kings, Book of). Tbey are
further expanded, to agree with still later ideals, in 2 Chron.
xxxiv. seq. The original roll was short enough to be read at
least twice in a day (xxii. 8, 10), and hence only some portions
of Deuteronomy (or of an allied production) may be intended.
Although the character of the reforms throws remarkable light
upon the condition of religion in Judah in the time of Josiah, it
is to be observed that the writings of the contemporary prophets
(Jeremiah, Ezckiel) make it very questionable whether the
narratives are thoroughly trustworthy for the history of the
king's measures. (See further Jews, § 16.) (S. A. C.)
JOSIKA, MIKLOS [NICHOLAS], Baron (1794-1865), Hun-
garian novelist, was born on the 28th of April 1704 at Torda in
Transylvania, of aristocratic and wealthy parents. After finish-
ing the usual course of legal studies at Kolozsvir (Klausenburg),
he in 181 1 entered the army, joining a cavalry regiment, with
which he subsequently took part in the Italian campaign. On
the battlefield of Mindo (February 8, 1814) he was promoted
to the grade of lieutenant. He served in the campaign against
Napoleon, and was present at the entry of the Allied Troops
into Paris (March 31, 1814). In 1818 Josika resigned his
commission, returned to Hungary, and married his first wife
» Or " Magdolos " (Herod, ii. 159), i.e. some " Migdal " (tower)
of Judaea, not the Migdol of Exod. xiv. 2; ler. xliv. 1.
•See Zeit. f. Alttest. Wissensckaft (1902), pp. 170 seq., 312. seq^
Joum Bib. Lit. (1903), p. 50.
JOSIPPON— JOUBERT, B. C.
Elisabeth Kallai. Tbt union proving an unhappy one, Josika
parted from bis wife, settled on his estate at Szurdok in Transyl-
vania,, and devoted himself to agricultural and literary pursuits.
Drawn into the sphere of politics, be took part in the memorable
Transylvanian diet of 1834. About this time Josika first began to
attract attention as a writer of fiction. In 1836 his Abaft laid the
foundation of his literary reputation. This novel gives a vivid
picture of Transylvania in the time of Sigismund Baton. Josika
was soon afterwards elected member of the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences and of the Kisfaludy Society; of the latter he became,
ia 1841, director, and ki 184* vice-president. In 1847 he appeared
at the Transylvanian diet as second deputy for the county of
Szolnok, and zealously supported the movement for the union of
Transylvania with Hungary proper. In the same year he was
converted to Protestantism, was formally divorced from his wife,
and married Baroness Julia Podmanicaky, herself a writer of
considerable merit, with whom he lived happily until his death.
So great was Josika's literary activity that by the time of the
revolution (1848) he had already produced about sixty volumes of
romances and novels, besides numerous contributions to perio*
dicals. Both as magnate of the upper house of the Hungarian
diet and by his writings Josika aided the revolutionary move-
ment, with which he was soon personally identified, being chosen
one of the members of the committee of national defence. Con-
sequently, after the capitulation at Vilagos (Aug. 13, 1849)
be found it necessary to flee the country, and settled first at
Dresden and then, in 1850, at Brussels, where he resumed his
literary pursuits anonymously. In 1 864 he removed to Dresden,
in which city he died on the 37th of February 1865. The
romances of Josika, written somewhat after the style of Sir
Walter Scott, are chiefly of an historical and social-political
character, his materials being drawn almost entirely from the
annals of his own country. Among his more important work*
may be specially mentioned, besides Abaft — The Poet Zrinyi
(1843); The Last of the Bdtoris (1837); The Bohemians in Hungary
(1839); Esther (1853) j Francis Rdhdcxy It. (t86i);and A Vtgvdr-
iah, a tale of the time of the Transylvanian prince Bethlen Gabor,
1864. Many of Josika's novels have been translated into
German.
See K. Moenich and S. Vutkovich, Magyar IrSh Nevtdra (1876) 1
M. J6kai, " Josika Miklos Emlekezete," A Kisfaludy-Tdrsasdg Ev-
tapjai, l)j felyam, vol. Hi. (1869); G. W. Stcinacker, Ungarische
Lyriker (1874). Cf. also Josika's autobiography — EmWtirat, vol. iv.
(1865).
JOSIPPON, the name usually given to a popular chronicle of
Jewish history from Adam to the age of Titus, attributed to an
author Josippon or Joseph ben Gorion. 1 The name, though at
one time identified with that of the historian Josephus, is perhaps
a corruption of Hegcsippus, from whom (according to Tricbcr)
the author derived much of his material. The chronicle was
probably compiled in Hebrew early in the 10th century, by a
Jewish native of south Italy. The first edition was printed in
Mantua in 2476. Josippon subsequently appeared in many
forms, one of the most popular being in Yiddish (Judaeo-
German), with quaint illustrations. Though the chronicle is
more legendary than historical, it is not unlikely that some
good and even ancient sources were used by the first com-
piler, the Josippon known to us having passed through the
hands of many interpolators. The book enjoyed much vogue
in England. Peter Morvyn in 1558 translated an abbreviated
version into English, and edition after edition was called
for. Lucien Wolf has shown that the English translations
of the Bible aroused so much interest in the Jews that there
was a widespread desire to know more about them. This led
to the circulation of many editions of Josippon, which thus
formed a Ink in the chain of events which culminated in
the readmission of the Jews to England by Cromwell (I. A.)
JOSS, in the pidgin-English of the Chinese seaports, the name
given to idols and deities. It is used adjectivally in regard to
1 A prefect of Jerusalem of this name is mentioned by Josephus,
Ball. Jud. U. 20. 3.
521
many things connected with religious rites, such as " joss-house "
a temple; «• joss-stick," a sthk which when burned gives forth
a fragrant odour and is used as incense; " joss-paper," paper cut
to resemble money (and sometimes with prayers written upon it)
burned in funeral and other ceremonies. " Joss " is not a
Chinese word, and is probably a corruption of Port, deos god
applied by Portuguese navigator* in the 16th century to the idols
worshipped in the East Indies The Dutch form is joosgt
(diminutive of jeas), whence the Jrtanese dejos, and the English
yos, later y<w. The word seems to lave been carried to China
by English seamen from Batavia.
JOCT. ISAAK MARKUS (1793-1860) Jewish historical writer,
was born on the «nd of February 1793 t Bernburg, and studied
at the universities of Gftttingen and Ber: n . In Berlin he bejran
to teach, and in 1835 received the appoir men t of upper master
in the Jewish commercial school (called he Philanthropic at
Frankfort-on-the-Main. Here he remain* un til his death on
the 22nd of November i860. The work b which he is chiefly
known is Geschichte der tsraeliten sett der '& der Maccah&t
in 9 vols. (1820-18*9), which was afterwarc supplemented by
Neuere Geschichte der tsraeliten ton /£/5-*ty;(i846-i847) and
Geschichte des Judenlhums und seiner Sekten (18^-1850). He also
published an abridgment under the title Allgnd^ Geschichte
desist atiitUchen Vothes (1831-1832), and an edit^ f the Mishna
with a German translation and notes (6 vols., i&^.,gj 4 ) i>j, e
tsraetitische Annaten were edited by him from i8> to 1841 and
he contributed extensively to periodicals. '
See Zirndorf, tsaah Mqrkns Jost und seine Freum. (Cincinnati
JOTUKHEIM, or Jotun Fjeloe, a mountainou r^^ ^
southern Norway, lying between Gudbrandsdal on t. eas i an< j
Jostedalsbrae and the head of the Sogne fjord oj*j e wc$t
Within an area of about 950 sq. m. it contains the high moun i
tain in the Scandinavian Peninsula— Galdhopiggcn u f t C
— and several others but little inferior. Such are G er tj n( j
or Glitrctind (8380), and Memurutind (7066), wh* f acc
Galdhdpiggen across the northward-sloping Visdal; Kn^y^.
tind (7812) and several other peaks exceeding 7000 ft., tne
south, between lakes Gjende and Bygdin, and Skagast«j n( j
(7723) in the west of the region, above the Utladal, the, e f
summit of the magnificent Horunger. The upper parts o, e
main valleys are of characteristic form, not ending in y
mountain-walls but comparatively low and level, and bea,
lakes. The name Jotunheim (giants' home) is a mod
memorial of the mountain-dwelling giants of Norse fable; t
alternative name Jotun Fjclde was the first bestowed on t.
region, when it was explored in 1820 by the geologist Balthas*
Matthias Keilhau (1 797-1858). In modern times [the regioi
has attracted mountaineers and many visitors accustomed to
rough lodging and difficult travelling.
JOUBERT. BARTHBLEMY CATHERINE (1 769-1 709), French
general, the son of an advocate, was born at Pont de Vaux (Ain)
on the 14th of April 1769. In 1784 he ran away from school to
enlist in the artillery, but was brought back and sent to study
law at Lyons and Dijon. In 1791 he joined the volunteers of
the Ain, and was elected by his comrades successively corporal
and sergeant. In January 1792 he became sub-lieutenant, and
in November lieutenant, having in the meantime made his first
campaign with the army of Italy. In 1793 he distinguished
himself by the brilliant defence of a redoubt at the Col di Tenda,
with only thirty men against a battalion of the enemy. Wounded
and made prisoner in this affair, Joubert was released on parole
by the Austrian commander-in-chief, Devins, soon afterwards.
In 1704 he was again actively engaged, and in 1795 he rendered
such conspicuous service as to be made general of brigade. In
the campaign of 1796 the young general commanded a brigade
under Augereau, and soon attracted the special attention of
Bonaparte, who caused him to be made a general of division in
December, and repeatedly selected him for the command of
important detachments. Thus he was in charge of the retaining
force at the battle of Rivoli, and in the campaigr - *
JOUBERT, J.— JOUFFROY, J.
iU,iHLirt» of Antra) be commanded the detached left wing of
KuoopMtt'* army in Tirol, and Anight his way through the
■mxtutaits to rejoin hb chief in Styria. He subsequently held
wl¥m commands in Holland. »n the Rhine and in Italy, where
MP to January 1 700 he commaaded in chief. Resigning the post
2T consequence of a dispute with the civil authorities, Joubert
returned to France and married (June) Mile de Montholon.
But he was almost immediately summoned to the field again.
He took over the command in Italy from Moreau about the
middle of July, but he persuaded his predecessor to remain at the
front and was largely gui«ed by his advice. The odds against
the French troops in the dsastrous campaign of 1 709 (see French
revolutionary Wars) were too heavy. Joubert and Moreau
^ere quickly compelledto give battle by their great antagonist
Suvorov. The battle c Novi was disastrous to the French arms,
not merely because it *as a defeat, but above all because Joubert
himself was amongsuhe first to fall (Aug. 15, 1700). Joubert
died before it could * shown whether his genius was of the first
rank, but he was at W rate marked out as a future great captain
by the greatest ca**in of all ages, and his countrymen intui-
tively associated b 71 with Hoche and Marceau as a great leader
whose early deat Tdis *PP° int «d their highest hopes. After the
battle his remai* werc brought to Toulon and buried in Fort
La Malguc, ar the revolutionary government paid tribute
to his memory'y * ceremony of public mourning (Sept. 16).
A monument Joubert at Bourg was razed by order of
Louis X VIII but another memorial was afterwards erected
at Pont de V»*-
See Guilb** Notice sur la me de B. C. Joubert; Chcvrter. Li
Gtitirol Jow d'afri* *» correspondence (2nd ed. 1884)
JOUBBB JOSEPH (1754-1824), French moralist, was born
at Montig* (Correze) on the 6th of May 1 754. After completing
his studu* 1 Toulouse he spent some years there as a teacher.
His del i^ ne aUn proved unequal to the task, and after two
years sr l at home in study Joubert went to Paris at the be-
cinntng l H&- He allied himself with the chiefs of the philo-
sophic rtv » especially with Diderot, of whom he was in some
_t a sciple, but his closest friendship was with the abbe de
p ont s. In 1700 he was recalled to his native place to act
isjje paix, and carried out the duties of his office with great
£4 e t He had made the acquaintance of Mme de Beaumont
IU ,urgundian cottage where she had taken refuge from the
-jy, and it was under her inspiration that Joubert's genius
^t its best. The atmosphere of serenity and affection with
_n she surrounded him seemed necessary to the development
Jhat Sainte-Beuve calls his " esprit aill, ami du ciel et des
teurs." Her death in 1803 was a great blow to him, and his
rary activity, never great, declined from that time. In 1800,
the solicitation of Joseph de Bonald, he was made an inspector-
neral of education, and his professional duties practically
jsorbed his interests during the rest of his life. He died on the
,rd of May 1824. His manuscripts werc entrusted by his widow
.0 Chateaubriand, who published a selection of PcnsUs from
them in 1838 for private circulation. A more complete edition
was published by Joubert's nephew, Paul de Raynal, under the
title Pcnsets, cssais, maximes et correspondence (2 vols. 1842).
A selection of letters addressed to Joubert was published in 1883.
Joubert constantly strove after perfection, and the small quantity
of his work was partly due to his desire to find adequate and
luminous expression for his discriminating criticism of literature
and morals.
'^Xvavt. Castries dulundi,
r by Paul de Raynal, prefixed to the edition of 1842.
■KL KTtUS JACOBUS (1834-1000), commandant-
h -fcr >wth African Republic from 1880 to 1000, was
;uap*r * J* district of Oudtshoorn, Cape Colooy. on
.5^4. a descendant of a French Huguenot
ui^ mm after the revocation of tb<~ 1?j: - -'
Nantes by Louis XIV. Left an orphan at an early age, Joubert
migrated to the Transvaal, where he settled in the Wakker-
stroom district near Laing's Nek and the north-east angle of
NataL There be not only farmed with great success, but turned
his attention to the study of the law. The esteem in which his
shrewdness in both farming and legal affairs was held led to his
election to the Volksraad as member for Wakkerstroom early in
the sixties, Marthinus Pretorius being then in his second term of
office as president. In 1870 Joubert was again elected, and the
use to which he put his slender slock of legal knowledge secured
him the appointment of attorney-general of the republic, while
in 1875 he acted as president during the absence of T. F. Burgers
in Europe. During the first British annexation of the Transvaal,
Joubert earned for himself the reputation of a consistent irrecon-
cilable by refusing to hold office under the government, as Paul
Kruger and other prominent Boers were doing. Instead of
accepting the lucrative post offered him, he took a leading part
in creating and directing the agitation which led to the war of
1880-1881, eventually becoming, as commandant -general of the
Boer forces, a member of the triumvirate that administered the
provisional Boer government set up in December 1880 at
Heidelberg. He was in command of the Boer forces at Laing's
Nek, Ingogo, and Majuba Hill, subsequently conducting the
earlier peace negotiations that led to the conclusion of the
Pretoria Convention. In 1883 he was a candidate for the pre-
sidency of the Transvaal, but received only 1171 votes as against
3431 cast for Kruger. In 1803 he again opposed Kruger in the
contest for the presidency, standing as the representative of the
comparatively progressive section of the Boers, who wished in
some measure to redress the grievances of the Uillander popula-
tion which had grown up on the Rand. The poll (though there
is good reason for believing that the voting lists had been mani-
pulated by Kniger's agents) was declared to have resulted in
791 1 votes being cast for Kruger and 7246 for Joubert. After
a protest Joubert acquiesced in Kruger's continued presidency.
He stood again in 1808, but the Jameson raid had occurred mean*
time and the voting was 12,858 for Kruger and 2001 for Joubert.
Joubert's position had then become much weakened by accusa-
tions of treachery and of sympathy with the Uitlander agitation-
He took little part in the negotiations that culminated in the
ultimatum sent to Great Britain by Kruger in 1800, and though
he immediately assumed nominal command of the operations
on the outbreak of hostilities, he gave up toothers the chief share
in the direction of the war, through his inability or neglect to
impose upon them his own wilL His cautious nature, which had
in early life gained him the sobriquet of " Slim Piet," joined to
a lack of determination and assertiveness that characterized his
whole career, led him to act mainly on the defensive; and the
strategically offensive movements of the Boer forces, such as
Elandslaagte and Willow Grange, appear to have been neither
planned nor executed by him. As the war went on, physical
weakness led to Joubert's virtual retirement, and, though two
days earlier he was still reported as being in supreme command,
he died at Pretoria from peritonitis on the 28th of March 1000.
Sir George White, the defender of Ladysmiih, summed up
Joubert's character when he called him " a soldier and a gentle-
man, and a brave and honourable opponent."
JOUFFROY, JEAN (c. 141 2-1473), French prelate and diplo-
matist, was born at Luxeuil (Haute-Saone). After entering
the Benedictine order and teaching at the university of Paris
from 1435 to 1438, he became almoner to Philip the Good, duke
of Burgundy, who entrusted him with diplomatic missions in
France, Italy, Portugal and Castile. Jouffroy was appointed
abbot of Luxeuil (1451?) bishop of Arras (1453), &n <i P*P*1
legate (1450). At the French court his diplomatic duties
brought him to the notice of the dauphin (afterwards Louis XL).
Jouffroy entered Louis's service, and obtained a cardinal's hat
(1461), the bishopric of Albi (1462), and the abbacy of St Denis
(1464). On several occasions he was sent to Rome to negotiate
the abolition of the Pragmatic Sanction and to defend the
interests of the Angevins at Naples. Attached by King Louis
'^ »he sieur de Bcaujeu in the expedition against John V., count
JOUFFROY, T. S.— JOULE
d Armagnac, Jpuffroy was accused of taking the town of
Lectoure by treachery, and of being a party to the murder of
the count of Armagnac (1473). He died at Reuilly the same
year.
Sec C. Fierrille, Le Cardinal Jean Jouffroy et son temps (141 2-1473)
(Coutances, Paris, 1874}.
JOUFFROY, THEODORE SIMON (1706-1842), French philo-
sopher, was bom at Pontets, near Mouthe, department of Doubs.
In his tenth year, his father, a tax-gatherer, sent him to an uncle
at Pontarlier, under whom he commenced his classical studies.
At Dijon his compositions attracted the attention of an inspector,
who had him placed (1814) in the normal school, Paris. He
there came under the influence of Victor Cousin, and in 1817 he
was appointed assistant professor of philosophy at the normal
and Bourbon schools. Three years later, being thrown upon his
own resources, he began a course of lectures in his own house,
and formed literary connexions with Le Courtier fran^ais, Le
Globe, L'Encyclopidie moderne, and La Revue europienne. The
variety of his pursuits at this time carried him over the whole
field of ancient and modern literature. But he was chiefly
attracted to the philosophical system represented by Rcid and
Stewart. The application of " common sense " to the problem
of substance supplied a more satisfactory analytic for him than
the scepticism of Hume which reached him through a study of
Kant. He thus threw in his lot with the Scottish philosophy,
and his first dissertations arc, in their leading position, adapta-
tions from Reid's Inquiry. In 1826 he wrote a preface to a
translation of the Moral Philosophy of Stewart, demonstrating
the possibility of a scientific statement of the laws of conscious-
ness; in 1828 he began a translation of the works of Rcid, and in
his preface estimated the influence of Scottish criticism upon
philosophy, giving a biographical account of the movement from
Hutcheson onwards. Next year he was returned to parlcment
by the orrondisscment of Pontarlier; but the work of legislation
was ill-suited to him. Yet he attended to his duties conscien-
tiously, and ultimately broke his health in their discharge. In
1833 he was appointed professor of Greek and Roman philosophy
at the college of France and a member of the Academy of
Sciences; he then published the Milanges philosophiqucs (4th ed.
1866; Eng. trans. C. Ripley, Boston, 1835 and 1838), a collection
of fugitive papers in criticism and philosophy and history. In
them is foreshadowed all that he afterwards worked out in
metaphysics, psychology, ethics and aesthetics. He had already
demonstrated in his prefaces the possibility of a psychology apart
from physiology, of the science of the phenomena of conscious-
ness distinct from the perceptions of sense. He now classified
the mental faculties, premising that they must not be confounded
with capacities or properties of mind. They were, according to
his analysis, personal will, primitive instincts, voluntary move-
ment, natural and artificial signs, sensibility and the faculties
of intellect ; on this analytic he founded his scheme of the universe.
In 1835 ne published a Cours de droit nalurcl (4th cd. 1866),
which, for precision of statement and logical coherence, is the
roost important of his works. From the conception of a universal
order in the universe he reasons to a Supreme Being, who has
created it and who has conferred upon every man in harmony
with it the aim of his existence, leading to his highest good.
Good, he says, is the fulfilment of man's destiny, evil the thwart-
ing of it. Every man being organized in a particular way has,
of necessity, an aim, the fulfilment of which is good; and he has
faculties for accomplishing it, directed by reason. The aim is
good, however, only when reason guides it for the benefit of the
majority, but that is not absolute good. When reason rises to
the conception of universal order, when actions are submitted,
by the exercise of a sympathy working necessarily and intuitively
to the idea of the universal order, the good has been reached, the
true good, good in itself, absolute good. But he does not follow
his idea into the details of human duty, though he passes in
review fatalism, mysticism, pantheism, scepticism, egotism,
sentimental ism and rationalism. In 1835 Jouffroy's health
failed and be went to Italy, where he continued to' translate the
523
Scottish philosophers. On his return he became Kbrarian to the
university, and took the chair of recent philosophy at the faculty
of letters. He died in Paris on the 4th of February 1842. After
his death were published Nouxaux milanges pkilosopkiquet
(3rd ed. 1872) and Cours d'estkitique (3rd ed. 1875). The former
contributed nothing new to the system except a more emphatic
statement of the distinction between psychology and physiology.
The latter formulated his theory of beauty.
Jouffroy's claim to distinction rests upon his ability as an
expositor of other men's ideas. He founded no system; he con*
tributed nothing of importance to philosophical science; he
initiated nothing which has survived him. But his enthusiasm
for mental science, and his command over the language of popular
exposition, made him a great international medium for the
transfusion of ideas. He stood between Scotland and France
and Germany and France; and, though his expositions are
vitiated by loose reading of the philosophers he interpreted, be
did serviceable, even memorable work.
Sec L. Levy Bnihl. History of Modern PhOos. in France (1899).
P\jM2TW C I- Tissot » ™* J^ffroy: sa vie et ses icrits (1876)1
J. P. Damiron, Bssai sur I'kistoire de la pkilos, en France am xix*
sikde (1846).
JOUOS, Juccs, or Joccs (0. Fr. joug, from Lat. jugum, a
yoke), an instrument of punishment formerly in use in Scotland,
Holland and possibly other countries. It was an iron collar
fastened by a short chain to a wall, often of the parish church,
or to a tree. The collar was placed round the offender's neck
and fastened by a padlock. The jougs was practically a pillory.
It was used for ecclesiastical as well as civil offences. Examples
may still be seen in Scotland.
JOULB. JAMBS PRBSCOTT (1818-1889), English physicist,
was born on the 24th of December 1818, at Salford, near Man-
chester. Although he received some instruction from John
Dalton in chemistry, most of his scientific knowledge was self-
taught, and this was especially the case with regard to electricity
and electro-magnetism, the subjects in which his earliest
researches were carried out. From the first he appreciated the
importance of accurate measurement, and all through his life
the attainment of exact quantitative data was one of his chief
considerations. At the age of nineteen be invented an electro-
magnetic engine, and in the course of examining its performance
dissatisfaction with vague and arbitrary methods of specifying
electrical quantities caused him to adopt a convenient and
scientific unit, which he took to be the amount of electricity
required to decompose nine grains of water in one hour. In 1840
he was thus enabled to give a quantitative statement of the law
according to which heat is produced in a conductor by the
passage of an electric current, and in succeeding years he pub-
lished a series of valuable researches on the agency of electricity
in transformations of energy. One of these contained the first
intimation of the achievement with which his name is most
widely associated, for it was in a paper read before the British
Association at Cork in 1843, and entitled " The Calorific Effects
of Magneto-electricity and the Mechanical Value of Heat," that
he expressed the conviction that whenever mechanical force is
expended an exact equivalent of heat is always obtained. By
rotating a small electro-magnet in water, between the poles of
another magnet, and then measuring the heat developed in the
water and other parts of the machine, the current induced in
the coils, and the energy required to maintain rotation, he
calculated that the quantity of heat capable of warming one
pound of water one degree F. was equivalent to the mechanical
force which could raise 838 lb. through the distance of one foot.
At the same time he brought forward another determination
based on the heating effects observable when water is forced
through capillary tubes; the number obtained in trjis way was
770. A third method, depending on the observation of the heat
evolved by the mechanical compression of air, was employed a
year or two later, and yielded the number 708; and a fourth— the
well-known frictional one of stirring water with a sort of paddle-
wheel— yielded the result 800 (see Brit. Assoc. Report, 184s),
though 781-5 was obtained by subsequent repetitions of the
5-*
*V«r"»«*e. lb i&*> he presented to the Royal Society a
irc-tt*Mk vtxfc. together with a history of the subject, contained
<ki*us oi a k*g aeries of determinations, the result of which was
n* A good many years bier he was entrusted by the corn-
tut t«e of the British Association on standards of electric resist-
ance with the task oi deducing the mechanical equivalent of heat
from the thermal effects of electric currents. This inquiry
yielded tin 1S67) the result 783, and this Joule himself was in-
dued to regard as more accurate than his old determination by
the f rictioaal method; the latter, however, was repeated with
every precaution, and again indicated 772*55 foot-pounds as the
quantity of work that must be expended at sea-level in the
latitude of Greenwich in order to raise the temperature of one
pound of water, weighed in tacuo, from 6o° to 6i° F. Ultimately
the discrepancy was traced to an error which, not by Joule's
fault, vitiated the determination by the electrical method, for
it was found that the standard ohm, as actually defined by the
British Association committee and as used by him, was slightly
smaller than was intended; when the necessary corrections were
made the results of the two methods were almost precisely con-
gruent, and thus the figure 772-55 was vindicated. In addition,
numerous other researches stand to Joule's credit — the work done
in compressing gases and the thermal changes they undergo when
forced under pressure through small apertures (with Lord Kelvin),
the change of volume on solution, the change of temperature
produced by the longitudinal extension and compression of solids,
Ac. It was during the experiments involved by the first of these
inquiries that Joule was incidentally led to appreciate the value
of surface condensation in increasing the efficiency of the steam
engine. A new form of condenser was tested on the small engine
employed, and the results it yielded formed the starting-point
oi a series of investigations which were aided by a special grant
from the Royal Society, and were described in an elaborate
memoir presented to it on the 13th of December i860. His
results, according to Kelvin, led /directly and speedily to the
present practical method of surface-condensation, one of the
most important improvements of the steam, engine, especially
for marine use, since the days of James Watt. Joule died at
Sale on the nth of October 1889.
'• His scientific papers were collected and published by the Physical
Society of London: the first volume, which appeared in 1884,
contained the researches for which he was alone responsible, and the
second, dated 1887, those which he carried out in association with
other workers. " - -----
JOURDAN, JEAN BAPTISTS, Count (1762-1833), marshal of
France, was born at Limoges on the 29th of April 1 762, and in his
boyhood was apprenticed to a silk merchant of Lyons. In 1776
he enlisted in a French regiment to serve in the American War
of Independence, and after being invalided in 1784 he married
and set up in business at Limoges. At the outbreak of the
revolutionary wars he volunteered, and as a subaltern took part
in the first campaigns in the north of France. His rise was even
more rapid than that of Hoche and Marceau. By 1793 be had
become a general of division, and was selected by Carnot to
succeed Houchard as commander-in-chief of the Army of the
North; and on the 1 5th- 1 6th of October 1 793 he won the brilliant
and important victory of Wattignies (see French Revolu-
tionary Wars). Soon afterwards he became a " suspect," the
moderation of his political opinions and his misgivings as to the
future conduct of the war being equally distasteful to the trucu-
lent and enthusiastic Committee of Public Safely. Warned
in time by his friend Carnot and by Barere, he avoided arrest and
resumed his business as a silk-mercer in Limoges. He was soon
reinstated, and early in 1794 was appointed commander-in-chief
of the Army of Sambre-el-Meuse. After repealed attempts to
force the passage of the Sombre had failed and several severe
general actions had been fought without result, Jourdan and his
army were discouraged, but Carnot and the civil commissioners
urged the general, even with threats, to a last effort, and this
time be was successful not only in crossing the Sambre but in
winning a brilliant victory at Fleurus (June 26, 1794), the
consequence of which was the extension of. the French sphere
JOURDAN— JOURNAL
of influence to the Rhine, on which river he waged an indechuvw
campaign in 1795.
In 1796 his army formed the left wing of the advance into
Bavaria. The whole of the French forces were ordered to
advance on Vienna, Jourdan on the extreme lefl and Moreau in
the centre by the Danube valley, Bonaparte on the right by Italy
and Styria. The campaign began brilliantly, the Austrian*
under the Archduke Charles being driven back by Moreau and
Jourdan almost to the Austrian frontier. But the archduke,
slipping away from Moreau, threw his whole weight on Jourdan,
who was defeated at Amberg and Wurzburg, and forced over the
Rhine after a severe rearguard action, which cost the life of
Marceau. Moreau had to fall back in turn, and, apart from
Bonaparte's marvellous campaign in Italy, the operations of the
year were disastrous. The chief cause of failure was the vicious
plan of campaign imposed upon the generals by their government .
Jourdan was nevertheless made the scapegoat of the govern-
ment's mistakes and was not employed for two years. In those
years he became prominent as a politician and above all as the
framer of the famous conscription law of 1798. When the war
was renewed in 1 799 Jourdan was placed at the head of the army
on the Rhine, but again underwent defeat at the hands of the
archduke Charles at Stockach (March 25), and, disappointed and
broken in health, handed over the command to Massena. He
at once resumed his political duties, and was a prominent oppo-
nent of the coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire, after which be was expelled
from the Council of the Five Hundred. Soon, however, he
became formally reconciled to the new regime, and accepted
from Napoleon fresh military and civil employment. In 1800
he became inspector-general of cavalry and infantry and repre-
sentative of French interests in the Cisalpine Republic, and in
1804 he was made a marshal of France. He remained in the
new kingdom of Italy until 1806, when Joseph Bonaparte, whom
his brother made king of Naples in that year, selected Jourdan
as his military adviser. He followed Joseph into Spain in the
same capacity in 1808. But Joseph's throne had to be main-
tained by the French army, and throughout the Peninsular War
the other marshals, who depended directly upon Napoleon, paid
little heed eilher to Joseph or to Jourdan. After the battle of
Vitoria he held no important command up to the fall of the
Empire. Jourdan gave in his adhesion to the restoration
government of 1814, and though he rejoined Napoleon in the
Hundred Days and commanded a minor army, he submitted
to the Bourbons again after Waterloo. He refused, however,
to be a member of the court which tried Marshal Ney. He was
made a count, a peer of France (1819), and governor of Grenoble
(1816). In politics he was a prominent opponent of the royalist
reactionaries and supported the revolution of 1830. After this
event he held the portfolio of foreign affairs for a few days, and
then became governor of the Invalides, where his last years were
spent. Marshal Jourdan died on the 23rd of November 1833,
and was buried in the Invalides.
He wrote Operations de tannic du Danube 0799); Mtmoirts pour
senrir a Fkistoir* sur la campagne de 1796 (1819); and unpublished
personal memoirs.
JOURNAL (through Fr. from late Lai. diurnalis, daily), a daily
record of events or business. A private journal is usually an
elaborated diary. When applied to a newspaper or other
periodical the word is strictly used of one published each day;
but any publication issued at stated intervals, such as a magazine
or the record of the transactions of a learned society, is commonly
called a journal. The word " journalist " for one whose business
is writing for the public press (see Newspapers) seems to be as
old as the end of the 17th century.
" Journal " is particularly applied to the record, day by day,
of the business and proceedings of a public body. The journals
of the British houses of parliament contain an official record of
the business transacted day by day in cither house. The record
does not take note of speeches, though some of the earlier
volumes contain references to them. The journals are a length-
ened account written from the " votes and proceedings *' (in the
House of Lords called " minutes of the proceedings "), made day
JOURNEY— JOVELLANOS
by day by the assistant dirks, did printed on the responsi-
bility of the clerk, to the house, after submission to the " sub-
committee on the journals," In the Commons ihe journal is
passed by the Speaker before publication. The jomrnab of the
House of Commons begin in the first year of the reign of Edward
VI. (i547)> and are complete, except for a abort interval under
Elizabeth. Those of the House of Lords date from ihe first year
of Henry VIII. (1509). Before that date the proceedings in
parliament were-enttred in the rolls of parliament, which extend
from 127ft to 1503, The journals of the Lords are " records "
in the judicial sense, those of the Commons are not (see Erskine
May, Parliamentary Practice, zoo6, pp. soi-202).
The term " journal " is used, in business, for a book in which
an account of transactions is kept previous to a transfer to the
ledger (see Book-keeping), and also as an equivalent to a ship's
log, as a record of the daily run, observations, weather changes,
&c In mining, a journal is a record describing the various
strata passed through in sinking a shaft. A particular use of the
word is that, in machinery, for the parts of a shaft which are in
contact with the bearings; the origin of this meaning, which is
firmly established, has not been explained.
JOURNEY (through 0. Fr.jornet or jaurnee, mod. Ft. jounce,
from med. Lat. diumata, Lat. dhtrnus, of or belonging to dies,
day), properly that which occupies a day in its performance, and
so a day's work, particularly a day's travel, and the* distance
covered by such, usually reckoned in the middle ages as twenty
miles. The word is now used of travel covering a certain amount
of distance or lasting a certain amount of time, frequently defined
by qualifying words. " Journey " is usually applied to travel by
land, as opposed to " voyage," travel by sea. The early use of
" journey " for a day's work, or the amount produced by a day's
work, is still found in glassxnaking, and also at the British Mint,
where a " journey " is taken as equivalent to the coinage of
15 tt> of standard gold, 701 sovereigns, and of 60 lb of silver.
The term, "journeyman" also preserves the original signi-
ficance of the word. It distinguishes a qualified workman or
mechanic from an "apprentice" on the one hand and a
" master " on the other, and is applied to one who is employed
by another person to work at his trade or occupation at a day's
wage.
JOUVEMET, JEAN (1647-17x7), French painter, born at
Rouen, came of a family of artists, one of whom had taught
Poussin. He early showed remarkable aptitude for his profes-
sion, and, on arriving in Paris, attracted the attention of Le Brun,
by whom be was employed at Versailles, and under whose
auspices, in 1675, he became a member of the Academic Royale,
of which he was elected professor in 1681, and one of the four
perpetual rectors in 1707. The great mass of works that he
executed, chiefly in Paris, many of which, Including his celebrated
Miraculous Draught of Fishes (engraved by Audran ; also Landon,
Annate, I 42), are now in the Louvre, show his fertility in
invention and execution, and also that he possessed in a high
degree that general dignity of arrangement and style which dis-
tinguished the school of Le Brun. Jotivenet died on the 5th of
April 1 71 7, having been forced by paralysis during the last four
years of his life to work with his left hand.
See Mint. intd. acad. toy. Sep. tide re, 1854, and D'ArgenvHle,
Vies des peintres.
JOUY. VICTOR JOSEPH taBHHB DB (1764-1846), French
dramatist, was born at Jouy, near Versailles, on the 12th of
September 1 764. At the age of eighteen he received a commis-
sion in the army, and sailed for South America in the company
of the governor of Guiana. He returned almost immediately to
France to complete his studies, and re-entered the service two
years later. He was sent to India, where he met with many
romantic adventures which were afterwards turned to literary
account. On the outbreak of the Revolution he returned to
France and served with distinction in the early campaigns,
attaining the rank of adjutant-general. He drew suspicion on
himself, however, by refusing to honour the toast of Marat, and
bad to fly for his life. At the fall of the Terror he resumed his
525
commission but again fell under suspicion, being accused of
treasonable correspondence with the English envoy, James
Harris, 1st earl of Malmesbury who bad been sent to France to
negotiate terms of peace. He was acquitted of this charge, but,
weary of repeated attacks, resigned his position on the pretext
of his numerous wounds. Jouy now turned his attention to
literature, and produced in 1807 with immense success his opera
La vesUde (music by Spontini). The piece ran for a hundred
nights, and was characterised by the Institute of France as the
best lyric drama of the day. Other operas followed, but none
obtained so great a success. He published in the Gazette de
France a series of satirical sketches of Parisian life, collected
under the title of UErmite de la Chaussie d'Antin, ou observations
sur les maws et les usages froncais au commencement du six*
Steele (1812-1814, 5 vols.), which was warmly received. In 1821
his tragedy of SyUa gained a triumph due in part to the genius
of Talma, who bad studied the title-r&le from Napoleon. Under
the Restoration Jouy consistently fought for the cause of freedom,
and if his work was overrated by his contemporaries, they were
probably influenced by their respect for the author himself. He
died In rooms set apart for his use in the palace of St Germain-en-
Laye on the 4th of September 1846.
Out of the long list of his operas, tragedies and miscellanedus
writings may be mentioned, Fernand Cortes (1809), opera, in col-
laboration with J. E. Esmenard. music by Spontini; Tippo Salb,
tragedy (1813): BUisaire, tragedy (iftiS); Les Hermites en prism
Biographic nomeUe des eoniemporains,
JOVELLANOS (or Jove Lianos), CASPAR MBLCHOR DB
(1744-18 11), Spanish statesman and author, was born at Gijon
in Asturias, Spain, on the 5th of January 1744. Selecting law
as his profession, he studied at Oviedo, Avila, and Akela, and
in 1767 became criminal judge at Seville. His integrity and
ability were rewarded in 1778 by a judgeship in Madrid, and in
1780 by appointment to the council of military orders. In the
capital Jovellanos took a good place in the literary and scientific
societies; for the society of friends of the country he wrote in
1787 his most valuable work, Informe sobreun proyecto de ley
agraria. Involved in the disgrace of his friend, Francois
Cabarrus, Jovellanos spent the years 1790 to 1797 in a sort of
banishment at Gijon, engaged in literary work and in founding
the Asturian institution for agricultural, industrial, social and
educational reform throughout his native province. This
institution continued his darling project up to the latest hours
of his life. Summoned again to public life in 1797, Jovellanos
refused the post of ambassador to Russia, but accepted that of
minister of grace and justice, under " the prince of the peace,"
whose attention had been directed to him by Cabarrus, then a
favourite of Godoy. Displeased with Godoy's policy and conduct
Jovellanos combined with his colleague Saavedra to procure his
dismissal Godoy returned to power in 1708; Jovellanos was
again sent to Gijon, but in 180 1 was thrown into prison in
Majorca. The revolution of 1S0S, and the advance of the
French into Spain, set him once more at liberty. Joseph Bona-
parte, on mounting the Spanish throne, made Jovellanos the
most brilliant offers; but the latter, sternly refusing them all,
joined the patriotic party, became a member of the central junta,
and contributed to reorganize the cortes. This accomplished,
the junta at once fell under suspicion, and Jovellanos was in-
volved in its fall. To expose the conduct of the cortes, and to
defend the junta and himself were the last labours of his pen. In
28x1 he was enthusiastically welcomed to Gijon; but the approach
of the French drove him forth again. The vessel in which he
sailed was compelled by stress of weather to put in at Vega in
Asturias, and there he died on the 27th of November 181 x.
The poetical works of Jovellanos comprise a tragedv El pelayo, the
comedy El dtUncuente Honrodo, satires, and miscellaneous pieces,
including a translation of the first book of Paradise Lost. His
prose works, especially those on political and legislative economy,
constitute his real title to literary fame. In them depth of thought
and clear-sighted sagacity are couched in a certain Ciceronian,
JOYEUSE
9
I prejudice, which
Instead of yielding to
WDsoa and Rowland
r attacked, in the production
hmw. This appeared in
k of fanaticism. Jowett's
I ob this account was no less
_ t the augmentation
♦TZI7VW ^Hte^—withfceW. This petty perse-
* \^^^*wl>^we^E.A.r>eemanandCharles
"* *"* I^-**^ to- «<M«ai teaeatdi that a breach of the con-
fc w * ^ a iir i^ ted octwed, and Christ Church
*"r v ^ ■»**«* **a s> a year to £500. Meanwhile
T . *. w.>t * ^W*ml h*i steadily increased. It culmi-
' ' * » ^*» ***• ^ ****** «*«iy» provoked by the final
""** . * * <v ^4f<<r»- a*d v«**d » convocation against the
* '*"" \^-x * 'V >^*** <***. Jowett's pupils, who were now
~"1 "X** -V **v*es<* at large, supported him with the
,..H~~* *•*** ww* ■** feeHor the victim of injustice.
^ V -**» * **** »«w Jowett **d »*«» <n»ietly exerting
w . ^s-vs >* * * sNOs*S*t« all shades of liberal opinion, and
^ .v** * >** ***** *** abolition °* ^ theological test,
* *> 1^ >*• j **i»**i W» *■* **•** "^ olner degreea, and for
V >\*v * .«. o*****?**** Hespokeat an important meeting
V ^ J .^ x ^~ v- *» I «Klon on the toth of June 1864, which laid
^ ..>^ ** .** V^vetatty Tests Act of 1871. In connexion
^ » x -v v^ **X*«****Mp Jowett had undertaken a *rork
^ vp ,* %*** *•** in* a complete translation of the Dialogues,
*.:a 4^«vs^ts«M*> «**y«k At this he laboured in vacation'time
^ ^ tM*t *** vt*»- B»t his interest in theology had not
v v*,^v * vkJ Va i*v«*M« found an outlet in occasional preaching.
* v .»• \\n*V> r^V* 1 ' iadeed, *u closed to him, but several
A swa<**«w» i» l*a**i* deHghted in his sermons, and from 1866
♦,^ < ^ **** ** ** d»ntli ■• P refLCned annually in Westminster
Vw v %hm N»*afcv had become dean in 1 863. Three volumes
^ ^^v«st i«««mms nave been published since his death. The
vp*i%»j*a ****wm occupied with assiduous labour. Amongst
Vx '**>«* M IMM were men destined to high positions in the
v v w %**.**» y*ma>U had thus shown their confidence in the
vi ts*^*^ W*v**» and gratitude on this account was added to
yS ' Vi mkh'Nv* M Ms unsparing efforts in tuition. In 1870, by
% « v i4i^>M4ai which he attributed to his friend Robert Lowe,
k U4*ai\L l*nl Sherbrooke (at that time a member of Glad-
v ,v, iv x Mkm*m ^ V Scott was promoted to the deanery of Rochester
*m tv«vU «*»«4tct»d to the vacant mastership by the fellows
vrt *UUv4 *>v« the vantage-ground of this long-coveted
iKwt'WM vW ?h* was published in 1871. It had a great and
%v ;> ,K*>^*n* aucveta, While scholars criticized particular
K«Hh-4«<^« y*»^ there were many small errors to be removed in
itwV*^MvM *h\wn»), it was generally agreed that be had suc-
>v ^k0 w* waiw* Wato an English classic.
\\ i\v* Kbit* was a beneficent despotbm, it was Jowett's rule
a> iu-k»^ Smv'f 1866 his authority in Balliol had been really
u,A\AUK^u| t »wvl various reforms in college had been due to his
[u ;^u\* th« v*pp«*ing minority were now powerless, and the
won*** MK»*» who had been his pupils were more inclined to
ta'V* a*u* ifc*n ^thocs would have been. There was no obstacle
!v \ hv v>u*nuw<\l ♦ vcicIk of his firm and reasonable will. He still
k.us* t*« uu\M*!<Hh»ates individually, and watched their pro-
|um >h«h a vujiUnl eye- His influence in the university was
K-« A»wtwl I He j»ulnit of St Mary's was no longer closed to
h u ^m ih« »u>s««» v4 UalUol in the schools gave rise to jealousy
tu v . V* s>4K«««. *m< oW prejudices did not suddenly give way;
w*.K At^>A tmtsvmcot infsvourof " the endowment of research "
uu ^wttwi lo hl» immediate purposes. Meanwhile, the tutor-
k S n , m o» Vi vv4h-«e«. ami some of the headships also, were being
H-KnI ^«K HaIM men. and Jowett's former pupils were promi-
uvwi m U»t K h*UM* *xl parliament and at the bar. He continued
*Kv ju*uuv. whKh he had commenced in 1848, of taking with
V* >» * *»ul» jv*nv i4 untlergraduates in vacation time, and work-
up *uK iKv«n tn one ol his favourite haunts, at Askrigg in
^\u^v\xtak. v4 fummtt » ridge, or later at WestMalvern. The
new hall (1876), the organ there, entirely his gift (1885), and the
cricket ground (1889), remain as external monuments of the
master's activity. Neither business nor the many claims ol
friendship interrupted literary work. The six or seven weeks
of the long vacation, during which he had pupils with him, were
mainly employed, in writing. The translation of Aristotle's
Politics, the revision of Plato, and, above all, the translation of
ThucycUdes many times revised, occupied several years. The
edition of the Jit public, undertaken in 1856, remained unfinished,
but was continued with the help of Professor Lewis CampbeU.
Other literary schemes of larger scope and deeper interest were
long in contemplation, but were not destined to take effect — an
Essay on the Religions of the World, a Commentary on the CospeU,
a Life of Christ, a volume on Moral Ideas. Such plans were
frustrated, not only by his practical avocations, but by his
determination to finish what he had begun, and the fastidious
self-criticism which it took so long to satisfy. The book on
Morals might, however, have been written but ior the heavy
burden of the vice-chancellorship, which he was induced to
accept in 1882, by the hope, only partially fulfilled, of securing
many improvements for the university. The vice-chancellor
was ex officio a delegate of the press, where he hoped to efiect
much; and a plan for draining the Thames Valley, which he had
now the power of initiating, was one on which his mind had dwelt
for many years. The exhausting labours of the vice-chancellor-
ship were followed by an illness (1887); and after this he relin-
quished the hope of producing any great original writing. His
literary industry was thenceforth confined to his commentary
on the Republic of Plato, and some essays on Aristotle which were
to have formed a companion volume to the translation of the
Politics. The essays which should have accompanied the trans-
lation of ThucycUdes were never written. Jowett, who never
married, died on the 1st of October 1893. The funeral was one
of the most impressive ever seen in Oxford. The pall-bearers
were seven heads of colleges and the provost of Eton, all old
pupils.
Theologian, tutor, university reformer, a great master of a
college, Jowett's best claim to the remembrance of succeeding
generations was his greatness as a moral teacher. Many of the
most prominent Englishmen of the day were hi» pupils and owed
much of what they were to his precept and example, bis pene-
trative sympathy, his insistent criticism, and his unwearying
friendship. Seldom have ideal aims been so steadily pursued
with so clear a recognition of practical limitations. Jowett's
theological work was transitional, and yet has an element of
permanence. As has been said of another thinker, he was " one
of those deeply religious men who, when crude theological
notions are being revised and called in question seek to put new
life into theology by wider and more humane ideas." In earEer
life he had been a zealous student of Kant and Hegel, and to the
end he never ceased to cultivate the philosophic spirit; but he
had little confidence in metaphysical systems, and sought rather
to translate philosophy into the wisdom of life. As a classical
scholar, his scorn of littlenesses sometimes led him into the
neglect of miuutiae, but he had the higher merit of interpreting
ideas. His place in literature rests really on the essays in his
Plato. When their merits are fully recognized, it will be found
that his worth, as a teacher of his countrymen, extends far
beyond his own generation.
See The Life and Letters of Benjamin Jowett, by E. A. Abbott and
Lewis Campbell (1897); Benjamin Jowett, by Lionel Tonemache
(1895). (UC>
JOYEUSE, a small town in the department of Ardeche, France,
situated on the Baume, a tributary of the Ardeche, is historically
important as having been the scat of a noble French family
which derived its name from it. The lordship of Joyeuse came,
in the 13th century, into the possession of the house of Chateau-
neuf-Randon, and was made into a viscountship in 1432.
Guillaumc, viscount of Joyeuse, was bishop of Alet, but after-
wards left the church, and became a marshal of France; he died
in 1592. His eldest son Anne de Joyeuse (1 561-1587), was one
of the favourites of Henry III. of France, who created him duke
JOYEUSE ENTREE— JUANGS
end peer (1581), admiral of France (1582), and governor of
Normandy (1586), and married him to Marguerite de Lorraine-
Vaudemont, younger sister of the queen. He gained several
successes against the Huguenots, but was recalled by court
intrigues at an inopportune moment, and when he marched a
second time against Henry of Navarre be was defeated and
killed at Coutras. Guillaume had three other sons: Francois
de Joyettse (d. 1615), cardinal and archbishop of Narbonne,
Toulouse and Rouen, who brought about the reconciliation
of Henry IV. with the pope; Henri, count of Bouchage, and
later duke of Joyeuse, who first entered the army, then became a
Capuchin under the name of Pete Ange, left the church and
became a marshal of France, and finally re-entered the church,
dying in 1608; Antoine Sdpkm, grand prior of Toulouse in the
order of the knights of Malta, who was one of the leaders in the
League, and died in the retreat of Villemur (1592). Henriettc
Catherine de Joyeuse, daughter of Henri, married in 16 11
Charles of Lorraine, duke of Guise, to whom she brought the
duchy of Joyeuse. On the death of her great-grandson,
Francois Joseph de Lorraine, duke of Guise, in 1675, without
issue, the duchy of Joyeuse was declared extinct, but it
was revived in 1714, in favour of Louis de Melun, prince of
Epinoy. (M. P.«)
t JOYEUSE ENTR&E, a famous charter of liberty granted to
Brabant by Duke John HI. in 1354. John summoned the re-
presentatives of the cities of the duchy to Louvain to announce to
them the marriage of bis daughter and heiress Jeanne of Brabant
to Wenceslaus duke of Luxemburg, and he offered them liberal
concessions in order to secure their assent to the change of
dynasty. John in. died in 1355, an d Wenceslaus and Jeanne
on the occasion of their state entry into Brussels solemnly swore
to observe all the provisions of the charter, which had been
drawn up. From the occasion on which it was first proclaimed
this charter has since been known in history as La Joyeuse Entrie,
By this document the dukes of Brabant undertook to maintain
the integrity of the duchy, and not to wage war, make treaties,
or impose taxes without the consent of their subjects, as repre-
sented by the municipalities. All members of the duke's council
were to be native-born Brabanters. This charter became the
model for other provinces and the bulwark of the liberties of the
Netherlands. Its provisions were modified from time to time,
but remained practically unchanged from the reign of Charles V.
onwards. The ill-advised attempt of the emperor Joseph U.
in his reforming zeal to abrogate the Joyeuse Entrie caused a
revolt in Brabant, before which he had to yield.
See E.Pouuet, La Joyeuse entrie, ou constitution Brabanconne (1 862).
JUAN FERNANDEZ ISLANDS, a small group in the South
Pacific Ocean, between 33 and 34 S., 8o° W., belonging to
Chile and included in the province of Valparaiso. The main
island is called Mas-a-Tierra (Span, "more to lsnd") to dis-
tinguish it from a smaller island, Mas-a-Fuera (" more to sea "),
too m. farther west. Off the S.W. of Mas-a-Tierra lies the islet
of Santa Clara. The aspect of Mas-a-Tierra is beautiful; only
13 m. in length by 4 in width, it consists of a series of precipi-
tous rocks rudely piled into irregular blocks and pinnacles, and
strongly contrasting with a rich vegetation. The highest of
these, 3225 ft., is called, from its massive form, El Yunque
(the anvil). The rocks are volcanic. Cumberland Bay on the
north side is the only fair anchorage, and even there, from the
great depth of water, there is some risk. A wide valley collecting
streams from several of the ravines on the north side of the
island opens into Cumberland Bay, and is partially enclosed and
cultivated. The inhabitants number only some twenty.
The flora and fauna of Juan Fernandez are in most respects
Chilean. There are few trees on the island, for most of the valuable
indigenous trees have been practically exterminated, such as the
sandalwood, which the earlier navigators found one of the most
valuable products of the island. Ferns are prominent among the
flora, about one-third of which consists of endemic specks. There
are no indigenous land mammals. Pigs and goats, however, with
cattle, horses, asses and dogs, have been introduced, have multiplied,
and in considerable numbers run wild. Sea-elephants and fur-seals
xv 9*
529
were formerly plentiful. Of birds, a tyrant and a humming-bird
(EusUfkanus fetnamiensU) are peculiar to the group, while another
humming bird (£. taieriUs), a thrush, and some birds of prey also
occur in Chile. E. Jemandensis has the peculiarity that the male is of
a bright cinnamon colour, while the female is green. Both sexes
are green in E, taUrites.
Juan Fernandez was discovered by a Spanish pilot of that
name in 1563. Fernandez obtained from the Spanish govern-
ment a grant of the islands, where he resided for some time,
stocking them with goats and pigs. He soon, however, appears
to have abandoned his possessions, which were afterwards for
many years only visited occasionally by fishermen from the
coasts of Chile and Peru. In 1616 Jacob le Maire and WQlem
Cornelis Schouten called at Juan Fernandez for water and fresh
provisions. Pigs and goats were then abundant on the islands.
In February 1700 Dampier called* at Juan Fernandez and
while there Captain Straddling of the " Cinque Porte " galley
quarrelled with his men, forty-two of whom deserted but were
afterwards taken on board by Dampier; five seamen, however,
remained on shore. Other parties had previously colonised the
islands but none had remained permanently. In October 1704
the " Cinque Porte " returned and found two of these men, the
others having been apparently captured by the French. On this
occasion Straddling quarrelled with Alexander Selkirk (?.».),
who, at his own request, became the island's most famous
colonist, for his adventures are commonly believed to have
inspired Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe. Among later visits,
that of Commodore Anson, in the " Centurion " (June 1741)
led, on his return home, to a proposal to form an English settle-
ment on Juan Fernandez; but the Spaniards, hearing that the
matter had been mooted in England, gave orders to occupy
the island, and it was garrisoned accordingly in 1750. Philip
Carteret first observed this settlement in May 1767, and on ac-
count of the hostility of the Spaniards preferred to put in at Mas-
a-Fuera. After the establishment of the independence of Chile
at the beginning of the 19th century, Juan Fernandez passed
into the possession of that country. On more than one occasion
before 1840 Mas-a-Tierra was used as a state prison by the
Chilean government.
JUANGS (Patuas* literally " leaf-wearers "), a jungle tribe of
Ori&sa, India. They are found In only two of the tributary
states, Dhenkanal and Keorrjhar, most of them in the latter.
They are estimated to amount in all to about 10,000. Their
language belongs to the Munda family. They have no traditions
which connect them with any other race, and they repudiate all
connexion with the Hos or the Santals, declaring themselves the
aborigines. They say the headquarters of the tribe is the
Gonasika. In manners they are among the most primitive people
of the world, representing the Stone age in our own day. They
do not till the land, but live on the game they kill or on snakes
and vermin. Their huts measure about 6 ft. by 8 ft., with very
low doorways. The interior is divided into two compartments.
In tho first of these the father and all the females of a family
huddle together; the second is used as a store-room. The boys
have a separate hut at the entrance to the village, which serves
as a guest-house and general assembly place where the musical
instruments of the village are kept. Physically they are small
and weak-looking, of a reddish-brown colour, with flat faces,
broad noses with wide nostrils, large mouths and thick lips,
the hair coarse and frizzly. The women until recently wore
nothing but girdles of leaves, the men, a diminutive bandage
of doth. The Juangs declare that the river goddess, emerging for
the first time from the Gonasika rock, surprised a party of naked
Juangs dancing, and ordered them to wear leaves, with the
threat that they should die if they ever gave up the custom.
The Juangs' weapons are the bow and arrow and a primitive
sling made entirely of cord. Their religion is a vague belief in
forest spirits. They offer fowls to the sun when in trouble and
to the earth for a bountiful harvest. Polygamy is rare. They
burn their dead and throw the ashes into any running stream.'
The most sacred oaths a Juattg can take are those on an ant-hill
or a tiger-skin.
See E. W. Da I ton, Descriptive Ethnototf of Benzol (1872).
>~~-
PAN MANUEL— JUAREZ
k Ml (tsto-ttaoX mfaate of Castile, sod of
<hr j&-i3->r CV« Miawl aad Beatrix of Savoy, and grandson of
^ ^i-^si^i mas Vara at Escafesa on the 5th of May 1281.
^-^ u^.aer do* a t^i^, aad the young prince was educated
au .x cw»rt at Vts encaa. Seacho IV., with whom his preco-
ii taioistifrt la iao* he was appointed
la 1304 aewascn UiBted by tbequeea-
s de Macaa, to rnaihwt political negotiations
1 behnM of her son, Ferdinand IV.,
a ywx es af ul and las marriage
joaas H "* dbaffecr. Qawtaatina, added to his prestige.
~ar deace *i T\ 1 fi laart IY. aad of the reseats who governed
e at V^ajaaaaXUDoaJaaaMaaod acted as guardian
1 of age m 1325. His ambitious
e tne royal power was defeated by
-Mniami XI. wawT— rrirrf tne ex-regent's daughter Constanza,
I ass fat an in Ian boat the scene by nominating him
dr as >nwaa. Alpbonso XL's repudiation
i he "ft— -« < at Torn, drove Don Juan
feuun -te* <ca*aswissw aad a bag period of civil wax followed.
Or 2** .asatk at ha *sfe Constanrina in 13x7, Don Juan Manuel
jC^ty Ww ^ ba pnaw-na by naarrring Dona Blanca de la Cerda;
he avwt the swnpact of Joan Nunez, dfira of Castile, by
^^rn^mr 4 aaaenaaje between him and Maria, daughter of Don
Xa* a 7«m*: he won over Portugal by promising the hand
* ^ «***?*. rr. the ta>q u etn Comlanta, to the infante of that
» *uv*k ani he entered into alliance with Mahomet III.
T\a foraudabk coalition compelled Alphonso XL
vie tcnav whkh he accepted in 1328 without any
«*.t<tcva of coamplyinf with them; but he was com-
Itaam Const ansa. War speedily broke out
*2 *j$i when Alpbonso XI. invited Juan
4**. Viae* bo a banquet at Villahumbrales with
•. * ^» fe-kved, of assassinating them; the plot
u« «dm *xnad joined forces with Peter IV. of
_ i by Alphonso XI. at Garci-Nuftez,
~*e «xh of July 1336, fled into exile,
-- v* a.'* \a 133S, when he made his peace
^ uvu. ** kyalty by serving in further
, ^ «% u**> 4< Granada and Africa, and died
* »-* ant 4f 1340.
^>»> Don Juan Manuel is
1 ^.i». —at if and, considering the rir-
_., ^ iV to ^Maaxwnnr-1 is remarkable.
7-^ ^ -o*>« xaied Entttos de Guerra and
^^ " Wrnaa of verses, were composed
x. ffcsr have disappeared together
. :<*—-4 ^nKaAnnng^ e r inter . ofl ^ 6 '
tmm .»M»**ann a aKtrical treatise assigned to
""" "" ™*i vh-ja laaa Manuel's Crdnica
" T ItawT T«-U»S, while the Libra
TT « *m w Xcwee. t3*> »£ 13^ and
~* * .■% **-*• man •« ***** wcre P 10-
- ^ ^^n— was finished before
»/\- vhfr the second was begun
*** " x -—dtla**** was written in
~ ' Vssafth » *"** ,nh of Junc
"* ^fs*i« date the devout
, *^w - Lt?»« 0llheni0na8lCry
^->» «. > s
i beqaeathed his manu-
— ^ yn U los frailes
'""J* ^i therefore known by
- r '*™; ^ written not later
" ~T« «*aT« •♦ **» was
Lull's Libre id trde d$ catdkria, but the points of 1
have been exaggerated; the morbid mysticism of Lull is rejected,
and the carefully finished style justifies the special pride which
the author took in this performance. The influence of Lull's
Blanqnerna is likewise visible in the Libra d* lot esiados; bat
there are marked divergences of substance which go to prove
Don Juan Manuel's acquaintance with some version (not yet
identified) of the Barlaam and Josaphat legend. Nothing as
more striking than the curious and varied erudition of the turbu-
lent prince who weaves his personal experiences with historical
or legendary incidents, with reminiscences of Aesop and
Phaedrus, with the Discipline cUricalis, with Kalilch and Dim-
nak, with countless Oriental traditions, and with all the material
of anecdotic literature which be embodies in the Libra dm
potronio, best known by the title of El Condc Lttcanor (the name
Lucanor being taken from the prose Tristan). This work (also
entitled the Libro de avumplcs) was first printed by Gonial©
Argote de Molina at Seville in 1575, and it revealed Don Juan
Manuel as a master in the art of prose composition, and as the
predecessor of Boccaccio in the province of romantic narrative.
The Cento novelle antiche are earlier in date, but these anonymous
tales, derived from popular stories diffused throughout the
world, lack the personal character which Don Juan lends to aU
he touches. They are simple, unadorned variants of folk-lore
items; El Conde Lucanor is essentially the production of a
conscious artist, deliberative and selective in his methods.
Don Juan Manuel has not Boccaccio's festive fancy nor his
constructive skill; he is too persistently didactic and concerned
to point a moral; but he excels in knowledge of human nature,
in the faculty of ironical presentation, in tolerant wisdom and in
luminous conciseness. He naturalizes the Eastern apologue
in Spain, and by the laconic picturcsqueness of his expression
imports a new quality into Spanish prose which attains its
full development in the hands of Juan de Valdes and Cervantes.
Some of his themes are utilized for dramatic purposes by Lope
de Vega in La Pobreza estimada, by Ruiz de Alarc6n in La
Prueba de las promesas, by Calder6n in La Vida es suriko, and by
Cafiizares in Don Juan de Espina en Mildn: there is an evident,
though remote, relation between the tale of the mancebo que casd
con una mujer tnuy fuerte y muy brava and The Taming of the
Shrew; and a more direct connexion exists between some of Don
Juan Manuel's enxemplos and some of Anderson's fairy tales.
n the Bibliottc*
1, 1000). edited
t, 1880), edited
1 by S. Gctf en-
nica comptida,
vi.; G. Baist,
tanneb (Halle.
Juan Mound
)een translated
ue into French
(J.F.-K.*
de
ed
Al
18
I
JUAREZ, BENITO PABLO (1806-187 2), president of Mexico,
was born near Ixtlan, in the state of Oajaca, Mexico, on the
Jist of March 1806, of full Indian blood. Early left in poverty
by the death of his father, he received from a charitable friar
a good general education, and afterwards the means of studying
law. Beginning to practise in 1834, Juarez speedily rose to
professional distinction, and in the stormy political life of his
time took a prominent part as an exponent of liberal views.
In 183a he sat in the state legislature; in 1846 he was one of a
legislative triumvirate for his native state and a deputy to the
republican congress, and from 1847 to 1852 he was governor
of Oajaca, Banished in 1853 by Santa Anna, he returned
to Mexico in 1855, and joined Alvarez, who, after Santa Anna's
defeat, made him minister of justice. Under Comonfort, who
then succeeded Alvarez, Juarez wasgovernorof Oajaca (1855-57),
and in 1857 chief justice and secretary of the interior; and,
when Comonfort was unconstitutionally replaced by Zuloaga
in 1858, the chief justice, in virtue of his office, claimed to be
legal president of the republic. It was not, however, till the
beginning of 1861 that he succeeded in finally defeating the
JUBA
tmconstihtttonal party and f* belttg duly elected president by
congress. His decree of July 1861 , suspending for two years all
payments on public debts of every kind, led to the landing in
Mexico of English, Spanish and French troops. The first two
powers were soon induced to withdraw their forces; but the
French remained, declared war In 1862, placed Maximilian upon
the throne as emperor, and drove Juarez and his adherents to
the northern limits of the republic. Juarez maintained an
obstinate resistance, which resulted in final success. In 1867
Maximilian was taken at Queretaro, and shot; and in August
Juarez was once more elected president. His term of office was
far from tranquil; discontented generals stirred up ceaseless
revolts and insurrections; and, though he was re-elected in 1871,
his popularity seemed to be on the wane. He died of apoplexy
in the city of Mexico on the 18th of July 1873. He was a
statesman of integrity, ability and determination, whose good
qualities are too apt to be overlooked in consequence of his
connexion with the unhappy fate of Maximilian.
, JUBA, the name of two kings of Numidia.
Juba I. (1st century B.C.), son and successor of fCempsal,
king of Numidia. During the civil wars at Rome he sided with
Pompey, partly from gratitude because he had reinstated his
father on his throne ( Appian, B.C., i. 80), and partly from enmity
to Caesar, who had insulted him at Rome by pulling his beard
(Suet., Caesar, 71). Further, C. Scribonius Curio, Caesar's general
an Africa, had openly proposed, 50 B.C., when tribune of the
plebs, that Numidia should be sold to colonists, and the king
reduced to a private station. In 49 Juba inflicted on the
Caesarean army a crushing defeat, in which Curio was slain (Veil
Pat. ii. 54; Caesar, B.C. ii. 40). Juba's attention was distracted
by a counter invasion of his territories by Bocchus the younger
and Sittius; but, finding that his lieutenant Sabura was able to
defend his interests, he rejoined the Fompeians with a large
force, and shared the defeat at Thapsus. Fleeing from the field
with the Roman general M. Petreius, he wandered about as a fugi-
tive. At length, in despair, Juba killed Petreius, and sought
the aid of a slave in despatching himself (46). Juba was a
thorough say age; brave, treacherous, insolent and cruel. (See
Numidia.)
, Juba IL, son of the above. On the death of his father in
46 B.C. he was carried to Rome to grace Caesar's triumph.
He seems- to have received a good education under the care of
Augustus who, in 29, after Mark Antony's death, gave him the
hand of Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Antony and Cleopatra,
and placed him on his father's throne. In 25, however, he trans-
ferred him from Numidia to Mauretania, to which was added a
part of GaetuHa (see Numidia} Juba seems to have reigned in
considerable prosperity, though in a.d. 6 the Gaetulians rose in
a revolt of sufficient importance to afford the surname Gaetulicus
to Cornelius Lentulus Cossus, the Roman general who helped to
suppress it. The date of Juba's death is by no means certain;
ft has been put between a.d. 19 and 24 (Strabo, xvii. 828;
Dio Cassius, li. 15; liii. 26; Plutarch, AnL 87; Caesar, 55).
Juba, according to Pliny, who constantly refers to him, is mainly
memorable for his writings. He has been called the African
Varro.
He wrote many historical and geographical works, of which some
teem to have been voluminous and of considerable value on account
of the sources to which their author had access* (i)'P«»taua) loroptai
li) *Atf*upta«A: (3) AW%k4: (4) De Arabia nw De expedition arJinca;
(5) Physiolcga;(6) De Euphorbia herba; (7) Bert fcroO: (8) B«pi
7pa4u3f (tltpl f ayp&fa)*) : (9) Otarpuri) Urropia: (lO) *Om<mA*V«: (ll)
U*M &opai M£««ff' (12) 'K*ijpafiva.
Fragments and life in M Oiler, Frag. Hist. Orate., vol. fiL; gee also
Sc vin, Mem. de I' Acad, des Inscriptions* vol. iv. ; Hellemann. De wila ei
sen Mis Jubae (1846). For the denarii of Juba II. found in 1908 at
El Ksar on the coast of Morocco see Dieudonne" in Revue Numtsm.
(1908), op. 350 seq. They are interesting mainly as throwing light
on the chronology of the reign.
JUBA, or Jub, a river of East Africa, exceeding 1000 m. In
length, rising on the S.E. border of the Abyssinian highlands
and flowing S. across the Galla and Somali countries to the sea.
It is formed by the junction of three streams, atl having their
source in the mountain range N E. of Lake Rudolf which is the
S3*
water-parting between the Nile basin and the rivers flowing to
the Indian Ocean.
Of the three headstreams, the Web, the Ganate and the Daua, the
Ganale (or Ganana) w the central river and the true upper course of
the Juba. It has two chief branches, the Black and the Great Ganale.
The last-named, the most remote source of the river, rises in 7 30'
N., 38* E. at an altitude of about 7500 ft., the crest of the mountains
reaching another 2500 ft. M its upper course it flows over a rocky
bed with a swift current and many rapids. The banks are clothed
with dense jungle and the hina beyond with thorn-bush. Lower down
the river has formed a narrow valley, 1500 to 2000 ft. below the;
general level of the country. Leaving the higher mountains in'
about 5* 15' N., 40° E., the uanalc enters a large slightly undulating
grass plain which extends south of the valley of the Daua and occu-
pies all the country eastward to the junction of the two rivers. la
this plain the Ganale makes a semicircular sweep northward before
resuming its general S.-E. course. East of 42° £. in 4* 12' N. it is
joined by the Web on the left or eastern bank, and about 10 m.
lower down the Daua enters pn the right bank.
The Web rises in the mountain chain a little S. and E. of the
sources of the Ganale, and some 40 m. from its source passes, first,
through a canon 500 ft. deep, and then through a series 01 remarkable
underground caves hollowed out of a quartz mountain and, with
their arches and white columns, presenting the appearance of a
pillared temple. The Daua (or Dawa) is formed by the mountain
torrents which have their rise S. and W. of the Ganale and is of
similar character to that river. It has few feeders and none of any'
size. The descent to the open country is somewhat abrupt. In its
middle course the Daua has cut a deep narrow valley through the plain ;
lower down it bends N.E. to its junction with the Ganale. The river
is not deep and can be forded in many places; the banks are fringed
with thick bush and dom-palms. At the junction of the Ganale and
the Web the river is swift-flowing and 85 yards across; just below the
Daua confluence it is 200 yds. wide, the altitude here — 300 m. in a
direct line from the source of the Ganale— being only 590 ft.
Below the Daua the river, now known as the Juba, receives no
tributary of importance. It first flows in a valley bounded, espe-
cially towards the west, by the escarpments of a high plateau, and
containing the towns of Lugh (in 3*50* N., the centre of active trade),
Bandera, 3*7 m. above the mouth, and Saranli— the last two on.
opposite sides of the stream, in 2° ao' N., a crossing-place for caravans.
Beyond 1° 45' N. the country becomes more level and the course of
the river very tortuous. On the west a series of small lakes and
backwaters receives water from the Juba during the rains. Just
south of the equator channels from the long, branching Lake
Deshekwama or Hardinge, fed by the Lakdera river, enter from the
west, and in o* 15' S. the Juba enters the sea across a dangerous bar,
which has only one fathom of water at high tide.
From its mouth to 20 m. above Bardera, where at 2 35/ N.
rapids occur, the Juba is navigable by shallow-draught steamers,
having a general depth of from 4 to is ft., though shallower in
places. Just above its mouth it is a fine stream 25c* yds. wide,
with a current of 2} knots. Below the mountainous region of
the headstreams the Juba and its tributaries flow through 4
country generally arid away from the banks of the streams.
The soil is sandy, covered either with thorn-scrub or rank grass,
which in the rainy season affords herbage for the herds of cattle,
sheep and camels owned by the Boran Gallas and the Somali who
inhabit the district. But by the banks of the lower river the
character of the country changes. In this district, known as
Gosha, are considerable tracts of forest, and the level of flood
water is higher than much of the surrounding land. This low-
lying fertile belt stretches along the river for about 300 m.,but
is not more than a mile ox two wide. In the river valley maize,
rice, cotton and other crops are cultivated. From Gobwea, a
trading settlement about 3 m. above the mouth of the Juba, a
rood runs S.W to the seaport of Kismayu, 10 m. distant.
The lower Juba was ascended in 1865 in a steamer by Baron
Karl von der Decken, who was murdered by Somali at Bardera,
but the river system remained otherwise almost unknown
until after 1890. In 1891 a survey of its lower course was exe-;
cuted by Captain F. G» Dundas of the British navy, while in
1892-1893 its headstreams were explored by the Italian officers,
Captains Vittorio, Bottego and Grixoni, the former of whom dis-
proved the supposed connexion of the Omo (see Rudolf, Lake)
with the Juba system. It has since been further explored by
Prince Eugenio Ruspoli, by Bottego's second expedition (1805),
by Donaldson Smith, A. £. Butter, Captain P. Maud of the
British army, and others. The river, from its mouth to the con-
fluence oi the Daua and Ganale, forms the frontier between the.
I,
T^L
53*
^rtafc Em Africa protectorate and Itahaa
^tjo that point to about 4° 20' N. the Dana is the boundary
^r"cea British and Abyssinian territory.
JUBBULPORE, or Jabalpur, a city, district, and division of
^trftish India in the Central Provinces. The city is 616 m. N.E.
^| Bombay by rail, and 220 m. S.W. of Allahabad. Pop. (xoor),
^^316. The numerous gorges in the neighbouring rocks have
2ge0 taken advantage of to surround the city with a series of
J^eSi which, shaded by fine trees and bordered by fantastic
~^2gs. add much beauty to the suburbs. The city itself is modern,
^J^d is laid out in wide and regular streets. A streamlet separ-
^% the civil station and cantonment from the native quarter;
though the climate is mild, a swampy hollow beneath
,jer* the s ' te unhealthy for Europeans. Formerly the capital
*Vjje Saugor and Nerbudda territories, Jubbulpore is now the
4?*sjqi]arters of a brigade in the 5th division of the southern.
gp^\L It is also one of the most important railway centres in
aw***?^ being the junction of the Great Indian Peninsula and the
£^£**Jpdian systems. It has a steam cotton-mill. The govcrn-
^^O colkgc educates for the science course of the Allahabad
\^^^,jfty and also contains law and engineering classes; there
g^a^^^e aided high schools, a law class, an engineering class and
- £*fgfbools for male and female teachers. A native associa-
^*" - " Sed in 1869, supports an orphanage, with help from
A zenana mission manages 13 schools for girls.
jk were constructed in 1882.
^J^rRicT op Jubbulpore lies on the watershed between
F ^<^^ 3bt*dd* and the Son, but mostly within the valley of the
^^vSJerTwk* 00 ncre Txaa trough the famous gorge known
d^^^ ^^je rocks, and falls 30 ft. over a rocky ledge (the Dhuan
& t *Zue'&*t&M sh 001 ")• Area » 39" **!• m * II consists of a
&*^^ ^^^jt pto running north-east and south-west, and shut
& ar * g^^^Tto by highlands. This plain, which forms an off-
lonfc- ^ffr |Je great valley of the Nerbudda, is covered in its
ip o^ ff^^A southern portions by a rich alluvial deposit of black
gfrD**^^ ^*^ 4^ Jubbulpore city the soil is sandy, and water
*&^\j^&\*i the surface, The north and east belong to the
_JLi the population was 680,585, showing a decrease
>al
m-
>re
is
nd
JUBBULPORE— JUBILEE
a
c\
T.
th
be.
wit
ant
13a
abri
dsU
durii
Crdn
ducei
the ei
finishc
fived*
I3'*»
I33S-
Tracti
at Pe
script
prcdii
the I
the 1
than
comf
Th
tanee
Uroc
at Troyes, in rich flamboyant Gothic. A later <
Renaissance period, c. 1600, is in the church of St '.
Mont, Paris. In the Low Countries there are many fine exam-
ples in marble, of which one of the most perfect from Bots-le-
Duc is now in the Victoria and Albert Museum.
JUBILEE (or Jubile), YEAR OF, in the Bible, the name applied
in the Holiness section of the Priestly Code of the Hcxatrwh
(Lev. xxv.) to the observance of every 50th year, determined by
the lapse of seven seven-year periods as a year of perfect rest,
when there was to be no sowing, nor even gathering of the
natural products of the field and the vine. At the beginning of
the jubilee-year the liberation of all Israelitish slaves and the
restoration of ancestral possessions was to be proclaimed. As
regards the meaning of the name " jubilee " (Heb. ydbil) modern
scholars are agreed that it signifies " ram " or " ram's horni"
"Year of jubilee " would then mean the year that is inaugurated
by the blowing of the ram's horn (Lev. xxv. 9).
According to Lev. xxv. 8-1 a, at the completion of seven
sabbaths of years (i.e. 7X7*- 49 years) the trumpet of the
jubilee is to be sounded " throughout the land " on the 10th day
of the seventh month (Tisri 10), the great Day of Atonement.
The 50th year thus announced is to be " hallowed," i.e. liberty *
is to be proclaimed everywhere to everyone, and the people are
to return " every man unto his possession and unto his family."
As in the sabbatical year, there is to be no sowing, nor reaping
that which grows of itself, nor gathering of grapes.
As regards real property (Lev. xxv. 13-34) the law is that if
any Hebrew under pressure of necessity shall alienate his pro-
perty he is to get for it a sum of money reckoned according to the
number of harvests to be reaped, between the date of alienation
and the first jubilee-year: should he or any relation desire to
redeem the property before the jubilee this can always be done
be repaying the value of the harvests between the redemption
and the jubilee.
This legal enactment, though it is not found (nor anything like
it) in the earlier collections of laws, is evidently based on (or
modified from) an ancient custom which conferred on a near
kinsman the right of pre-emption as well as of buying back
(cf. Jer. xxxii. 6 sqq.). The tendency to impose checks upon the
alienation of landed property was exceptionally strong in Israel
The fundamental principle is that the land is a sacred possession
belonging to Yahweh. As such it is not to be alienated from
Yahweh's people, to whom it was originally assigned. In £ze>
kid's restoration programme " crown lands presented by the
' prince ' to any of his officials revert to the crown in the year of
liberty (? jubilee year)"; only to his sons may any portion of
his inheritance be alienated in perpetuity (Etek. xlvi. 16-18;
cf. Code of Hammurabi, § 38 seq.).
The same rule applies to dwelling-houses of unwalled villages;
the case is different, however, as regards dwelling-houses in
walled cities. These may be redeemed within a year after trans-
fer, but if not redeemed within that period they continue per-
manently in possession of the purchaser, and this may well be an
echo of ancient practice. An exception to this last rule is made
for the houses of the Levites in the Levitical cities.
As regards property in slaves (Lev. xxv. 35-55) the Hebrew
whom necessity has compelled to sell himself into the service of
his brother Hebrew is to be treated as a hired servant and
sojourner, and to be released absolutely at the jubilee; non-
Hebrew bondmen, on the other hand, are to be bondmen for
ever. But the Hebrew who has sold himself to a stranger or
sojourner is entitled to freedom at the year of jubilee, and
further is at any time redeemable by any of his kindred — the
redemption price being regulated by the number of years to run
between the redemption and the jubilee, according to the ordinary
wage of hired servants. Such were the enactments of the Priestly
Code— which, of course, represents the latest legislation of the
Pentateuch (post-exilic). These enactments, in order to be
understood rightly, must be viewed in relation to the earlier
1 Heb. dirdr. The same word (dtirSru) is used in the Code of
Hammurabi in the similar enactment that wife, son or daughter
artW in * n -'avery for debt are to be restored to liberty in the fourth
JUBILEES, BOOK OF
similar provisions in connexion with the sabbatical (seventh)
year. " The foundations oi Lev. xxv. are laid in the ancient
provisions of the Book of the Covenant (Exod. xxi..2 seq.; xxiii.
10 seq.) and in Deuteronomy (xv.). The Book of the Covenant
enjoined that the land should lie fallow and Hebrew slaves be
liberated in the seventh year; Deuteronomy required in addition
the remission of debts " (Benzinger). Deuteronomy, it will be
noticed, in accordance with its humanitarian tendency, not only
liberates the slave but remits the debt. It is evident that these
enactments proved impracticable in real life (cf. Jer. xxxiv. 8
seq.), and so it became necessary in the later legislation of P,
represented in the present form of Lev. xxv., to relegate them
to the 50th year, the year of jubilee. The latter, however, was
a purely theoretic development of the Sabbath idea, which
could never have been reduced to practice (its actual observance
would have necessitated that for two consecutive years — the
49th and 50th — absolutely nothing could be reaped, while in
the 51st only summer fruits could be obtained, sowing being
prohibited in the 50th year). That in practice the enactments
for the jubilee-year were disregarded is evidenced by the fact
that, according to the unanimous testimony of the Talmudists
and Rabbins, although the jubilee-years were " reckoned "
they were not observed.
The conjecture of Kuenen, supported by Wellhausen, that
originally Lev. xxv. 8 seq. had reference to the seventh year is a
highly probable one. This may be the case also with Ezek. xlvi.
16-18 (cf . Jer. xxxiv. 14). A later Rabbinical device for evading
the provisions of the law was the prosbut (ascribed to Hillel)
—i.e. a condition made in the' presence of the judge securing to
the creditor the right of demanding repayment at any time,
irrespective of the' year of remission. Further enactments
regarding the jubilee are fou#d in Lev. xxvii. 17-25 and
Num. xxxvi. 4. (W. R. S.; G. H. Bo.)
JUBILEES, BOOK OP, an apocryphal work of the Old Testa-
ment. The Book of Jubilees is the most advanced pre-Christian
representative of the Midrashic tendency, which had already been
at work in the Old Testament Chronicles. As the chronicler
had rewritten the history of Israel and Judah from the stand-
point of the Priests' Code, so our author re-edited from the
Pharisaic standpoint of his time the history of the world from the
creation to the publication of the Law on Sinai. His work
constitutes the oldest commentary in the world on Genesis and
part of Exodus, an enlarged Targum on these books, in which
difficulties in the biblical narration are solved, gaps supplied,
dogmatically offensive elements removed and the genuine spirit
of later Judaism infused into the primitive history of the world.
Titles of the Bock.— The book is variously entitled. Frrs,t, it is
known as rb 'I«0ijXaia, cl 'I«/3i;Xa«x, Heb. thvrn. This
name is admirably adapted to our book, as it divides into
jubilee periods of forty-nine years each the history of the world
from the creation to the legislation on Sinai. Secondly, it is
frequently designated " The Little Genesis," ^ Xemfr Tbxats or $
MiKpoyivtois, Heb. .t»" nrn:. This title may have arisen
from its dealing more fully with details and minutiae than the
biblical work. For the other names by which it is referred to,
such as Tke Apocalypse of Moses, The Testament of Moses , The
Book of A darn's Daughters and the Life of Adam, the reader may
consult Charles's Tke Book of Jubilees, pp. xvii.-xx.
Object.— The object of our author was the defence and expo-
sition of Judaism from the Pharisaic standpoint of the and
century B.C. agaiost the disintegrating effects of Hellenism. In
his elaborate defence of Judaism our author glorifies circumcision
and the sabbath, the bulwarks of Judaism, as heavenly ordi-
nances, the sphere of which was so far extended as to embrace
Israel on earth. The Law, as a whole, was to our author the
realization in time of what was in a sense timeless and eternal.
Though revealed in time it was superior to time. Before it had
been made known in sundry portions to the fathers, it had been
kept in heaven by the angels, and to its observance there was
no limit in time or in eternity. Our author next defends Judaism
by his glorification of Israel . Whereas the various nations of the
Gentiles were subject to angels, Israel was subject to God alone.
533
Israel was God's son, and not only did the nation stand in this
relation to God, but also its individual members. Israel received
circumcision as a sign that they were the Lord's, and this privi-
lege of circumcision they enjoyed in common with the two highest
orders of angels. Hence Israel was to unite with God and these
two orders in the observance of the sabbath. Finally the des-
tinies of the world were bound up with Israel. The world was
renewed in the creation of the true man Jacob, and its final
renewal was to synchronize with the setting-up of God's sanc-
tuary in Zion and the establishment of the Messianic kingdom.
In this kingdom the Gentiles had neither part nor lot.
Versions: Creek, Syriac, Elhiopie and Latin. — Numerous frag-
ments of the Greek Version have come down to us in Justin Martyr,
Ortgen, Diodorus of Antioch, Isidore of Alexandria, Epiphanius,
John of Malala, Syncellus and others. This version was the parent
of the Ethiopic and Latin. The Ethiopic Version is most accurate
and trustworthy, and indeed, as a rule, slavishly literal. It has
naturally suffered from the corruptions incident to transmission
through MSS. Thus dittographies are frequent and lacunae of
occasional occurrence, but the version is singularly free from the
glosses and corrections of unscrupulous scribes. The Latin Version,
of which about one-fourth has been preserved, is where it exists
of almost equal value with the Ethiopic. It has, however, suffered
more at the hands of correctors. Notwithstanding, it attests a long
array of passages in which it preserves the true text over against
corruptions or omissions in the Ethiopic Version. Finally, as re-
gards the Svriac Version, the evidence for its existence is not con-
clusive. It is based on the fact that a British Museum MS. contains
a Syriac fragment entitled " Names of the wives of the Patriarchs
according to the Hebrew Book of Jubilees."
The Elhiopie and Latin Versions: Translations from tke Creek. — The
Ethiopic Version is translated from the Greek, for Greek words such
as hfXn, fiiXtun*. \ty, &c, are transliterated in the Greek. Secondly,
many passages must be retranslated into Greek before we can dis-
cover the source of the various corruptions. And finally, proper
names are transliterated as they appear in Greek and not in Hebrew.
That the Latin is also a translation from the Greek is no less obvious.
Thus in xxxix. 12 timoris**Udd*s, corrupt for-fouX«iat; in xxxviiL
13 honorem—Tw+9, but ripfr? should here have been rendered by
tributum, as the Ethiopic and the context require; in xxxii. 26,
celavit ■» Upvf*, corrupt for typatff* (so Ethiopic).
The Greek a Translation from tke Hebrew. — The early date of our
book— the 2nd century B.C. — and its place of composition speak for
a Semitic original, and the evidence bearing on this subject is con-
clusive. But the question at once arises, was the original Aramaic
or Hebrew? Certain proper names in the Latin Version ending
in ' L ' A ' •---• - "-"in, Filtstin. &c.
Bt tions end in -m
ar sm in the Latin
V< icludcd on other
err the other hand,
fo ) A work which
cl; y be in Hebrew,
fo id and national
la of a nation is
ui 1 revival of the
ru cd into Hebrew
in restore the true
te statement. In
xl bich is a mis-
tr now from the
pi produces almost
v< our text attests
tY le Hebrew text.
(4 ersions. In the
fo „ of p. In the
Latin etigere in U in xxii. 10 is a reproduction of 3 vo and in
qua... in ipsa in xix. 8 - *a . . . *>ck. This idiom could, of
course, be explained on the hypothesis of an Aramaic original. (5)
Many paronomasiae discover themselves on retranslation into
Hebrew.
Textual Affinities.— A minute study of the text shows that ft
attests an independent form of the Hebrew text of the Pentateuch.
Thus it agrees at times with the Samaritan, or Septuagint, or Syriac,
or Vulgate, or even with Onkelos against all the rest. To be more
exact, our book represents some form of the Hebrew text of the
Pentateuch midway between the forms presupposed by the Septua-
gint and the Syriac ; for it agrees more'frequcntly with the Septuagint,
or with combinations into which the Septuagint enters, than with
1 In the Ethiopic Version in xxi. 12 it should be observed that in
the list of the twelve trees suitable for burning on the altar several are
transliterated Aramaic names of trees. But in a late Hebrew work
(2nd century B.C.) the popular names of such objects would naturally
be used. In certain cases the Hebrew may have been forgotten,
or. where the tree was of late introduction, been non-existent.
S3*
JUBILEE YEAR— JUD
yr«*fc« t ia aJk aachorirv, or with any
ScpCttj^iRt. Xcsx to tSc $em*eu* * ^
S)Ttac or with cocabi-uiv^ts teto which tike S>riac enters. On the
other hawd. its u K kpuwk n cK of the Sepcwagint is shown in a large
caaWaairinn excluding the
most often with the
"■ttr of pi ii ii 1 1 where is has the wanport of the Samaritan and
Massocetic. or of these with variows combinations of the Syriac
Vulgate and Oakeko. Frvm these and other considerations we
may cone lade that the textual evidence points to the composition
of our book at soose period btt w ee n 250 ax. and A.D. 100, and at a
taawe nearer the earner date than the later.
ZAaat.— The book was written between 135 a,c and the year of
Hyrcanms breach with the Pharisees. This conclusion is drawn
from the following facts:— (t) The book was written during
the pontificate of the Maccabean family, and not earlier than
1 55 avc For in rrrii 1 Levi a called a " priest of the Most
High God." Now the only high priests who bore this title were
the Maccabean, who appear to have assumed it as reviving the
order of Mckhixedek when they displaced the Zadokite order of
Aaron. Jewish tradition ascribes the assumption of this title
to John Hyrcanus. It was retained by his successors down to
HyTcanus II. (2) It was written before 96 B.C. or some years
earlier in the reign of John Hyrcanus; for since our author is of
the strictest sect a Pharisee and at the same time an upholder
of the Maccabean pontificate, Jubilees cannot have been written
after 06 when the Pharisees and Alexander Jannaeus came to
open strife. Nay more, it cannot have been written after the
open breach between Hyrcanus and the Pharisees, when the
former joined the Sadduccan party.
The above conclusions are confirmed by a large mass of other
evidence postulating the same date. We may, however, observe
that our book points to the period already past— of stress and
persecution that preceded the recovery of national independence
under the Maccabees, and presupposes as its historical back-
ground the most flourishing period of the Maccabean hegemony.
Author. — Our author was a Pharisee of the straitest sect. He
maintained the everlasting validity of the law, he held the
strictest views on circumcision, the sabbath, and the duty of shun-
ning all intercourse with the Gentiles; he believed in angels and
ia a bksscd immortality. In the next place he was an upholder
ot the Maccabean pontificate. He glorifies Levi's successors as
a»$h-priests and civil rulers, and applies to them the title assumed
*> lie Maccabean princes, though he does not, like the author of
toe regiments of the Twelve Patriarchs, expect the Messiah
to vvoae forth from among them. He may have been a
;»«i.>t
' * V v*> .. ■ ; W A utkm m 0* Messianic Kingdom and the Future
. A<vvco ag t* our author the Messianic kingdom was to be
xox**c aevot grad*aUy by the progressive spiritual develop-
^,k g* no* asd a corresponding transformation of nature.
> wontfer* ww to reach the limit of 1000 years in happiness
^ *m Duruxg its continuance the powers of evil were to
^ «**«•*•* *»d the last judgment was apparently to take
• k iv ^tw* As regards the doctrine of a future life, our
s v.an 4 a^tson novel for a Palestinian writer He
^ s..^ ^ Vy< * a resurrection of the body. The souls of
»*«*» ** » ***** a blessed immortality after death.
^> * j***** attsstcd instance ei this expectation in the
This text was first
in 1895 by R. H.
t Hebrew Book of
Latin fragments).
ments arc printed
cd into German by
Is. ii. and iii. (1850.
\ Pseud, ii. 39-»»9)
hoddc (Bibl. Sacr.
k Quarterly Review,
wards published in
of Jubilees (1002).
ubilacn " (Ewald's
Pseudepig. des
>5;" Bcitrftgeaus
Textes" (Sittunts-
Si
th
tbi
Oci Buck der J
): Singer. DasBuek
atheaderlubilien'
Afullbtblic-
wfll be found in SchQrer or in R. H. Charles's commentary, Th*
Bos.k of Jubilees or the Little Genesis (1902), which deals exhaustively
with all the questions treated in this article. OR. H.C.)
JUBILEE TEAR, an institution in the Roman Catholic
Church, observed every twenty-fifth year, from Christmas to
Christmas. During its continuance plenary indulgence is
obtainable by all the faithful, on condition of their penitently
confessing their sins and visiting certain churches & stated
number of times, or doing an equivalent amount of meritorious
work. The institution dates from the time of Boniface VIII.,
whose bull AtUiquorum habetHdem is dated the 22nd of February
1300. The circumstances in which it was promulgated are related
by a contemporary authority, Jacobus Cajetanus, according to
whose account (" Rclatio de centesimo s. jubilaeo anno " in the
Bibliotheca Palrum) a rumour spread through Rome at the close
of 1209 that every one visiting St, Peter's on the 1st of January
1300 would receive full absolution. The result was an enormous
influx of pilgrims to Rome, which stirred the pope's attention.
Nothing was found in the archives, but an old peasant 107 yaaxs
of age avowed that his father had been similarly benefited a
century previously. The bull was then issued, and the pilgrims
became even more numerous, to the profit of both clergy and citi-
zens. Originally the churches of St Peter and St Paul in Rome
were the only jubilee churches, but the privilege was afterwards
extended to the Lateran Church and that of Sta Maria Maggjore,
and it is now shared also for the year immediately following that
of the Roman jubilee by a number of specified provincial churches.
At the request of the Roman people, which was supported by
St Bridget of Sweden and by Petrarch, Clement VI. in 1345
appointed, by the bull Unigenitus Dei JUius, that the jubilee
should recur every fifty years instead of every hundred years as
had been originally contemplated in the constitution of Boniface;
Urban VI., who was badly in need of money, by the bull Sahalar
nosier in 1380 reduced the interval still further to thirty-three
years (the supposed duration of the earthly life of Christ) ; and
Paul II. by the bull Inejfabilis (April 19, 1470) finally fixed it at
twenty-five years. Paul II. also permitted foreigners to substi-
tute for the pilgrimage to Rome a visit to some specified church
in their own country and a contribution towards the expenses
of the Holy Wars. According to the special ritual prepared by
Alexander VI. in 1500, the pope on the Christmas Eve with
which the jubilee begins goes in solemn procession to a particular
wallcd-up door (" Porta aurea ") of St Peter's and knocks three
times, using at the same time the words of Ps. cxviii. 19 {A peril*
mihi port as just iliac). The doors are then opened and sprinkled
with holy water, and the pope passes through. A similar cere-
mony is- conducted by cardinals at the other jubilee churches
of the city. At the close of the jubilee, the special doorway is
again built up with appropriate solemnities.
The last ordinary jubilee was observed in tooo. " Extraordinary**
jubilees are sometimes appointed on special occasions, e.t. the acces-
sion of a new pope, or that proclaimed by Pope Leo XI 1 1, for the
12th of March 1881. " in order to obtain from the mercy of Almighty
God help and succour in the weighty necessities of the Church, and
comfort and strength in the battle acainst her numerous and mighty
foes." These are not so much jubilees in the ordinary sense aa
special grants of plenary indulgences for particular purposes (Indul-
gentiae plenariac tn forma jubuaei).
JfJCAR, a river of eastern Spain. It rises in the north of the
province of Cuenca, at the foot of the Cerro de San Felipe
(5006 ft.), and flows south past Cuenca to the borders of Albacete;
here it bends towards the east, and maintains this direction for
the greater part of its remaining course. On the right it is
connected with the city of Albacete by the Maria Cristina canal
After entering Valencia, it receives on the left its chief tributary
the Cabriel, which also rises near the Cerro de San Felipe, in the
Montes Universales. Near Alcira the Jucar turns south-east-
ward, and then sharply north, curving again to the south-east
before it enters the Mediterranean Sea at Cullera, after a total
course of 314 m. Its estuary forms the harbour of Cullera, and
its lower waters are freely utilized for purposes of irrigation.
JUD, LEO (1482-1542), known to his contemporaries as
- Leu, Swiss reformer, was bom in Alsace and educated
JUDAEA— JUDAS I8CARI0T 535
. at Basel, where alter a course in medidne he turned to the study
of theology. This change was due to the influence of ZwingU
whose colleague at Zurich Jud became after serving for four yean
(1518-1533) as pastor of Einnirdcln. His chief activity was as
a translator; he was the leading spirit in the translation of the
Zurich Bible and also made a Latin version of the Old Testament.
He died at Zurich on the 10th of June 1542.
See Life by C Pestalozn (i860); art. in Hecsog-Hauck's Real-
emcyklopddie, voL ix. (1901).
JUDAEA, the name given to the southern part of Palestine as
occupied by the Jewish community in post-exilic days under
Persian, Greek and Roman overlordship. In Luke and Acts the
term is sometimes used loosely to denote the whole of western
Palestine. The limits of Judaea were never very precisely
defined and— especially on the northern frontier— varied from
time to time. After the death of Herod, Archelaus became
cthnarch of Samaria, Idumea and Judaea, and when he was
deposed Judaea was merged in Syria, being governed by a pro-
curator whose headquarters were in Caesarea.
For a description of the natural features of the country see
Palestine ; for its history see Jews and Jud ah. Cf. T. Mommsen,
The Provinces of the Raman Empire, ch. w.
JUDAH, a district of ancient Palestine, to the south of the
kingdom of Israel, between the Dead Sea and the Philistine
plain. It falls physically into three parts: the hill-country
from Hebron northwards through Jerusalem; the lowland (Heb.
Shiphelak) on the west; and the steppes or " dry land " (Heb.
Negeb) on the south. The district is one of striking contrasts,
with a lofty and stony table-land in the centre (which reaches
a height of 5300 ft. just north of Hebron), with a strategically
important valley dividing the central mountains from the low-
land, and with the most desolate of tracts to the cast (by the
Dead Sea) and south. Some parts, especially around Hebron,
are extremely fertile, but the land as a whole has the character-
istics of the southern wilderness— the so-called " desert " is
not a sterile Sahara — and was more fitted for pastoral occupa-
tions; see further G. A. Smith, Hist. Ceog. Holy Land, chs. x.-xv.
life in ancient Judah is frequently depicted in the Bible, but
much of the Judaean history is obscure. In the days of the
old Hebrew monarchy there were periods of conflict and rivalry
between Judah and Israel — even times when the latter incor-
porated, or at least claimed supremacy over, the former. Later,
from the 5th century B.C. there was a breach between the Jews
(the name is derived from Judah) and the Samaritans {q.v.).
The intervening years after the fall of Samaria (722 B.C.), and
after the destruction of Jerusalem (586 B.C.), were probably
marked by closer intercourse, similar to the period of union in
the popular traditions relating to the pre-monarchical age.
The course of Judaean history was conditioned, also, by the
proximity of the Philistines in the west, Moab in the east, and
by Edom and other southern peoples extending from North
Arabia to the delta of the Nile. Judah 's stormy history, con-
tinued under Greek and Roman domination, reached its climax
in the birth of Christianity, and ended with the fall of Jerusalem
in A.D. 70 (see Jews, Palestine).
In conformity with ancient methods of genealogy (q.v.), Judah
is traced back to a son of Jacob or Israel by Leah and along with
other " tribes " (Dan, Levi, Simeon, &c.) is inclnded under the
collective term Israel Thus it shares the general traditions of the
Israelites* although Judah appears as an individual in the story of
his "brother" Joseph (on ch. xxxvii. seq., see Genesis). Its
boundaries in Joshua xv. are manifestly artificial or imaginary;
they include the Philistines and number places which are elsewhere
•scribed to Simeon or Dan. The origin of the name (Ylhildah) is
quite uncertain; the interpretation " praised " is suggested in Gen.
~tox. 35 (cf. xlix. 8 seq.), but some connexion with allied names,
1 Yehud (YahQdiya, E. of Jaffa), or Eh ad (a Benjamite clan) seems
more probable. That Judah, whatever its original connotation,
underwent development through the incorporation of other clans
appears from I Chrorr. H., iv., where it is found to contain a
large element of non-Israelite population whose names find analogies
or paralleb in Simeonite, Edomite and other s outhern lists. 1 Indeed,
1 See especially Wellhausen. De gentibus el families Judaeemm
(Gottingea. i860), the articles on the relative. proper names in the
Emcy. Sib. % and E. Meyer, Die Israelite* u. firs NathbarsUimme,
pp. 299-471 (much valuable matter).
536
JUDAS-TREE— JUDE, EPISTCE OF
in sacred art Judas Iscariot is generally treated as the very in-
carnation of treachery, ingratitude and impiety. The Middle
Ages, alter their fashion, supplied the lacunae in what they
deemed his too meagre biography. According to the common
form of their story, he belonged to the tribe of Reuben. 1 Before
he was born his mother Cyborea had a dream that he was destined
to murder his father, commit incest with his mother, and sell his
God. The attempts made by her and her husband to avert this
curse simply led to its accomplishment. At his birth Judas was
enclosed in a chest and flung into the sea; picked up on a foreign
shore, he was educated at the court until a murder committed in
a moment of passion compelled his flight. Coming to Judaea, he
entered the service of Pontius Pilate as page, and during this
period committed the first two of the crimes which had been
expressly foretold. Learning the secret of his birth, he, full of
fessorse, sought the prophet who, he had heard, had power on
earth to forgive sins. He was accepted as a disciple and pro-
saoted to a position of trust, where avarice, the only vice in which
he had hitherto been unpractised, gradually took possession of
n* aosi, and led to the complete fulfilment of his evil destiny.
This Judas legend, as given by Jacobus de Voragine, obtained no
smal popularity; and it is to be found in various shapes*' in
•ernqr isstwtint literature of Europe.
fm the history of ha generis and Its diffusion the reader may
tarn* V Aacooa, he leujtnda di Vertogna e la legtenda di Giuda
tf»tt. &■• papers by wTCreutenach in Paul .and Braune's Beitr.
<w ImmA der demtschen Spracke und Litterotur, vol. ii. (1875), and
Ksnr Tnuktun » Russicke Revue (1880). Cholevius, in his
f sfcUi* iV tn'~ L - Peesie nock ihrm anHken Elemental (1854).
^MMdi sst Ae connexion of the legend with the Oedipus story.
toeosflfcar t» Dadb (Judas Isckariot, oder Betrachtungen uber das
Mrmit+mvmma turn Guteu, 1816, 1818) Judas was " an incarna-
te* -* me ***," to whom " mercy and blessedness are alike
"^Ks^wlpisw tatted of Judas has found strange symbolical
* C piM*«'K'WSMifBfts of Christendom. In Corfu, for instance,
.^.^u^K^apneflrnal on Easter Eve throw vast quantities
* cssssW'wsstlfcewwmdowsand roofs into the streets, and thus
mim - Mi m .- t ,.-~ vuanng of Judas (see Kirkwall, Ionian Islands,
ft * mm ism* {according to Mustoxkli, Delle cose corciresi)
w *^,4fc»» -smsftfti taet the traitor's house and country villa
^^Ht is in* nmnm, nnk that his descendants were to be found
Judas legends and superstitions are given
^nc ymt series, v., vL and vii. : 3rd series, vii. ;
■» om «. See also a paper by Professor Rendel
, 1» mnm^nvt comsmt suicide?" in the American
ol Matthew Arnold's poem " St
t* the old story that, on account of
• a kpb at Joppa, Judas was allowed an
of botanists, belonging
11 w ■ mi ■s^aasMi 1 in mi sin nrdrrT rimminrnnr It
fiptm, Portugal, Italy, Greece
* fcfW si 11 1 saw bis in 1 with a flat spread-
■ ■ isa , rsswnwft a profusion of purplish-
The flowers have
m with salad or made
figBted by the older
has the figure of
bandies, illustrating
\* v*m aw i>» *: v. i second species,
t
t*
P 1
brou
rnent
Itsm
and P*
be rest
place ai 1
author 1
abandons
the rightc
This is tht
last two cei
LlTERATO.
edited by Dil
Charles from
Jubilees . . . w
In the latter ec
together with tin
Dillmann from 01
|8si).andbyLiti
from Charles 5 Eti
1885) from Dillraan
vols, v., vi., vii. (ifc
1895, and finally in
Critical Inquiries: D
JakrbUcker d. bibl. W
Alten Testaments." Hi
dem Buche dcr Jubil&er
beriekU der Kjl. Preussi
tt*w(t856):Kdnsch.Dtf'
der Jubuarn (1898) : Bohn
{Tkeol. Stud, und Kriltken
Canada to
Kite European
e. Tk flowers are
,<dfc fce branches
dergy-
ts,
fciither
■"7": J* - » ~~* » « * tspedal
•* 4 *fc ' nmm } x _
k ^*»^av»t«
■*•*•*,** w tl t%1 "** *">*•; virgin is
Templeton, Mass., where he first met Unitarians and soon found
the solution of his theological difficulties in their views. He
entered the Harvard divinity school, from which be graduated
in 1840. In the same year he was ordained pastor of the
Unitarian church of Augusta, Maine, where he died on the a6th
of January 1853. His widest reputation was as the author of
Margaret, a Tale of the Real and the Ideal,induding Sketches of e
place not before described, called lions Ckristi (1845; revised 1851),
written to exhibit the errors of Calvinistic and all trinitarian
theology, and the evils of war, intemperance, capital punish-
ment, the prison system of the time, and the national
treatment of the Indians. This story, published anonymously,
attracted much attention by its true descriptions of New England
life and scenery as well as by its author's earnest purpose.
Richard Edney and the Governor's Family (1850) is in much the
same vein as Margaret. A poem entitled Philo, an Eaangeliad
(1850) is a versified defence of Unitarianism. He published,
besides, The Church, in a Series of Discourses (1854). As a preacher
and pastor he urged the desirability of infant baptism. He
lectured frequently on international peace and opposed slavery.
See Arethusa Hall Life and Character of the Rev. Sylvester Judd
(Boston, 1857) published anonymously.
JUDE, THE GENERAL EPISTLE OF, a book of the New
Testament. As with the epistle of James, the problems of the
writing centre upon the superscription, which addresses in
Pauline phraseology (x Thess. i. 4; 2 Thess. ii. 13; Rom. L 7;
x Cor. 1. 2) the Christian world in general in the name of "Jade,
the brother of James " (Matt. xin. 55; Mark vi. 3 ). The
historical situation depicted must then fall within the lifetime
of this Judas, whose two grandchildren Zoker and James
(Hegesippus ap. Phil. Sidetes) by their testimony before the
authorities brought to an end the (Palestinian) persecution of
Domitian (Hegesippus ap. Eos. H. E, iii. 30, 7). These two
grandsons of Judas thereafter " lived until the time of Trajan,"
ruling the churches " because they had (thus) been witnesses
(martyrs) and were also relatives of the Lord." But in that
case we must either reject the testimony of the same Hegesippus
that up to their death, and that of Symeon son of Ctopas,
successor in the Jerusalem see of James the Lord's brother,
" who suffered martyrdom at the age of one hundred and twenty
years while Trajan was emperor and Atticus governor,'' " the
church (universal) had remained a pure and uncomrpted
virgin " free from " the folly of heretical teachers "; or else we
must reject the superscription, which presents the grandfather
in vehement conflict with the very heresies in question. For
the testimony of Hegesippus is explicit that at the time of the
arrest of Zoker and James they were all who s urv i v e d of the
kindred of the Lord. True, there is confusion in the narrative
of Hegesippus, and even a probability that the martyrdom of
Symeon dated under Trajan really took place in the pe rs e cut ion
of Domitian .before the arrest of the grandsons of Judie, for apart
from the alleged age of Symeon (the traditional Jewish limit of
human life, Gen. vi. 3, Deut. xxxiv. 7), the cause of his appre-
hension " on the ground that he was a descendant of David and
a Christian " (Hegesippus ap. Eus. H. E. iii.32, 3) is inconsistent
with both the previous statements regarding the " martyrdom "
of Zoker and James, that they were cited as the only surviving
Christian Davididae, and that the persecution on this ground
collapsed through the manifest absurdity of the accusation.
But even if we date the rise of heresies in the reign of Domitian
instead of Trajan,' the attributing of this epistle against
*On this point (date of the outbreak of heresy) there is some
inconsistency in the reported fragments of Hegesippus, In that
quoted below from Eus. H.B, iii. 3a. 7 sen., it is expressly dated after
the martyrdom of Symeon and death of the grandsons of Jude under
Trajan. In UL 19 the " ancient tradition attributing the denun-
ciation of these to " some of the heretics " is perhaps not from
Hegesippus; but in iv. 22 the beginning of heresy is traced to a cer-
tain Thebuthis, a candidate for the bishopric after the death of
James, as rival to Symeon. The same figure of the church as a pore
' also used as in iii. 3a. But as it is only the eavioot feeKng
-ced to this early date, Hegesippus doubtless
^k later.
JUDE, EPISTLE OF
corrupting heresy to " Jude the brother of Junes " will still be
incompatible with the statements oi Hegesippus, our only
informant regarding his later history.
The Greek of Jude is also such as to exclude the idea of
authorship in Palestine by, an unschooled Galilean, at an early
date in church history. As F. H. Chase has pointed out: (i) the
terms KXtrroLtCurrwia^un a, have attained their later technical
tease; (2) "the writer is steeped in the language of the LXX.,"
employing its phraseology independently of other N.T. writers,
and not that of the canonical books alone, but of the broader
non-Palestinian canon; (3) " he has at his command a large
stock of stately, sonorous, sometimes poetical words," proving
him a " man of some culture, and» as it would seem, not without
acquaintance with Greek writers."
If the superscription be not from the hand of the actual
brother of Jesus, the question may well be asked why some
apostolic name was not chosen which might convey greater
authority ? The answer is to be found in the direction toward
which the principal defenders of orthodoxy in 100-150 turned
for " the deposit of the faith " Qwit 3) in its purity. The
Pastoral Epistles point to " the pattern of sound words, even
the sayings of our Lord Jesus Christ." (x Tim. vi 3, &c), as the
arsenal of orthodoxy against the same foe (with x Tim. vi 3-10;
d . Jude 4, 1 x, 16, 18 seq.). Ignatius's motto is to " be inseparable
from Jesus Christ and from your bishop" (ad Troll, vii.),
Polycarp's, to " turn unto the word delivered unto us from the
beginning " (d. Jude 3; 1 John ii. 7, iii. 93, iv. 21), " the oracles
of the Lord," which the false teachers " pervert to their own
lusts." Papias, his eVoipof (Irenaeus), turns in fact from " the
vain talk of the many, and from the " alien commandments "
to such as were " delivered by the Lord to the faith," offering
to the Christian world his Interpretation of the Lord's Oracles
based upon personal Inquiry from those who " came his way,"
who could testify as to apostolic tradition. Hegesippus, after
a journey to all the principal seats of Christian tradition, testifies
that all are holding to the true doctrine as transmitted at the
original seat, where it was witnessed first by the apostles and
afterwards by the kindred of the Lord and " witnesses " of the
first generation. All these writers in one form or other revert
to the historic tradition against the licence of innovators.
Hegesippus indicates plainly the seat of its authority. For the
period before the adoption of a written standard the resort was
not so much to " apostles " as to " disciples " and " witnesses."
The appeal was to " those who from the beginning had been eye-
witnesses and ministers of the word " (Luke i. t) ; and these were
to be found primarily (until the complete destruction of that
church daring the revolt of Barcochebas and its suppression -by
Hadrian) in the mother community in Jerusalem (d. Acts xv.a).
Its life is the measure of the period of oral tradition, whose
requiem is sung by Papias. Hegesippus {op. Eus. HE. iii. 3s,
7 seq.) looks back to it as the safe guardian of the deposit " of the
faith " against all the depredations of heresy which " when the
sacred college of apostles had suffered death in various forms,
and the generation of those that had been deemed worthy to hear
the inspired wisdom with their own ears had passed away . . .
attempted thenceforth with a bold face, to proclaim, in opposition
to the preaching of the truth, * the knowledge which is falsely
so-called (fptv6C>vvuos yvCxris).' " For an appeal like that of our
epistle to the authority of the past against the moral laxity
and antinomian teaching of degenerate Pauline churches in the
Greek world, the natural resort after Paul himself (Pastoral
Epp.) would be the " kindred of the Lord " who were the
" leaders and witnesses in every church " in Palestine. Doubtless
the framer of Jude 1 would have preferred the aegis of " James
the Lord's brother," if this, like that of Paul, bad not been
already appropriated. Failing this, the next most imposing
was " Judas, the brother of James."
The superscription in the case of Jude, unlike that of James,
takes hold of the substance of the book. Verse 3 and the farewell
(v. 24 seq.) show that Jude was composed from the start as an
" epistle." If this appearance be not fallacious, the obvious
relation between the two superscriptions will be best explained
537
by the supposition that the author of Jude gave currency
to the existing homily (James) before composing under the
pseudonym of Jude. On the interconnexion of the two see
Sieffert, s.v. " Judasbrirf " in Hauck, Reateucykl. vol. ix.
Judas is conceived as cherishing the intention of discussing
for the benefit of the Christian world (for no mere local church
is addressed) the subject of " our common salvation " (the much
desiderated authoritative definition of the orthodox faith), but
diverted from this purpose by the growth of heresy.
Few writings of this compass afford more copious evidence
of date in their literary affinities. The references to Enoch
(prindpally ver. 14 seq. *Elh. En. i. 9, but d. F. H. Chase, s.v.
" Jude " in Hastings's Did. Bible) and the Assumption of Moses
(v. 9) have more a geographical than a chronological bearing,
the stricter canon of Palestine exduding these apocryphal
books of 90 B.C. to aj>. 40; but the Pauline writings are freely
employed, especially 1 Cor. x. 1-13, Rom. xvi. 25 seq., and
probably Eph. and Col. Moreover, the author explicitly refers to
the apostolic age as already past, and to the fulfilment of the
Pauline prediction (1 Tim. iv. 1 sqq.) of the advent of heresy
(*. 17 seq.). The Pauline doctrine of " grace " has been perverted
to iasciviousness, as by the heretics whom Polycarp opposes
*{Ep. Polyc. vii.), and this doctrine is taught for " hire " (ro.n,
12, 16; d. 1 Tim. vi. 5). The unworthy "shepherds" (». 12;
cf. Ezek. xxxiv. 8; John x. 12 seq.) live at the expense of their
flocks, polluting the " love-feasts," corrupting the true disciples.
According to Clement of Alexandria this was written propheti-
cally to apply to the Carpocratians, an antinomian Gnostic sect
of c, 150; but hyper-Paulinists had given occasion to similar
complaints already in Rev. ii. 14, 20 (95). Thus Paulinism and
its perversion alike are in the past. As regards the undeniable
contact of Didache ii. 7 with Jude 22 seq. (d. Didache, iv. 1,
Jude 8) priority cannot be determined; and the use of x John
iii. 12 in Jude 11 is doubtful.
On the other hand, practically the whole of Jude is taken up
into 2 Pet., the author merely avoiding, so far as he discovers
them, the quotations from apocryphal writings, and prefixing
and affixing sections of his own to refute the heretical eschatology.
On the priority of Jude see especially against Spitta Zur Cesch.u.
LiU. d. Urchristenlhums, ii. 400-41 1, F. H. Chase, loc. cit. p. 803.
(On 2 Pet. see Peter Epistles of.) Unfortunately, the date of
2 Pet. cannot be determined as earlier than late in the second
century, so that we are thrown back upon internal evidence for
the inferior limit.
The treatment of the heresy as the anti-Christ who precedes
" the last hour" («. 18), reminds us of x John ii. 18, but it
is indicative of conditions somewhat less advanced that the
heretics have not yet " gone out from " the church. The treat-
ment of the apostolic age as past, and the deposit of the faith
as a regula fidei (d. Ign. ad Troll, ix.), the presence of anti-
nomian Gnosticism, denying the doctrine of lordship and
" glories " (v. 8), with " discriminations " between " psychic "
and " pneumatic " (s. 19), strongly oppose a date earlier than
xco.
Sieffert, on account of the superscription, would date as early
as 70-80, but acknowledges the hyper-Pauline affinity of the
heresy, its propagation as a doctrine, and close relation to the
Nicolaitan of Rev. ii 14. To these phenomena he gives accord-
ingly a correspondingly early date. The nature of the heresy,
opposed, however, and the resort to the authority of Jude " the
brother of James" against it, favour rather the period of
Polycarp and Papias (1 17-150).
The history of the reception of the epistle into church canons
is similar to that of James, beginning with a quotation of it as
the work of Jude by Clement oi Alexandria {Paed. iii. 8), a
reference by Tertuilian {De cult, fern, L 3), and a more or less
hesitant endorsement by Origen (" if one might adduce the
epistle of Jude," In Matt. torn. xvii. 30) and by the Muraiorianum
(c. 200), which excepts Jude and 2 and 3 John from its condem-
nation of apocryphal literature, placing it on a par with the
Wisdom of Solomon " which was written by friends of his in
bis honour." The use of apocryphal literature in Jude itself
S3»
JUDGE— JUDGES, BOOK OF
may aceottnt for mecfc of the critical disposition toward it of
Many subs eque n t writers. Eusebius classed it among the
* dispoted " books, declaring that as with James " not many of
the ancients have mentioned it " (H. E. ii. 23, 35).
TV fefrWL » t*r Hew Test, by Holtzraann, Julicher. Weiss,
Xaa*. Devidsosv, Salmon. Bacon and the standard Commentaries
at Meyer aad Hohamami. the International (Bin) and other series,
contain dtscusaaona of authorship and date. The articles s.v. in
Ha«tisws's PkI. BMe (Chase) and the Ency. Bib. (Cone) are full and
scfcoUrty. In addition the Histories of the Apostolic Ate. by Haus-
rmth. TOusacke*. McGiffert, Bart let. Ropes and others, and the
kindred works of Battr. Sch wegler and Pfleiderer should be consulted.
Moffat's Historical New Testament, 2nd ed.. p. 589. contains a con-
vent*** summary of the evidence with copious bibliography. One
of the most thorough of conservative treatments is the Commentary
om Jude and Second Pet* by J. B. Mayor (1907). (B. W. B.)
JUDGB (Lat. judex, Fr. juge), in the widest legal sense an
officer appointed by the sovereign power in a state to administer
the law; in English practice, however, justices of the peace and
magistrates are not usually regarded as " judges " in the titular
sense. The duties of the judge, whether in a civil or a criminal
matter, are to hear the statements on both sides in open court,
to arrive at a conclusion as to the truth of the facts submitted
to him or, when a jury is engaged, to direct the jury to find such
a conclusion, to tpply to the facts so found the appropriate rules
of law, and to certify by his judgment the relief to which the
parties are entitled or the obligations or penalties which they
have incurred. With the judgment the office of the judge is
at an end, but the judgment sets in motion the executive forces
of the state, whose duty it is to carry it into execution.
Such is the type of a judicial officer recognized by mature
systems of law, but it is not to be accepted as the universal
type, and the following qualifying circumstances should be
noticed: (t) in primitive systems of law the judicial is not
separated from the legislative and other governing functions;
(1) although the judge is assumed to take the law from the
legislative authority, yet, as the existing law never at any time
contains provision for all cases, the judge may be obliged to
Invent or create principles applicable to the case — this is called
by Bentham and the English jurists judge-made and judiciary
Uw; (3) the separation of the function of judge and jury, and
the exclusive charge of questions of law given to the judge, are
more particularly characteristic of the English judicial system.
During a considerable period in the history of Roman law an
entirely different distribution of parts was observed. The
adjudication of a case was divided between the mogistratus and
the judex, neither of whom corresponds to the English judge.
The former was a public officer charged with the execution of
the law; the latter was an arbitrator whom the magistrates
commissioned to hear and report upon a particular case.
The following are points more specially characteristic of the
r'ngliih system and its kindred judicial systems: (1) Judges are
absolutely protected from action for anything that they may do
in the discharge of their judicial duties. This is true in the
fullest sense of judges of the supreme courts. " It is a principle
of English law that no action will lie against a judge of one of
the superior courts for a judicial act, though it be alleged to have
been done maliciously and corruptly." Other judicial officers
are also protected, though not to the same extent, against
ait ions. (2) The highest class of judges are irremovable except
bv what is in effect a special act of parliament, viz. a resolution
rutttrd by both houses and assented to by the sovereign. The
interior judges and magistrates are removable for misconduct
by the lord chancellor. (3) The judiciary in England is not a
separate profession. The judges are chosen from the class of
advocates, and almost entirely according to their eminence at
the bar. (4) Judges are in England appointed for the most part
by the crown. In a few cases municipal corporations may
appoint tnc l f own jud» c ' a l officer.
See«liol-0«DHlCllCllANCELLOR;LOItDCHIEFjtJSTICB;MASTBR
or 1 MR Rot 1 V Ac. Ac. and the accounts of judicial systems under
country heading*.
JTJ DO 1- ADVOCATE-GENERAL, an officer appointed in
England to assist the Crown with advice in nutters relating
to military law, and more particularly as to courts-martial, ta
the army the administration of justice as pertaining to discipline
is carried out in accordance with the provisions of military law.
and it is the function of the judge-advocate-general to ensure
that these disciplinary powers are exercised in strict conformity
with that law. Down to 1793 the judge-advocate-general acted
as secretary and legal adviser to the board of general officers,
but on the reconstitution of the office of commander-in-chief
in that year he ceased to perform secretarial duties, but remained
chief legal adviser. He retained his seat in parliament and in.
1806 he was made a member of the government and a privy
councillor. The office ceased to be political in 1892, 00 the
recommendation of the select committee of 1888 on army
estimates, and was conferred on Sir F. Jeune (afterwards Lord
St Hetier). There was no salary attached to the office when
held by Lord St Helier, and the duties were for the most part
performed by deputy. On his death in 1005, Thomas Milvain,
K.C., was appointed, and the terms and conditions of the post
were rearranged as follows: (1) A salary of £1000 a year;
(2) the holder to devote his whole time to the duties of the post;
(3) the retention of the post until the age of seventy, subject to
continued efficiency — but with claim to gratuity or pension on
retirement. The holder was to be subordinate to the secretary
of state for war, without direct access to the sovereign. The
appointment is conferred by letters-patent, which define the
exact functions attaching to the office, which practically are the
reviewing of the proceedings of all field-general, general and
district courts-martial held in the United Kingdom, and advising
the sovereign as to the confirmation of the finding and sentence.
The deputy judge-advocate is a salaried official in the department
of the judge-advocate-general and acts under his letters-patent.
A separate judge-advocate-general's department is maintained
in India, where at one time deputy judge-advocates were
attached to every important command. All general courts-
martial held in the United Kingdom are sent to the judge-
advocate-general, to be by him submitted to the sovereign for
confirmation; and all district courts-martial, after having been
confirmed and promulgated, are sent to his office for examination
and custody. The judge-advocate-general and his deputy,
being judges in the last resort of the validity of the proceedings
of courts-martial, take no part in their conduct; but the deputy
judge-advocates frame and revise charges and attend at courts-
martial, swear the court, advise both sides on law, look after the
interests of the prisoner and record the proceedings. In the
English navy there is an official whose functions are somewhat
similar to those of the judge-advocate-general. He is called
counsel and Judge-advocate of the fleet.
In the United States there is also a judge-advocate-generaTs
department. In addition to being a bureau of military justice,
and keeping the records of courts-martial, courts of inquiry and
military commissions, it has the custody of all papers relating
to the title of lands under the control of the war department.
The officers of the department, in addition to acting as prose-
cutors in all military trials, sometimes represent the government
when cases affecting the army come up in civil courts.
See further Military Law, and consult C. M. Clode. Admimstro-
Hon of Jnsttce under Milttory and Martial Law (1872) ; Military Forces
of the Crown (2 vols.. 1869).
JUDGES. THE BOOK OP. in the Bible. This book of the
Old Testament, which, as we now read it, constitutes a sequel
to the book of Joshua, covering the period of history between
the death of this conqueror and the birth of Samuel, is so called
because it contains the history of the Israelites before the
establishment of the monarchy, when the government was in
the hands of certain leaders who appear to have formed a con-
tinuous succession, although the office was not hereditary.
The only other biblical source ascribed to this period is Ruth,
whose present position as an appendix to Judges is not original
(see BrBLE and Ruth).
Structure.— It is now generally agreed that the present adjust-
ment of the older historical books of the Old Testament to form a
continuous record of events from the creation to the Babylonian
JUDGES, BOOK OF
exile is due to an editor, or rather to successive redactors, who
pieced together and reduced to a certain unity older memoirs
of very different dates; and closer examination shows that the
continuity of many parts of the narrative is more apparent than
real. This is very clearly the case in the book of Judges. It
consists of three main portions: (i) an introduction, presenting
one view of the occupation of Palestine by the Israelites (i. i-
u. 5) ; (a) the history of the several judges (ii. 6-xvi.) ; and (3) an
appendix containing two narratives of the period.
x. The first section relates events which are said to have taken
place after the death of Joshua, but in reality it covers the same
ground with the book of Joshua, giving a brief account of the
occupation of Canaan, which in some particulars repeats the
statements of the previous book, while in others it is quite
independent (see' Joshua). It is impossible to regard the war-
like expeditions described in this section as supplementary
campaigns undertaken after Joshua's death; they are plainly
represented as the first efforts of the Israelites to gain a firm
footing in the land (at Hebron, Debir, Bethel), in the very cities
which Joshua is related to have subdued (Josh. x. 39). l Here
then we have an account of the settlement of Israel west of the
Jordan which is parallel to the book of Joshua, but makes no
mention of Joshua himself, and places the tribe of Judah in the
front. The author of the chapter cannot have had Joshua or
bis history in his eye at all, and the words " and it came to pass
after the death of Joshua " in Judg. L x are from the hand of
the last editor, who desired to make the whole book of Judges,
including ch. i., read continuously with that which now pre-
cedes it in the canon of the earlier prophets.'
2. The second and main section (ii- 6-xvi.) stands on quite
another footing. According to Josh. xxiv. 31 the people
"served Yahweh" during the lifetime of the great conqueror and
his contemporaries. In Judg. ii. 7 this statement is repeated,
and the writer proceeds to explain that subsequent generations
fell away from the faith, and served the gods of the nations
among which they dwelt (ii. 6-iii. 6). The worship of other
gods is represented, not as something which went on side by
side with Yah web-worship (cf. x. 6), but as a revolt against
Yahweh, periodically repeated and regularly chastised by
foreign invasion. The history, therefore, falls into recurring
cycles, each of which begins with religious corruption, followed
by chastisement, which continues until Yahweh, in answer to
the groans of his oppressed people, raises up a " judge " to deliver
Israel, and recall them to the true faith. On the death of
the " judge," if not sooner, the corruption spreads anew and
the same vicissitudes follow. This religious explanation of the
course of the history, formally expounded at the outset and
repeated in more or less detail from chapter to chapter (espe-
cially vi. i-xo, x. 6-18), determines the form of the whole
narrative. It is in general agreement with the spirit as also
with the language of Deuteronomy, and on this account this
section may be conveniently called " the Deuteronomic Book of
Judges." But the main religious ideas are not so late and are
rather akin to those of Josh, xxiv; in particular the worship
of the high places is not condemned, nor is it excused as in
x Kings iii. 2. The sources of the narrative are obviously older
than the theological exposition of its lessons, and herein lies
the value and interest of Judges. The importance of such docu-
ments for the scientific historian lies not so much in the events
they record as in the unconscious witness they bear to the state of
society in which the narrator or poet lived. From this point of
view the parts of the book are by no means all of equal value;
critical analysis shows that often parallel or distinct narratives
have been fused together, and that, whilst the older stories gave
more prominence to ordinary human motives and combinations,
1 This is confirmed by the circumstance that in Judg. ii 1 the
"angel of Yahweh," who, according to Exod. xiv. 24. xxiii. 20,
xxxiu 34, xxxiii. 2, 7 seq., must be viewed as having his local mani-
festation at the headquarters of the host of Israel, is still found at
GUgal and not at Shiloh.
* The chapter was written after Israel had become strong enough
to make the Canaanite cities tributary (9. 28), that is, after the
establishment of the monarchy (see 1 Kings ix. 20-21).
539
the later are coloured by religious reflection and show the
characteristic tendency of the Old Testament to re-tell the
fortunes of Israel in a form that lays ever-increasing weight
on the work of Yahweh for his people. That the pre-Deutero-
nomic sources are to be identified with the Judaean (J, or
Yahwist) and Ephraimite (E, or Elohist) strands of the Hcxa-
teuch is, however, not certain.
To the unity of religious pragmatism in the main stock
of the book of Judges corresponds a unity of chronological
scheme. The " judges," in spite of the fact that most of them
had clearly no more than a local influence, are all represented
as successive rulers in Israel, and the history is dated by the
years of each judgeship and those of the intervening periods of
oppression. But it is impossible to reconcile the numbers with
the statement elsewhere that the fourth year of Solomon was the
480th from the exodus (x Kings vi. x). See Bible: Chronology.
lend of Deuteronomic
ai sen it and the separate
m tel record inserted by
a >pcars both from their
cc to b almost identical
wi i (Joshua xxiv. 28-3 1 ).
Ji id hence was probably
in :e. According to the
hi ere oppressed: (a)' to
fa that they had inter-
m their gods (iii. 2, 6):
(b ; or (c) to punish them
to apostasy (D in ii. 12;
To this succeeds a noteworthy example of the Deuteronomic
treatment of tradition in the achievement of Othniel (g.r.) the only
Judaean "judge," The bareness of detail, not to speak of the
improbability of the situation, renders its genuineness doubtful, and
the passage is one of the indications of a secondary Deuteronomic
redaction. The case, however, is exceptional , the stories of the other
great "judges " were not rewritten or to any great extent revised
by the Deuteronomic redactor, and his hand appears chiefly in the
framework.' Thus, in the story of Ehud and the defeat of Moab
only iii. 12-15, 29-30 are Deuteronomic But the rest is not homo-
Kneous, vtr. 19 and 20 appear to be variants, and the mention of
rael (v. 276) is characteristic of the tendency to treat local troubles
as national oppressions, whereas other records represent little national
unity at this period (i., v.). See further Ehud.
According to the Septoagint addition to Josh. xxiv. 33, Moab waa
the first of Israel's oppressors. The brief notice of Shamgar, who
delivered Israel from the Philistines (iii. 31), is one of the later inser-
tions, anflln some MSS.of the LXX.it stands after xvi.31. The story
of the defeat of Sisera appears in two distinct Jorms, an earlier, in
poetical form (v.), and a later, in prose (iv.). D's framework is to
be recognized in iv. 1-4, 23 sea... v. 1 (probably), 31 (last clause) ; see
further Deborah. Tne Midianite oppression (vi.-viii.) is contained
in the usual frame (vi. 1-6; viiL 27 seq.), but is not homogeneous, since
viii. 4. the pursuit of the kings, cannot be the sequel o( viii. 3 (where
they have been slain), and viii. £3~35 ignores be The structure of
vi. i-viu. * is particularly intricate: vL 25^32 does not continue
vi. 1 1-24 (there are two accounts of Gideon's introduction and diver-
gent representations of Yahweh -worship) ; vi. 34 forms the sequel of
the latter, and vi. 36-40 (with " God ") is strange after the description
of the miracle in w. 21 seq. (with " Yahweh '% Further, there are
difficulties in vi. 34, vii. 23 seq., viii. 1, when compared with vii. 2-8,
and in vii. 16-22 two stratagems are combined- There are two
sequels: vii. 23 seq. and viii. 4; with the former contrast vi. 35;
with viii 1-3 cf. xii. 1-6, and see below. Chapter viii. 22 seq. comes
unexpectedly, and the refusal of the offer of the kingship reflects
later ideas (cf. 1 Sam. viii. 7; x. 19; *"• «, 1 7)- The conclusion,
however, shows that Jerubbaal bad only a local reputation. Finally,
the condemnation of the ephod as part of the worship of Yahweh
(viii. 27) agrees with the thought in vi. 25-32 as against that in vu
11-24. (See Ephod; Gideon.) Chapter ix. (see Abimelech) appears
to have been wanting in the Deuteronomic book of Judges, but
inserted later perhaps by means of the introduction, viu. 30-32
(post -exilic). It has two accounts of the attack upon Shechem
(Ix. 26-41 and 42-49)-
Aftera brief notice of two " minor judges " (sec below), follows the
story of Jephtbah. It concludes with the " ~~
usual Deuteronomic
« Hence, it is to be inferred that the reviser had older wrtlUn
records before him. Had these been in the oral stage he would
scarcely incorporate traditions which did not agree with his views;
at all events they would hardly have been written down by him in
the form in which they have survived. The narratives of the
monarchy which are preserved only in Chronicles, on the othar
hand, illustrate the manner in which tradition was reshaped and
rewritten under the influence of a later religious standpoint.
54*
JUDGMENT
detailed introduction to the
irtmto (** V< ♦"« J 1 KjjJ* ?> the »**««» <* the PhUUunes
,, H ,f**Ho(.<rf /•;;;I^;; S3 of Judah. Benjamin and Ephraim
•" « ;j;V2Su. 7. 9). U appear* to have in view notmcrrly
H**MC««M* «t V 9 ..»&w*« . "«sv
! • >♦ ■ " v .v -• ^-^.-e^ — *~ ^^ d Israel.
~ "' ~ pa trtfiBbbncc between
w= fc empluMzed by «h«
rfe atptoMtioo « wlucn
,*^*2rccb; touched
^.aa^ huo as a f ore-
-Ixd&K* impression
Vrttis* «bc interesting
id popular
™, - - ifiAwith
"IMB.ZI.KQ.)
»asd Jeph-
-» ^.»^«t»
^ ^g. «*nlkd "minor
_.«. nbitftaaa names-
1—. -iir irapo" 5 unpor-
■5. and their
^ . -* i«*. The
' ^aar «' rbe names,
«., rH«r« history.
note* than of
*d
16. 24 «eq.) describe the punishment of Benjamin by the religion
assembly and the massacre of Jabesh-Gilead for its refusal to Join
Israel, four hundred virgins of the Cileadites being saved for Ben*
jamin. How much old tradition underlies these stories is question-
able. It is very doubtful whether Hosea's allusion to the depravity
of Gibeah (ix. 9; x. 9) is to be referred hither, but it is noteworthy
that whilst Gibeah and Jabesh-Gilead, which appear here in a
bad light, are known to be associated with Saul, the sufferer is a
Levite of Bethlehem, the traditional home of David. The account
of the gnat fight in xx. is reminiscent of Joshua's battle at Ai
(Josh, vu.-viii.).
Historical Value.— The book of Judges consists of a number of
narratives collected by Deuteronomic editors; to the same circles
are due accounts of the invasions of Palestine and settlement in
Joshua, and of the foundation of the monarchy in z Samuel.
The connexion has been broken by the later insertion of matter
(not necessarily of late date itself), and the whole was finally
formed into a distinct book by a post-exilic hand. The dates
of the older stories preserved in ii. 6-xvi. 6 are quite unknown.
If they are trustworthy for the period to which they are rele-
gated (approximately uth-iath cent. B.C.) they are presumably
of very great antiquity, but if they belong to the sources J and
E of the Hexateuch (at least some four or five centuries later)
their value is seriously weakened. On the other hand, the belief
that the monarchy had been preceded by national " judges "
may have led to the formation of the collection. It is evident that
there was more than one period in Israelite history in which one
or other of these stories of local heroes would be equally suitable.
They reflect tribal rivalry and jealousy (cf. Isa. ix. 21, and the
successors of Jeroboam 2), attacks by nomads and wars with
Ammon and Moab; conflicts between newly settled Israelites and
indigenous Canaanitcs have been suspected in the story of Abime-
lech, and it is not impossible that the post-Deuteronomic writer
who inserted ch. ix. so understood the record. A striking
exception to the lack of unity among the tribes is afforded by the
account of the defeat of Sisera. and here the old poem represents
a combined effort to throw off the yoke of a foreign oppressor,
while the later prose version approximates the standpoint of
Josh. xi. i-i 5. with its defeat of the Canaanites. The general
stand-point of the stories (esp. Judg. v.) is that of central Pales-
tine; the exceptions are Othniel and Samson— the latter inter-
rupting the introduction in x., and its sequel, the former now
entirely due to the Deuteronomic editor. Of the narratives
which precede and follow, ch. i. represents central Palestine
separated by Canaanite cities from tribes to the south and north;
it is the situation recognized in Judg. xix. 10-12, as well as in
passages imbedded in the latest portions of the book of Joshua,
though it is in contradiction to the older traditions of Joshua
himself. Chapters xvii. seq. (like the preceding story of Samson)
deal with Danites, but the migration can hardly be earlier
than David's time; and xix.-xxi., by describing the extermina-
tion of Benjamin, form a link between the presence of the tribe
in the late narratives of the exodus and its new prominence in the
traditions of Saul (q.v.). As an historical source, therefore, the
value of Judges will deperid largely upon the question whether
the Deuteronomic editor (about 600 B,c. at the earliest) would
have access to trustworthy documents relating to a period
some six or seven centuries previously. See further Jews,
§§ 6, 8; and Samuel, Books or.
Literature. — Biblical scholars are In agreement regarding the
preliminary literary questions of the book, but there b diver g e n ce
of opinion on points of detail, and on the precise growth of the
book («.f. the twofold Deuteronomic redaction). See further W. R.
Smith, Ency. BriL 9th ed. (upon which the present article is based);
G. F. Moore. International Critical Comm. (1895); Ency. Bib., an.
"Judges"; K. Budde. Kurter Handcommentar (1897); Lagrange,
Lmts des /ages (1903) ; G. W. Thatcher (Century Bible) : also S R.
Driver. L*L of Old Testament (1909); Moore, in the Saved Books
of Old Testament (1898); C. F. Kent, The Student's Old Testament.
vol. i. (1904). (Sw A. C)
JUDGMENT, in law. a term used to describe (1) the adjudica-
tion by a court of justice upon a controversy submitted to it
inter partes {post litem contest atom) and determining the rights
of the parties and the relief to be awarded by the court as
between them; (2) the formal document issuing from the court
JUDGMENT DEBTOR—JUDICATURE ACTS
la whkh that adjudication is expressed; (3) the opinions of the
judges expressed in a review of the facts and law applicable to
the controversy leading up to the adjudication expressed in
the formal document. When the judgment has been passed and
entered and recorded it binds the parties: the controversy comes
to an end (transit in rem judicalam), and the person in whose
favour the judgment is entered is entitled to enforce it by the
appropriate method o{ "execution." There has been much
controversy among lawyers as to the meaning of the expressions
" final " and " interlocutory " as applied to judgments, and as to
the distinction between a "judgment," a "decree," and an
" order." These disputes arise upon the wording of statutes
or rules of court and with reference to the appropriate times or
modes of appeal or of execution.
The judgments of one country are not as a rule directly
enforceable in another country. In Europe, by treaty or
arrangement, foreign judgments are in certain cases and on
compliance with certain formalities made executory in various
states. A similar provision is made as between England,
Scotland and Ireland, for the registry and execution in each
country of certain classes of judgments given in the others.
But as regards the rest of the king's dominions and foreign states,
a " foreign " judgment is in England recognized only as consti-
tuting a cause of action which may be sued upon in England. If
given by a court of competent jurisdiction it is treated as creating
a legal obligation to pay the sum adjudged to be due. Summary
judgment may be entered in an English action based on a foreign
judgment unless the defendant can show that the foreign court
had not jurisdiction over the parties or the subject matter of the
action, or that there was fraud on the part of the foreign court
or the successful party, or that the foreign proceedings were
contrary to natural justice, e.g. concluded without due notice to
the parties affected. English courts will not enforce foreign
judgments as to foreign criminal or penal or revenue laws.
JUDGMENT DEBTOR, in English law, a person against
whom a judgment ordering him to pay a sum of money has been
obtained and remains unsatisfied. Such a person may be
examined as to whether any and what debts, are owing to him,
and if the judgment debt is of the necessary amount he may
be made bankrupt if he fails to comply with a bankruptcy
notice served on him by the judgment creditors, or he may be
committed to prison or have a receiving order made against him
in a judgment summons under the Debtors Act 1869.
JUDGMENT SUMMONS, in English law, a summons issued
under the Debtors Act 1869, on the application of a creditor
who has obtained a judgment for the payment of a sum of money
by instalments or otherwise, where the order for payment has
not been complied with. The judgment summons cites the
defendant to appear personally in court, and be examined
on oath as to the means he has, or has had, since the date of the
order or judgment made against him, to pay the same, and to
show cause why he should not be committed to prison for his
default. An order of commitment obtained in a judgment
summons remains in force for a year only, and the extreme term
of imprisonment is six weeks, dating from the time of lodging in
prison. When a debtor has once been imprisoned, although for
a period of less than six weeks, no second order of commitment
can be made against him in respect of the same debt. But if the
judgment be for payment by instalments a power of committal
arises on default of payment for each instalment. If an order of
commitment has never been executed, or becomes inoperative
through lapse of time, a fresh commitment may be made. Im-
prisonment does not operate as a satisfaction or extinguishment
of a debt, or deprive a person of a right of execution against the
land or goods of the person imprisoned in the same manner as if
there had been no imprisonment.
JUDICATURE ACTS, an important series of English statutes
having for their object the simplification of the system of
judicature in its higher branches. They are the Supreme Court
of Judicature Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict. *. 66) and the Supreme
Court of Judicature Act 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. c. 77), with various
amending acts, the twelfth of these being in 1899. By the act of
54*
1873 the court of chancery, the court of queen's (king's) bench,
the court of common pleas, the court of exchequer, the high court
of admiralty, the court of probate and the court of divorce and
matrimonial causes were consolidated into one Supreme 1 Court
of Judicature (sec. 3), divided into two permanent divisions,
called " the high court," with (speaking broadly) original juris-
diction, and " the court of appeal " (sec 4). The objects of the
act were threefold— first, to reduce the historically indepen-
dent courts of common law and equity into one supreme
court; secondly, to establish for all divisions of the court a uni-
form system of pleading and procedure; and thirdly, to provide
for the enforcement of the same rule of law in those cases where
chancery and common law recognized different rules. It can
be seen at once how bold and revolutionary was this new enact-
ment. By one section the august king's bench, the common
pleas, in which serjeanta only had formerly the right of audience,
and the exchequer, which had its origin in the reign of Henry I.,
and all their jurisdiction, criminal, legal and equitable, were
vested in the new court. It must be understood, however; that
law and equity were not fused in the sense in which that phrase
has generally been employed. The chancery division still
remains distinct from the common law division, having a certain
range of legal questions under its exclusive control, and possess-
ing to a certain extent a peculiar machinery of its own for
carrying its decrees into execution. But all actions may now be
brought in the high court of justice, and, subject to such special
assignments of business as that alluded to, may be tried in any
division thereof.
There were originally three common law divisions' of the High
Court corresponding with the three former courts of common
law. But after the death of Lord Chief Baron Kelly on the 17th
of September 1880, and of Lord Chief Justice Cockburn on the
30th of November 1880, the common pleas and exchequer divi-
sions were (by order in council, xoth December 1880) consolidated
with the king's bench division into one division under the
presidency of the lord chief justice of England, to whom, by
the a$th section of the Judicature Act 1881, all the statutory
jurisdiction of the chief baron and the chief justice of the common
pleas was transferred. The high court, therefore, now consists of
the chancery division, the common law division, under the name
of the king's bench division; and the probate, divorce and
admiralty division. To the king's bench division is also attached,
by order of the lord chancellor (Jan. 1, 1884), the business of
the London court of bankruptcy.
For a more detailed account of the composition of the various
courts, tee Chancery ; King's Bench ; and Probate, Divorce and
Admiralty Court.
The keystone of the structure created by the Judicature Acts
was a strong court of appeal. The House of Lords remained the
last court of appeal, as before the acts, but its judicial functions
were virtually transferred to an appeal committee, consisting of
the lord chancellor and other peers who have held high judicial
office, and certain lords of appeal in ordinary created by the act
of 1873 (see Appeal).
The practice i
by rules made b;
the president of 1
ter and one oth
rules now in fort
ments. With t!
Complaints arc ;
a burden on the
can ill afford to
attempted too 1
simpler and mor
been made to m
cedurc have beet
a new cxperimen
1 The comte de FranqueviUe in hi* interesting work, he Systhne
judiciaire de la Grande Bretagne^ criticisei the use of the word
" supreme " as a designation of this court, inasmuch as its judgments
are subject to appeal to the House of Lords, but in the act of 1873
the appeal to the House of Lords was abolished. He is also severe
on the illogical use of the words " division " and ^. court " in many
different senses (t. 180-181).
5+2 JUDITH, BOOK OF
as to make trial without a jury the normal
where trial with a jury is ordered under rules 6
id without an order under rule 2" (Tim sen v.
rz, at p. 76). The effect of the rules may be
1) In the chancery division no trial by jury
c judge. (2) Generally the judge may order
f any cause or issue, which before the judicature
1 so tried without consent of parties, or which
investigation of documents or accounts, or
vestigation. (3) Either party has a right to a
slander, libel, false imprisonment, malicious
on or breach of promise of marriage, upon
r; (4) or in any other action, by order, (5)
tions arc to be tried without a jury unless the
it ion, otherwise orders.
e been taken with a- view to simplification of
:r xxx. rule 1 (as amended in 1897). a summons,
r directions, has to be taken out by a plaintiff
ic appearance of the defendant, and upon such
to be made respecting pleadings, and a number
eedings. To make such an order at that early
demand a prescience and intelligent anticipa*
1 which can hardly be expected ot a master, or
ibcrs, except in simple cases, involving a single
hich the parties are agreed in presenting to the
the rule is that the plaintiff cannot deliver his
►r take any step in the action without the leave
incery cases the order usually made is that the
tatement of claim, and the rest of the summons
>ractical effect is merely to add a few pounds to
•e doubted whether, as applied to the majority
ocs not proceed on wrong lines, and whether it
to leave the parties, who know the exigencies
'en than a judge in chambers, to proceed in their
stringent provisions for immediate payment of
by unnecessary, vexatious, or dilatory proc e ed*
s not apply to admiralty cases or to proceedings
mentioned.
irt of Judicature Act (Ireland) 1877 follows
te English acts. The pre-existing courts were
supreme court of judicature, consisting of a
i and a court of appeal. The judicature acts
ish judicature, but the Appellate Jurisdicttoa
irt of session among the courts from which aa
►use of Lords.
X)K OP, one of the apocryphal books of the
t takes its name from the heroine Judith
e. m**, Jewess), to whom the last nine of
s relate. In the Scptuagint and Vulgate
cedes Esther, and along with Tobit comes
the English Apocrypha it is placed between
rryphal additions to Esther,
lie twelfth year of his reign Nebuchadrezzar,
ting of Assyria,having his capital in Nineveh,
Arphaxad, king of Media, and overcomes
*nth year. He then despatches his chief
to take vengeance on the nations of the
iheld their assistance. This expedition has
n its main objects when Holofernes proceeds
The children of Israel, who are described
turned from captivity, are apprehensive of a
• sanctuary, and resolve on resistance to the
abitants of Bethulia (Betylua) and Betomes-
(neither place can be identified), directed by
priest, guard the mountain passes near
c themselves under God's protection. Holo-
5 of the chiefs who are with him about the
wercd by Achior the leader of the Ammonites,
>ng historical narrative showing the Israelites
■ept when they have offended God. F«.r this
by being handed over to the Israelites, who
pvernor of Bethulia. Next day the siege
>rty days the famished inhabitants urge the
surrender, which he consents to do unless
tys. Judith, a beautiful and pious widow
eon, now appears on the scene with a plan
earing her rich attire, and accompanied by
ies a bag of provisions, she goes over to the
re she b at once conducted to the general,
re disarmed by the tales she invents. After
ts, smitten with her charms, at the dose of a
JUDSON— JUEL, J.
sumptuous entertainment invites her to remain within his
tent over night. No sooner is he overcome with sleep than
Judith, seizing his sword, strikes oft his head and gives it to
her maid; both now leave the camp (as they had previously been
accustomed to do, ostensibly for prayer) and return to Bethulia,
where the trophy is displayed amid great rejoicings and thanks-
givings. Achior now publicly professes Judaism, and at the
instance of Judith the Israelites make a sudden victorious
onslaught on the enemy. Judith now sings a song of praise,
and alt go up to Jerusalem to worship with sacrifice and rejoicing.
The book concludes with a brief notice of the closing years
of the heroine.
Versions.— Judith was written originally in Hebrew. This is
shown not only by the numerous Hebraisms, but also by mistransla-
tions of the Greek translation, as in ii. 2, iii. 9, and other passages
(see Fritzsche and Ball in loc.), despite the statement of Origen
(£/>. ad A frir.. 13) that the book was not received by the lews among
their apocryphal writings. In his preface to Judith, Jerome says
that he based his Latin version on the Chaldee, which the Jews
reckoned among their Hagiographa. Ball (Speaker's Apocrypha*
i. 343) holds that the Chaldee text used by Jerome was a free transla-
tion or adaptation of the Hebrew. The book exists in two forms:
the shorter, which is preserved only in Hebrew (sec under Hebrew
Midroshim below), is, according to Schotz, Ltpslus, Ball and Caster,
the older; the longer form is that contained in the versions.
Creek Version. — This is found in three recensions: (i) in A B, «;
(2) in codices 19. 108 (Lucian's text); (3) in codex 58. the source of
the old Latin and Syriac.
Syriac and Latin Versions. — Two Syriac versions were made
from the Greek — the first, that of the Peshito; and the second, that
of Paul of Telia, the so-called Hcxaplaric. The Old Latin was de-
rived from the Greek, as we have remarked above, and Jerome's
from the Old Latin, under the control of a Chaldee version.
Later Hebrew Midrashim.— These are printed in Jcllinck's Bet
ka-Midrasck, i. 130-131; ii. 12-22; and by Caster in Proceedings
of ike Society of Biblical Archeology (1894), PP- 156-163-
Dote.— The book in its fuller form was most probably written
fn the and century b,c. The writer places his romance two
centuries earlier, in the time of Ochus, as we may reasonably
infer from the attack made by Holofernes and Bagoas on
Judaea; for Artaxerxes Ochus made an expedition against
Phoenicia and Egypt in 35a B.C., in which bis chief generals
were Holofernes and Bagoas.
Recent Literature.— Ball, Speaker's Apocrypha (1888), an ex-
cellent piece of work; Scholz, Das Buck Judith (1896); Lohr, Apok.
und Pseud. (1900), ii. 147-164; Porter in Hastings's Did. Bible, ii.
822-824; Caster, Ency. Bib., it. 2642-2646. See Ball, pp. 260-261,
and Schurer in toe., for a full bibliography. (R. H. C.)
JUDSON, ADONIRAM (1788-1850), American missionary, was
born at Maiden, Massachusetts, on the 9th of August 1788,
the son of a Congregational minister. He graduated at Brown
University in 1807, was successively a school teacher and an actor,
completed a course at the Andover Theological Seminary in
September 18 10, and was at once licensed to preach as a Congre-
gational clergyman. In the summer of 1810 he with several of
his fellows students at Andover had petitioned the general associa-
tion of ministers to be sent to Asiatic missionary fields. This
application resulted in the establishment of the American board
of commissioners for foreign missions, which sent Judson to
England to secure, if possible, the co-operation of the London
Missionary Society. His ship fell into the hands of a French
privateer and he was for some time a prisoner in France, but
finally proceeded to London, where his proposal was considered
without anything being decided. He then returned to America,
where he found the board ready to act independently. His
appointment to Burma followed, and in 181 2, accompanied by
his wife, Ann Hasseltine Judson (1 780-1826), he went to
Calcutta. On the voyage both became advocates of baptism
by immersion, and being thus cut off from Congregationalism,
they began independent work. In 1814 they began to receive
support from the American Baptist missionary union, which had
been founded with the primary object of keeping them in the
field. After a few months at Madras, they settled at Rangoon.
There Judson mastered Burmese, into which he translated part
of the Gospels with his wife's help. In 1824 he removed to
Ava, where during the war between the East India Company and
5 or ma he was imprisoned for almost two years. After peace had
543
been brought about (largely, ft is said, through his exertions)
Mrs Judson died. In 1827 Judson removed his headquarters to
Maulmain, where school buildings and a church were erected,
and where in 1834 he married Sarah Hall Boardman (1803-1845).
In 1833 he completed his translation of the Bible; in succeeding
years he compiled a Burmese grammar, a Burmese dictionary,
and a Pali dictionary. In 1845 his wife's failing health deckled
Judson to return to America, but she died during the voyage,
and was buried at St Helena. In the United States Judson
married Emily Chubbuck (1817-1854), well-known as a poet
and novelist under the name of " Fanny Forrester," who was
one of the earliest advocates in America of the higher education
of women. She returned with him in 1846 to Burma, where
the rest of his life was devoted largely to the rewriting of his
Burmese dictionary. He died at sea on the 12th of April 1850,
while on his way to Martinique, in search of health. Judson
was perhaps the greatest, as he was practically the first, of the
many missionaries sent from the United States into foreign
fields; his fervour, bis devotion to duty, and his fortitude hi
the face of danger mark him as the prototype of the American
missionary.
The Judson Memorial, an institutional church, was erected on
Washington Square South, New York City, largely through the
exertions of his son, Rev. Edward Judson (b. 1844), who became its
pastor and director, and who prepared a life 01 Dr Judson (1883;
new ed. 1898). Another biography is by Francis Wayland (2 vols.,
1854). See also Robert T. Middleditch's Life of Adoniram Judson,
Burmak's Great Missionary (New York, 1859). For the three Mrs.
Judson*, see Knowles, Life of Ann Hasseltine Judson (1829); Emily
C. Judson, Life of Sarak Hall Boardman Judson (1849); Asahel C.
Kendrick, Life and Letters of Emily Chubbuck Judson (1861).
JUEL, JENS (1631-1700), Danish statesman, born on the 15th
of July 1631, began his diplomatic career in the suite of Count
Christian Rantzau, whom he accompanied to Vienna and Regens-
burg in 1652. In August 1657 Juel was accredited to the court
of Poland, and though he failed to prevent King John Casimir
from negotiating separately with Sweden he was made a privy
councillor on his return home. But it was the reconciliation
of Juel's uncle Hannibal Sehested with King Frederick III. which
secured Juel's future. As Schested's representative, he con-
cluded the peace of Copenhagen with Charles X., and after the
Danish revolution of 1660 was appointed Danish minister at
Stockholm, where he remained for eight years. Subsequently the
chancellor Griffenfeldt, who had become warmly attached to him,
sent him in 1672, and again in 1674, as ambassador extraordinary
to Sweden, ostensibly to bring about a closer union between the
two northern kingdoms, but really to give time to consolidate
Griffcnfeldt's far-reaching system of alliances. Juel completely
sympathized with Griflenfeldt's Scandinavian policy, which
aimed at weakening Sweden sufficiently to re-establish some-
thing like an equilibrium between the two states. Like Griffen-
feldt, Juel also feared, above all things, a Swedo-Danish war.
After the unlucky Scanian War of 1675-79, Juel was one of the
Danish plenipotentiaries who negotiated the peace of Lund.
Even then he was for an alliance with Sweden " till we can do
better." This policy he consistently followed, and was largely
instrumental in bringing about the marriage of Charles XI. with
Christian V.'s daughter Ulrica Leonora. But for the death of
the like-minded Swedish statesman Johan Gyllenstjerna fn June
1680, Juel's " Scandinavian ** policy might have succeeded, to
the infinite advantage of both kingdoms. He represented
Denmark at the coronation of Charles XII. (December 1697),
when he concluded a new treaty of alliance with Sweden. He
died in 1700.
Juel, a man of very few words and a sworn enemy of phrase-
making, was perhaps the shrewdest and most cynical diplomatist
of his day. His motto was: " We should wish for what we can
get." Throughout life he regarded the political situation of
Denmark with absolute pessimism. She was, he often said, the
cat's-paw of the Great Powers. While Griffenfeldt would have
obviated this danger by an elastic political system, adaptable
to all circumstances, Juel preferred seizing whatever he could
get in favourable conjunctures. In domestic affairs Juel was ail
544
Adherent of the mercantile system, and laboured vigorously for
the industrial development of Denmark and Norway. For an
aristocrat of the old school he was liberally inclined, but only
favoured petty reforms, especially in agriculture, while he re-
garded emancipation of the serfs as quite impracticable. Juel
made no secret of his preference for absolutism, and was one of
the few patricians who accepted the title of baron. He saw some
military service during the Scanian War, distinguishing himself
at the siege of Venersborg, and by his swift decision at the
critical moment materially contributing to his brother Niels's
naval victory in the Bay of Kjoge. To his great honour he re-
mained faithful to Griffenfeldt after his fall, enabled his daughter
to marry handsomely, and did his utmost, though in vain, to
obtain the ex-chancellor's release from his dungeon.
See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk biotrafisk lex., art. " Juel " (i 887,
Ac): Adolf Ditkv Jdrgensen, P. Schumacher Griff en jeldt (1893-
1894). (R.N.BT
'' JUEL, NIELS (1620-1697), Danish admiral, brother, of the
preceding, was born on the 8th of May 1629, at Cbristiania. He
served his naval apprenticeship under Van Tromp and De Ruy ter,
taking part in all the chief engagements of the war of 1652-54
between England and Holland. During a long indisposition
at Amsterdam in 1655-1656 he acquired a thorough knowledge
of ship-building, and returned to Denmark in 1656 a thoroughly
equipped seaman. He served with distinction during the S wedo-
Danish wars of 1658-60 and took a prominent part in the defence
of Copenhagen against Charles X. During fifteen years of peace,
Juel, as admiral of the fleet, laboured assiduously to develop
and improve the Danish navy, though he bitterly resented the
setting over his head in 1663 of Cort Adelaar on his return from
the Turkish wars. In 1661 Juel married Margrethe Ulfeldt. On
the outbreak of the Scanian War he served at first under Adelaar,
but on the death of the latter in November 1675 he was appointed
to the supreme command. He then won a European reputation,
and raised Danish sea-power to unprecedented eminence, by the
system of naval tactics, afterwards perfected by Nelson, which
consists in cutting off a part of the enemy's force and concen-
trating the whole attack on it. He first employed this manoeuvre
at the battle of Jasmund off Rtigen (May 25, 1676) when he
broke through the enemy's line in close column and cut off five
of their ships, whkh, however, nightfall prevented him from
pursuing. Juel's operations were considerably hampered at this
period by the overbearing conduct of bis Dutch auxiliary, Philip
Alroonde, who falsely accused the Danish admiral of cowardice.
A few days after the battle of Jasmund, Cornelius Van Tromp the
younger, with 17 fresh Danish and Dutch ships of the line, super-
seded Juel in the supreme command. Juel took a leading part
in Van Tramp's great victory off Oland (June i, 1676), which
enabled the Danes to. invade Scania unopposed. On the 1st of
June 1,677 Juel defeated the Swedish admiral Sjoblad off Moen;
on the 30th of June 1677 he won his greatest victory, in the Bay
of Kjoge, where, with 25 ships of the line and 1267 guns, he
routed the Swedish admiral Evert Horn with 36 ships of the line
and 1800 guns. For this great triumph, the just reward of
superior seamanship and strategy — at an early stage of the
engagement Juel's experienced eye told him that the wind in
the course of the day would shift from S.W. to W. and he
took extraordinary risks accordingly — he was made lieutenant
admiral general and a privy councillor. This victory, besides
permanently crippling the Swedish navy, gave the Danes a self-
confidence which enabled them to keep their Dutch allies in their
proper place. In the following year Van Tromp, whose high-
handedness had become unbearable, was discharged by Chris-
tian V., who gave the supreme command to Juel. In the spring
of 1678 Juel put to sea with 84 ships carrying 2400 cannon, but
as the Swedes were no longer strong enough to encounter such
a formidable armament on the open sea, his operations were
limited to blockading the Swedish ports and transporting troops
to Rtigen. After the peace of Lund Juel showed .himself an
administrator and reformer of the first order, and under his
energetic supervision the Danish navy ultimately reached impos-
ing dimensions, especially after Juel became chief of the admiralty
JUEL, N.— JUGE
in 1683. Personally Juel was the noblest and most amiable of
men, equally beloved and respected by his sailors, simple, straight-
forward and unpretentious in all his ways. During his latter
years he was popularly known in Copenhagen as "the good old
He died on the 8th of April 1697.
See Garde, Niels Juel (1842), and Den datum, mrshe Sdmatts Bis*
tor**> *S3S-*700 (1861), (R. N. B.)
JUG, a vessel for holding liquid, usually with one handle and
a lip, made of earthenware, glass or metal The origin of the
word in this sense is uncertain, but it is probably identical with
a shortened form of the feminine name Joan or Joanna; cf. the
similar use of Jack and Jill or Gill for a drinking-vessel or a
liquor measure. It has also been used as a common expression
for a homely woman, a servant-girl, a sweetheart, sometimes in a
sense of disparagement. In slang, "jug " or " stone-jug " is
used to denote a prison; this may possibly be an adaptation of
Fr. joug, yoke, L&1. jugum. The word "jug" is probably onomato-
poeic when used to represent a particular note of the nightin-
gale's song, or applied locally to various small birds, as the
hedge-jug, &c.
The British Museum contains a remarkable bronze jug which
was found at Kumasi during the Ashanti Expedition of 1806. It
dates from the reign of Richard II., and is decorated in relief with
the arms of England and the badge of the king. It has a lid,
spout and handle, which ends in a quatrefoil. An inscription, on
three raised bands round the body of the vessel, modernized runs:
— " He that will not spare when he may shall not spend when he
would. Deem the best in every doubt till the truth be tried
out." The British Museum Guide to the Medieval Room contains
an illustration of this vessel.
A particular form of jug is the " ewer," the precursor of the
ordinary bedroom jug (an adaptation of O. Fr. ewoire, med. LaL
aquaria, water-pitcher, from aqua, water). The ewer was a jug
with a wide spout, and was principally used at table for pouring
water over the hands after eating, a matter of some necessity
before the introduction of forks. Early ewers are sometimes
mounted on three feet, and bear inscriptions such as Vena tower.
A basin of similar material and design accompanied the ewer.
In the 13th and 14th centuries a special type of metal ewer takes
the form of animals, men on horseback, &c; these are generally
known as aquamaniles, from med. Lat. aqua mantle or aqua
manale (aqua, water, and manare, to trickle, pour, drip). The
British Museum contains several examples.
In the 18th and early 19th centuries were made the drinking-
vessels of pottery known as " Toby jugs," properly Toby Fillpois
or Philpots. These take the form of a stout old man, sometimes
seated, with a three-cornered hat, the corners of which act as
spouts. Similar drinking-vcssels were also made representing:
characters popular at the time, such as " Nelson jugs," &c~
JUGE, BOFFILLB DB (d. 1502), French-Italian adventurer
and statesman, belonged to the family of del Giudice, which
came from Amalfi, and followed the fortunes of the Angevin
dynasty. When John of Anjou, duke of Calabria, was conquered
in Italy (1461) and fled to Provence, Bofnlle followed him. He
was given by Duke John and his father, King Rent, the charge of
upholding by force of arms their claims on Catalonia. Louis XI.,
who had joined his troops to those of the princes of Anjou,
attached Bofnlle to his own person, made him his chamberlain
and conferred on him the vice-royalty of Roussillon and Cerdagne
(1471), together with certain important lordships, among others
the countship of Castres, confiscated from James of Armagnac,
duke of Nemours (1476)1 and the temporalities of the bishopric
of Castres, confiscated from John of Armagnac. He also entrusted
him with diplomatic negotiations with Flanders and England.
In 14&0 Bofnlle married Marie d' Albret, sister of Alain the Great,
thus confirming the feudal position which the king had given
him in the south. He was appointed as one of the judges in the
trial of Rene* of Alencon, and showed such zeal in the discharge
of his functions that Louis XI. rewarded him by fresh gifts.
However, the bishop of Castres recovered his diocese (1483),
and the heirs of the duke of Nemours took legal proceedings for
JUGGERNAUT— JUGURTHA
the recovery of the countship of "Castres. BoffiUe, with the
object of escaping from his enemies, applied for the command of
the armies of the republic of Venice. His application was re-
fused, and he further lost the viceroyalty of Roussillon (1491).
His daughter Louise married against his will a gentleman of no
rank, and this led to terrible family dissensions. In order to
disinherit his own family, Boffille de Juge gave up the coontship
of Castres to his brother-in-law, Alain d'Albret (1404). He died
in 1502.
See P. M. Verret.BofUle de Juge, comte de Castres, et la rlpublique
de Venise (1891); F. Pasquier, fnventaire des documents concernant
BojfUU de Juge (1905). (M. P.*)
JUGGERNAUT, a corruption of Sans. JagannAtha, "Lord
of the World," the name under which the Hindu god Vishnu is
worshipped at Puri in Orissa. The legend runs that the sacred
blue-stone image of Jagannatha was worshipped in the solitude
of the jungle by an outcast, a Savara mountaineer, called Basu.
The king of Malwa, Indradyumna, had despatched Brahmans to
all quarters of the peninsula, and at last discovered Basu.
Thereafter the image was taken to Puri, and a temple, begun in
1174, was completed fourteen years later at a cost of upwards
of half a million sterling. The site had been associated for
centuries before and after the Christian era with Buddhism,
and the famous Car festival is probably based on the Tooth
festival of the Buddhists, of which the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien
gives an account. The present temple is a pyramidal build-
ing, 192 ft. high, crowned with the mystic wheel and flag of
Vishnu. Its inner enclosure, nearly 400 ft. by 300 ft., contains
a number of small temples and shrines. The main temple
has four main rooms — the hall of offerings, the dancing hall,
the audience chamber, and the shrine itself— the two latter being
each 80 ft. square. The three principal images are those of
Vishnu, his brother and his sister, grotesque wooden figures
roughly hewn. Elaborate services are daily celebrated all the
year round, the images are dressed and redressed, and four
meals a day are served to them. The attendants on the god
are divided into 36 orders and 97 classes. Special servants are
assigned the tasks of putting the god to bed, of dressing and
bathing him. The annual rent-roll of the temple was put
at £68,000 by Sir W. W. Hunter; but the pilgrims' offerings,
which form the bulk of the income, are quite unknown and have
been said to reach as much as £100,000 in one year. Ran jit
Singh bequeathed the Koh-i-nor to Jagannath. There are four
chief festivals, of which the famous Car festival is the most
important.
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throwing themselves under the wheels in a frenzy of religious
excitement, but such instances have always been rare, and are now
unknown. The few suicides that did occur were, for the most part,
cases of diseased and miserable objects who took this means to put
themselves out of pain. The official returns now place this beyond
doubt. Nothing could be more opposed to the spirit of Vishnu*
worship than self-immolation. Accidental death within the temple
renders the whole place unclean. According to Chaitanya, the
apostle of Jagannath, the destruction of the least of God's creatures
is a sin against the Creator."
See also Sir W. W. Hunter's Orissa (1872); and District Gautteer
of Pun (1908).
545
JUGGLER (Lat. joculator, jester), in the modern sense a per-
former of sleight-of-hand tricks and dexterous feats of skill in
tossing balk, plates, knives, &c. The term is practically synony-
mous with conjurer (see Conjuring). The joculhtores were
the mimes of the middle ages (see Drama) ; the French use of the
word jongleurs (an erroneous form of jougleur) included the
singers known as troitoeres; and the humbler English minstrels
of the same type gradually passed into the strolling jugglers,
from whose exhibitions the term came to cover loosely any
acrobatic, pantomimic and sleight-of-hand performances. In
ancient Rome various names were given to what we call jugglers,
e.g. ventilator ts (knife-throwers), and pilarii (ball-players).
JUGURTHA (Gr. 'loyopOas), king of Numidia, an illegitimate
son of Mastanabal, and grandson of Massinissa. After his
father's death he was brought up by his uncle Midpsa together
with his cousins Adherbal and Hiempsal. Jugurtha grew up
strong, handsome and intelligent, a skilful rider, and an adept in
warlike exercises. He inherited much of Massinissa's political
ability. Micipsa, naturally afraid of him, sent him to Spain
(134 B.C.) in command of a Numidian force, to serve under
P. Cornelius Sdpio Africanus Minor. He became a favourite
with Sdpio and the Roman nobles, some of whom put into his
head the idea of making himself sole king of Numidia, with
the bdp of Roman money.
In 1 18 B.C. Midpsa died. By his will, Jugurtha was associated
with Adherbal and Hiempsal in the government of Numidia.
Sdpio had written to Micipsa a strong letter of recommendation
in favour of Jugurtha; and to Sdpio, accordingly, Midpsa en-
trusted the execution of his will. None the less, his testamentary
arrangements utterly failed. The princes soon quarrelled, and
Jugurtha claimed the entire kingdom. Hiempsal he contrived
to have assassinated; Adherbal he quickly drove out of Numidia.
He then sent envoys to Rome to defend his usurpation on the
ground that he was the injured party. The senate decided that
Numidia was to be divided, and gave the western, the richer and
more populous half, to Jugurtha, while the sands and deserts of
the eastern half were left to Adherbal. Jugurtha 's envoys
appear to have found several of the Roman nobles and senators
accessible to bribery. Having secured the best of the bargain,
Jugurtha at once began to provoke Adherbal to a war of self-
defence. He completely defeated him near the modern Philippe*
ville, and Adherbal sought safety in the fortress of Cirta (Con-
stantine). Here he was besieged by Jugurtha, who, notwith-
standing the interposition of a Roman embassy, forced the place
to capitulate, and treacherously massacred all the inhabitants,
among them his cousin Adherbal and a number of Italian
merchants resident in the town. There was great wrath at Rome
and throughout Italy; and the senate, a majority of which still
dung to Jugurtha, were persuaded in the same year (xxx) to
declare war. An army was despatched to Africa under the consul
L. Calpuraius Bestia, several of the Numidian towns voluntarily
surrendered, and Bocchus, the king of Mauretania, and Jugurtha's
father-in-law, offered the Romans his alliance. Jugurtha was
alarmed, but having at his command the accumulated treasures
of Massinissa, he was successful in arranging with the Roman
general a peace which left him in possession of the whole of
Numidia. When the facts were known at Rome, the tribune
Memmius insisted that Jugurtha should appear in person and be
questioned as to the negotiations. Jugurtha appeared under a
safe conduct, but he had partisans, such as the tribune C
Baebius, who took care that his mouth should be dosed. Soon
afterwards he caused his cousin Massiva, then resident at Rome
and a claimant to the throne of Numidia, to be assass in a t ed.
The treaty was thereupon set aside, and Jugurtha was ordered to
quit Rome. On this occasion he uttered the well-known words,
" A dty for sale, and doomed to perish as soon as it finds a
purchaserl" (Livy, Epit. 64). The war was renewed, and the
consul Spurius Albinus entrusted with the command. The
Roman army in Africa was thoroughly demoralized. An un-
successful attempt was made on a fortified town, Suthul, in which
the royal treasures were deposited. The army was surprised
by the enemy in a night attack, and the camp was taken and
c
J
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^ ur .tomi F*cnr Rjoxaa was drive* oat of NumidU, and a
^4^fF»xiu». poaoc was. owfc-i jiird 1109).
B>> -*s> uaie Lie kc>*ag ** Rook and in Italy against the
oictvtrua xju jtctpacity oi the nobles had become so strong
*j*jx a aa^a** ct senators were prosecuted and Bestia and
jUJbtnm jiFiixmxd to- eak. The war was now entrusted to
4>tuo£u& Wveu*s> xa able soldier and stern disciplinarian, and
fsoa ta* *<«* w< to its dose in 106 the contest was carried on
.^rith credit t« the Roman arms. Jugurtha was defeated on the
^i<ver Mtifch«l> after an obstinate and skilful resistance. Once
^gaxin. however, he succeeded in surprising the Roman camp and
forcing atetcllus into winter quarters. There were fresh nego-
tiations, but MeteUus insisted on the surrender of the king's
person, and this Jugurtha refused. Numidia on the whole
^eerned disposed to assert its independence, and Rome had before
gper the prospect of a troublesome guerrilla war. Negotiations,
^fleeting little credit on the Romans, were set on foot with
2£occhua («.*.) who for a time played fast and loose with both
parties. In 106, Marius was called on by the vote of the Roman
"people to supersede MeteUus, but it was through the perfidy
*Tf Bocchus and the diplomacy of L. Cornelius Sulla, Marius's
._ tiaestor, that the war was ended- Jugurtha fell into an ambush,
2nd was conveyed a prisoner to Rome. Two years afterwards, in
\&4, he figured with his two sons in Marius's triumph, and in the
* u bt«rcaaean prison beneath the Capitol—" the bath of ice/' as
*T* e called it— he was either strangled or starved to death.
** Though doubtless for a time regarded by his countrymen as
Ijcir deliverer from the yoke of Rome, Jugurtha mainly owes his
i7?*torical importance to the full and minute account of him
bfcb we k* ve * rom ^ C * UUK * °* Sallust, himself afterwards
^Lvernor of Numidia.
d* A. H. J. Greenidge, BisL if Rom* (1904); T. Mommsen, Hist.
fT-md. book iv. ch. v.; the chief ancient authorities (besides
11 .ST are Livy, £ftf- IxuV-lxvii.; Plutarch, Marius and Sulla;
^*ii ut*. Patercufus, ii.; Diod. Sic, Exurpta, xxxiv.; Floras, tiL 1.
V<1 2j0 MaBJUS, SOLLA, NUMIDIiU
ftfJU. a West African word held by some authorities to be a
1 charm. It is more generally
• the Mandingos directly from
be word, as used by Europeans
ly applied to the objects which
!*»**• ^ rshipped, and was transferred
it ,rt5 k *^biecU themselves to the spirits or gods who dwelt in
barn "^Ji finally to the whole religious beliefs of the West
tfceaa. * na - t ^ currently used in each of these senses, and more
fct ^*^ indicate all the manners and customs of the negroes of
he power of interdiction exercised
msmsM and Taboo).
the fruits of at least two species
jibed, namely, Z. vulgaris and
lember of the natural order Ana-
snail trees or shrubs, armed with
ines, having alternate leaves, and
the species edible, and have an
specially the case with those of the
JUJU— JU-JUTSU
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energetic supei
ing dimensions,
so fcet high, extensively cultivated
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besides, they are nutritive and demulcent. ' At one time a
decoction was prepared from them and recommended in pectoral
complaints. A kind of thick paste, known as jujube paste,
was also made of a composition of gum arabic and sugar dis-
solved in a decoction of jujube fruit evaporated to the proper
consistency.
Z. Jujuba is a tree averaging from 30 to 50 ft. high, found
both wild and cultivated in China, the Malay Archipelago,
Ceylon, India, tropical Africa and Australia. Many varieties
are cultivated by the Chinese, who distinguish them by the shape
and size of their fruits, which are not only much valued as dessert
fruit in China, but are also occasionally exported to England.
As seen in commerce jujube fruits are about the size of a small
filbert, having a reddish-brown, shining, somewhat wrinkled
exterior, and a yellow or gingerbread coloured pulp enclosing a
hard elongated stone.
The fruits of Zizyphus do not enter into the composition of
the lozenges now known as jujubes which are usually made of
gum-arabic, gelatin, &c, and variously flavoured.
JU-JUTSU or JIU-JITSU (a Chino-Japanese term, meaning
muscle-science), the Japanese method of offence and defence
without weapons in personal encounter, upon which is founded
the system of physical culture universal in Japan. Some
historians assert that it was founded by a Japanese physician
who learned its rudiments while studying in China, but most
writers maintain that ju-jutsu was in common use in Japan
centuries earlier, and that it was known in the 7th century b.c.
Originally it was an art practised solely by the nobility, and
particularly by the samurai who, possessing the right, denied to
commoners, of carrying swords, were thus enabled to show their
superiority over common people even when without weapons.
It was a secret art, jealously guarded from those not privileged
to use it, until the feudal system was abandoned in Japan, and
now ju-jutsu is taught in the schools, as well as in public and
private gymnasia. In the army, navy and police it receives
particular attention. About the beginning of the 20th century,
masters of the art began to attract attention in Europe and
America, and schools were established in Great Britain and the
United States, as well as on the continent of Europe.
Ju-jutsu may be briefly defined as " an application of anatomi-
cal knowledge to the purpose of offence and defence. It differs
from wrestling in that it does not depend upon muscular strength.
It differs from the other forms of attack in that it uses no
weapon. Its feat consists in clutching or striking such part
of an enemy's body as will make him numb and incapable of
resistance. Its object is not to kill, but to incapacitate one for
action for the time being " (Inazo Nitobe, Buskido: the Soil of
Japan).
Many writers translate the term ju-jutsu " to conquer by
yielding " (Jap. ju, pliant), and this phrase well expresses a
salient characteristic of the art, since the weight and strength of
the opponent are employed to his own undoing. When, for
example, a big man rushes at a smaller opponent, the smaller
man, instead of seeking to oppose strength to strength, falls
backwards or sidewise, pulling his heavy adversary after him and
taking advantage of his loss of balance to gain some lock or hold
known to the science. This element of yielding' in order to
conquer is thus referred to in Lafcadio Hearn's Out of the East:
" In jiu-jitsu there is a sort of counter for every twist, wrench,
pull, push or bend: only the jiurjitsu expert does not oppose
such movements. No; he yields to them. But he does much
more than that. He aids them with a wicked sleight that
causes the assailant to put out his own shoulder, to fracture his
own arm, or, in a desperate case, even to break his own neck or
back."
The knowledge of anatomy mentioned by Nitobe is acquired
in order that the combatant may know the weak parts of his
adversary's body and attack them. Several of these sensitive
places, for instance the partially exposed nerve in the elbow
popularly known as the " funny-bone " and the complex oi
net"- • t — -*"mach called the solar plexus, are familiar to
> '•* ju-jutsu expert is acquainted with many
JUJUY— JULIAN
ethers which, when compressed, struck, or pinched, cause tem-
porary paralysis of a more or less complete nature. Such places
are the arm-pit, the ankle and wrist bones, the tendon running
downward from the ear, the " Adam's apple," and the nerves of
the upper arm. In serious fighting almost any hold or attack is
resorted to, and a broken or badly sprained limb is the least that
can befall the victim; but in the practice of the art as a means of
physical culture the knowledge of the different grips is assumed
on both sides, as well as the danger of resisting too long. For
this reason the combatant, when he feels himself on the point of
being disabled, is instructed to signal his acknowledgment of
defeat by striking the floor with hand or foot. The bout then
ends and both combatants rise and begin afresh. It will be
seen that a victory in ju-jutsu does not mean that the opponent
shall be placed in some particular position, as in wrestling, but in
any position in which hi* judgment or knowledge tells him that,
unless he yields, he will suffer a disabling injury. This difference
existed between the wrestling and the pancratium of the Olympic
games. In the pancratium the fight went on until one combatant
acknowledged defeat, but, although many a man allowed himself
to be beaten into insensibility rather than suffer this humiliation,
it was nevertheless held to be a disgrace to kill an opponent.
A modern bout at ju-jutsu usually begins by the combatants
taking hold with both bands upon the collars of each other's
jackets or kimonos, after which, upon the word to start being
given, the manoeuvring for an advantageous grip begins by
pushes, pulls, jerks, falls, grips or other movements. Once the
wrist, ankle, neck, arm or leg of an assailant is firmly grasped so
that added force will dislocate it, there is nothing for the seized
man to do, in case he is still on his feet, but go to the floor, often
being thrown clean over his opponent's head. A fall of this kind
does not necessarily mean defeat, for the struggle proceeds upon
the floor, where indeed most of the combat takes place, and the
ju-jutsu expert receives a long training in the art of falling with-
out injury. Blows are delivered, not with the fist, but with the
open hand, the exterior edge of which is hardened by exercises.
The physical training necessary to produce expertness is the
most valuable feature of ju-jutsu. The system includes a light
and nourishing diet, plenty of sleep, deep-breathing exercises, an
abundance of fresh air and general moderation in habits, in
addition to the actual gymnastic exercises for the purpose of
muscle-building and the cultivation of agility of eye and mind as
well as of body. It is practised by both sexes in Japan.
Many attempts have been made in England and America to
match ju-jutsu experts against wrestlers, mostly of the " catch-
as-catch can" school, but these trials have, almost without
exception, proved unsatisfactory, since many of the most effi-
cacious tricks of ju-jutsu, such as the strangle holds and twists
of wrists and ankles, are accounted foul in wrestling. Never-
theless the Japanese athletes, even when obliged to forgo these,
have usually proved more than a match for European wrestlers of
their own weight.
See H. Irving Hancock's Japanese Physical rrofasVu (1904);
Physical Training for Women by Japanese Methods (1004) ;Tfc# Com-
plete Kane Jiu-jitsu (Jiudo) (1905); M. Ohashi, Japanese Physical
Culture (1904); K. Sana, Jiu-jitsu Tricks (1905).
t JUJUY, a northern province of the Argentine Republic,
bounded N. and N.W. by Bolivia, NJE., E., S. and S.W. by
Saka, and W. by the Los Andes territory. Pop. (1895),
49,7ij; (190 5 1 estimate), 55,450, including many mestizos.
Area, 18,977 *q« m -» the greater part being mountainous. The
province is traversed from N. to S. by three distinct ranges be-
longing to the great central Andean plateau: the Sierra de
Santa Catalina, the Sierra de Humahuaca, and the Sierras de
Zenta and Santa Victoria. In the S.E. angle of the province are
the low, isolated ranges of Arambre and Santa Barbara. Between
the more eastern of these ranges are valleys of surpassing fertility,
watered by the Rio Grande de Jujuy, a large tributary of the
Bermejo. The western part, however, is a high plateau (parts
of which are 11,500 ft/above sea-level), whose general character-
istics are those of the puna regions farther v/est. The surface
of this high plateau is broken, semi-arid and desolate, having a
547
very scanty population and no important industry beyond the
breeding of a few goats and the fur-bearing chinchilla. There are
two large saline lagoons: Toro, or Pozuelos, in the N., and Casa-
bindo, or Guayatayoc, in the S. The climate is cool, dry and
healthy, with violent tempests in the summer season. (For a
vivid description of this interesting region, see F. ODriscoll,
* A Journey to the North of the Argentine Republic," Geogr.
Jour. xxiv. 1004.) The agricultural productions of Jujuy in-
clude sugar cane, wheat, Indian corn, alfalfa and grapes. The
breeding of cattle and mules for the Bolivian and Chilean markets
is an old industry. Coffee has been grown in the department of
Ledesma, but only to a limited extent. There are also valuable
forest areas and undeveloped mineral deposits. Large borax
deposits are worked in the northern part of the province, the out-
put in 1001 having been 8000 tons. The province is traversed
from S. to N. by the Central Northern railway, a national govern-
ment line, which has been extended to the Bolivian frontier. It
passes through the capital and up the picturesque Humahuaca
valley, and promises, under capable management, to be an im-
portant international tine, affording an outlet for southern
Bolivia. The climate of the lower agricultural districts is tropical,
and irrigation is employed in some places in the bng dry season.
The capital, Jujuy (estimated pop. 1905, 5000), is situated on
the Rio Grande at the lower end of the Humahuaca valley, 942 m.
from Buenos Aires by rail It was founded in x 593 and is 403 5 ft.
above sea-level. It has a mild, temperate climate and pictur-
esque natural surroundings, and is situated on the old route
be tween Bolivia and Tucuman, but its growth has been slow.
-JUKES, JOSEPH BEETE (1811-1869), English geologist, was
born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, on the xoth of October
181 1. He took his degree at Cambridge in 1836. He began
the study of geology under Sedgwick, and in 1839 was appointed
geological surveyor of Newfoundland. He returned to England
at the end of 1840, and in 1842 sailed as naturalist on board
H.M.S. " Fly," despatched to survey Torres Strait, New Guinea,
and the east coast of Australia. Jukes landed in England again
in June 1846, and in August received an appointment on the
geological survey of Great Britain. The district to which he was
first sent was North Wales. In 1847 he commenced the survey
of the South Staffordshire coal-field and. continued this work
during successive years after the close of field-work in Wales. The
results were published in his Geology of the South Staffordshire
Coal-field (1853; and ed. 1859), a work remarkable for its accu-
racy and philosophic treatment. In 1850 he accepted the post
of local director of the geological survey of Ireland. The ex-
hausting nature of this work slowly but surely wore out even
his robust constitution and on the 29th of July 1869 he died.
For many years he lectured as professor of geology, first at the
Royal Dublin Society's Museum of Irish Industry, and afterwards
at the Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was an admirable
teacher, and his Student's Manual was the favoured textbook
of British students for many years. During his residence in
Ireland he wrote an article " On the Mode of Formation of some
of the River-valleys in the South of Ireland " (Quarterly Journ.
Geol. Soc. 1862), and in this now classic essay he first clearly
sketched the origin and development of rivers. In later years
he devoted much attention to the relations between the Devonian
system and the Carboniferous rocks and Old Red Sandstone.
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JULIAN (Flavtus Claudius Juliakus) (331-363), commonly
called Julian the Apostate, Roman emperor, was born in
JULIAN
i 331,' the son of Julius Constantius and his
, and nephew of Constantine the Great. He was
r of tbe dynasty under whose auspices Christianity
the #<t«MidiP<l religion of Rome. The name Flavius
W wtniiHil from his paternal grandfather Constanthis Chlorus:
J&Eacns came from his maternal grandfather; Claudius had
bee* •— «i»j~i by Constantine's family in order to assert a
cwmrrion with Claudius Gothicus.
Jofian lost his mother not many months after he was born.
He was only six when his imperial uncle died; and one of his
tariirst memories must have been the fearful massacre of his
father and kinsfolk, in the interest and more or less at the insti-
gation of the sons of Constantine. Only Julian and his elder
half-brother Callus were spared, Callus being too ill and Julian too
young to excite the fear or justify the cruelty of the murderers.
Gallus was banished, but Julian was allowed to remain in Con-
stantinople, where he was carefully educated under the super-
vision of the family eunuch Mardonius, and of Eusebius, bishop
of Nicomedia. About 344 Gallus was recalled, and the two
brothers were removed to Macellum, a remote and lonely castle
in Cappadoda. Julian was trained to the profession of the
Christian religion; but he became early attracted to the old
faith, or rather to the idealized amalgam of paganism and philo-
sophy which was current among his teachers, the rhetoricians.
Cut off from all sympathy with the reigning belief by the terrible
fate of his family, and with no prospect of a public career, he
turned with all the eagerness of an enthusiastic temperament to
the literary and philosophic studies of the time. The old
Hellenic world had an irresistible attraction for him. Love for
its culture was in Julian's mind intimately associated with
loyalty to its religion. ,. ... . 4
In the meantime the course of events had left as sole autocrat
of the Roman Empire his cousin Constantius, who, feeling himself
anequal to the enormous task, called Julian's brother Gallus to
rSlre of power, and in March 351 appointed him Caesar. At
the same tfloae Juhaa was permitted to return to Constantinople,
mb*w W studied grammar under Nicodes and rhetoric under
lb* 0*bJi*a **>&& Hecebolius. After a short stay in the capi-
- -»—*•-> —»#«*• to Nicomedia, where he made
lost eminent rhetoricians of the
is secret devotion to the pagan
id the lectures of Libanius, but
lefinite conversion to paganism
. Maximus of Ephesus, who may
The downfall of Gallus (354),
tor of the East, again exposed
By his rash and headstrong
enmity of Constantius and the
iters, and was put to death,
md narrowly escaped the same
tnhnedat Milan (Mcdiolanum)
>ress Euscbia, who always felt
as given him to retire to a small
: was on his way, Constantius
ither ordered— him to take up
w months he spent there (July-
bappiest of his life.
Julian were now the sole sur-
ly of Constantine; and, as the
led by the cares of government,
call Julian to his assistance,
he was summoned to Milan,
m him tbe hand of his sister
Caesar and the government of
V v t******* J****foy *waited him beyond the Alps.
v " * v * ^vUk* * W Alamanni and other German tribes
. K * ** V "V*V* iWv had burned many flourishing dries,
' C *\ , *.v» •*{*■«« Gibbon's Dedint and .Wed.
> v + x .* . *» |wlw ieem9 to j |e between May 331
V \ ' '*i\v k*1*< bt adopted, Julian must have died
^ ; ^ *.j! ^,wX^-coid,yearofhiaafe(a.statedin
I and extended their ravages far into the interior of GaoL Tbe
internal government of the province had also fallen into great
confusion. In spite of his inexperience, Julian quickly brought
affairs into order. He completely overthrew the Alamanni in
the great battle of Strassburg (August 357). Tbe Frankish
tribes which had settled on the western bank of the lower Rhine
were reduced to submission* In Gaul he rebuilt the dries which
had been laid waste, re-established the administration on a just
and secure footing, and as far as possible lightened the taxes,
which weighed so heavily on the poor provincials. Paris was
the usual residence of Julian during his government of Gaul,
and his name has become inseparably assodated with the early
history of the dty.
Julian's reputation was now established. He was general of a
victorious army enthusiastically attached to him and governor
of a province which he bad saved from ruin; but be had also
become an object of fear and jealousy at the imperial court.
Constantius accordingly resolved to weaken his power. A
threatened invasion of the Persians was made an excuse for with-
drawing some of the best legions from the Gallic army. Julian
recognized the covert purpose of this, yet proceeded to fulfil the
commands of the emperor. A sudden movement of the legions
themsdves decided otherwise. At Paris, on the night of the
parting banquet, they forced thdr way into Julian's tent, and,
proclaiming him emperor, offered him the alternative either of
accepting the lofty title or of an instant death. Julian accepted
the empire, and sent an embassy with a deferential message to
Constantius. The message being contemptuously disregarded,
both sides prepared for a derisive struggle. After a march of
unexampled rapidity through the Black Forest and down the
Danube, Julian reached Sirmium, and was on the way to Con-
stantinople, when he recdved news of the death of Constantius,
who had set out from Syria to meet him, at Mopsucrene
in Cilicia (Nov. 3, 361). Without further trouble Julian found
himself everywhere acknowledged the sole ruler of the Roman
Empire; it is even asserted that Constantius himself on his
death-bed had designated him his successor. Julian entered
Constantinople on the nth of December 361.
Julian had already made a public avowal of paganism, of
which he had been a secret adherent from the age of twenty. It
was no ordinary profession, but the expression of a strong and
even enthusiastic conviction; the restoration of the pagan wor-
ship was to be the great aim and controlling prindple of his
government. His reign was too short to show what precise
form the pagan revival might ultimately have taken, how far
his feelings might have become embittered by his conflict with the
Christian faith, whether persecution, violence and dvil war might
not have taken the place of the moral suasion which was the
method he originally affected. He issued an edict of universal
toleration; but in many respects he used his imperial influence
unfairly to advance the work of restoration. In order to deprive
the Christians of the advantages of culture, and discredit them
as an ignorant sect, he forbade them to teach rhetoric. The
symbols of paganism and of the imperial dignity were so artfully
interwoven on tbe standards of the legions that they could not
pay tbe usual homage to the emperor without seeming to offer
worship to the gods; and, when tbe soldiers came forward to
receive the customary donative, they were required to throw a
handful of incense on the altar. Without directly exduding
Christians from the high offices of state, he hdd that the wor-
shippers of the gods ought to have the preference. In short,
though there was no direct persecution, he exerted much more
than a moral pressure to restore the power and prestige of the
old faith.
Having spent the winter of 361-362 at Constantinople, Julian
proceeded to Antioch to prepare for his great expedition against
Persia. His stay there was a curious episode in his life. It is
doubtful whether his pagan convictions or his ascetic life, after
tbe fashion of an antique philosopher, gave most offence to the
so-called Christians of tbe dissolute dty. They soon grew
heartily tired of each other, and Julian took up his winter quar-
ters at Tarsus, from which in early spring he marched against
JULICH
549
Persia. At the bead of a powerful and well-appointed army he
advanced through Mesopotamia and Assyria as far as Ctcsiphon,
near which he crossed the Tigris, in face of a Persian army
which he defeated. Misled by the treacherous advice of a
Persian nobleman, he desisted from the siege, and set out to seek
the main army of the enemy under Shapur II. (?.».)• After a
long, useless march be was forced to retreat, and found himself
enveloped by the whole Persian army, in a waterless and desolate
country, at the hottest season of the year. The Romans repulsed
the enemy in many an obstinate battle, but on the 26th of June
363 Julian, who was ever in the front, was mortally wounded.
The same night he died in his tent. In the most authentic
historian of his reign, Ammianus Marcellinus, we find a noble
speech, which he is said to have addressed to his afflicted officers.
Soon after his death the rumour spread that the fatal wound
had been inflicted by a Christian in the Roman army. The
well-known statement, first found in Theodoret (Jf. 5th century),
that Julian threw his blood towards heaven, exclaiming, " Thou
hast conquered, O Galilean!" is probably a development of the
account of his death in the poems of Ephraem Syrus.
From Julian's unique position as the last champion of a
dying polytheism, his character has always excited interest.
Authors such as Gregory of Nazianzus have heaped the fiercest
anathemas upon him; but a just and sympathetic criticism finds
many noble qualities in his character. In childhood and youth
be had learned to regard Christianity as a persecuting force.
The only sympathetic friends he met were among the pagan
rhetoricians and philosophers; and he found a suitable outlet
for his restless and inquiring mind only in the studies of ancient
Greece. In this way he was attracted to the old paganism; but
it was a paganism idealized by the philosophy of the time.
In other respects Julian was no unworthy successor of the
Antonines. Though brought up in a studious and pedantic
solitude, he was no sooner called to the government of Gaul than
he displayed all the energy, the hardihood and the practical
sagacity, of an old Roman. In temperance, self-control and zeal
for the public good, as he understood it, he was unsurpassed.
To these Roman qualities he added the culture, literary instincts
and speculative curiosity of a Greek. One of the most remark-
able features of his public life was the perfect ease and mastery
with which he associated the cares of war and statesman-
ship with the assiduous cultivation of literature and philo-
sophy. Yet even his devotion to culture was not free from
pedantry and dilettantism. His contemporaries observed in
him a want of naturalness. He had not the moral health or
the composed and reticent manhood of a Roman, or the spon-
taneity of a Greek. He was never at rest; in the rapid torrent
of his conversation he was apt to run himself out of breath; his
manner was jerky and spasmodic He showed quite a deferen-
tial regard for the sophists and rhetoricians of the time, and
advanced them to high offices of state; there* was real cause for
fear that he would introduce the government of pedants in the
Roman empire. Last of all, his love for the old philosophy was
sadly disfigured by his devotion to the old superstitions. He was
greatly given to divination; he was noted for the number of his
sacrificial victims. Wits applied to htm the joke that bad been
passed on Marcus Aurelius: " The white cattle to Marcus Caesar,
greeting. If you conquer, there is an end of us."
Bibliography— The works of Julian, of which there are complete
editions by E. Spanheim (Leipcig, 1696) and F. C. Hertlein (Teubner
series, 1875-1876), consist of the following: (i) Letters, of which more
than eighty have been preserved under his name, although the
genuineness of several has been disputed. For his views on religious
toleration and his attitude towards Christians and lews the most
important are 95-27, 51, 59, and the fragment in Hertlein, i, 371.
The letter of Callus to Julian, warning him against reverting to
heathenism, is probably a Christian forgery. Six new letters were
discovered in 1884 by A Papadopulos Kcrameus in a monastery
on the island of Chalcu near Constantinople (see Rkeinitches Museum,
alii., 1887). Separate edition of the letters by L. H. Heyler (1828) ;
see also J. Bidez and F. Cumont. " Recherche* sur la tradition MS.
des lettrcs de l'empereur Julicn in Mimoires couronnis . . . pubiUs
par I' Acad. royaU de Bdgique, Ivii. (1898) and F. Cumont, Sur
Vaulhenticiti de qudqmes letlres de Julien (1889). (») Orations, eight
in number—two paaegyrios on Conauntius.oD* on the empress Euse-
548
Constantinople in 331, '
wife Baailina, and nei^'
thus a member of the-
became the establish.
he inherited from his
Julianus came iron.
been assumed by <
connexion with Ch
Julian lost his r
He was only six \
earliest memorit
father and kinsf ■
gation of the s.
half-brother G;.
young to exci.
Callus was b„
stantihople, <.
vision of the
of Nicomed
brothers w t
in CappacJ.
Christian .
faith, or r,
sophy M')
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fate of f
turned
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A _-: ,ie fortress of
^ 1 i* .-T-niioed with
*~ ■* -x.i Vr-burg wtTe
' 7^- ^-r tfce Unds.
A I**.. *-3d in 1609
^ ... -.x.vsfcs Joe a mar-
*" »T*,* » 3 aa»i <£nerences
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\ ^ I ...jiag William
v. 5 ^ a^r-^e with a
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xi SiMaisb ones
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■ _:. julitioe of
* . ,sv3*v*»ding
"* " ^^ T - — a*^** 1 t *
Its area was just over 1600 sq. m. and Its population about'
400,000.
See Kuhl, GeuhiehU der Stadt Mich; M. Ritter, Sachsen und irr
Jihcker Erbfolgestrett (1873), and Der Julicher Erbfotgehricg. 1610 ttmd
16 1 1 (1877); A. Muller. Der Julich-Klevesche Erbfolgestrett im J*h*
1614 (1900) and H. H. Koch. Die Reformat*** im Henoztmm JmSuk
1883-1888).
JUUEN, STANISLAS (i797?-i873), French orientalist, was
horn at Orleans, probably on the 13th of April 1797. Stanislas
Julien, a mechanic of Orleans, had two sons, Noel, born on the
13th of April 1707, and Stanislas, born on the 20th of September
1709. It appears that the younger son died in America, and
that Noel then adopted his brother's name. He studied classes
at the college de France, and in 18*1 was appointed assistant
professor of Greek. In the same year he published an edition of
the 'EXfcnp Afnraytf of Coluthus, with versions in French, Latin,
English, German, Italian and Spanish. He attended the lectures
of Abel Remusat on Chinese, and his progress was as rapid as it
had been in other languages. From the first, as if by intuition,
be mastered the genius of the language; and in 1824 he published
a Latin translation of a part of the works of Mcncius (Mang-tse),
one of the nine classical books of the Chinese. Soon afterwards
he translated the modern Greek odes of Kalvos under the title
of La Lyre palriotique de la Grcee. But such works were not
profitable in a commercial sense, and, being without any patri-
mony, Julien was glad to accept the assistance of Sir William
Drummond and others, until in 1827 he was appointed sub-
librarian to the French institute. In 1832 he succeeded Rlmusat
as professor of Chinese at the college de France. In 1 833 be was
elected a member of the Acad6mie des Inscriptions in the place
of the orientalist, Antoine Jean Saint-Martin. For some years
his studies had been directed towards the dramatic and lighter
literature of the Chinese, and in rapid succession he now brought
out translations of the Hoei-lon-kiiL'Hisloire du cercle de crate),
b drama in which occurs a scene curiously analogous to the judg-
ment of Solomon; the Pik shay tsing hi; and the Tchao-chi ktm
eul, upon which Voltaire had founded his Orphelin de la Chime
(i7SS)- With the versatility which belonged to his genius, he
next turned, apparently without difficulty, to the very different
style common to Taoist writings, and translated in 1835 Le Lhre
des recompenses el des peines of Lao-tsse. About this time the
cultivation of silkworms was beginning to attract attention in
France, and by order of the minister of agriculture Julien com-
piled, in 1837, a Risutni des principaux Ir axles chinois sw la
culture des muriers, el ^education des ters-a-soie, which was
speedily translated into English, German, Italian and Russian.
Nothing was more characteristic of his method of studying
Chinese than his habit of collecting every peculiarity of idiom
and expression which he met with in his reading; and, in order
that others might reap the benefit of his experiences, he published
in 1 84 1 Discussions grammaticales sur eertaines regies de position
qui, en chinois % foment le mime rile que Its inflexions dans les autrts
langues t which he followed in 1842 by Exercices pratiques
d 1 analyse, de syntaxe, el de lexigraphie chinoise. Meanwhile in-
1839, he had been appointed joint keeper of the Bibliotheque
royale, with the especial superintendence of the Chinese books,
and shortly afterwards he was made administrator of the college
de France.
The facility with which he had learneo Chinese, and the success
which his proficiency commanded, naturally inclined less gifted
scholars to resent the impatience with which he regarded their
mistakes, and at different times bitter controversies arose bet ween
Julien and his fellow sinologues on the one subject which they
had in common. In 1842 appeared from his busy pen a trans-
lation of the Tao le King, the celebrated work in which Lao-tsze
attempted to explain his idea of the relation existing between'
the universe and something which he called Tao, and on which
the religion of Taoism is based. From Taoism to Buddhism
was a natural transition, and about this time Julien turned hit
attention to the Buddhist literature of China, and more especially
to the tra^»u ~r Buddhist pilgrims to India. In order that be
r* -nd the references to Indian institutions,
JULIUS (POPES)
and the transcriptions in Chinese of Sanskrit words and proper
names, be began the study of Sanskrit, and in 1853 brought out
his Voyages du ptiirin Hiouen-tsang, which is regarded by some
critics as his most valuable work. Six years later he published
Les Avaddnas, conies el apologues Indiens inconnus jusqu'a ce
jour, suivis de poisies ei de nouveUes chinoiscs. For the benefit of
future students he disclosed his system of deciphering Sanskrit
words occurring in Chinese books in his Mithode pour dichijrer ei
transcrireles noms sanscriis qui serencontrent danslcs litres ckinois
(1861). This work, which contains much of interest and impor-
tance, falls short of the value which its author was accustomed
to attach to it. It had escaped his observation that, since the
translations of Sanskrit works into Chinese were undertaken in
different parts of the empire, the same Sanskrit words were of
necessity differently represented in Chinese characters in accor-
dance with the dialectical variations* No hard and fast rule can
therefore possibly be laid down for the decipherment of Chinese
transcriptions of Sanskrit words, and the effect of this impossi-
bility was felt though not recognised by Julien, who in order to
make good bis rule was occasionally obliged to suppose that
wrong characters bad by mistake been introduced into the texts.
His Indian studies led to a controversy with Joseph Toussaint
Reinaud, which was certainly not free from the gall of bitterness.
Among the many subjects to which he turned his attention were
the native industries of China, and his wofk on the Histoire el
fabrication de la porcelain* ckinoise is likely to remain a standard
work on the' subject. In another volume he also published
an account of the Industries anciennes et modemes de V empire
ckinois (1869), translated from native authorities. In the inter-
vals of more serious undertakings be translated the San tseu
King (Le Litre des irois mots) ; Thsien tseu wen (Le Lwre de mills
mots); Les Deux cousines; NouveUes ckinoises\ the Ping chan ling
yen (Les Deux jeunes filles letlries); and the Dialogki Cinesi, Ji»
tch'ang k' eou-t' eou-koa* His last work of importance was Syntax*
nouvctie de la tongue ckinoise (f86o), in which he gave the result
of bis study of the language, and collected a vast array of facts
and of idiomatic expressions. A more scientific arrangement
and treatment of his subject would have added much to the value
of this work, which, however, contains a mine of material which
amply repays exploration. One great secret by which Julien
acquired his grasp of Chinese, was, as we have said, his methodical
collection of phrases and idiomatic expressions. Whenever in
the course of bis reading he met with a new phrase or expression,
be entered it on a card which took its place in regular Order in
a long series of boxes. At his death, which took place on the
14th of February 1873, he left, it is said, 250,000 of such cards,
about the fate of which, however, little seems to be known. In
politics Julien was imperialist, and in 1863 he was made a com*
mander of the legion of honour in recognition of the services he
had rendered to literature during the second empire.
See notice and bibliography by WaHon, Mem. de VAcad. des
Jnscr. (1864). xxxi. 409-458. (R. K. D.)
JULIUS, the name of three popes.
Julius I., pope from 337 to 352, was chosen as successor of
Marcus after the Roman see had been vacant four months. . He
is chiefly known by the part which he took in the Arian con-
troversy. After the Eusebians had, at a synod held in Antioch,
renewed their deposition of Athanasius tbey resolved to send
delegates to Constant, emperor of the West, and also to Julius,
setting forth the grounds on which they had proceeded. The
latter, after expressing an opinion favourable to Athanasius,
adroitly invited both parties to lay the case before a synod to be
presided over by himself. This proposal, however, the Eastern
bishops declined to accept. On his second banishment from
Alexandria, Athanasius came to Rome, and was recognized as a
regular bishop by the synod held in 340. It was through the
influence of Julius that, at a later date, the council of Sardica in
IHyria was held, which was attended only by seventy-six Eastern
bishops, who speedily withdrew to Philippopolis and deposed
Julius, along with Athanasius and others. The Western bishops
who remained confirmed the previous decisions of the Roman
synod; and by its 3rd, 4th and 5th decrees relating to the rights
.55i
of revision, the council of Sardica endeavoured to settle the
procedure of ecclesiastical appeals, Julius on his death in April
352 was succeeded by Liberius. (L. D.*)
Julius II. (Giuliano della Rovere), pope from the 1st of
November 1503 to the Jist of February 1513, was born at Savona
in 1443. He was at first intended for a commercial career, but
later was sent by his uncle, subsequently Sixtus IV., to be edu-
cated among the Franciscans, although he does not appear to
have joined that order. He was loaded with favours during
his uncle's pontificate, being made bishop of Carpentras, bishop
of Bologna,, bishop of Vercelli, archbishop of Avignon, cardinal-
priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli and of Sti Dodici Apostoli, and car-
dinal-bishop of Sabina, of Frascati, and finally of Ostia and
Velletri. In 1480 he was made legate to France, mainly to settle
the question of the Burgundian inheritance, and acquitted him-
self with such ability during his two years' stay that he acquired
an influence in the college of cardinals which became paramount
during the pontificate of Innocent VIII. A rivalry, however,
growing up between him and Roderigo Borgia, he took refuge
at Ostia after the latter 's election as Alexander VL, and in 1494
went to France, where he incited Charles VIII. to undertake the
conquest of Naples. He accompanied the young king on his
campaign, and sought to convoke a council to inquire into the
conduct of the pope with a view to his deposition, but was
defeated in this through Alexander's machinations. During the
remainder of that pontificate Delia Rovere remained in France,
nominally in support of the pope, for whom he negotiated the
treaty of 1408 with Louis XII., but in reality bitterly hostile
to him. On the death of Alexander (1503) he returned to Italy
and supported the election of Phis III., who was then suffering
from an incurable malady, of which he died shortly afterwards.
Della Rovere then won the support of Cesare Borgia and was
unanimously elected pope. Julius II. from the beginning
repudiated the system of nepotism which had flourished under
Sixtus IV., Innocent VIII. and Alexander VI., and set himself
with courage and determination to restore, consolidate and
extend the temporal possessions of the Church. By dexterous
diplomacy he first succeeded (1504) in rendering it impossible
for Cesare Borgia to remain in Italy. He then pacified Rome
and the surrounding country by reconciling the powerful houses
of Orsini and Colonna and by winning the other nobles to his own
cause. In 1504 he arbitrated on the differences between France
and Germany, and concluded an alliance with them in order to
oust the Venetians from Faenza, Rimini and other towns which
they occupied. The alliance at first resulted only in compelling
the surrender of a few unimportant fortresses In the Ro magna;
but Julius freed Perugia and Bologna in the brilliant campaign
of 1506. In 1508 he concluded against Venice the famous
league of Cambray with the emperor Maximilian, Louis XII.
of France and Ferdinand of Aragon, and in the following year
placed the city of Venice under an interdict. By the single
battle of Agnadello the Italian dominion of Venice was practi-
cally lost; but as the allies were not satisfied with merely effect-
ing his purposes, the pope entered into a combination with the
Venetians against those who immediately before had been
engaged in his behalf. He absolved tbe Venetians in the beginning
of 1 5 10, and shortly afterwards placed the ban on France. At
a synod convened by Louis XII. at Tours in September, tbe
French bishops announced their withdrawal from the papal
obedience and resolved, with Maximilian's co-operation, to seek
the deposition of Julius. In November 1511 a council actually
met at Pisa for this object, but its efforts were fruitless. Julius
forthwith formed the Holy league with Ferdinand of Aragon and
with Venice against France, in which both Henry VIII. and the
emperor ultimately joined. The French were driven out of Italy
in 1 5 1 2 and papal authority was once more securely established in
the states immediately around Rome. Julius had already issued,
oa the 18th of July 1511, the summons for a general council to
deal with France, with the reform of the Church, and with a war
against the Turks. This council, which is known as the Fifth
Lateran, assembled on tbe 3rd of May 1512, condemned the
celebrated pragmatic sanction of the French church, and was
5S*
JULLIEN— JUMALA
«*.*» "C--i- 3cd. tn the midst of his combats,
\ " # * - «.■ ci **ro *.?*» '» .*.^csasucal duties. His bull of the
. i. .a.* -_>. ^ua>t simony in papal elections was
* »*•*"« -^tnta council (February 16, 1513). He
* # . ,. - . :% » 5. ^ >ud of the 14th of February 1500. He
-»•..«* - — > a he monastic orders; urged the convcr-
" t t -o. ♦-■■«.> .» 3oo«inia; and sent missionaries to America,
■^ * m .... <«».>ji -*u the Congo. His government of the Papal
^ »_> \vr.;cnt. Julius is deserving of particular honour
"" m . - "» -vojupe sx xrt and literature. He did much to improve
*" " \^»- • v Rome; be laid the foundation-stone of St Peter's
tt *'*~ j . ^ y^ 1 , he founded the Vatican museum; and he was
v - ^ ^ v.io ,*iroQ oi Bramante, Raphael and Michelangelo.
* ^ c -^t«Ate in personal expenditure, Jufius resorted to
\ . ... ne moms <rf repknishing the papal treasury, which
1,1 * ^,1 ^\tau»t«d by Alexander VI., and of providing funds
w v ^ i-im-wu* enterprises; simony and traffic in indulgences
*" * ^ ^ -*. .^ngK prevalent. Julius was undoubtedly in energy
*" \ * ^ . ^ joe s>t the greatest popes since Innocent III., and
•"~^\ r*>«K«uiitf ot the Church that his temporal policy
' *^., s> >j.Hrtiual >>rtk^ Though not despising the Machia-
* a% ^.^ « viatwrait 90 universally practised in his day, he
*** *^ • ***** by nature plain-spoken and sincere, and in
*"*" ^ «»^ *v% \tofcctt ana crabbed. He died of a fever on
*■" \ ^ + 'v^iuary iNt jt. and was succeeded by Leo X."
*Wx "...»« .• ** ?V64 US
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•*.'"■" „ t .-. v /%-%+^osLtei ire
^ ♦• ,.\mm UvU dd Monte), pope from 1550 to
_ „ * s. w.1 * xvtember 1487- He was created
"*„ *» .* a , v >\ aikd several important legations,
>,x wu •>* *<A v* rVbruary 1550, despite the
* k . ^ • %*w* «a*uty he had incurred as presi-
" " ^».^v ♦ *vik. lw*v *tf ease and desire for peace
«,-.-.. ». *M»v a waciuatory attitude, and to
"* ^^ ^ A> ^ * x ;W reassembling of the council
""" *,vvt>*o. But deeming Charles's
W »ma found occasion in the
_ ,,._ .W council once more (April
— ""* ^^. v^«^' v * 1 ** u ^ crc< ** nconsc< l ucnce
-'"*"•" v^wv ^ vvnfirm Parma to Ottavio
x> \ Weary of politics, and
^ »(.-**i«k Julius then virtually
. ^.jx *t*l pve himself up to
^ tw fcJwaawnt of his villa, near
^ ^ *. -vetting the proprieties
^v.. «i*nK«U of a questionable
:>* kakUtious order than that
vv ^»4> ^Mtt °^ tnc offices and
'. ,»»kv»* «»*«Mthy favourites to
' ^ -wl- «y»iv during his pontifi-
* T^- ■ »^^ ^^ l ^ n l0 tDC zca ^
" "" ^^ ^<* taken to abolish
,^«_ »#*A>t^ discipline; the
.. ...>^u U Germans, was
to » "* .
Will.
Neub
that 1
other
The ^^
interest ~
the coun ~"
and the 1
to the Pr
guarantee <
he promised
a kinsman o!
the Great, hav
which thus pa
Neuburg becan •
electors palatine
1709, to the elect>
the house of Witto
and by the scttlcmc.
, . «a» absolved by the
u^ vH« Roman com-
. vt<sai555, and was
. %«a f*nHff< Rom.t
o*. (Home, 1601-
n Mac// /com.,
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JULLIEN, LOUIS AMTOIKB (1812-1860), musical conductor.
was born at Sisteron, Basses Alpes, France, on the 23rd of April
181 2, and studied at the Paris conservatoire. His fondness
for the lightest forms of music cost him bis position in the school,
and after conducting the band of the Jardin Turc he was com-
pelled to leave Paris to escape his creditors, and came to London,
where he formed a good orchestra and established promenade
concerts. Subsequently he travelled to Scotland, Ireland and
America with his orchestra. For many years he was a familiar
figure in the world of popular music in England, and his portly
form with its gorgeous waistcoats occurs very often in the early
volumes of Punch. He brought out an opera, Pietro il Grand*,
at Covent Garden (1852) on a scale of magnificence that ruined
him, for the piece was a complete failure. He was in America
until 1854, when he returned to London for a short time; ulti-
mately he went back to Paris, where, in 1859, he was arrested
for debt and put into prison. He lost his reason soon afterwards,
and died on the 14th of March i860.
JULLUNDUR, or Jalandhas, a dty of British India, giving
its name to a district and a division in the Punjab. The dty
is 260 m. by rail N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (rooi), 67,735. It is
the headquarters of a brigade in the 3rd division of the northern
army. There are an American Presbyterian mission, a govern-
ment normal school, and high schools supported by Hindu bodies.
The District of Jullunduk occupies the lower part of the
tract known as the Jullundur Doab, between the rivers Sutlej
and Beas, except that it is separated from the Beas by the state
of Kapurthala. Area, 1431 sq. m. Pop. (1001), 9x7,587,
showing an increase of 1% in the decade; the average density
is 641 persons per square mile, being the highest in the province.
Cotton-weaving and sugar manufacture are the principal
industries for export trade, and silk goods and wheat are also
exported. The district is crossed by the main line of the
North- Western railway from Phillaur towards Amritsar.
The Jullundur Doab in early times formed the Hindu kingdom
of Katoch, ruled by a family of Rajputs whose descendants still
exist in the petty princes of the Kangra hills. Under Mabom-
medan rule the Doab was generally attached to the province
of Lahore, in which it is included as a drear or governorship in
the great revenue survey of Akbar. Its governors seem to have
held an autonomous position, subject to the payment of a fixed
tribute into the imperial treasury. The Sikh revival extended
to Jullundur at an early period, and a number of petty chieftains
made themselves independent throughout the Doab. In 1766
the town of Jullundur fell into the hands of the Sikh confederacy
of Faiz-ulla-puria, then presided over by Rhushal Singh. His
son and Successor built a masonry fort in the town, while several
other leaders similarly fortified themselves in the suburbs.
Meanwhile, Ranjit Singh was consolidating his power in the
south, and in 181 1 he annexed the Faiz-ulla-puria dominions.
Thenceforth Jullundur became the capital of the Lahore posses-
sions in the Doab until the British annexation at the close of
the first Sikh war (1846).
The Division or Jullundur comprises the five districts of
Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jullundur, Ludhiana and Ferozepore, all
lying along the river Sutlej. Area, 10,410 sq. m. Pop. (1901),
4,306,662.
See Jullundur District Cautlur (Lahore, 1908).
JULY, the seventh month in the Christian calendar, consisting
of thirty-one days. It was originally the fifth month of the year,
and as such was called by the Romans Quint His. The later
name of Julius was given in honour of Julius Caesar (who was
born in the month); it came into use in the year of his death.
The Anglo-Saxons called July HegmSnatk, "bay-month," or
Jdoid-mdnatk, "mead-month," the meadows being then in
bloom. Another name was ajtera ftSa, " the latter mild month,"
in contradistinction to June, which was named "the former
mild month." Chief dates of the month: 3rd July, Dog Days
begin; 15th July, St S within; 25th July, St James.
JUMALA. the supreme god of the ancient Finns and Lapps.
A -u>ng some tribes he is called Num or Jilibeambaertje, as
'or of the flocks. Jumala indicates rather godhead than
JUMIEGES— JUMPING
* divine being. In the runes Ukko, the grandfather, the sender
of the thunder, takes the place of Jumala.
JUMIEGES, a village of north-western France, in the depart-
ment of Seine-Inferieure, 17 m. W. of Rouen by road, on a
peninsula formed by a bend of the Seine. Pop. (1006), 24a.
Jumieges is famous for the imposing ruins of its abbey, one of
the great establishments of the Benedictine order. The principal
remains are those of the abbey-church, built from 1040 to 1067;
these comprise the facade with two towers, the walls of the nave,
a wall and sustaining arch of the great central tower and debris
of the choir (restored in the 13th century). Among the minor
relics, preserved in a small museum in a building of the 14th
century, are the stone which once covered the grave of Agnes
Sorel, and two recumbent figures of the 13th century, commonly
known as the JZncnis, and representing, according to one legend,
two sons of Clovis II., who, as a punishment for revolt against
their father, had the tendons of their arms and legs cut, and were
set adrift in a boat on the Seine. Another tradition states that
the statues represent Thassilo, duke of Bavaria, and Tbcodo
his son, relegated to Jumieges by Charlemagne. The church
of St Pierre, which adjoins the south side of the abbey<bufcb,
was built in the 14th century as a continuation of a previous
church of the time of Charlemagne, of which a fragment still
survives. Among the other ruins, those of the chapter-house
(13th century) and refectory (12th and 15th centuries) also
survive.
The abbey of Jumieges was founded about the middle of the
7tb century by St Phi Libert, whose name is still to be read on
gold and silver coins obtained from the site. The abbey was
destroyed by the Normans, but was rebuilt in 928 by William
Longsword, duke of Normandy, and continued to exist till 1790.
Charles VII. often resided there with Agnes Sorel, who had a
manor at Mesnil-sous-Jumieges in the neighbourhood, and died
in the monastery in 1450.
JUM1LLA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia,
40 m. N. by W. of Murcia by road, on the right bank of the
Arroyo del Jua, a left-bank tributary of the Scgura. Pop.
(1900), 16,446. Jumilla occupies part of a narrow valley,
enclosed by mountains. An ancient citadel, several churches,
a Franciscan convent, and a hospital are the principal buildings.
The church of Santiago is noteworthy for its fine paintings and
frescoes, some of which have been attributed, though on doubtful
authority, to Peter Paul Rubens and other illustrious artists.
The local trade is chiefly in coarse doth, esparto fabrics, wine
and farm produce.
. JUMNA* or Jam una, a river of northern India. Rising in
the Himalayas in Tebri state, about 5 m. N. of the Jamnotri
hot springs, in 31° 3' N. and 78 30' E., the stream first flows
S. for 7 m», then S.W. for 32 m,, and afterwards due S. for 26 m.,
receiving several small tributaries in its course. It afterwards
turns sharply to the W. for 14 m. r when it is joined by the large
river Tons from the north. The Jumna here emerges from the
Himalayas into the valley of the Dun, and flows in a S.W.
direction for 22m., dividing the Kiarda Dun on the W. from the
Dehra Dun on the E. It then, at the 95th mile of its course,
forces its way through the Siwalik hills, and debouches upon the
plains of India at Fyzabad in Saharanpur district. By this
time a large river, it gives off, near Fyzabad, the eastern and
western Jumna canals. From Fyzabad the river flows for
65 m. in a S.S.W. direction, receiving the Maskarra stream from
the east. Near Bidhauli, in Muzaffarnagar district, it turns
due S. for 80 m. to Delhi city, thence S.E. for 27 m. to near
Dankaur, receiving the waters of the Hindan river on the east.
From Dankaur it resumes its southerly course for 100 m. to
Mahaban near Muttra, where it turns E. for nearly 200 m.,
passing the towns of Agra, Ferozabad and Eta wan, receiving
on its left bank the Karwan-nadi, and on its right the Banganga
(Utanghan). From Etawah it flows 140 m. S.E. to Hamirpur,
being joined by the Sengar on its north bank, and on the south
by the great river Chambal from the west, and by the Sind.
From Hamirpur, the Jumna flows nearly due E., until it enters
Allahabad district and passes Allahabad city, below which it
SS3
falls into the Ganges in 25° 25' N. and 81* 55' E. In this last
part of its course it receives the waters of the Betwa and the Ken.
Where the Jumna and the Ganges unite is the prayag, or place
of pilgrimage, where devout Hindus resort in thousands to wash
and be sanctified.
The Jumna, after issuing from the hills, has a longer course
through the United Provinces than the Ganges, but is not so
large nor so important a river; and above Agra in the hot season
it dwindles to a small stream. This is no doubt partly caused
by the eastern and western Jumna canals, of which the former,
constructed in 1823-1830, irrigates 300,000 acres in the districts
of Saharanpur, Muzaftarnagar and Meerut, in the United
Provinces; while the latter, consisting of the reopened channels
of two canals dating from about 1350 and 1628 respectively,
extends through the districts of Umballa, Karnal, Hissar,
Rohtak and Delhi, and the native states of Patiala and Jind
in the Punjab, irrigating 600,000 acres. The headworks of the
two canals are situated near the point where the river issues
from the Siwaliks.
The traffic on the Jumna is not very considerable; in its upper
portion timber, and in the lower stone, grain and cotton are
the chief articles of commerce, carried in the clumsy barges
which navigate its stream. Its waters are clear and blue, while
those of the Ganges are yellow and muddy; the difference
between the streams can be discerned for some distance below
the point at which they unite. Its banks are high and rugged,
often attaining the proportions of cliffs, and the ravines which
run into it are deeper and larger than those of the Ganges. It
traverses the extreme edge of the alluvial plain of Hindustan*
and in the latter part of its course it almost touches the Bundcl-
khand offshoots of the Vindbya range of mountains. Its passage
is therefore more tortuous, and the scenery along its banks more
varied and pleasing, than is the case with the Ganges.
The Jumna at its source near Jamnotri is 10,849 ft. above the
sea-level; at Kotnur, 16 m. lower, it is only 5036 ft.; so that,
between these two places, it falls at the rate of 314 ft. in a
mile. At its junction with the Tons it is 1686 ft. above the
sea; at its junction with the Asan, 1470 ft.; and at the point
where it issues from the Siwalik hills into the plains, 1276 ft.
The catchment area of the river is x 18,000 sq. m.; its flood
discharge at Allahabad is estimated at 1,333,000 cub. ft. per
second. The Jumna is crossed by railway bridges at Delhi,
Muttra, Agra and Allahabad, while bridges of boats are stationed
at many places.
JUMPING, 1 a branch of athletics which has been cultivated
from the earliest times (see Athletic Sports). Leaping
competitions formed a part of the pcnkitiikm, or quintuple games,
of the Olympian festivals, and Greek chronicles record that the
athlete Phayllus jumped a distance of 55 Olympian, or more
than 30 English, feet. Such a leap could not have been made
without weights carried in the hands and thrown backwards at
the moment of springing. These were in fact employed by Greek
jumpers and were called halUres. They were masses of stone
or metal, nearly semicircular, according to Pausanias, and the
fingers grasped them like the handles of a shield. Halteres
were also used for general exercise, like modem dumb-bells. The
Olympian jumping took place to the music of lutes.
Jumping has always been popular with British athletes, and
tradition has handed down the record of certain leaps that border
on the incredible. Two forms of jumping are included in modern
athletic contests, the running long jump and the running high
jump; but the same jumps, made from a standing position, are
also common forms of competition, as well as the hop step and
jump, two hops and jump, two jumps, three jumps, five jumps
and ten jumps, cither with a run or from a standing position.
These events are again divided into two categories by the use
of weights, which are not allowed in championship Contests.
* The verb " to jump " only dates from the beginning of the 16th
century. The New English Dictionary takes it to be of onomatopoeic
origin and does not consider a connexion with Dan. gumpe, Icel.
goppa. &c, possible. The earlier English word is " leap " (O-E.
miapan, to run, jump, cf. Ger. knfen).
JUMPING-HARE— JUNAGARH
35+
t-, tfcr (WMtaf boc j«np anything over 18 ft. was once
^^ ogtol feat, «Ut ^eter O'Connor's world's record (1001)
— : -.^ c nt at TV jump b made, after a short fast run on a
"^.^jc* 7*^ **•■ * J** 5 * ««■* into the ground flush with the
•^ *►> -** jcaper Uading in a pit filled with loose earth, its
""^«« * ** ^** Wtew that of the path. The joist, called the
-^ . ^tv-^I » pointed white, and all jumps are measured from
_ ^ o*.x w t! * »e**«t mark made by any part of the jumper's
*** x . • Sf >:Aavhng kmg jump, well spited shoes should be worn,
% > » ia wality nothing but a push against the ground, and a
^Vcivvt purchase is of the greatest importance. Weights held
*"^\ >r ****$ •* «o*»rs< greatly aid the jumper. Without weights
\ gxirb? tprolessional) jumped u ft. ij in. and R. C. Ewry
- %#*ricaft amateur) 1 1 ft. 4I in. With weights J. Darby covered
K \ U ° »•* * l Ijverpool in 1890, while the amateur record is
* * lu ol in - ""^ bv J- Chandler and G. L. Hellwig (U.S A.).
\~ftc st anding two» three, five and ten jumps are merely repetitions
2i tbc *»«**** i ura P, care being taken to land with the proper
Ljj*qc* to begin the next leap. The record for two jumps
^ihout weights is « ft. t\ in., made by H. M. Johnson (U.S.A.);
Z* three jumps without weights, R. C. Ewry, 35 ft. 7 J in.; with
l^ights J. Darby. 41 ft. 7 in.
Tfl* hop step *nd jump b popular in Ireland and often included
to ihe programmes of minor meeting? , and so is the two hops
*j a jump. The record for the first, made by W. McManus,
J7 4 o ft *i ltt * wilh * run * nd without weights; for the latter,
^so with a run and without weights, 49 ft. J in., made by J. B.
In the running high jump also the standard has improved.
In * 86 * * * ump of 5 fl * 6 in " was considered excellent. The
Scotch professional Donald Dinnie, on hearing that M. J. Brooks
f Oxford na<i i um P°d ° fl - *J in. in 1876, wrote to the news-
papers to *n« w that upon a priori grounds such an achievement
Jyas impossible. Since then many jumpers who can clear over
6 ft. have appeared. In 1805 M. F. Sweeney of New York accom-
plished * j*» m P of 6 ft. $ J in. Ireland has produced many first-
class high jumpers, nearly all tall men, P. Leahy winning the
British amateur record in Dublin in 1898 with a jump of 6 ft.
.» In. The American A. Bird Page, however, although only
r ft. 6l in. in height, jumped 6 ft. 4 in. High jumping is done
over » li* nt * taff or * alh rcsl ing u Pon pins fixed in two uprights
upon which a scale b marked. The " take-off," or ground
ii«mcdi*tely in front of the uprights from which the spring is
made, *» usually grass in Great Britain and cinders in America.
Son" jumpers run straight at the bar and clear it with body
bring forward, the knees being drawn up almost to the chin as
the body clear* the bar; others run and spring sideways, the feet
KHnj thi»»wn upwards and over the bar first, to act as a kind
-j Icv-cr In getting the body over. There should be a shallow
nit of *oo»e earth or a mattress to break the fall.
yht tUmtiixg high jump is rarely seen in regular athletic
n»cv» »'***- 1 ne jumper stands sideways to the bar with his arms
.^, u Ksl upwards. He then swings his arms down slowly,
toting hU knee* at the same time, and, giving hb arms a
v*4n«* m***rd *wing, springs from the ground. As the body
M ^ % <Kv «tw» *re brought down, one leg is thrown over the bar,
*»0 *W *»th« pulled, almost jerked, after it. The record for
t Vs *u***'^ h»gh jump without weights b 6 ft., by J. Darby in
*W vw* irf a spring-board many extraordinary jumps have
t*>A.\\ fcwi I hi* kind of leaping b done only by circus
A . « tU v* »hm recognized by athletic authorities.
v\ v, i «^\*g see Pole-vaulting.
-v », \ . v t tf *NW; M. W. Ford, "Running High Jump,"
v,. \s " K tinning Broad lump." Outtnt, vol. xix.:
' * ^ ' ' i'. m<. vol. xix.; r * Miscellaneous Jumping/'
v^ \\ V o ^ t ^'Umt and Athktic Register (annual).
«*MM^bUftt, the Rnglish equivalent of springhaas, the
.s. » U'^y tvA|uiig south and cast African rodent
.. » o ' #, upiiying a family by itself, the
^s.*,.»*\ vU»»*d with the jerboas, to which
4* »
>V
it has no afSnity, thb remarkable rodent approximates in the
structure of its skull to the porcupine-group, near which it is
placed by some naturalists, although others consider that Us
true position b with the African scaly-tailed flying squirrels
{Anomaturidae). The colour of the creature b bright rufous
fawn; the eyes are large; and the bristles round the muzzle very
long, the former having a fringe of long hairs. The front limbs
are short, and the hind ones very long; and although the fore-feet
have five toes, those of the hind-feet are reduced to four. The
bones of the lower part of the hind leg (tibia and fibula) are
united for a great part of their length. There are four pairs of
check-teeth in each jaw, which do not develop roots. The jump-
ing-harc is found in open or mountainous districts, and has habits
very like a jerboa. It b nocturnal, and dwells in composite
burrows excavated and tenanted by several families. When
feeding it progresses on all four legs, but if frightened takes
gigantic leaps on the hind -pair alone; the length of such leaps
frequently reaches twenty feet, or even more. The young arc
generally three or four in number, and are bom in the summer.
A second smaller species has been named. (Sec Rooentia.)
JUMPING-MOUSE, the name of a North American mouse-
like rodent, Zapus hudsonius, belonging to the family Jccu-
tidac (Dipodidac), and the other members of the same genus.
Although mouse-like in general appearance, these rodents are
distinguished by their elongated hind limbs, and, typically,
by the presence of four pairs of check-teeth in each jaw. There
are five toes to all the feet, but the first in the fore-feet b
rudimentary, and furnished with a flat nail. The cheeks are
provided with pouches. Jumping-mice were long supposed to
be confined to North America, but a species b now known from
N.W. China. It is noteworthy that whereas E. Coues io 1877
recognized but a single representative of thb genus, ranging over
a large area in North America, A. Preble distinguishes no fewer
than twenty North American species and sub-species, in addition
to the one from Szechuen. Among these, it may be noted that
Z. insignis differs from the typical Z. httdsonius by the loss of
the premolar, and has accordingly been referred to a sub-genus
apart. Moreover, the Szechuen jumping-mouse differs from
the typical Zapus by the closer enamel-folds of the molars, the
shorter ears, and the white tail-tip, and b therefore made the
type of another sub-genus. In America these rodents inhabit
forest, pasture, cultivated fields or swamps, but arc nowhere
numerous. When disturbed, they start off with enormous
bounds of eight or ten feet in length, which soon diminish to
three or four; and in leaping the feet scarcely seem to touch the
ground- The nest b placed in clefts of rocks, among timber or
in hollow trees, and there are generally three litters in a season.
(See Rooentia.)
JUMPING-SHREW, a popular name for any of the terrestrial
insectivora of the African family Mocroscdididae, of which there
are a number of species ranging over the African continent,
representing the tree-shrews of Asia. They aTe small long-
snouted gerbil-like animals, mainly nocturnal, feeding on insects,
and characterized by the great length of the metatarsal bones,
which have been modified in accordance with their leaping mode
of progression. In some (constituting the genus Rhyncocyon)
the muzzle b so much prolonged as to resemble a proboscis,
whence the name elephant-shrews is sometimes applied to the
members of the family.
JUNAGARH, or Junagadh, a native state of India, within the
Gujarat division' of Bombay, extending inland from the southern
coast of the peninsula of Kathiawar. Area, 3284 sq. m.; pop.
(100O, 3954*8, showing a decrease of 19% in the decade,
owing to famine; estimated gross revenue, £174,000; tribute to
the British government and the gaekwar of Baroda, £4200;
a considerable sum is also received as tribute from minor states
in Kathiawar. The state b traversed by a railway from Rajkot,
to the seaport of Verawal. It includes the sacred mountain
of Cirnar and the ruined temple of Somnath, and also the forest
of Cir, the only place in India where the lion survives. Junagarh
ranks as a first-class state among the many chiefships of Kathia-
war, and its ruler first entered into engagements with the British
JUNCACEAE— JUNG
in 1807. Nawab Sir Rasul Khanji, K.C.S.I., was born in 1858
and succeeded his brother in 1892.
The modern town of Junacakh (34,251), 60 m. by rail S. of
Rajkot, is handsomely built and laid out. In November 1897
the foundation-stones of a hospital, library and museum were
laid, and an arts college has recently been opened.
JUNCACEAE (rush family), in botany, a natural order of
flowering plants belonging to the series Liliiflorae of the class
Monocotyledons, containing about two hundred species in
seven genera, widely distributed in temperate and cold regions.
It is well represented in Britain by the two genera which com-
prise nearly the whole order— J uncus, rush, and Lvzula, wood-
rush. They are generally perennial herbs with a creeping under-
ground stem and erect, unbranched, aerial stems, bearing slender
$
J uncus effusus, common rush.
I Plant. 4. Flower, enlarged.
2. Inflorescence, nat. size. k. Fruit, enlarged.
3. End of branch of inflorescence 6. Seed, nat. size.
slightly enlarged. 7. Seed, much enlarged.
leaves which are grass-like or cylindrical or reduced to mem-
branous sheaths. The small inconspicuous flowers are generally
more or less crowded in terminal or lateral clusters, the form of
the inflorescence varying widely according to the manner of
branching and the length of the pedicels. The flowers are
hermaphrodite and regular, with the same number and arrange-
ment of parts as in the order Liliaceae, from which they differ in
the inconspicuous membranous character of the perianth, the
absence of honey or smell, and the brushlike stigmas with long
papillae-adaptations to wind -pollination as contrasted with the
methods of pollination by insect agency, which characterize
the Liliaceae. Juncaceae are, in fact, a less elaborated group
of the same scries as Liliaceae, but adapted to a simpler and
more uniform environment than that larger and much more
highly developed family.
JUNCTION CITY, a city and the county-seat of Geary county,
Kansas, U.S.A.,, between Smoky Hill and Republican rivers,
about 3 m. above their confluence to form the Kansas, and 72 m.
by rail W. of Topeka. Pop. (1900), 4695, of whom 545 were
555
foreign-born and 992 were negroes; (1005), 5494; (i9fo), sso8.
Junction Gty is served by the Union Pacific and the Missouri,
Kansas & Texas railways. It is the commercial centre of a
region in whose fertile valleys great quantities of wheat, Indiau
corn, oats and hay are grown and live stock is raised, and
whose uplands contain extensive beds of limestone, which is
quarried for building purposes. Excellent water-power is
available and is partly utilized by flour mills. The munici-
pality owns and operates the waterworks. At the confluence of
Smoky Hill and Republican rivers and connected with the city
by an electric railway is Fort Riley, a U.S. military post, which
was established in 1853 as Camp Centre but was renamed in the
same year in honour of General Bennett Riley (1787-1853)1 in
1887 the mounted service school of the U.S. array was established
here. Northward from the post is a rugged country over which
extends a military reservation of about 19,000 acres. Adjoining
the reservation and about 5 m. N.E. of Junction City is the site
of the short-lived settlement of Pawnee, where from the 2nd
to the 6th of July 1855 the first Kansas legislature met, in a build-
ing the ruins of which still remain; the establishment of Pawnee
(in December 1854) was a speculative pro-slavery enterprise
conducted by the commandant of Fort Riley, other army officers
and certain territorial officials, and when a government survey
showed that the site lay within the Fort Riley reservation, the
settlers were ordered (August 1855) to leave, and the com-
mandant of Fort Riley was dismissed from the army; one of the
charges brought against Governor A. H. Reeder was that .he had
favoured the enterprise. Junction City was founded in 1857.
and was chartered as a city in 1859.
JUNE, the sixth month in the Christian calendar, consisting
of thirty days. Ovid (Fasti, vi. 25) makes Juno assert that the
name was expressly given in her honour. Elsewhere {Fasti,
vi. 87) he gives the derivation a junioribus, as May bad been
derived from majores, which may be explained as in allusion
either to the two months being dedicated respectively to youth
and age in general, or to the seniors and juniors of the government
of Rome, the senate and the comilia curiaJa in particular. Others
connect the term with the gentile name Junius, or with the
consulate of Junius Brutus. Probably, .however, it originally
denoted the month in which crops grow to ripeness. In the old
Latin calendar June was the fourth month, and in the so-called
year of Romulus it is said to have had thirty days; but at the
time of the Julian reform of the calendar its days were only
twenty-nine. To these Caesar added the thirtieth. The
Anglo-Saxons called June " the dry month," " midsummer
month," and, in contradistinction to July, " the earlier mild
month." The summer solstice occurs in June. Principal
festival days in this month: nth June, St Barnabas; 24th
June, Midsummer Day (Nativity of St John the Baptist); 29th
June, St Peter.
JUNEAU, formerly Harrisburg,' a mining and trading
town picturesquely situated at the mouth of Gold Creek on the
continental shore of Gastineau channel, south-east Alaska, and
the capital of Alaska. Pop. (1000), 1864 (450 Indians); (1910),
1644. It has a United States custom-house and court-house.
The city has fishing, manufacturing and trading interests,
but its prosperity is chiefly due to the gold mines in the adjacent
Silver Bow basin, the source of Gold Creek, and the site of the
great Perseverance mine, and to those on the Treadwell lode on
Douglas Island, 2 m. from Juneau. Placer gold was found at
the mouth of the creek in 1879, and the city was settled in 1880
by two prospectors named Joseph Juneau and Richard Harris.
The district was called Juneau and the camp Harrisburg by the
first settlers; exploring naval officers named the camp Rockwell,
in honour of Commander Charles Henry Rockwell, U.S.N.
(b. 1840). A town meeting then adopted the name of
Juneau. The town was incorporated in 1000. In October
1006 the scat of government of Alaska was removed from Sitka
to Juneau.
JUNO. JQHANN HEINRICH (1740-1817). best known by his
assumed name of Heinrich Stilling, German author, was
born in the village of Grand near Hilchenbach in Westphalia on
TNG BAHADUR— JUNIPER
6i'
P n
Brii
4} i
5 ft.
over
upon
immc
made
Some .
facing
the bo*;
being t
of lever
pit of lo-
The j
meeting
extended
bending t
violent up
rises the a-
and the o;
the sundii
By the us>
been made,
gymnasts an-
For pole-ju
See Eneydo;
0*ti*V vol. x
•• Standing Jun.
0k/i»X,voT. xx.
JUMPING-HA
Boer name of ^
mammal, Pcdci,
peddidac. Orig
1 Jung, school-
£Tf3otd Jong, eharcoal-
t facts, daughter of a poor
i_=*r? fcire, schoolmaster
<na%> wearisome. After
« s :-e£ with M half a
* -atrrrsty of Strassburg.
■ rx vn m Herder. The
; and it was
Hanrick
1 aeried at Elberfdd
cam* celebrated for
was not
: and in 1778
* agriculture,
■ the newly
st whkh he
c-iatheiwiversity
-*. w«e9Mr of economi-
•* ,mnss*y of Marburg.
-» -~wae<i to Heidelberg,
. • v -reeved a pension
- - - * ^ laden, and
. -x4 «t3 his death
-** ;Jtree times, and
% ^ » aatobiography
. ^k to he known as
• s-wt. aoi b the chief
.» Tifct d* piety of his
xV * *4 vols> 8vo, was
" vi*a translations
tdtrGHsUr-
Id. or the
(1846).
. C«ald (1817).
, •**»-* Jr?),^**®*
. , tftti* sen* Thapa
. «.»riter of Nepal,
K ^tnte ander the
^.^ Mpeemacy was
^. * his relations,
""" .«& .has escaping
ng year.
__; in turn
I Bahadur,
b *. ^n-ew general
.^ -^mstU put to
_, ^ whkh Jung
« jawing year,
m&od thirty-
'_, panted Jung
J^i her mind,
_. joce appealed
"". -ad the rani
.irmly estab-
ttjous rivals.
*-* to leave
j ;• Nepal
-squently
„ *m with
u 1 *»riny
,i-t*«
-J2
*$
Sir Jung Bahadur was on his way to England when he bad a
fall from his horse in Bombay and returned home. He received
a visit from the Prince of Wales in 1876. On the 25th of
February 1877 he died, having reached the age of sixty-one.
Three of his widows immolated themselves on his funeral
pyre. (W. L.-W.)
JUNG-BUNZLAU (Czech, Mladd BoUslav), a town of Bohemia,
44 m. N.N.E. of Prague by rait Pop. (1000), 13,470, mostly
Czech. The town contains several old buildings of historical
interest, notably the castle, built towards the end of the 10th
century, and now used as barracks. There are several old
churches. In that of St Maria the celebrated bishop of the
Bohemian brethren, Johann August, was buried in 1505; b*t
hb tomb was destroyed in 1621. The church of St Bonaventnra
with the convent, originally belonging to the friars minor and
later to the Bohemian brethren, is now a Piaristic college. The
church of St Wenceslaus, once a convent of the brotherhood, it
now used for military stores. Jung-Bunzlau was built in 095,
under Boleslaus II., as the seat of a gaugraf or royal count.
Early in the 13th century it was given the privileges of a town
and pledged to the lords of Michalovic. In the Hussite wars
Jung-Bunzlau adhered to the Taborites and became later the
metropolis of the Bohemian Brethren. In 1595 Bohuslav of
Lobkovic sold his rights as over-lord to the town, which was
made a royal city by Rudolf II. During the Thirty Years* War
it was twice burned, in 1631 by the imperialists, and in 1640
by the Swedes.
JUNGFRAU, a well-known Swiss mountain (13,660 ft*),
admirably seen from Interlaken. It rises on the frontier
between the cantons of Bern and of the Valais, and is reckoned
among the peaks of the Bernese Oberland, two of which (the
Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the Aletschhorn, 13,721 ft.)
surpass it in height. It was first ascended in 181 1 by the
brothers Meyer, and again in 1812 by Gottlieb Meyer (son of
J. R. Meyer), in both cases by the eastern or Valais side, the
foot of which (the final ascent being made by the 1811-1812
route) was reached in 1828 over the Mdnchjoch by six peasants
from Grindelwald. In 1841 Principal J. D. Forbes, with
Agassiz, Desor and Du Chatclier, made the fourth ascent by
the 1812 route. It was not till 1865 that Sir George Young
and the Rev. H. B. George succeeded in making the first ascent
from the west or Interlaken side. This is a far more difficult
route than that from the east, the latter being now frequently
taken in the course of the summer. (W. A. B. C)
JUNGLE (Sans, jangala), an Anglo-Indian term for a forest,
a thicket, a tangled wilderness. The Hindustani word means
strictly waste, uncultivated ground; then such ground covered
with trees or long grass; and thence again the Anglo-Indian
application is to forest or other wild growth, rather than to the
fact that it is not cultivated. •
JUNIN, an interior department of central Peru, bounded N.
by Huanuco, E. by Lorcto and Cuzco, S. by Huancavelica, and
W. by Lima and Ancachs. Pop. (1006 estimate), 305,700. It
lies wholly within the Andean zone and has an area of 23,353
sq. m. It is rich in minerals, including silver, copper, mercury,
bismuth, molybdenum, lead and coal. The Huallaga and Man-
taro rivers have their sources in this department, the latter in
Lake Junin, or Chanchaycocha, 13,230 ft. above sea-levd. The
capital of Junin is Cerro de Pasco, and its two principal towns
are Jauja and Tarma (pop., 1906, about 12,000 and 5000
respec* "very).
JUNIPER. The junipers, of which there are twenty-five or
more species, are evergreen bushy shrubs or low columnar trees,
with a more or less aromatic odour, inhabiting the whole of the
cold and temperate northern hemisphere, but attaining their
maximum development in the Mediterranean region, the North
Atlantic islands, and the eastern United States. The leaves are
usually articulated at the base, spreading, sharp-pointed and
needle-Kke in form, destitute of oil-glands, and arranged in
alternating whorls of three; but in some the leaves ate minute
and scale-like, closely adhering to the branches, the apex only
r"' ' furnished with an oil-gland on the back.
Sometimes the same plant produces both kinds of leaves on differ-
ent branches, or the young plants produce acicular leaves, .while
those of the older plants are squamiform. The male and female
flowers are usually produced on separate plants. The male
flowers are developed at the ends of short lateral branches, are
rounded or oblong in form, and consist of several antheriferous
scales in two or three rows, each scale bearing three or six almost
spherical pollen-sacs on its under side. The female flower is a
small bud-like cone situated at the apex of a small branch, and
consists of two or three whorls of two or three scales. The scales
of the upper or middle series each bear one or two erect ovules.
The mature cone is fleshy, with the succulent scales fused
together and forming the fruit-like structure known to the
older botanists as the galbulus, or berry of the juniper. The
berries are red or purple in colour, varying in site from that of
a pea to a nut. They thus differ considerably from the cones
of other members of the order Coniferae, of Cymnosperms
(q.v), to which the junipers belong. The seeds are usually
three in number, sometimes -fewer (i), rarely more (8), and
have the surface near the middle or base marked with
large glands containing oil. The genus occurs in a fossil
state, four species having been described from rocks of
Tertiary age.
The genus is divided into three sections, Sabina. Oxycedrus
and Caryocedriis. Juniper us Sabina is the savin, abundant on
the mountains of central Europe, an irregularly spreading much-
branched shrub with scale-like glandular leaves, and emitting
a disagreeable odour when bruised. The plant is poisonous,
acting as a powerful local and general stimulant, diaphoretic,
emmeriagogue and anthelmintic; it was formerly employed both
internally and externally. The oil of savin is now occasionally
used criminally as an abortifacient. /. bermudiana, a tree about
40 or 50 ft. in height, yields a fragrant red wood, which was
used for the manufacture of " cedar " pencils. The tree is now
very scarce in Bermuda, and the " red cedar," /. virginiana, of
North America is employed instead for pencils and Cigar-boxes.
The red cedar is abundant in some parts of the United States
and in Virginia is a tree 50 ft. in height. It is very widely
distributed from the Great Lakes to Florida and round the Gulf
of Mexico, and extends as far west as the Rocky Mountains and
beyond to Vancouver Island. The wood is applied to many
uses in the United States. The fine red fragrant heart-wood
takes a high polish, and is much used in cabinet-work and
inlaying, but the small size of the planks prevents its more
extended use. The galls produced at the ends of the branches
haVe been used in medicine, and the wood yields cedar-camphor
and oil of cedar-wood. /. tkurifera a the incense juniper pf
Spain and Portugal, and /. phoenicea (/. lycia) from the
Mediterranean district is stated by Loudon to be burned as
incense.
\ J. communis, the common juniper (see fig.)» and several other
species, belong to the section Oxycedrus. The common juniper
is a very widely distributed plant, occurring in the whole of
northern Europe, central and northern Asia to Kamchatka, and
east and west North America. It grows at considerable eleva-
tions in southern Europe, in the Alps, Apennines, Pyrenees and
Sierra Nevada (4000 to 8000 ft.). It also grows in Asia Minor,
Persia, and at great elevations on the Himalayas. In Great
Britain it is usually a shrub with spreading branches, less
frequently a low tree. In former times the juniper seems to
have been a very well-known plant, the name occurring almost
unaltered in many languages. The Lat. juniperus, probably
formed from/Km— crude form oijuvenis, fresh, young, and parcre,
to produce, is represented by Fr. genihre, Sp. encbro, Ital. gine-
pilo, &c. The dialectical names, chiefly in European languages,
were collected by Prince L. L. Bonaparte, and published
m the Academy (July 17, 1880, No. 428, p. 45). The common
juniper is official in the British pharmacopoeia and in that of
the United States, yielding the oil of juniper, a powerful diuretic,
distilled from the unripe fruits. This oil is closely allied in
composition to oil of turpentine and is given in doscs.of a half
to three minims. The Spiritus juniperi of the British pharma-
JUNIUS 557
copoeia is given in -doses up to one drachm. Much safer and
more powerful diuretics aTe now in use. The wood is very
aromatic and is used for ornamental purposes. In Lapland
the bark is made into ropes. The fruits are used for flavouring
gin (a name derived from juniper, through Fr. genihre) ; and in
some parts of France a kind of beer called genivrette was made
from them by the peasants. /. Oxycedrus, from the Mediter-
ranean district and Madeira, yields cedar-oil which is official
in most of the European pharmacopoeias, but not in that of
Britain. This oil is largely used by microscopists in what is
known as tfce " oil-immersion lens."
The third section, Caryocedrus, consists of a single species,
/. drupacea of Asia Minor. The fruits are large and edible : they
are known in the East by the name habhd.
(From DcMley aad Trimen's liciitintl Plants, by permission of J. & A. Churchill.)
Juniper (Juniperus communis).
1. Vertical section of fruit.
2. Male catkin.
JUNIUS, the pseudonym of a writer who contributed a series of
letters to the London Public Advertiser, from the 21st of January
1 769 to the 2 1 st of January 1772. The signature had been already
used by him in a letter of the 21st of November 1768, which he
did not include in his collection of the Letters of Junius published
in 1772. The name was chosen in all probability because he
had already signed " Lucius " and " Brutus," and wished to
exhaust the name of Lucius Junius Brutus the Roman patriot.
Whoever the writer was, he wrote under other pseudonyms
before, during and after the period between January 1769 and
January 1772. He acknowledged that he had written as
" Philo- Junius," and there is evidence that he was identical
with " Veteran," " Nemesis " and other anonymous correspon-
dents of the PuUic Advertiser. There is a marked distinction
between the"" letters of Junius " and his so-called miscellaneous
letters. The second deal with a variety of subjects, some of a
purely personal character, as for instance the alleged injustice
of Viscount Barrington the secretary at war to the officials of
his department. But the " letters of Junius " had a definite
object— to discredit the ministry of the duke of Grafton. This
administration had been formed in October 1768, when the earl
of Chatham was compelled by ill health to retire from office,
and was a reconstruction of his cabinet of July 1766. Junius
SS*
JUNIUS
inch* lor the retain to power ol Chatham, who had recovered
nnd was ant on good terms with his successors. He coramuni-
caud whh Chatham, wiik George Grenville, with Wilkes, all
enemies of the duke of Grafton, aod also with Henry Sampson
"If oodfil pri?i<T and part owner of the Public Advertiser. This
jsrraie correspondence has been preserved. It is written in
xfce c&sfCBsed hand used by Junius.
Tne kstcrs are of interest on three grounds — their political
jaTT.'yvnre, their style, and the mystery which long surrounded
• ivir a^VrsHcw As political writings they possess no intrinsic
.(^jc. J _=hx was wholly destitute of insight, and of the power
.; iag^'aeTtie, dense and advocate principles. The matter of
v^ J..X& xs always invective. He began by a general attack
riZ \x nejastry far their pmnnal immorality or meanness. An
^- ^^ed defence of one of the body — the marquess of Granby,
-jzr -ati. Vr^^chief— ^rohmtecred by Sir William Draper, gave
■£^3- ** easy xSctcor over a vulnerable opponent. He then went
<rC . .* twqt aoaaaccaows abese on Grafton, on the duke of Bedford,
^ k-4f Oe«jpe 11L histself in the letter of the 19th of December
x -rv.v axe noed with a most malignant and ignorant assault
^j LJtd Cfect J^sstk* Mansfield. Several of his accusations
^rg $a*?w* ** fci a^^adedL The practical effect of the letters
^^ .a^rifceaai. They were noticed and talked about. They
_-,.«"!&*£ anjsr and retorts. But the letter to the king aroused
* . j^assieev and ihosagh Grafton's administration fell in January
' . ^- £ wa* saoHeded by the long-lived cabinet of Lord North.
. •.. *s- csft>esscc h>*«i beaten, in his private letter to Woodfall
•k "vvl a \**«*zy 177$. He had materially contributed
~* **> <««. «jk«£ V> his brutal violence. He sinned indeed in
>*r^ ^oav>a3^c The esnployntent of personal abuse had been
,\a * S^afc fv&kal controversy for generations, and
** ^ »>v.y ,vr. «.:> there was a strong taste for satire. Latin
* „,. «, «-hv> ««nM oaiy studied but imitated, supplied
■^ Je>; . ^%h» : rvi ;Ve aKtitfc, in the satires of Juvenal, and
'* ^»s v-^ a v\w a*«*i*st Vetres and Catiline.
-*..«.« - 'iw was doing what others did, he did it
„. *t : s**> &•>-* fact which sufficiently explains his
- m «v<«u-i* «» <=*c**»c*tty lay in his style. Here also
" "^ ^ * »v*.n* vv^f.nxl and he was unequal. There are
■ "~ */ • •»> %.»*;. it«fr w*sch can be best described in the
~~~* , * te»s* vi.-ibNl 10 another writer: "A mere
* . y^ aw **;«, at once vapid and sour." But
" ^ . » •• .uins ** a h%h degree of artificial elegance
»- ^«^ -W ***»<*ce of Bolingbroke, of Swift,
. » v ^ %*w aiycars to have been his favourite
-x ;* w *w * wx« slavish. Junius adapts, and
v ^ IV wbfet heat of his malignity animates
^ ..■** wrnti* w* show the quality of a style
^ -v ..w. ^ *t&*t*oe and repetition, but such
~* ^ »<u»^ cte^iys at once the method and the
. - v« ^v*ar \ l iy - to the duke of Grafton,
I
m
the most solemn professions to the public. The sacrifice of Lead
Chatham was not lost on him. Even the cowardice and perfidy^ of
deserting him may have done you no disservice in his esteem,
instance was painful, but the principle might please."
What is artificial and stilted in this style did not offend the
would-be classic taste of the x8tb century, and does not now
conceal the fact that the laboriously arranged words, and art-
fully counterbalanced clauses, convey a venomous hate and scam.
The pre-established harmony between Junius and his readers
accounts for the rapidity of his success, and for the importance
attributed to him by Burke and Johnson, far better writers than
himself. Before 1772 there appeared at least twelve un-
authorized republications of his letters, made by speculative
printers. In that year he revised the collection named " Junius:
Stat nominis umbra" with a dedication to the English people
and a preface. Other independent editions followed in quick
succession. In 1801 one was published with annotations by
Robert Heron. In 1806 another appeared with notes by John
Almon. The first new edition of real importance was issued by
the Woodfall family in 181 2. It .contained the correspondence
of Junius with H. S. Woodfall, a selection of the miscellaneous
letters attributed to Junius, facsimiles of his handwriting, and
notes by Dr Mason Good. Curiosity as to the mystery of the
authorship began to replace political and literary interest in the
writings. Junius himself had been early aware of the advantage
he secured by concealment. " The mystery of Junius increases
his importance " is his confession in a letter to Wilkes dated
the iSth of September 1771. The calculation was a sound one.
For two generations after the appearance of the letter of the
2 1 st of January 1769, speculations as to the authorship of
Junius were rife, and discussion had hardly ceased in 191a
Joseph Farkes, author with Herman Merivale of the Memoirs
of Sir Philip Francis (1867), gives a list of more than forty
persons who had been supposed to be Junius. They are:
Edmund Burke, Lord George Sackville, Lord Chatham, Colonel
Barre, Hugh Macaulay Boyd, Dr Butler, John Wilkes, Lord
Chesterfield, Henry Flood, William Burke, Gibbon, W. E.
Hamilton, Charles Lloyd, Charles Lee (general in the American
War of Independence), John Roberts, George Grenville,
James Grenville, Lord Temple, Duke of Portland, William
Greatrakes, Richard Glover, Sir William Jones, James HolKs,
Laughlin Maclean, Philip Rosenhagen, Home Tooke, John Kent,
Henry Grattan, Daniel Wray, Horace Walpole, Alexander
Wedderburn (Lord Loughborough), Dunning (Lord Ashburton),
LieuL-General Sir R. Rich, Dr Philip Francis, a " junto " or
committee of writers who used a common name, De Lolme, Mrs
Catherine Macaulay (1733-91), Sir Philip Francis, Lord Littleton,
Wolfram Cornwall and Gov. Thomas Pownall. In the great
majority of cases the attribution is based on nothing more than
a vague guess. Edmund Burke denied that he could have
written the letters of Junius if he would, or would have written
them if he could. Grattan pointed out that he was young
when they appeared. More plausible claims, such as those
made for Lord Temple and Lord George Sackville, could not
stand the test of examination. Indeed after 1816 the question
was not so much " Who wrote Junius? " as " Was Junius Sir
Philip Francis, or some undiscoverable man? " In that year
John Taylor was led by a careful study of WoodfaU's edition of
1812 to publish The identity of Junius with a distinguished living
character established, in which he claimed the letters for Sir
Philip Francis. He had at first been inclined to attribute them
to Sir Philip's father, Dr Francis, the author of translations of
Horace and Demosthenes. Taylor applied to Sir Philip, who
did not die till i8z8, for leave to publish, and received from him
answers which to an unwary person might appear to constitute
denials of the authorship, but were in fact evasions.
The reasons for believing that Sir Philip Francis (?.».) was
Junius are very strong. His evasions were only to be expected.
Several of the men he attacked lived nearly as long as himself,
the sons of others were conspicuous in society, and King George
HI. survived him. Sir Philip, who had held office, who had been
rWnrated, and who in his later years was ambitious to obtain
W I
J
JUNIUS, F.— JUNKER
559
the governor-generalship of India, dared not confess that he
was Junius. The similarity of his handwriting to the disguised
hand used by the writer of the letters is very close. If Sir
Philip Francis did, as his family maintain, address a copy of
verses to a Miss Giles in the handwriting of Junius (and the
evidence that he did is weighty) there can be no further question
as to the identity of the two. The similarity of Junius and
Francis in regard to their opinions, their likes and dislikes, their
knowledge and their known movements, amount, apart from
the handwriting, almost to proof. It is certain that many
felons have been condemned on circumstantial evidence less
complete. The opposition to his claim Is based on such asser-
tions as that his known handwriting was inferior to the feigned
hand of Junius, and that no man can make a disguised hand
better than his own. But the first assertion is unfounded, and
the second is a mere expression of opinion. It is also said that
Francis must have been guilty of baseness if he wrote Junius,
but if that explains why he did not avow the authorship it can
be shown to constitute a moral impossibility only by an examina-
tion of his life.
AutHORii rly
so called, wi i).
The most > he
authorship a Us
CHabot, cxt* E.
Twisleton (il res
and M crival by
ns
F.
H. R. Franc
and Eliza K
Keary (1901
Diet, of Nat, he
•claim of Sir I tic
(1875). and s»
Theory Vnso
JUNIUS, FRANZ (in French, Francois du Jon), the name of
two Huguenot scholars.
• (1) Franz Junius (i 545-1602) was born at Bourges in France
on the 1st of May 1545. He had studied law for two years
under Hugo Donellus (1 527-1 591) when he was given a place
in the retinue of the French ambassador to Constantinople, but
before he reached Lyons the ambassador had departed. Junius
found ample consolation in the opportunities for study at the
gymnasium at Lyons. A religious tumult warned him back to
Bourges, where he was cured of certain rationalistic principles
that he had imbibed -at Lyons, and he determined to enter the
reformed church. He went in 1562 to study at Geneva, where
he was reduced to the direst poverty by the failure of remit-
tances from home, owing to civil war in France. He would
accept only the barest sustenance from a humble friend who had
himself been a protegd of Junius's family at Bourges, and his
health was permanently injured. The long-expected remittance
from home was closely followed by the news of the brutal
murder of his father by a Catholic fanatic at Issoudun; and
Junius resolved to remain at Geneva, where his reputation
enabled him to live by teaching. In 1565, however, he was
appointed minister of the Walloon church at Antwerp. His
foreign birth excluded him from the privileges of the native
reformed pastors, and exposed him to persecution. Several
times he barely escaped arrest, and finally, after spending six
months in preaching at Limburg, he was forced, to retire to
Heidelberg in 1567. There he was welcomed by the elector
Frederick II., and temporarily settled in charge of the Walloon
church at Schonau; but in 1568 his patron sent him as chaplain
with Prince William of Orange in his unfortunate expedition to
the Netherlands. Junius escaped as soon as he could from that
post, and returning to his church remained there till 1573. From
1573 till 1578 he was at Heidelberg, assisting Emmanuel Trcmcl-
lius (1510-1580), whose daughter he married, in his Latin version
of the Old Testament (Frankfort, 1579); in 1581 he was appointed
to the chair of divinity at Heidelberg. Thence he was taken
to France by the duke of Bouillon, and after an interview with
Henry IV. was sent again to Germany on a mission. As he was
returning to France he was named professor of theology at
Leiden, where he died on the 13th of October 1602.
(2) Franz Junius (1580-1677), son of the above, was bora-
at Heidelberg, and brought up at Leiden. His attention was
diverted from military to theological studies by the peace of
1609 between Spain and the Netherlands. In 161 7 he became
pastor at Hillegondsberg, but in 1620 went to England, where
he became librarian to Thomas Howard, earl of Arundel, and
tutor to his son. He remained in England thirty years, devoting
himself to the study of Anglo-Saxon, and afterwards of the
cognate old Teutonic languages. His work, intrinsically valu-
able, is important as having aroused interest in a frequently
neglected subject. In 1651 he returned to Holland; and for
two years lived in Friesland in order to study the old dialect*
In 1675 he returned to England, and during the next year
resided in Oxford; in 1677 he went to live at Windsor with his
nephew, Isaac Vossius, in whose house he died on the 19th of
November 1677. He was buried at Windsor in St George's
ChapeL
ed De picture
vt Urged and im-
pi :fixed a life of
Ji Skc, and their
w crami Abbatis
f* :rdam, 1655);
A tuor cvangelis-
ta ;5); Cardmonis
m n, 1655) (see
cr iorum versiones
[Don, 2 vols.,
ribed from the
roman edition
re given, and a
urn, edited by
ieorge Hie lees's
require careful
rich collection
ius bequeathed
them , the most
11 of Caedmon,
an pUntrionaiium.
JUNK. (1) (Through Port, junto, adapted from Javanese
djong, or Malayan adjong, ship), the name of the native sailing
vessel, common to the far eastern seas, and especially used by
the Chinese and Javanese. It is a flat-bottomed, high-sterned
vessel with square bows and masts carrying lug-sails, often made
of matting. (2) A rfautical term for small pieces of disused
rope or cable, cut up to make fenders, oakum, &c, hence applied
colloquially by sailors to the salt beef and pork used on board
ship. The word is of doubtful origin, but may be connected
with " junk " (Lat. juncus), a reed, or rush. This word is now
obsolete except as applied to a form of surgical appliance, used
as a support in cases of fracture where immediate setting is
impossible, and consisting of a shaped pillow or cushion stuffed
with straw or horsehair, formerly with rushes or reeds.
JUNKER, W1LHELM (1840-1892), German explorer of Africa,
was born at Moscow on the 6th of April 1840. He studied medi-
cine at Dorpat, GSttingen, Berlin and Prague, but did not
practise for long. After a series of short journeys to Iceland,
Tunis and Lower Egypt, he remained almost continuously in
eastern Equatorial Africa from 1875 to 1886, making first
Khartum and afterwards Lado the base of his expeditions,
Junker was a leisurely traveller and a careful observer; his main
object was to study the peoples with whom he came into contact,
and to collect specimens of plants and animals, and the result
of his investigations in these particulars is given in his Rcisen in
Afrika (3 vols., Vienna, 1889-1891), a work of high merit. An
English translation by A. H. Keane was published in 1800-1892.
Perhaps the greatest service he rendered to geographical science
560
JUNKET— JUNOT, A.
was bis investigation of the Nile-Congo watershed, when he suc-
cessfully combated Georg Schwcinfurth's hydrographical theories
and established the identity of the Welle and Ubangi. The Mah-
dist rising prevented his return to Europe through the Sudan, as
he had planned to do, in 1884, and an expedition, fitted out in
1 885 by his brother in St Petersburg, (ailed to reach him. Junker
then determined to go south. Leaving Wadelai on the 2nd of
January 1886 he travelled by way of Uganda and Tabora and
reached Zanzibar in December 1886. In 1887 he received the
gold medal of the Royal Geographical Society. As an explorer
Junker is entitled to high rank, his ethnographical observations
in the Niam-Niara (Azandeh) country being especially valuable.
He died at St Petersburg on the 13th of February 1892.
See the biographical notice by E. G. Ravenstein in Proceedings of
Ike Royal Geographical Society (1892), pp. 185-187.
' JUNKET, a dish of mflk curdled by rennet, served with
clotted cream and flavoured with nutmeg, which is particularly
associated in England with Devonshire and Cornwall. The
word b of somewhat obscure history. It appears to come
through O, Fr. j etiquette, a rush-basket, from Lat. juncus, rush.
In Norman dialect this word is used of a cream cheese. The
commonly accepted origin is that it refers to the rush-basket on
which such cream cheeses or curds were served. Juncade
appears in Rabelais, and is explained by Cotgrave as " spoon-
meat, rose-water and sugar." Nicholas Udall (in his translation
of Erasmus's Apophthegms, 1542) speaks of " marchepaines or
wafers with other like junkeric'^The word " junket " is also
used for a festivity or picnic . " , *
JUNO* the chief Roman and Latin goddess, and the special
object of worship by women at all the critical moments of life.
The etymology of the name is not certain, but it is usually taken
as a shortened form of Jovirw, answering to Jovis, from a root
rft>, shining. Under Greek influence Juno was early identified
with the Greek Hera, with whose cult and characteristics she has
much in common; thus the Juno with whom we are familiar
)n Latin literature is not the true Roman deity. In the Aeneid,
for example, her policy is antagonistic to the plans of Jupiter
for the conquest of Latium and the future greatness of Rome;
though in the fourth Eclogue, as Lucina, she appears in her proper
role as assisting at childbirth. It was under Greek influence
again that she became the wife of Jupiter, the mother of Mars;
the true Roman had no such personal interest in his deities as to
invent family relations for them.
That Juno was especially a deity of women, and represents in
a sense the female principle of life, is seen in the fact that as every
nun had his genius, so every woman had her Juno; and the
IvkMcu herself may have been a development of this conception.
The v»iiou» forms of her cult all show her in close connexion
*UH women. As Juno Lucina she was invoked in childbirth,
»nU on the 1st of March, the old Roman New Year's day, the
nut (una met and made offerings at her temple in a grove on
ihc r V\ulUne; hence the day was known as the Matronalia. As
1 j//i>titJ the was especially worshipped by female slaves on
the >th s>i July {Sonae Caprotinae); as SospUa she was invoked
*U <mH Latium as the saviour of women in their perils, and
Um a» \Kv saviour of the state; and under a number of other
ir.ks uhhj, ( 'nxia, Pronuba, &c, we find her taking a leading
miii m ihv iiiua! of marriage. Her real or supposed connexion
*,;*t ihv uhvu i» explained by the alleged influence of the moon
v m • he live* ^ women; thus she became the deity of the Kalends,
.t . «*> u *S* uc* woon, when the regina sacrorum offered a lamb
^. vi a .Ik* **v J « * n ^ kef husband the rex made known to the
>. <c x i*> n*» which the Nones would fall. Thus she is
^ . . . ,w. vw; ivUt ion with Janus, who also was worshipped
. s. 4 v * s > ihc rex sacrorum, and it may be that in the
^ : >i.*.i m^«j4 lhe*c two were more closely connected
,>Kt But in historical times she was asso-
. « .Sc gjvat temple on the Capitoline hill as
„ ox* .4 jJI J u nones or queen of heaven, as
. ^ »*. H^iimus (sec Jupiter), and under
„> vvJ Uom Veii after its capture in
__ * "**'* ^ &* Avcntine. Thus exalted
above all other female deities, she was prepared for that identi-
fication with Hera which was alluded to above. That she was in
some sense a deity of light seems certain; as Lucina, eg., sbt
introduced new-born infants" in luminis oras."
See Roscher v s article " Juno M in his Lexicon of Mythology, aad
his earlier treatise on Juno and Hera; Wissowa, Religion mmaKnlha
der R6mer, 113 foil.; also a fresh discussion by Walter Otto in
Philologus for 1905 (p. 161 foil). (W. W. ¥.•)
JUNOT, ANDOCHB, Duke or Abbantes (1771-1813), French
general, was born at Bussy-le-Grand (C6te d'Or), on the 23rd
of October 1 77 1. He went to school at Chatillon, and was known
among his comrades as a blustering but lovable creature, with a
pugnacious disposition. He was studying law in Paris at the
outbreak of the Revolution and joined a volunteer battalion.
He distinguished himself by his valour in the first year of the
Revolutionary wars, and came under the special notice of
Napoleon Bonaparte during the siege of Toulon, while serving
as his secretary. It is related that as he was taking down a
despatch, a shell burst hard by and covered the paper with sand,
whereupon he exclaimed, " Bien! nous n'avions pas de sahk
pour secher rencre I en void 1 " He remained the faithful
companion of his chief during the lattcr's temporary disgrace,
and went with him to Italy as aide-de-camp. He distinguished
himself so much at the battle of Millesimo that he was selected
to carry back the captured colours to Paris; returning to Italy
he went through the campaign with honour, but was badly
wounded in the head at Lonato. Many rash incidents in his
career may be traced to this wound, from which he never com-
pletely recovered. During the expedition to Egypt he became
a general of brigade. His devotion to Bonaparte involved him
in a duel with General Lanusse, in which he was again wounded.
He had to be left in Egypt to recover, and in crossing to France
was captured by English cruisers. On his return to France he
was made commandant of Paris, and afterwards promoted
general of division. It was at this time that he married Laure
Pennon (see Junot, Laure). He next served at Arras in com-
mand of the grenadiers of the army destined for the invasion of
England, and made some alterations in the equipment of the
troops which received the praise of the emperor. It was,
however, a bitter mortification that he was not appointed a
marshal of France when he received the grand cross of the
legion of honour. He was made colonel-general of hussars
instead and sent as ambassador to Lisbon, his entry into which
city resembled a royal progress. But he was so restless and dis-
satisfied in the Portuguese capital that he set out, without leave,
for the army of Napoleon, with which he took part in the battle
of Austerlitz, behaving with his usual courage and xeaL But
he soon gave fresh offence. Although his early devotion was
never forgotten by the emperor, his uncertain temper and want of
self-control made it dangerous to employ him at court or head-
quarters, and he was sent to Parma to put down an insurrection
and to be out of the way. In 1806 he was recalled and became
governor of Paris. His extravagance and prodigality shocked
the government, and some rumours of an intrigue with a lady
of the imperial family — it is said Pauline Bonaparte — made it
desirable again to send him away. He was therefore appointed
to lead an invading force into Portugal For the first time
Junot had a great task to perform, and only his own resources to
fall back upon for its. achievement. Early in November 1807
he set out from Salamanca, crossed the mountains of Bctra,
rallied his wearied forces at Abrantcs, and, with 1500 men,
dashed upon Lisbon, in order, if possible, to seize the Portuguese
fleet, which had, however, just sailed away with the regent and
court to Brazil. The whole movement only took a month;
it was undoubtedly bold and well-conducted, and Junot was
made duke of Abrantes and invested with the governorship
of Portugal. But administration was his weak point. He was
not a civil governor, but a sabreur, brave, truculent, and also
dissipated and rapacious, though in the last respect he was far
from being the worst offender amongst the French generals in
Spain. His hold on Portugal was never supported by a really
adequate force, and his own conduct, which resembled that of
JUNOT, L.— JUPITER
561
Mi eastern monarch, did nothing to consolidate his conquest.
After Wcllesky encountered him at Vimiera (see Peninsulas
Wax) he was obliged to conclude the so-called convention of
Cintra, and to withdraw from Portugal with all his forces.
Napoleon was furious, but, as he said, was spared the necessity
of sending his old friend before a court martial by the fact that
the English put their own generals on their trial. Junot was
sent back to Spain, where, in 18x0-1811, acting under Massena,
he was once more seriously wounded. His last campaign was
made in Russia, and be received more than a just share of
discredit for it. Napoleon next appointed him to govern
Illyria. But Junot's mind had become deranged under the
weight of his misfortunes, and on the 29th of July 1813, at
Montbard, he threw himself from a window in a fit of insanity.
JUNOT, LAURB, Duchess or Abxantzs (1783-1834), wife of
the preceding, was born at Montpellier. She was the daughter
of Mme. Pennon, to -whom during her widowhood the young
Bonaparte made an offer of marriage— such at least is the version
presented by the daughter in her celebrated Memoirs, The
Permon family, after various vicissitudes, settled at Paris, and
Bonaparte certainly frequented their bouse a good deal after
the downfall of the Jacobin party in Themudor 1704. Mile.
Permon was married to Junot early in the consulate, and at
once entered eagerly into all the gaieties of Paris, and became
noted for her beauty, her caustic wit, and her extravagance.
The first consul nicknamed her petite peste, but treated her and
Junot with the utmost generosity, a fact which did not restrain
her sarcasms and slanders in her portrayal ol him in her Memoirs.
During Junot's diplomatic mission to Lisbon, his wife displayed
her prodigality so that on his return to Paris in 1806 be was
burdened with debts, which his own intrigues did not lessen.
She joined him again at Lisbon after he had entered that city
as conqueror at the close of 1807; but even, the presents and spoils
won at Lisbon did not satisfy ber demands.; she accompanied
Junot through part of the Peninsular War. On her return
to France she displeased the emperor by her vivacious remarks
and by receiving guests whom he disliked. The mental malady
of Junot thereafter threatened her with ruin; this perhaps
explains why she took some part in the intrigues for bringing
back the Bourbons in 18x4. She did not side with Napoleon
daring the Hundred Days. After 1815 she spent most of her
time at Rome amidst artistic society, which she enlivened with
her sprightly converse. She also compiled her spirited but
somewhat spiteful Memoirs, which were published at Paris in
1831-1834 in x8 volumes. Many editions have since appeared.
Of her other books the most noteworthy are Histoires eonlempc-
raimt (2 vols., x«35): Scenes de la tie espagneie (2 vols., X836);
Histoire its salons de Paris (6 vols., 1837-1838); Sowtentrs dnne
ambassaie et d'uu stfow en Espagmt et *n Portugal, de t8o9 1811
(2 vols., 1837). (J. Hl. R.)
JUNTA (from junior, to join), a Spanish word meaning
(1) any meeting for a common purpose; (2) a committee; (3) an
administrative council or board. The original meaning is
now rather lost in the two derivative significations. The
Spaniards have even begun to make use of the barbarism
milin, corrupted from the English " meeting." The word junto
has always been and still is used in the other senses. Some
of the boards by which the Spanish administration was conducted
under the Habsburg and the earlier Bourbon kings were styled
juntos. The superior governing body of the Inquisition was the
junto supremo. The provincial committees formed to organize
resistance to Napoleon's invasion in 1808 were so called, and so
was the general committee chosen from cmong them to represent
the nation. In the War of Independence (1808-18x4), and in all
subsequent civil wars or revolutionary disturbances in Spain or
Spanish America, the local executive bodies, elected, or in some
cases self-chosen, to appoint officers, raise money and soldiers,
look after the wounded, and discbarge the functions of an
administration, have been known as juntas.
The form N Junto," a corruption due to other.Spanish words
ending in -o, came into use in English in the 17th century, often
in a disparaging sense, of a party united for a political purpose,
XV IO
a faction or cabal; it was particularly applied to the advisers of
Charles I., to the Rump under Cromwell, and to the leading
members of the great Whig houses who controlled the govern*
me nt in the reigns of William III. and Anne.
JUPITER, the chief deity of the Roman state. The great and
constantly growing influence exerted from a very early period
on Rome by the superior civilization of Greece not only caused
a modification of the Roman god on the analogy of Zeus, the
supreme deity of the Greeks, but led the Latin writers to identify
the one with the other, and to attribute to Jupiter myths and
family relations which were purely Greek and never belonged to
the real Roman religion. The Jupiter of actual worship was a
Roman god; the Jupiter of Latin literature was more than half
Greek. This identification was facilitated by the community of
character which really belonged to Jupiter and Zeus as the Roman
and Greek developments of a common original conception of
the god of the light and the heaven.
That this was the original idea of Jupiter, not only in Rome,
but among all Italian peoples, admits of no doubt. The earliest
form of his name was Diovis Pater, or Diespiter, and his special
priest was the flamen dialfe; all these words point to aroottfer,
shining, and the connexion with dies, day, is obvious (cf . Juno).
Qne of his most ancient epithet* is Lucetius, the light-bringer;
and later literature has preserved the same idea in such phrases as
sub Jove, under the open sky. All days of the full moon (idus)
were sacred to him; all emanations from the sky were due to him
and in the oldest form of religious thought were probably
believed to be manifestations of the god himself. As Jupiter
Elicius he was propitiated, with a peculiar ritual, to send rain in
time of drought; as Jupiter Fulgur he had an altar in the Campus
Martius, and all places struck by lightning were made his pro*
perty and guarded from the profane by a circular wall The
vintage, which needs especially the light and heat of the sun,
was under his particular care, and in the festivals connected
with it {Vinolio urbono) and Meditrinalio, he was the deity
invoked, and his flamen the priest employed. Throughout Italy
we find him worshipped on the summits of hills, where nothing
intervened between earth and heaven, and where all the pheno-
mena of the sky could be conveniently observed. Thus on the
Alban hill south of Rome was an ancient seat of his worship as
Jupiter Lotions, which was the centre of the league of thirty
Latin cities of which Rome was originally an ordinary member.
At Rome itself it is on the Capitoline hill that we find his oldest
temple, described by Livy (L xo); here we have a tradition o|
his sacred tree, the oak, common to the worship both of Zeus
and Jupiter, and here too was kept the lapis silex, perhaps a
celt, believed to have been a thunderbolt, which was used
symbolically by the fetiales when officially declaring war and
making treaties on behalf of the Roman state. Hence the
curious form of oath, Jovem lopidemjurare, used both in public
and private life at Rome.
In this oldest Jupiter of the Latins and Romans, the god of
the light and the heaven, and the god invoked in taking the most
solemn oaths, we may undoubtedly see not only the great
protecting deity of the race, but one, and perhaps the only one,
whose worship embodies a distinct moral conception. He is
specially concerned with oaths, treaties and leagues, and it was in
the presence of his priest that the most ancient and sacred form
of marriage, conforreotio, took place. The lesser deities, Dius
Fidius and Fides, were probably originally identical with bim,
and only gained a separate existence in course of time by a process
familiar to students of ancient religion. This connexion with
the conscience, with the sense of obligation and right dealing,
was never quite lost throughout Roman history. In Virgil's
great poem, though Jupiter is in many ways as much Greek as
Roman, he is still the great protecting deity who keeps the hero in
the path of duty (pietas) towards gods, state and family. _
But this aspect of Jupiter gained a new force and meaning at
the close of the monarchy with the building of the famous temple
on the Capitol, of which the foundations are still to be seen.
It was dedicated to Jupiter OpHmus Moximus, ue. the best
and greatest of all the Jupiters, and with him were associated
2-
560
was his investigation of the NilcC
cessfully combated Georg Schwcin
and established the identity of th<
dist rising prevented his return t<
he had planned to do, in 1884, .
1885 by his brother in St Peters! .
then determined to go south.
January 1886 he travelled by .
reached Zanzibar in December
gold medal of the Royal Gem
Junker is entitled to high rar
"J the Niam-Niam (Aaandeh
lf* ed at Sl Pct «*sburg on
Ot Royal Geographical Socut >
'JUNKET, a dish of nV
clotted cream and flavour
associated in England *
word is of somewhat ol
through O. Fr. jtnqucUe,
In Norman dialect this
commonly accepted orip
which such cream ch<
appears in Rabelais, a:
meat, rose- water and v
of Erasmus's Ape phi I,
wafers with other like
usedfor a festivity or
JTOO. the chief R,
object of worship by
The etymology of the
«s a shortened form .
dtv, ^shining. Under
with the Greek Her;,
liouch in common
in Latin literature' i
for example, her p<
for the conquest 01
though in the f our tl
role as assisting a .
again that she bee
the true Roman h.
invent family rel;i
That Juno w a .
asensethefemal*
man had his gc
goddess herself r
The various for
with women. ,\
and on the xsi ,
matrons met a-
the Esquiline; }
Caprotina she
the 7th of July
all over Latiur
later as the sa
titles, Cinxia, t
part in the rit
with the moon
on the lives of v
or day of the m
to her in the r<v
people the day
brought into do^
on the Kalends I
oldest Roman re,
than Juno and Ji
dated with Jupitct
Juno Retina the <
Jupiter there was c
the same title she ^
39* B.c, and settled
TCPtTER
or the mean Interval separating his returns to opposition,
to 308*87 days. His real polar and equatorial diameters
*«aa*e 84,570 and 00, 100 miles respectively, so that the mean is
j^jia auks. His apparent diameter (equatorial) as seen from
3» earth varies from about 32*, when in conjunction with tbe
ia so 50* in opposition to that luminary. The oblateness, or
i, of his globe amounts to about fV; his volume
that of the earth 1 joo times, while his mass is about 300
greater. These values are believed to be as accurate as
est modern determinations allow, but there are some differ-
amongst various observers and absolute exactness cannot
" lafc*"" 8 *! *w obtained.
" | T1 — •» J The discovery of telescopic construction early in the 17th
m ^a*W v. es tar y and the practical use of the telescope by Galileo and others
"^,mn a*i fRStry enriched our knowledge of Jupiter and his system. Four
^ jt fr *f J*" the satellites were detected in 1610, but the dark bands or
* " ja*. t )cks on the globe of the planet do not appear to have been
* — teticed until twenty years later. Though Galileo first sighted
the satellites and perseveringly studied the Jovian orb, he failed
to drtf« w g"»*b the belts, and we have to conclude either that these
features were unusually faint at the period of his observations,
or that his telescopes were insufficiently powerful to render them
vfeibte. The belts were first recognised by Nicolas Zucchf and
Daniel Bartoli on the 1 7th of May 1 630. They were seen also by
Francesco Fontana in the same and immediately succeeding years,
and by other observers of about the same period, including Zuppi,
Giovanni Battista Rfccioli and Francesco Maria GrimaldL
Improvements in telescopes were quickly introduced, and be-
tween 1655 and 1666 C. Huygens, R. Hooke and J. D. Cassini
•jaade more effective observations. Hooke discovered a large
dark spot in the planet's southern hemisphere on the 19th of
May 1664, and from this object Cassini determined the rotation
period, in 1665 and later years, as 9 hours 56 minutes.
The belts, spots and irregular markings on Jupiter have now
been assiduously studied during nearly three centuries. These
markings are extremely variable in their tones, tints and relative
velocities, and there is little reason to doubt that they are atmo-
spheric formations floating above the surface of the planet in a
series of different currents. Certain of the markings appear to
be fairly durable, though their rates of motion exhibit consider*
able anomalies and prove that they must be quite detached from
the actual sphere of Jupiter. At various times determinations
of the rotation period were made as follows:—
' The
.-*«*:
zL **■**
-**""££
z**«
:*&
Date.
167s
1708
!33
1788
1835
1835
Observer.
J. D. Cassini
1. P.'MarakH
. Sytvabelle
.H.Schroter
T. H. Kfadler
G. B. Airy
Place of Spot,
Ut. i6*S.
Equator.
S. tropical cone
Ut. is* N.
LaLao'S.
Ut. 5* N.
N. tropical a
Period.
9 h. 55 m. 50 s.
9 h. 50 m.
9 h. 55 m. 48 a>
9 h. 56 m.
9 h. 55 m- 33-* »•
9h. 55 m. 176*.
9 h. 55 m. 265 «.
9h. 55 m. 21-3 a.
A great number of Jovian features have been traced in more
recent years and their rotation periods ascertained. According
to the researches of Stanley Williams the rates of motion for
different latitudes of the planet are approximately as under: —
Latitude, Rotation Period.
+85*10+28; 9 h. 55 «. 37*5 \ _^ t
+28* to +24* 9 h. 54! «. to 9 h. 5*1 «•
+24* to +20* 9 h. 48 m. to 9 h. 49I ra.
+»• to +io* 9 h. 55 ra. 33-9 s.
+io*to-is # 9h. 50 m. 20 s.
-i2*to-i8* 9h. 55 m. 40 s.
-i8°to-37 # 9 h. 55 m. 181 *.
-37* to -53* 9 h. 55 m. 5 s.
W. F. Denning gives the following relative periods for the yean
1898 to 1905:—
Rotation Period,
. . 9h- 55 m. 4«-5 ••
. . 9 h. 55 m. 538 s.
. . 9 h. 55 m. 30 s.
. . 9 h. 50 ra. 27 s.
. * 9 h. 55 «- 19*5 ••
. . 9h.S3«W*
N.N.
N. temperato
N. tropical .
Equatorial .
JUPITER
563
The above arc the mean periods derived from a Urge number
of markings. The bay or hollow in
the great southern equatorial belt
north of the red spot has perhaps been
observed lor a longer period than any
other feature on Jupiter except the red
spot itself. H. Schwabe saw the
hollow in the belt on the 5th of
September 1831 and on many subse-
quent dates. The rotation period of
this object during the seventy years
Fig.i.— Inverted disk to the sth of September ioox was
&&«£S? & •> 55 «■ 36 a. from 6^813 roUtion*
their rates of rotation, S|DCC x 9° x w mcan period has been
9 h. 55 m. 40 s., but it has fluctuated
between 9 h. 55 m. 38 s. and 9 h. 55 m. 42 s. The motion of
the various features is not therefore dependent upon their latitude,
though at the equator the rate seems swifter as a rule than in
other tones. But exceptions occur, for in 1880 some spots
appeared in about -23° N. which rotated in 9 h. 48 m. though in
the region immediately N. of this the spot motion is ordinarily
the slowest of all and averages 9 h. 55 m. 53*8 s. (from twenty
determinations). These differences of speed remind us of the
sun-spots and their proper motions. The solar envelope, how-
ever, appears to show a pretty regular retardation towards the
poles, for according to Gustav Spdrer's formula, while the equa-
torial period is 25 d. 2 h. 15 m. the latitudes 46° N. and S. give
a period of 28 d. 15 h. o m.
The Jovian currents flow in a due east and west direction as
though mainly influenced by the swift rotatory- movement of
the globe, and exhibit little sign of deviation either to N. or S.
These currents do not blend and pass gradually into each other,
but seem to be definitely bounded and controlled by separate
phenomena well capable of preserving their individuality.
Occasionally, it is true, there have been slanting belts on Jupiter
(a prominent example occurred in the spring of 1861), as though
the materials were evolved with some force in a polar direction,
but these oblique formations have usually spread out in longitude
and ultimately formed bands parallel with the equator. The longi-
tudinal currents do not individually present us with an equable
rate of motion. In fact they display some curious irregularities,
the spots carried along in them apparently oscillating to and fro
without any reference to fixed periods or cyclical variations.
Thus the equatorial current in 1880 moved at the rate of 9 h. 50 m.
6 s. whereas in 1005 it was 9 h. 50 m. 33 s. The red spot in the
S. tropical zone gave 9 h. 55 m. 34 s. in 1870-1880, whereas during
x 000-1908 it has varied a little on either side of 9 h. 55 ra. 40-6 s.
Clearly therefore no fixed period of rotation can be applied for any
spot since it is subject to drifts E. or W. and these drifts
sometimes come into operation suddenly, and may be either
temporary or durable. Between 1878 and 1900 the red spot in
the planet's S. hemisphere showed a continuous retardation of
speed.
It must be remembered that in speaking of the rotation of
these markings, we are simply alluding to the irregularities in
the vaporous envelope of Jupiter. The rotation of the planet
itself is another matter' and its value is not yet exactly known,
though it is probably little different from that of the markings,
and especially from those of the most durable character, which
indicate a period of about 9 h. 56 m. We never discern the
actual landscape of Jupiter or any of the individual forms really
diversifying it.
Possibly the red spot which became so striking an object in
1878, and which still remains faintly visible on the planet, is the
same feature as that discovered by R. Hooke in 1664 and watched
by Cassini in following years. It was situated in approximately
the same latitude of the planet and appears to have been hidden
temporarily during several periods up to 1713. But the lack of
fairly continuous observations of this particular marking makes
its identity with the present spot extremely doubtful. The
latter was seen by W. R. Dawes in 1857, by Sir W. Huggins in
1858, by T. Baxendcll in 1859, by Lord Rosse and R. Copeland
in 1873, by H. C. Russell in 1876-1877, and in later years it has
formed an object of general observation. In fact it may safely
be said that no planetary marking has ever aroused such wide-
spread interest and attracted such frequent observation as the
great red spot on Jupiter.
The slight inclination of the equator of tins planet to the plane
of his orbit suggests that be experiences few seasonal changes.
From the conditions we are, in fact, led to expect a prevailing
calm in his atmosphere, the more so from the circumstance that
the amount of the sun's heat poured upon each square mile of
it is (on the average) less than the 27th part of that received by
each square mile of the earth's surface. Moreover, the seasons
of Jupiter have nearly twelve times the duration of ours, so
that it would be naturally expected that changes in his atmo-
sphere produced by solar action take place with extreme slowness.
But this is very far from being the case. Telescopes reveal the
indications of rapid changes and extensive disturbances in the
aspect and material forming the belts. New spots covering large
areas' frequently appear and as frequently decay and vanish,
implying an agitated condition of the Jovian atmosphere, and
leading us to admit the operation of causes much more active
than the heating influence of the sun.
When we institute a comparison between Jupiter and the earth
on the basis that the atmosphere of the former planet bears the
V\
FlO. 2.— Jupiter, 1903, July 10,
2*50 a.m.
Fie. 3.— Jupiter, 1906, April 15,
550 p.m.
same relation to his mass as the atmosphere of the earth bears
to her mass, we find that a state of things must prevail on Jupiter
very dissimilar to that affecting our own globe. The density of
the Jovian atmosphere we should expect to be fully six times as
great as the density of our air at sea-level, while it would be
comparatively shallow. But the telescopic aspect of Jupiter
apparently negatives the latter supposition. The belts and spots
grow faint as they approach the limb, and disappear as they near
the edge of the disk, thus indicating a dense and deep atmosphere.
R. A. Proctor considered that the observed features suggested
inherent heat, and adopted this conclusion as best explaining
the surface phenomena of the planet. He regarded Jupiter as
belonging, on account of his immense size, to a different class of
bodies from the earth, and was led to believe that there existed
greater analogy between Jupiter and the sun than between
Jupiter and the earth. Thus the density of the sun, like that of
Jupiter, is small compared with the earth's; in fact, the mean
density of the sun is almost identical with that of Jupiter, and
the belts of the latter planet may be much more aptly compared
with the spot xones of the sun than with the trade zones of the
earth.
In support of the theory of inherent heat on Jupiter it has been
said that his albedo (or light reflected from his surface) is much
greater than the amount would be were his surface similar to*
that of the moon, Mercury or Mars, and the reasoning has been
applied to the large outer planets, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune,
as well as to Jupiter. The average reflecting capacity of the
moon and five outer planets would seem to be (on the assumption
that they possess no inherent light) as follows:—
Moon .
Mars .
0-1736
0-2672
Tupiter
Saturn
06238
0-4981
Uranus . 0-6400
Neptune . o -4***
564
JUPITER
These values were considered to support the view that the few
krger and more distant orbs shine partly by inherent ksstre,
and the more so as spectroscopic, analysts raoV a irs that they
are each involved in a deep vapour-laden atmosphere. Bat
certain observations furnish a contradiction to Proctor's views.
The absolute extinction of the satrmtrs, even in the most power-
ful telescopes, while in the shadow of Jupiter, shows that they
cannot receive sufficient night from their primary to render them
visible, and the darkness of the shadows of the satellites when
projected on the planet's disk proves that the latter cannot be
seU-rominous except in an imnrwhle decree. It is also to be
remarked that, were it only moderately self -luminous, the colour
of the light which it sends to as would be red, such light being
at first emitted from a heated body when its temperature is
raised. Possibly, however, the great red spot, when the colouring
was intense in 1878 and several following years, may have repre-
sented an opening in the Jovian atmosphere, and the ruddy
belts may be extensive rifts in the same envelope. If Jupiter's
actual globe emitted a good deal of heat and tight we should
probably distinguish little of it, owing to the obscuring vapours
floating above the surface. Venus reflects relatively more light
than Jupiter, and there is little doubt that the albedo of a planet
is dependent upon atmospheric characteristics, and is in no case
a direct indication of inherent light and heat.
The colouring of the belts appears to be due to seasonal
variations, for Stanley Williams has shown that their changes
have a cycle of twelve years, and correspond as nearly as possible
with a sidereal revolution of Jupiter. The variations are of
such character that the two great equatorial belts are alter-
nately affected; when the S. equatorial belt displays maximum
■edrtess the N. equatorial is at a minimum and vice versa.
The most pltusible hypothesis with regard to the red spot is
that it « of the nature of an island floating upon a liquid surface,
:ruugh its great duration does not favour this idea. But it is
dix open question whether the belts of Jupiter indicate a liquid
01 gaseous condition of the visible surface. The difficulty in
•>v V14V of the liquid hypothesis is the great difference in the
• ••«■ * tout ion between the equatorial portions of the planet
• ... >v <$vt* i& temperate latitudes. The latter usually rotate
• m. . m «*> *x* *een 9 h. 55 m. and 9 h. 56 m., while the equatorial
•*. . i£> jw^c a revolution in about five minutes less, 9 h. 50 m.
.1 n. rhe difference amounts to 7-5° in a terrestrial
... . . «v*o 'Ait an equatorial spot will circulate right round
.vo*wu> HMcee of Jupiter (circumference 283,000 m.) in
.^ • Sj -HsKioo » equivalent to about 6000 m. per day
/."*, *...*•:*«*. (W.F.D.)
Satellites of Jupiter.
...♦ .« . umul Hv eight known satellites, resolvable as re-
... ^iiu l :>.n4o two widely different classes. Foursatcl-
„, w ,„ 3a . % owi •» vUhfco and were the only ones known
, ^..v.wov* ot that year E. E. Barnard, at the
— •*•<* • . »o*«wd a nflh extremely faint satellite, per-
- ^^S -, m -'- . *H«t«h*t less than twleve hours. In 1004
hoto-
tory.
wich
? and
n on
have
td in
. In
may
Under good conditions and sufficient teksmpic power the
satellites are visible as disks, and not mere points of light.
Measures of the apparent diameter of objects so faint are, how-
ever, difficult and uncertain, The results for the Galilraa
satellites range between o'*9 and 1*5, corresponding to dia-
meters of between 3000 and 5000 kilometres. The smallest is
therefore about the size of our moon. Satellite I. has been found
to exhibit marked variations in its brightness and aspect, but
the law governing them has not been satisfactorily worked owt.
It seems probable that one hemisphere of this satellite is brighter
than the other, or that there is a large dark region upon it. A
revolution on its axis corresponding with that of the orbital
revolution around the planet has also been suspected, but is not
yet established. Variations of light somewhat similar, but less
in amount, have been noticed in the second and third satellites.
The most interesting and easily observed phenomena of these
bodies are their eclipses and their transits across the disk of
Jupiter. The four inner satellites pass through the shadow of
Jupiter at every superior conjunction, and across his disk at
every inferior conjunction. The outer Galilean satellite does
the same when the conjunctions are not too near the Use of
nodes of the satellites' orbit. When most distant from the
nodes, the satellites pass above or below the shadow and below
or above the disk. These phenomena for the four n»Kt— m
satellites are predicted in the nautical almanacs.
When one of the four Galilean satellites is in transit across
the disk of Jupiter it can generally be seen projected on the
face of the planet. It is commonly brighter than Jupiter when
it first enters upon the limb but sometimes darker near the
centre of the disk. This is owing to the fact that the planet is
much darker at the limb. During these transits the shadow of
the satellites can also be seen projected on the planet as a dark
point.
The theories of the motion of these bodies form one of the more
interesting problems of celestial mechanics. Owing to the great
ellipticity of Jupiter, growing out of his rapid rotation, the influence
of this dltpticitv upon the motions of the five inner satellites is much
greater than that of the sun, or of the satellites on each other.
The inclination 01 the orbits to the equator of Jupiter is quite small
and almost constant, and the motion of each node is nearly uniform
around the plane of the planet's equator.
The most marked feature of these bodies is a relation between
the mean longitudes of Satellites I., II. and III. The mean lrn^piinV
of 1. plus twice that of III. minus three times that of II. is constantly
near to 180°. It follows that the same relations subsist among the
mean motions. The cause of this was pointed out by Lapsace.
If we nut U L« and L» for the mean longitudes, and define an angle
U as follows: —
U-L,— 3L.+2U
rt was shown mathematically by Laplace that if the longitude*
and mean motions were such that the angle U differed a little
from 1 80 °, there was a minute residual force arising from the
mutual actions of the several bodies tending to bring this angle
towards the value 180°. Consequently, if the mean motions were
such that this angle increased only with great slowness, it would
after a certain period tend back toward the value 180*, and then
beyond it, exactly as a pendulum drawn out of the perpendicular
oscillates towards and beyond it. Thus an oscillation would he
engendered in virtue of which the angle would oscillate very
slowly on each side of the central value. Computation of the
mean longitude from observations has indicated that the angle
does differ from 180*, but it is not certain whether this deviatraa
is greater than the possible result of the errors of observation. How-
ever this may be, the existence of the libration, and its period
if it docs exist, are still unknown.
The following are the principal dements of the orbits of the five
inner satellites, arranged in the order of distance from Jupiter.
The mean longitudes are for 1891, 20th of October, G.M.T.. and are
referred to the equinox of the epoch, 1891, and of October: —
ite
V.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
riod
ance
ssof J up.
aoV-ao
11 h. 58 m.
106400 m.
(?)
«3
3»3*-7»03
1 d. 18 h. -48
260,000 m.
•00002831
60
39° '"87
3d. 13b. 'SO
414.000 m.
•00002324
6\
171 ••244»
7d. 3h. 09
661,000 m.
•00008(25
56
6a # *sooo
i6d. 18m. -09
1,162,000 m.
•00002149
66
1 1 Tfc- '-" — •*— numbers relating to the planet itself have been
I * 'Nrfessor Hermann Strove.
JUR
Filar Mie. HeUpm.
Equatorial diameter of Jupiter (Dirt. f.*10a8) . 3*'"SO 37 'So
Polar diameter of Jupiter ....... 36 # -oa " 35*'23
Ellipticity . . 1+I53 I -I- 16-5
•Theoretical ellipticity from motion of 900* in the pericentre
of Sat. V. 1+13*3
Centrifugal force+ararvity at equator ...... 0*0900
Mass of Jupiter + Mats of Sun, now used in tables 1 *• 1047*34
Inclination of planet's equator to ecliptic . . a* o/*07+o*o©6*
•• .r „ » orbit . . . 3*4''8o
J*ong. of Node of equator on ecliptic . . 336* 2i'*47*f (/•762I
« .. ,. orbit . . . I35°25'-8i +0-729/
The longitudes are referred to the mean terrestrial equinox, and
/ is the time in years from 1900.0.
For the elements of Jupiter's orbit, tee Solar System; and for
physical constants, see Planet. (S. N.)
JUR (Dura), the Dinka name for a tribe of negroes of the
upper Nile valley, whose real name is Luoh, or Lwo. They
appear to be immigrants, and tradition places their home in
tnc south; they now occupy a district of the Bahr-d-Ghazal
between the Bongo and Dinka tribes. Of a reddish black
colour, fairer than the Dinka, they are well proportioned, with
the hair short. Tattooing is not common, but when found is
slmlar to that of the Dinka; they pierce the ears and nose, and
in addition to the ornaments found among the Dinka (q.v.)
wear a series of iron rings on the forearm covering it from
wrist to elbow. They are mainly agricultural, but hunt and fish
to a considerable extent; they are also skilful smiths, smelting
their own iron, of which they supply quantities to the Dinka.
They are a prosperous tribe and in consequence spinsters
are unknown among them. Their chief currency is soean and
hoe-blades, and cowrie shells are used in the purchase of wives.
Their chief weapons are spears and bows.
See G. Schweinfurth, The Heart of Africa: Travels 1868-18/1,
trans. C. E. E. Frewer (and ed., 1874) ; W. J anker, Travels in Africa
(Eng. ed., 1890-1893).
JURA, a department of France, on the eastern frontier,
formed from the southern portion of the old province of Franche-
Comte. It is bounded N. by the department of Hautc-Saone,
N.E. by Doubs, E. by Switzerland, S. by Ain, and W, by Sadne-
ct-Loireand CGted'Ghr. Pop. (1006), 257,725* Area, 1951 sq. m.
Jura comprises four distinct zones with a general direction from
north to south. In the S.E. lie high eastern chains of the central
Jura, containing the Crct Pela (4915 ft.), the highest point in
the department. More to the west there is a chain of forest-
clad plateaus bordered on the E. by the river Ain. Westward
of these runs a range of hills, the slopes of which are covered
with vineyards. The north-west region of the department is
occupied by a plain which includes the fertile Finage, the north-
ern portion of the Bresse, and is traversed by the Doubs and
its left affluent the Loue, between which lies the fine forest of
Chaux, 76 sq. m. in area. Jura falls almost wholly within the
basin of the Rhone. Besides those mentioned, the chief rivers
are the Valouze and the Bicnne, which water the south of the
department, There are several lakes, the largest of which is
that of Chalin, about 12 m. E. of Lons-le-Saunier. The climate
is, on the whole, cold; the temperature is subject to sudden and
violent changes, and among the mountains winter sometimes
fingers for eight months. The rainfall 1s much above the average
of France.
Jura is an agricultural department: wheat, oats, maize and
barley are the chief cereals, the culture of potatoes and rape being
also of importance. Vines are grown mainly in the cantons of
Arbois, Poligny, Salins and Voiteur. Woodlands occupy about
a fifth of the area: the oak, hornbeam and beech, and, in the
mountains, the spruce and fir, are the principal varieties. Natural
pasture is abundant on the mountains. Forests, gorges, torrents
and cascades are characteristic features of the scenery. Its
minerals include iron and salt and there are stone-quarries.
Peat is also worked. Lons-le-Saunier and Salins have mineral
springs. Industries include the manufacture of Gruyere, Sept-
mbnccl and other cheeses (made in co-operative cheese factories
or fruil&cres), metal founding and forging, saw-milling, flour-
muling, the cutting of precious stones (at Septmoncel and else-
.—JURA
#5
where), the manufacture of nails, took and other iron goods,
paper, leather, brier-pipes, toys and fancy wooden-ware and
basket-work. The making of clocks, watches, spectacles and
measures, which are largely exported, employs much labour in
and around Mores. Imports consist of grain, cattle, wine, leaf-
copper, horn, ivory, fancy-wood; exporU of manufactured
articles, wine, cheese, stone, timber and salt. The department
is served chiefly by the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway, the
main line from Paris to Neuchatel traversing its northern region.
The canal from the Rhone to the Rhine, which utilizes the channel
of the Doubs over portions of its course, traverses it for 25 m.
Lons-le-Saunier is the chief town of Jura, which embraces four
arrondisscments named after the towns of Lons-le-Saunier, Dole,
Poligny and St Claude, with 32 cantons and 584 communes.
The department forms the diocese of St Claude and part of the,
ecclesiastical province of Besancon; it comes within the region
of the Vllth army corps and the educational circumscription
(academic) of Besancon, where is its court of appeal Lons-le-
Saunier, D61e, Arbois, Poligny, St Claude and Salins, the more,
noteworthy towns, receive separate notices. At Baume-les-
Messieurs, 8 m. N.E. of Lons-le-Saunier, there is an ancient.
abbey with a fine church of the 12th century.
JURA (" deer island "), an island of the inner Hebrides, the
fourth largest of the group, on the west coast of Argyllshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1001), 560. On the N. it is separated from
the island of Scarba by the whirlpool of Corrievreckan, caused
by the rush of the tides, often running over 13 m. an hour,
and sometimes accelerated by gales, on the E. from the main-
land by the sound of Jura, and on the S. and S.W. from Islay
by the sound of Islay. At Kinuachdrach there is a ferry to
Aird in Lome, in Argyllshire, and at Faolin there is a ferry to
Port Askaig in Islay. Its area is about 160 sq. m., the greatest
length is about 27 m., and the breadth varies from 2 m. to 8 m.
The surface is mountainous and the island is the most rugged
of the Hebrides. A chain of hills culminating in the Paps of
Jura — Beinn-an-Oir (2571 ft.) and Bcinn Chaolais (2407 ft.) —
runs the whole length of the island, interrupted only by Taxbert
loch, an arm of the sea, which forms an indentation nearly 6 ra.
deep and almost cuts the island in two. Jura derived its name
from the red deer which once abounded on it. Cattle and sheep
arc raised; oats, barley and potatoes are cultivated along the
eastern shore, and there is some fishing. Granite is quarried
and silicious sand, employed in glass-making is found. The
parish of Jura comprises the islands of Balnahua, Fladda,
Garvelloch, Jura, Lunga, Scarba and Skervuile.
JURA* a range which may be. roughly described as the block
of mountains rising between the Rhine and the Rhone, and form-
ing the frontier between France and Switzerland. The gorges
by which these two rivers force their way to the plains cut off
the Jura from the Swabian and Franconian ranges to the north
and those of Dauphine to the south. But in very early days,
before these gorges had been carved out, there were no openings
in the Jura at all, and even now its three chief rivers — the Doubs,
the Loue and the Ain — flow down the western slope, which is
both much longer and but half as steep as the eastern. Some
geographers extend the name Jura to the Swabian and Fran-
conian ranges between the Danube and the Neckar and the Main ;
but, though these are similar in point of composition and direc-
tion to the range to the south, it is most convenient to limit the
name to the mountain ridges lying between France and Switzer-
land, and this narrower sense will be adopted here.
The Jura has been aptly described as a huge plateau about
156 m. long and 38 m. broad, hewn into an oblong shape, and
raised by internal forces to an average height of from 1950 to
2600 ft above the surrounding plains. The shock by which it
was raised and the vibration caused by the elevation of the great
chain of the Alps, produced many transverse gorges or " cluses,"
while on the plateaus between these subaerial agencies have
exercised their ordinary influence.
Geologically the Jura Mountains belong to the Alpine system;
and the same forces which crumpled and tore the strata of the
one produced the folds and faults in the other. Both chains
566
JURA
owe their origin to the mass of crystalline and unyielding rock
which forms the central plateau of France, the Vosges and the
Black Forest, and which, between the Vosges and the central
plateau, lies at no great depth beneath the surface. Against
this mass the more yielding strata which lay to the south and
west were crushed and folded, and the Alps and the Jura were
carved from the ridges which were raised. But the folding
decreases in intensity towards the north; the folding in the Alps
is much more violent than the folding in the Jura, and in the
Jura itself the folding is most marked along its southern flanks.
The Jura is composed chiefly of Jurassic rocks— it is from this
chain that the Jurassic system derives its name—but Triassic,
Cretaceous and Tertiary beds take part in its formation. It may
be divided into three zones which run parallel to the length of
the chain and differ from one another in their structure. The
innermost zone, which rises directly from the plain of Switzer-
land, is the folded Jura (Jura plisst, KeUenjura), formed of narrow
parallel undulations which diminish in intensity towards the
French border. This is followed by the Jura plateau (Jura tabu-
lair e, Tafetjura), in which the beds are approximately horizontal
but are broken up into blocks by fractures or faults. Finally,
along its western face there is a zone of numerous dislocations,
and the range descends abruptly to the plain of tfie Saone.
This is the Region du vignoble and is well shown at Arbois.
Owing to the convergence of the faults which bound it, the
plateau zone decreases in width towards the south, while towards
the north it forms a large proportion of the chain. The folded
zone is more constant. Along its inner margin the folds are
frequently overthrown, leaning towards France, but elsewhere
they are simple anticlinals and synclinals, parallel to the length
of the chain, and as a rule there is a remarkable freedom from
dislocations of any importance, except towards Neuchatel and
Bienne.
. The countless blocks of gneiss, granite and other crystalline
formations which are found in such numbers on the slopes of the
Jura, and go by the name of " erratic blocks " (of which the best
known instance — the Pierre a Bot — is 40 ft. in diameter, and
rests on the side of a hill 800 ft. above the Lake of Neuchatel),
have been transported thither from the Alps by ancient glaciers,
which have left their mark on the Jura range itself in the shape
of striations and moraines.
The general direction of the chain is from north-east to south-
west, but a careful study reveals the fact that there were in
reality two main lines of upheaval, viz. north to south and east
to west, the former best seen in the southern part of the range
and the latter in the northern; and it was by the union of these
two forces that the lines north-east to south-west (seen in the
greater part of the chain), and north-west to south-east (seen in
the Villcbois range at the south-west extremity of the chain),
were produced. This is best realized if we take Besancon as a
centre; to the north the ridges run cast and west, to the south,
north and south, while to the cast the direction is north-east to
south-west.
Before considering the topography of the interior of the Jura, it
may be convenient to take a brief survey of its outer slope*.
1. The northern face dominates on one side the famous " Trouoe "
(or Trench) of Bclfort, one of the great geographical centres of
Europe, whence routes run north down the Rhine to the North Sea,
south-cast to the Danube basin and Black Sea, and south-west into
France, and so to the Mediterranean basin. It is now so strongly
fortified that it becomes a question of great strategical importance
to prevent its being turned by means of the great central plateau of
the Jura, which, as we shall sec, is a network of roads and railways.
On the other side it overhangs the " Troucc *' of the Black Forest
towns on the Rhine (Rheinfelden, S&ekingen, Laufenburg and
Waldshut), through which the central plain of Switzerland is easily
gained. On this north slope two openings offer routes into the
interior of the chain — the valley of the Doubs belonging to France,
and the valley of the Birse belonging to Switzerland. Belfort is
the military, Mulhausen the industrial, and Basel the commercial
centre of this slope.
2. The eastern and western faces offer many striking parallels.
The plains through which flow the Aar and the Sadne have each been
the bed of an ancient lake, traces of which remain in the lakes of
Neuchatel. Bienne and Morat. The west face runs mainly north
and south like its great river, and for a similar reason the east face
ru us north-cast to south-west. Again, both slopes arc pierced by Ui utwn^u <tuu nuuiuwu».
JURASSIC
S67
a. The central division fs remarkable for being without the deep
gorges which are found so frequently in other parts of the range.
It consists of the basin of which Pontartier is the centre, through
notches in the rim of which routes converge from every direction;
this is the great characteristic of the middle region of the Jura.
Hence its immense strategical and commercial importance. On the
north-east roads run to Morteau and Le Lode, on the north-west to
Besancon, on the west to Salins, on the south-west to D6!e and
Lons-le-Saunier, on the east to the Swiss plain. The Pontarlier
plateau is nearly horizontal, the slight indentations in it being due
to erosion, ej. by the river Drugeon. The keys to this important
plateau are to the east the Fort de Joux, under the walls 01 which
meet the two lines of railway from Neuchatcl, and to the west
Salins, the meeting place of the routes from the Col de la Faucille,
from Besancon, ana from the French plain.
The Ain rises on the south edge of this plateau, and on a lower
shelf or step, which it waters, are situated two points of great
military importance — Nozeroy and Champagnole. The latter is
specially important, since the road leading thence to Geneva
traverses one after another, not far from their head, the chief valleys
which run down into the South Jura, and thus commands the
southern routes as well as those by St Cergues and the Col de la
Faucille from the Geneva region, and a branch route along the Orbc
river from Jougne. The fort of Les Rousses, near the foot of the
Dole, serves as an advanced post to Champagnole, just as the Fort
de Joux does to Fontarlier.
The above sketch will serve to show the characl ral
Jura as the meeting; place of routes from all sides, an tee
to France of its being strongly fortified, lest an em ng
from the north-east should try to turn the fortressei ice
de Belfort." It is in the western part of the centi he
north and south lines first appear strongly marked. tid
to be in this district no less than fifteen ridges ru to
each other, and it is these which force the Loue t< nd
thereby occasion its very eccentric course. Th of
wormwood wherewith to make the tonic " absinth id*
quarters at Pontarlier.
3. The southern division is by far the most complicated and
entangled part di the Jura. The lofty ridge which bounds it to the
east forces all its drainage to the west, and the result is a number of
valleys of erosion (of which that of the Ain is the chief instance),
quite distinct from the natural " cluses " or fissures of those of the
Doubs and of the Loue. Another point of interest is the number
of roads which intersect it, despite its extreme irregularity. This
is due to the great " cluses " of Nantua and Virieu, which traverse
it from cast to west. The north and south line is very clearly seen
in the eastern part of this division; the north-cast and south-west
is entirely wanting, but in the Villebois range south of Arabcrieu
we have the principal example of the north-west to south-east line.
The plateaus west of the Ain are cut through by the valleys of the
Valouse and of the Surand, and like all the lowest terraces on the
west slope do not possess any considerable towns. The Ain receives
three tributaries from the east . —
(a) The Bicnne. which flows from the fort of Les Rousses by
St Claude, the industrial centre of the south Jura, famous for the
snanufacture of wooden toys, owing to the large quantity of box-
wood in the neighbourhood. Septmoncel is busied with cutting of
gems, and Morez with watch and spectacle making. Cut off to the
east by the great chain, the industrial prosperity of this valley is of
recent origin. ...... . , . .
(b) The Oigntn, which flows from south to north. It receives the
drainage of the lake of Nantua, a town noted for combs and silk
weaving, and which communicates by the " cluae " of the Lac dc
SMan with the Valserine valley, and so with the Rhone at Bcllcgarde,
•nd again with the various routes which meet under the walls of the
fort of Les Rousses, while by the Val Romey and the Scran Culoz is
easily gained.
(c) The Albarine, connected with Culoz by the " dusc " of Virieu,
and by the Furan flowing south with Bclley, the capital of the
district of Bugey (the old name for the South Jura).
The " cluses of Nantua and Virieu arc now both traversed by
Important railways; and it is even truer than of old that the keys
of the south Jura are Lyons and Geneva. But of course the
strategic importance of these gorges is less than appears at first
sight, because they can be turned by following the Rhone. in its
great bend to the south.
The range is mentioned by Caesar (Bell. Call. i. 2-3, 6 (i), and
8 (1)), Strabo (iv. 3, 4, and 6, r 1), Pliny (Hi. 31; iv. 105; xvi. 197)
and Ptolemy (ii. ix. 5), its name being a word which appears
under many forms (e.g. Joux, Jorat, Jorasse, Juricns), and is a
synonym for a wood or forest. The German name is Lcberberg,
Leber being a provincial word for a hill.
Politically the Jura is French (departments of the Doubs, Jura
and Ain) and Swiss (parts of the cantons of Geneva, Vaud,
Neuchitel, Bern, Soleure and Basel); but at its north extremity
U takes in a small bit of Alsace (Pfirt or Ferret tc). In the middle
ages the southern, western and northern sides were parcelled out
into a number of districts, all of which were gradually absorbed
by the French crown, viz., Gex, Val Romey, Bresse and Bugey
(exchanged in 1601 by Savoy for the marquisate of Saluzzo),
Francbe-Corate, or the Free County of Burgundy, an imperial
fief till annexed in 1674, the county of Montbeliard (Mompelgard)
acquired in 1793, and the county of FeYrette (French 1648- 187 1).
The northern part of the eastern side was held till 1792 (part till
1797) by the bishop of Basel as a fief of the empire, and then
belonged to France till 1814, but was given to Bern in 1815 (as
a recompense for its loss of Vaud), and now forms the Bernese
Jura, a French-speaking district. The centre of the eastern
slope formed the principality of Neuch&tel (q.v.) and the county
of Valangin, which were generally held by Burgundian nobles,
came by succession to the kings of Prussia in 1707, and were
formed into a Swiss canton in 181 5, though they did not become
free from formal Prussian claims until 1857. The southern part
of the eastern slope originally belonged to the house of Savoy,
but was conquered bit by bit by Bern, which was forced in 181 5
to accept its subject district Vaud as a colleague and equal in
the Swiss Confederation. It was Charles the Bold's defeats at
Grandson and Morat which led to the annexation by the con-
federates of these portions of Savoyard territory.
Authorities.— E.F.Berlioux, LeJura (Paris, 1880) ; F. Machacek,
Der Sckweizer Jura (Gotha, 1005); A. Magnin, Les lacs du Jura
(Paris, 1895); J. Zimmcrli, " Die Sprachgrenzc im Jura " (vol. i. of
his Die Deutsch-frantosische Sprachgrenze in der Schweit (Basel,
1891). For the French slope see Joanne's large lliniraire to
the Jura, and the smaller volumes relating to the departments of
the Ain, Doubs and Jura, in his Giographtes dipartetnenlales. For
the Swiss slope see 3 vols, in the scries of the Guides Monod
(Geneva) ; A. Monnier, La Chaux de Fonds et le Haul- Jura NeuekAte-
lois; J. Monod, Le Jura Bernois; and E. J. P. de la Harpe, Le Jura
Vaudois. (W. A. B. C.)
JURASSIC, in geology, the middle period of the Mesozoic era,
that is to say, succeeding the Triassic and preceding the Creta-
ceous periods. The name Jurassic (French jurassique; German
J ura formation or Jura) was first employed by A. Brongniart and
A. von Humboldt for the rocks of this age in the western Jura
mountains of Switzerland, where they are well developed. It
was in England, however, that they were first studied by William
Smith, in whose hands they were made to lay the foundations
of stratigraphical geology. The names adopted by him for the
subdivisions he traced across the country have passed into
universal use, and though some of them are uncouth Engtish
provincial names, they are as familiar to the geologists of France,
Switzerland and Germany as to those of England. During the
following three decades Smith's work was elaborated by W. D.
Conybeare and W. Phillips. The Jurassic rocks of fossils of the
European continent were described by d'Orbigny, 1840-1846;
by L. von Buch, 1839; by F. A. Qucnstedt, 1843-1888; by
A. Oppel, 1856-1858; and since then by many other workers:
E. Benecke, E. Hebert, W. Waagen, and others. The study of
Jurassic rocks has continued to attract the attention of geolo-
gists, partly because the bedding is so well defined and regular— »
the strata are little disturbed anywhere outside the Swiss Jura
and the Alps — and partly because the fossils are numerous and
usually well-preserved. The result has been that no other
system of rocks has been so carefully examined throughout its
entire thickness; many" zones" have been established by means
of the fossils — principally by ammonites — and these zones are
not restricted to limited districts, but many of them hold good
over wide areas. Oppel distinguished no fewer than thirty-three
zonal horizons, and since then many more sub-zonal divisions
have been noted locally.
The existence of faunal regions in Jurassic times was first
pointed out by J. Marcou; later M. Neumayr greatly extended
observations in this direction. According to Neumayr, three
distinct geographical regions of deposit can be made out among
the Jurassic rocks of Europe: (1) The Mediterranean province,
embracing the Pyrenees, Alps and Carpathians, with all the
tracts lying to the south. One of the biological characters of
this area was the great abundance of ammonites belonging tc
568
JURASSIC
the groups of Hderophyili (Pkytfoccras) and Fimbriati (Lytoceras).
(a) The central European province, comprising the tracts lying
to the north of the Alpine ridge, and marked by the comparative
rarity of the ammonites just mentioned, which are replaced by
others of the groups Infiati (Aspidoceras) and Oppdia, and by
abundant reefs and masses of coral (3) The boreal or Russian
province, comprising the middle and north of Russia, Spitsbergen
and Greenland. The life in this area was much less varied than
in the others, showing that in Jurassic times there was a per-
ceptible diminution of temperature towards the north. The
ammonites of the more southern tracts here disappear, together
with the corals.
The cause of these faunal regions Neumayr attributed to
climatic belts — such as exist to-day — and in part, at least, he
. L*n4 ASm la the g
Jurassic Period /\
~~v->
was probably correct. It should be borne in mind, however,
that although Neumayr was able to trace a broad, warm belt,
some 6o° in width, right round the earth, with a narrower mild
belt to the north and an arctic or boreal belt beyond, and certain
indications of a repetition of the climatic zones on the southern
side of the thermal equator, more recent discoveries of fossils
seem to show that other influences must have been at work in
determining their distribution; in short, the identity of the
Ncumayrian climatic boundaries becomes increasingly obscured
by the advance of our knowledge.
The Jurassic period was marked by a great extension of the
sea, which commenced after the dose of the Trias and reached
its maximum during the Callovian and Oxfordian stages; conse-
quently, the Middle Jurassic rocks are much more widely spread
than the Lias. In Europe and elsewhere Triassic beds pass
gradually up into the Jurassic, so that there is difficulty some-
times in agreement as to the best line for the base of the latter;
similarly at the top of the sytsem there is a passage from the
Jurassic to the Cretaceous rocks (Alps).
Towards the close of the period elevation began in certain
regions; thus, in America, the Sierras, Cascade Mountains,
Klamath Mountains, and Humboldt Range probably began to
emerge. In England the estuarine Portlandian resulted partly
from elevation, but in the Alps marine conditions steadily per-
sisted (in the Tithonian stage). There appears to have been
very little crustal disturbance or volcanic activity; tuffs are
known in Argentina and California; volcanic rocks of this age
occur also in Skye and MulL
The rocks of the Jurassic system present great petrologkal
diversity. In England the name " Oolites " was given to the
middle and higher members of the system on account of the
prevalence of oolitic structure in the limestones and ironstones;
the same character is a common feature in the rocks of northern
Europe and elsewhere, but it must not be overlooked that clays
and sandstones together bulk more largely in the aggregate than
the oolites. The thickness of Jurassic rocks in England is
4000 to 5000 ft., and in Germany 2000 to 3000 ft. Most of the
rocks represent the deposits of shallow seas, but estuarine con-
ditions and land deposits occur as in the Purbeck beds of Dorset
and the coals of Yorkshire. Coal is a very important feature
among Jurassic rocks, particularly in the Liassic division; it is
found in Hungary, where there are twenty-five workable beds;
in Persia, Turkestan, Caucasus, south Siberia, China, Japan,
Further India, New Zealand and in many of the Pacific Islands.
Being shallow water formations, petrologkal changes come ia
rapidly as many of the beds are traced out; sandstones pass
laterally into clays, and the latter into limestones, and so on,
but a reliable guide to the classification and correlation is found
in the fossil contents of the rocks. In the accompanying tahk
a list is given of some of the zonal fossils which regularly occur
in the order indicated; other forms are known that arc equally
useful. It will be noticed that while there is general agreement
as to the order in which the zonal forms occur, the line of division
between one formation and another is liable to vary according
to factors in the personal equation of the authors.
The Jurassic formations stretch across England in a varying
band from the mouth of the Tees to the coast of Dorsetshire.
They consist of harder sandstones and limestones interstralified
with softer clays and shales. Hence they give rise to a character-
istic type of scenery — the more durable beds standing out as
long ridges, sometimes even with low cliffs, while the clays under-
lie the level spaces between*
Jurassic rocks cover a vast area in Centra! Europe. They roe
from under the Cretaceous formations in the north-east of France,
whence they range southwards down the valleys of the Saaae ana
Rhone to the Mediterranean,, They appear as a broken border
round the old crystalline nucleus of Auvergne. Eastwards they
range through the Jura Mountains up to the high grounds of Bo-
hemia. They appear in the outer chains of the Alps on both skks.
and on the south they rise along the centre of the Apennines, ana
here and there over the Spanish Peninsula. Covered by more
recent formations they underlie the great plain of northern Germany,
whence they range eastwards and occupy large tracts in central
and eastern Russia.
Lower Jurassic rocks arc absent from much of northern Rossis,
the stages represented being the Callovian, Oxfordian and VcJgiae
(of Professor S. Nikitin); the fauna differs considerably from that el
western Europe, and the marine equivalents of the Purbeck beds
are found in this region. In south Russia, the Crimea and Caucasus,
Lias and Lower Jurassic rocks are p re s en t. In the Alps, the Lower
Jurassic rocks arc intimately associated with the underlying Triassk
formations, and resemble them in consisting largely of reddish
limestones and marbles; the ammonites in this region differ k
certain respects from those of western and central Europe. Tht
Oxfordian, Callovian, Corallian and Astartian stages are abo
present. The Upper Jurassic is mainly represented by a uniform
series of limestones, with a peculiar and characteristic fauna, to
which Oppel gave the name Tithonian." This includes most of
the horizons from Kimeridgian to Cretaceous; it is developed on the
southern flanks of the Alps, Carpathians, Apennines, as well as k
south France and other parts of the Mediterranean basin. A
characteristic formation on this horizon is the " Diphya limestone,"
so-called from the fossil Terebratida diphya (PytoPe janitor) sees
in the well-known escarpments {Hockgelnrie Kalk). Above the
Diphya limestone comes the Stramberg limestone (Stramberg ia
Moravia), with " Aptychus " beds and coral reefs. The rocks of
the Mediterranean basin arc on the whole more calcareous thas
those of corresponding age in north-west Europe; thus the Lias is
represented by 1500 ft. of white crystalline limestone in Calabria
and a similar rock occurs in Sicily, Bosnia, Epirus, Corfu : in Spain
the Liassic strata are frequently dolomitic; in the Apennines they
are variegated limestones and marls. The Higher Jurassic beds of
Portugal show traces of the proximity of land in the abundant plant
remains that are found* in them. In Scania the Lias succeeds the
Rhaetic beds in a regular manner, and Jurassic rocks have beta
traced northward well within the polar circle; they are known ia
the Lofoten Isles, Spitsbergen, east Greenland, King Charles's
Island, Cape Stewart in Scoresby Sound, Grinnell Land, Prince
Patrick Land, Bathurst and Exmoutb Island; in many cases the
fossils denote a climate considerably milder than now obtains in
these latitudes.
In the American continent Jurassic rocks are not well developed.
Marine Lower and Middle Jurassic beds occur on the Pacific coast
(California and Oregon), and in Wyoming, the Dakotas, Colorado, east
Mexico and Texas. Above the marine beds in the interior are brack-
ish and fresh-water deposits, the Morrison and Como beds (Atlanto-
saurus and Baptanodon beds of Marsh). Later Jurassic rocks are
found in northern British Columbia and perhaps in Alaska, Wyoming,
Utah, Montana, Colorado, the Dakotas, &c In California some of the
JURASSIC
*°9
gold-bearing metamorpaic alatea are of riOa lit Marine Jurassic
rocks have not been clearly identified on die Atlantic side of
America. The Patuxent and Arundel formation* (non-marine) are
doubtfully referred to- thia period. Lower and Middle Jurassic
formation* occur in Argentina and Bolivia. Jurassic rocks have
been recognized in Asia, including India, Afghanistan, Persia,
Kurdistan, Asia Minor, the Caspian region, Japan and Borneo.
The best marine development is in Cutch, where the following groups
i,. — . — S.--.-T-; In the *•**«» half of the Salt Range and the
Himalayas, Sptti shales are the equivalents of the European Callovian
and Kimeridgian. The upper part of the Gondwana aeries is not
improbably Jurassic. On the African continent, Ltassk strata are
found in Algeria, and Bathonian formations occur in Abyssinia,
Somaliland, Cape Colony and western Madagascar. In Australia
the Permo-Carboniferous formations are succeeded in Queensland
and Western Australia by what may be termed the Jura-Trias,
Stages 1
Purbeckian
Portlandian
Kimeridgian
Corallian
Oxfordian
Callovian
Bathonian
Bajocian
(InXeriorOolite)
(passage beds)
Upper Lias
Middle Lias
Lower Lias
Ammonite Zones
Perisphlnctes tranaitoriua
Perisphinctes giganteua
Okostephaaua gigas
Reineckia eudoxus
Oppelia tenuUobata
Peltoceras bimammatum
Peltoceras transversarium
Aspidoceras perarmatum
Peltoceras atKIeta
Cosmoccras Jason
Macrocephafites macrocephalus
Oppelia asptdotdes
Parkinsonia ferroginea
Parkinsonia Parkinson!
Cceloccras Humphresianua
Sphseroceras Sauzei
Sonninia Sowerbyi
Harpoceras Murchiaoaae
Harpoceras (Lioceras) opalinum
Lytoceras jurense
Posidonia Bronni
Amaltheus splnatus
Amaltheus margaritatus
Dactylioceras Oavoei
Phylfoceras ibex
Aegoceras Jamesoni
Arietites raricostatus
Oxvnoticeras oxynotum
Arietites obtusus
Arietites Bucklandi
Schlotheimia angulata
Psikxeras planorbis
Substages
of
Quenstedt
Von
Buch
A. de Lapparent, Traiti,
5th ed.
Purbeckien
or
Aquilonien
Bononien
Virgulien
Pteroceran
Astarticn
Rauracien
Argovien
Nouvizien
Upper Divsaien
Lower Divesien
Bathonien
Bajoden
Toarcien
Charmouthien
Sinemourien
Hettangien
(part.)
Hettangien
Rh<
(part)
tetien
n
2
|E
1*
<S
Alpine
I Z>i>*yo-Kalkc
{* 8. Acanthicus
*33 Beds
9* Posidonien
^ Beds (S.Alps)
Klauss Beds
(N. Alps)
5aose£-Kalke
Oolite of San
Vigilio
are distinguished from above downwards: the Umia series — Port-
kmndian and Tithonian of south Europe, passing upwards into the
Neocomian; the Katrol series — Oxfordian (part) and Kimeridgian;
the Chari series -Callovian and part of the Oxfordian; the Patcham
1 Purbeckian from the " Isle " of Purbeck. Aquilonien from
Aquilo (Nord). Bononien from Bononia (Boulogne). Virgulien
from Exogyra oirguia. Pteroceran from Pleroceras oceani. Astartien
from Astatic supracorallina. Rauracien from Rauracia (Jura).
Argovien from Argovie (Switzerland). Neuvitien from NeuvLry
(Ardennes). Dwesien from Dives (Calvados). Bathonien from
Bath (England). Bajocien from Bayeux (Calvados). Toarcien
from Toarcium (Tours). Charmouthien from Charmouth (England).
Smemourien from Sinemurum, Semur (Cote d'Or). Hettangien from
Hcttange (Lorraine).
which include the coal-bearing " Ipswich *' and " Burrum " forma-
tions of Queensland. In New Zealand there is a thick series of
marine beds with terrestrial plants, the Mataura series in the upper
part of Hutton's Hokanui system. Sir J. Hector included also the
Putakaka series (as Middle Jurassic) and the Flag series with the
Catlin's River and Bastion series below. Jurassic rocks have been
recorded from New Guinea and New Caledonia.
Life in the Jurassic Period. — The expansion of the-sea during this
period, with the formation of broad sheets of shallow and probably
warmish water, appears to have been favourable to many forms of
marine life. Under these conditions several groups of organisms
developed rapidly along new directions, so that the Jurassic period
as a whole came to have a fauna differing clearly and distinctly from
the preceding Palaeozoic or succeeding Tertiary faunas. In the
seas, all the main groups were represented as they are to-day
5?«
JURAT— JURIEN DE LA GRAVIERE
^ **-«ta* -w«m **n»ia«. am* « waw fwraions ef the period covered
• »• -^?*&. a •*•-«« ^ maac^ 7*3* * <»nlb*c*a*ikmumat',
*l^k.v* n* > >uu^.u vr« **c* as ^awmssnws. ImstreOtThecos-
■■.-^ -at** •*.-? n< a«~*4» ^af*t ntw V*r A f ia S ns fh i i . Cnnoids
j\i5*x>x .t >r«?*v w -. xv>> u most « tJae A>^9« sens; compared with
"v~s»>«».«. v»-w> .**.* • a swarix* redaction m the we of the
«a sne swasher of arms -, . ,,— .
< r«/c-cf»* are al well known; itsJerfsii
ix.no* ~-v-4w» v *w» gradually develop-
**' rx-*. E-**mAHss*s. HoIectYfius,
j* * Kgtfeur "* forms prevailed. Cidaris,
<cv0m» ««* ismportaat rock-builders
<?vt-u-« &U'; they include lithistida
-Swunrvj**; rYiwssVas. bexacti Del lids,
i «&£ bwray snonges have been found in
*\.; cu* 4xv .wu »vi i .>unv:aacNf in same of the bed* Slomatopora,
*f«.ua. Jtc ffciu'i.cvvoh *«* l epuje a t ed principally by
tefeOramuds r.rcur«« i M « i*\iwikwiwi, lfrgcrfcs). and by rhyn«
chooclhij*, rVi-ic. -t^wta a»*J Cn«** were abo present. The
l^la<v*u«c ^tfUrd» 4..iU *d>*r»*i *iB Sneered into the Lias.
More important yiua the ^cV.opcds were the pekoypods; Ostrea,
£xi>n \ "a. 0> v;»mucu *ertr vvr> j^ujiiaoc yOo^hit e lim estone. Grypnite
gm . the itfnu> !>*gimut. aw* ce^cnewd to Australian waters, was
nre*^t ui jji^t vj.h.**: .Ut...j. Uw* rVtfm, PiriKtomofW/w
wnuw. .l.-jctt. ^ii^». : ^u-w.a. F*£*rvmy* may be mentioned
out c< man* ^ihcr*. .Vaw.».s tit rastervpoU* the Pleurotomortidae
aad TvstiuiM reached cVir uuvimam devdopmenr ; the Palaeo-
svac (.M^jrid u%evi i »w c'ic b*ttaaia^ of th» period {Fieurotomana,
ji'nw. r'fr^Kffu.'. v.Vn»is.4J«t. ra/rtftni:*.
Ccf**fcpcd> dourto.s«U *ser\ where: trst in importance were the
am^.:t$; the rruwnc genera F^^tras and Lytoceras were stiU
jounc m the Juris**; water*, bec aU the other numerous genera
w* «cw. a J their .helb ace Cou d with rW.™^ t *JS
^ ««a»e«tatioii. Some arc character** ^ojlhc oWerJurassic
^^^^^%^^^ 1 ^ ch^terue
Fn**.fr**. v .«Mv*k w ^S^lie «MMe thirty aones have been
rt^iniuiM ^^^^^^^rThe oekmrntes. that had
U «v Irvta. AxHher ^^^JfTrgJ, now advanced rapidly
WT 0,^ «'''^'^$ t ^JS%&Ukt the ammonites.
, mimv-v a»o »« ^^^.^M-e^ndicators. The Sepioids or
, ..« ^ m»,V .W arw • •"** ^ ^ tracc d j n examples from
% . ^^«^w . r. j^ crustaceans: in place of the
* — • v ^ ^ WtoStSd roUter-like fmrW
w.w.- • '^ •* Kidct»b-hke t> Pf first appeared in Pro-
t.*. vu^. .-. ^iJJjLSJaby Ankaeonwus and others.
. * um,s^ %^t Y^lt remains in the Lias of EngUnd,
* N !^lU5r\ia (Mecklenburg), and also
**- ' "^ vLi^terous forms predominate, but
' xx \, i^Aviards: the earliest known flies
** ^Zj-<*\ appeared; orthoptcra. cock-
. - * - S^^loJnTinUie Liaa, Stonesfield
;. ^ - *-*^ .. w rw forms during this period,
.*.*•* W*T£T uhe Coeltuandttda* reached
^ '*-'*? ^j^ie ihe horaocercal forms were
*- * ^*1* Ltfdtsinrt. Lepidotus.Dapfdius).
Zj£ theu appearance tSqualoraja).
™*^ n> f ^ , rarpuces and selachians,
gg^yJUh were represented by
>-* w reptiles during thb period
*** <vr ^Tae " •«« <* reptiles." "» * h «
■* •**" ^ »ad fong-necked Plesiosaurs
*"lw, t fcrtf maximum development ;
" ***; I m W«fth- The Pterosaurs,
- ^^isi Md keeled breast-bone,
-■*"*. V^ tail and Kkampkorhyncus
^Jty modified crocodilian*
mo, G4+s**nt3, Sieneosaurus,
v.v
i.
V
t:>
Eu
anc
the
4000
**" v^ any of the above were
- - % 'j^ a creature no larger
" o*> *«« carnivorous forms
<*t****rus, Ceticsaurus,
• ■■ ^Mi are a few of the
" ** *.* the mammals took a
""^ ^v a few jaws have
- — "* w ^ * hey appear to have
~:^**u* ""— : - i -*
Soknhofen slates of Bavaria. Although this was a groat woVaace
beyond the Pterodactyls in avian characters, yet many reptilian
features were retained.
Comparatively little change took place in the vegetation in the
time that elapsed between the close of theTriaasic and the mkkfle
of the Jurassic periods. Cycads, Zamites, Podoaamutet. Ac. ap-
peared to reach their maximum ; EguUetums were still found fl ow in g
to a great size and Ginkgos occupied a prominent place; ferns were
common ; so too were pines, yews, cypresses and other conifers, which
while they outwardly resembled their modern representatives, were
Suite distinct in species. No flowering plants had yet appeared.
Ithough a primitive form of angiospcrm has been reported from the
Upper Jurassic of Portugal.
The economic products of the Jurassic system are of considerable
importance . the valuable coals have already been noticed ; the well-
known iron ores of the Cleveland district in Yorkshire and those of
the Northampton sands occur respectively in the Lias and Inferior
Oolites. Oil shales are found in Germany, and several of the Ju
formations in England contain some detroleum. Building stones
of great value are obtained from the Great Oolite, the PortUndian
and the Inferior Oolite; large quantities of hydraulic cement and
lime have been made from the Lias. The celebrated lithographic
stone of Solenhofen in Bavaria belongs to the upper portion of this
system.
See D'Orbigny, PaUoruolofie franqaise, Terrain Jurassic** (iftao.
If ' v ' on Buch, " Obcr den Jura in Deutschland " (Aikani. d.
B< d., 1839); F. A. Quenstcdt, Fl&Utebirre Wurttewtierp
(1 other papers, also Der Jura (1883-1888) ; A. Oppei, Dm
J\ Em En glands, Frankreichs ttnd s.w. Deuiscklands (1856-
li r a good general account of the formations with many
re o original papers, see A. de Lapparent, Traiti de f ie togit ,
v( ed. (1006). The standard work for Great Britain is the
seiics vi memoirs of the Geological Survey entitled The Jurassic Racks
of Britain, i and ii. " Yorkshire " (1802); iii. " The Lias of England
and Wales " (1803) ; iv. " The Lower Oolite Rocks of England (York-
shire excepted)'' (1894); v. " The Middle and Upper Oolitic Rocks
of England (Yorkshire excepted)" (1805) The map is after that of
M. Neumayr, " Die geographische Verbreitung der Juraformation,"
Denksckr. d. k. Akad. d. Wisx., Wien, Math, u, Natsuwiss^ cL U
Abtk. L, KarU 1. (1885). (J- A> R}
JURAT (through Fr. from med. Lat. juratus, one sworn, Lai.
jurare, to swear), a name given to the sworn holders of certain
offices. Under the ancien rigime in France, in several towns, of
the south-west, such as Rochelle and Bordeaux, the jural* were
members of the municipal body. The title was also borne by
officials, corresponding to aldermen, in the Cinque Ports, but is
now chiefly used as a title of office in the Channel Islands. There
are two bodies, consisting each of twelve jurats, for Jersey and
the bailiwick of Guernsey respectively. They are elected for
life, in Jersey by the ratepayers, in Guernsey by the elective
stales. They form, with the bailiff as presiding judge, the royal
court of justice, and are a constituent part of the legislative
bodies. In English law, the word jurat (juratum) is applied to
that part of an affidavit which contains the names of the parties
swearing the affidavit and the person before whom it was sworn,
the date, place and other necessary particulars.
JURIEN DE LA GRAVIERE, JEAN BAPTISTS EDMOID
(1812-1892), French admiral, son of Admiral Jurien, who served
through the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars and was a peer
of France under Louis Philippe, was born on the 19th of Novem-
ber 181 2. He entered the navy in 1828, was made a commander
in 1841, and captain in 1850. During the Russian War be com-
manded a ship in the Black Sea. He was promoted to be rear-
admiral on the 1st of December 1855, and appointed to the
command of a squadron in the Adriatic in 1859, when he abso-
lutely sealed the Austrian potts with a dose blockade. In
October 1861 he was appointed to command the squadron in
the Gulf of Mexico, and two months later the expedition against
Mexico. On the 15th of January 1862 he was promoted 10 be
vice-admiral. During the Franco-German War of 1870 he had
command of the French Mediterranean fleet, and in 187 1 he was
appointed " director of charts." As having commanded in chief
before the enemy, the age-limit was waived in his favour, and he
was continued on the active list. Jurien died on the 4th of
March 1892. He was a voluminous author of works on naval
I history and biography, most of which first appeared in the Rente
des deux mondes. Among the most noteworthy of these are
Guerres maritime* sous la ripublique el F 'empire \ which was trans-
*ed by Lord Dunsany under the title of Sketches of Ike Last N aval
• (1848); Souvenirs d'un amiral (i860), that is, of bis father.
JURIEU— JURISPRUDENCE
Admiral Jurien; La Marine d? autrefois (1865), largely autobio-
graphical; and La Marine d'aujourtfkui (1872). In 1866 he was
elected a member of the Academy.
JURIEU, HBRRB (1637-1713), French Protestant divine, was
born at Mer, in Orleanaia, where his father was a Protestant
pastor. He studied at Saumur and Sedan under his grandfather,
Pierre Dumoukn, and under Leblanc de Beaubcu. After com-
pleting his studies in Holland and England, Jurieu received
Anglican ordination; returning to France he was ordained again
and succeeded his father as pastor of the church at Mer. Soon
after this he published his first work, Examen de Here de la
reunion du Ckrisiianisme (1671). In 1674 his TraiU de la devo-
tion led to his appointment as professor of theology and Hebrew
at Sedan, where he soon became also pastor. A year later he
published his Apologiepourla morale des Reformes. He obtained
a high reputation, but his work was impaired by his controver-
sial temper, which frequently developed into an irritated fanati-
cism, though he was always entirely sincere. He was called
by his adversaries " the Goliath of the Protestants." On the
suppression of the academy of Sedan in 1681, Jurieu received an
invitation to a church at Rouen, but, afraid to remain in France
on account of his forthcoming work, La Politique du dergi de
France, he went to Holland and was pastor of the Walloon
church of Rotterdam till his death on the nth of January 1713.
He was also professor at the ecole illustre. Jurieu did much to
help those who suffered by the revocation of the Edict of Nantes
(1685). He himself turned for consolation to the Apocalypse,
and succeeded in persuading himself (Accomplissement des pro-
pkities, 1686) that the overthrow of Antichrist {ix, the papal
church) would take place in 1689. H. M. Baird says that " this
persuasion, however fanciful the grounds on which it was based,
exercised no small influence in forwarding the success of the
designs of William of Orange in the invasion of England."
Jurieu defended the doctrines of Protestantism with great ability
against the attacks of Antoine Arnauld, Pierre Nicole and
Bossuet, but was equally ready to enter into dispute with his
fellow Protestant divines (with Louis Du Moulin and Claude
Payon, for instance) when their opinions differed from his own
even on minor matters. The bitterness and persistency of his
attacks on his colleague Pierre Bayle led to the latter being
deprived of bis chair in 1693.
One of Jurieu's chief works is Lettres pastorales adressies aux
fUHes de France (3 vol*,, Rotterdam, 1686-1687; Eng. trans., 1689),
which, notwithstanding the vigilance of the police, found its way
into France and produced a deep impression on the Protestant
population. His last important work was the' Histoire critique des
dogmes ct des cultes (1704; Eng. trans., 17 15). He wrote a great
number of controversial works.
See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie: also H. M.
Baird, The Huguenots and the Revocation oj the Edict of Nantes (1895).
JURIS, a tribe of South American Indians, formerly occupying
the country between the rivers lea (lower Put u mayo) and Japura,
north-western Brazil. In ancient days they were the most
powerful tribe of the district, but in 1820 their numbers did not
exceed 2000. Owing to inter-marrying, the Juris are believed
to have been extinct for half a century. They were closely
related to the Passes, and were like them a fair-skinned, finely
built people with quite European features.
JURISDICTION, in general, the exercise of lawful authority,
especially by a court or a judge; and so the extent or limits
within which such authority is exercisable. Thus each court
has its appropriate jurisdiction; in the High Court of Justice in
England administration actions are brought in the chancery
division, salvage actions in the admiralty, &c. The jurisdict ion of
a particular court is often limited by statute, as that of a county
court, which is local and is also limited in amount. In inter-
national law jurisdiction has a wider meaning, namely, the rights
exercisable by a state within the bounds of a given space. This
is frequently referred to as the territorial theory of jurisdiction.
(See International Law; International Law, Private.)
JURISPRUDENCE (Lat. jurisprudent, knowledge of law,
from jus, right, and prudcutia, from provider c, to foresee), the
general term for " the formal science of positive law " (T. E.
57»
Holland); see Law. The essential principles involved are dis-
cussed below and in Jurisprudence, Comparative; the details
of particular laws or sorts of law (Contract, &c.) and of in-
dividual national systems of law (English Law, &c.) being dealt
with in separate articles.
The human race may be conceived as parcelled out into a
number of distinct groups or societies, differing greatly in size
and circumstances, in physical and moral characteristics of all
kinds. But they all resemble each other in that they reveal on
examination certain rules of conduct in accordance with which
the relations of the members inter se are governed. Each society
has its own system of laws, and all the systems, so far as they
are known, constitute the appropriate subject matter of juris-
prudence. The jurist may deal with it in the following ways.
He may first of all examine the leading conceptions common
to all the systems, or in other words define the leading terms
common to them all. Such are the terms law itself, right, duty,
property, crime, and so forth, which, or their equivalents, may,
not withstanding delicate differences of connotation, be regarded
as common terms in all systems. That kind of inquiry is known
in England as analytical jurisprudence. It regards the concep-
tions with which it deals as fixed or stationary, and aims at
expressing them distinctly and exhibiting their logical relations
with each other. What is really meant by a right and by a duty,
and what is the true connexion between a right and a duty, are
types of the questions proper to this inquiry. Shifting our point
of view, but still regarding systems of law in the mass, we may
consider them, not as stationary, but as changeable and chang-
ing, we may ask what general features are exhibited by the
record of the change. This, somewhat crudely put, may serve
.to indicate the field of historical or comparative jurisprudence.
In its ideal condition it would require an accurate record of the
history of all legal systems as its material But whether the
material be abundant or scanty the method is the same. It
seeks the explanation of institutions and legal principles in the
facts of history. Its aim is to show bow a given rule came to be
what it is. The legislative source — the emanation of the rule
from a sovereign authority — is of no importance here; what is
important is the moral source — the connexion of the rule with
the ideas prevalent during contemporary periods. This method,
it is evident, involves not only a comparison of successive stages
in the history of the same system, but a comparison of different
systems, of the Roman with the English, of the Hindu with the
Irish, and so on. The historical method as applied to law may
be regarded as a special example of the method of comparison.
The comparative method is really employed in all generalizations
about law; for, although the analyse of legal terms might be
conducted with exclusive reference to one system, the advantage
of testing the result by reference to other systems is obvious.
But, besides the use of comparison for purposes of analysis and
in tracing the phenomena of the growth of laws, it is evident that
for the purposes of practical legislation the comparison of differ-
ent systems may yield important results. Laws are contrivances
for bringing about certain definite ends, the larger of which are
identical in all systems. The comparison of these contrivances
not only serves to bring their real object, often obscured as it is
in details, into clearer view, but enables legislators to see
where the contrivances are deficient, and bow they may be
improved.
The "science of law," as the expression is generally used,
means the examination of laws in genera) in one or other of the
ways just indicated. It means an investigation of laws which
exist or have existed in some given society in fact — in other
words, positive laws; and it means an examination not limited to
the exposition of particular systems. Analytical jurisprudence is
in England associated chiefly with the name of John Austin (q.v.) t
whose Province of Jurisprudence Determined systematized and
completed the work begun in England by Hobbes, and continued
at a later date and from a different point of view by Bentham.
Austin's first position is to distinguish between laws properly
so called and laws improperly so called. In any of the older
writers on law, we find the various senses in which the word is
VRJSPRUDENCE
EL
the
than
Jura-
were
genera
very s
been ft
been i
Bolodoi
are the
Jiviae l*« which
-*«*«ue«i by God. AH.
tfc*tt they are
Lbung/* And some
.. *"" ^ ■' *• -"•** «* the bass of most
"^ „gr- ** = ^^. * **** ** ***» compo se d under
*" _-— * - .. -****- Awuitt disposes of it by
• ' .»- ■ .. ^ A *» commands, while
** *—-"*' .^ "i** 3 *^ **■»«* nature are not
'-* ■ *— ^..-.-«* »hsc* imemble commands
*' m .■"'"^^*»»*»iMe been ordered by
"* ~ k? «e not commands in the only
^ ~_ y^ ^^•dAtssedto reasonable
^ T-.' "' ^ • : ■ y 1 ^ 1 lo tf*m. Laws of
w — Z *•-' ***' °* thcre « no possible
*,,«-- j^K««e to them. Austin accord-
. ■ **W**y so called, and confines
*"* *L .. *" ^ ** caUed » ^cn are commands
■ ■*■"" , k -»* human inferior.
" '" • -" *■ ./**»d obvious that the energy
" ^ • - * .1.1 VJ»tin insists upon it now seem
° \ . * * • * *■*** identification of everything
" ^^ ****■ „ i»a*meof a law was, and still
* * *j** a *" \h* IWackstOBe's statement that
^ ^ ^ .>— **" ,w^ Mt established certain laws
"*"" * "^ * . fc ^ a^tter must conform/' and that
- " , »i — "*" ,^ia«e *b< Power to think nor to*
- * x " v.. w "^o obeyed, so long as the creature
- ***"" v u *** v <**?***** °° ln * t obedience, im-
^ "^ ;.rv ^~^Z+ * r**** 1 °* **>& »ts origin and
^ v * „, •» ifc * ^ *t ^ parliament. On the other
v « "• ...*.» ^ . t *vttation are imputed to certain
• \\ w **^i, »*«e of the law of nature, are
~* \". v ^**"^ ic *l»o«» sotnatUnoni »n»anlaws
---" * > -' ■ **^ ^ ^ Khis." Austin never fails to
v v '" , -^"*\ ^*» * in the sense of scientific
v „ » ■" ~^, N »i*ngttrative laws, we restrict
" ^ .^ ■ — l ' t ^ eottmands. This word is the
"^ -- * s \^ *xv*dingly a large portion of
■' * > v, germination of its meaning.
. « "- **~^ >» 4 superior to an inferior. It
.- **~\ ; ^j»h«d by this peculiarity that
- "" * „"^s, * ^*bte to evil from the other,
K '. V .k *«»*»" " If you are able and
.* - ,>.^> *ot wi *n your wish, the
~~ ^ 2 V s> a c<«i«nand." Being liable
*^,. ^.iV *«h which you signify, I
* v , \; 4**fcf a rf^y to obey it. The
• * " v v**.i*dBd or duty is said to be
* 4fci , ^ *.h evil. The three terms
1 *j. t»ep*rably connected. As
», *, vkomI logic, " each of the
*T*. . . w each d€Hotes a different
".^ -v valuer
^^ t«, rhal term is reserved
rf .* >**o*il> to the performance
^ ^»s**i to rise at such an
Ik o»«*»d» bul not * ** w
i* >km i» • l» w or *&*'
" * % J» saeantime that it
. „^« ^*». ** rejection
. .^ k «*M usage the term
x vxh * hand it js not.
^ law should bind
. ^ * lo* grantee of an
general order to go into mourning addressed to the whole nation
far a particular occasion would not be a law.
So fax we have arrived at a definition of laws properly so caDed.
Austin holds superiority ana* inferiority to be necessarily implied
in command, and such statements as that " laws emanate from
superiors " to be the merest tautology and trifling. Elsewhere
he sums up the characteristics of true laws as ascertained by the
analysis thus: (i) laws, being commands, emanate from a
determinate source; (3) every sanction b an evil annrxrri to a
command; and (3) every duty implies a command, and chiefly
means obnoxiousness to the evils annexed to commands.
Of true kws, those only are the subject of jurisprudence which
are laws strictly so called, or positive laws. Austin accordjngiy
proceeds to distinguish positive from other true laws, which are
either laws set by God to men or laws set by men to men, not,
however, as political superiors nor in pursuance of a legal right.
The discussion of the first of these true but not positive laws leads
Austin to his celebrated discussion of the utilitarian theory. The
laws set by God are either revealed or unrevealed, Lc either ex-
pressed m direct command, or made known to men in one or other
of the ways denoted by such phrases as the M light of nature,"
" natural reason," " dictates of nature," and so forth. Austin
maintains that the principle of general utility, based ultimately
on the assumed benevolence of God, is the true index to soch of
His commands as He has not chosen to reveaL Austin's exposi-
tion of the meaning of the principle is a most valuable contribu-
tion to moral science, though be rests its claims ultimately on
a basis which many of its supporters would disavow. And the
whole discussion is now generally condemned as lying outside
the proper scope of the treatise, although the reason for so con-
demning it is not always correctly stated. It is found in such
assumptions of fact as that there is a God, that He has issued
commands to men in what Austin calk the " truths of revela-
tion/' that He designs the happiness of all His creatures, that
there is a predominance of good in the order of the world — wfakh
do not now command universal assent. It is impossible to place
these propositions on the same scientific footing as the assump-
tions of fact with reference to human society on which juris-
prudence rests. If the " divine laws " were facts like acts of
parliament, it is conceived that the discussion of their character-
istics would not be out of place in a scheme of jurisprudence.
The second set of laws properly so called, which- are not positive
laws, consists of three classes: (x) those which are set by mem
living in a state of nature; (2) those which are set by sovereigns
but not as political superiors, e.g. when one sovereign commands
another to act according to a principle of international law; and
(3) those set by subjects but not in pursuance of legal rights.
This group, to which Austin gives the name of positive morality,
helps to explain his conception of positive law. Men are living
in a state of nature, or a state of anarchy, when they are not hving
in a state of government or as members of a political society.
" Political society " thus becomes the central fact of the theory,
and some of the objections that have been urged against it arise
from its being applied to conditions of life in which Austin would
not have admitted the existence of a political society. Again,
the third set in the group is intimately connected with positive
laws on the one hand and rules of positive morality which are not
even laws properly so called on the other. Thus laws set by
subjects in consequence of a legal fight are clothed with legal
sanctions, and are laws positive. A law set by guardian to ward,
in pursuance of a right which the guardian is bound to exercise,
is a positive law pure and simple; a law set by master to slave, in
pursuance of a legal right, which he is not bound to exercise, is,
in Austin's phraseology, to be regarded both as a positive moral
rule and as a positive law. 1 On the other hand the rules set by
a club or society, and enforced upon its members by exclusion
from the society, but not in pursuance of any legal right, are laws,
but not positive laws. They are imperative and proceed from
1 This appears to be an unnecessary complication. The sovereign
has authorized the master to w.*t the law, although not compelling
him to do so, and enforces the law when set. There seems no good
-»n why the law should be called a rule of positive morality at afl.
1
JURISPRUDENCE
a determinate source, but they have no legal or political sanction.
Closely connected with this positive morality, consisting of true
but not positive laws, is the positive morality whose rules are
not laws properly so called at all, though they are generally
denominated laws. Such are the laws of honour, the laws of
fashion, and, most important of all, international law.
Nowhere does Austin's phraseology come more bluntly into
conflict with common usage than in pronouncing the law of
nations (which in substance is a compact body of weH-defi ned rules
resembling nothing so much as the ordinary rules of law) to be
not laws at all, even in the wider sense of the term. That the
rales of a private dub should be law properly so called, while the
whole mass of international jurisprudence is mere opinion, shocks
our sense of the proprieties of expression. Yet no man was more
careful than Austin to observe these properties. He recognizes
fully the futility of definitions which involve a painful struggle
with the current of ordinary speech. But in the present instance
the apparent paralogism cannot be avoided if we accept the
limitation of laws properly so called to commands proceeding
from a determinate source. And that limitation is so generally
present in our conception of law that to ignore H would be a worse
anomaly than this. No one finds fauK with the statement that
the so-called code of honour or the dictates of fashion are not,
properly speaking, laws. We repel the same statement applied
to the law of nature, because it resembles in so many of its most
striking features— in the certainty of a large portion of it, in its
terminology, in its substantial principles-Hhe most universal
elements of actual systems of law, and because, moreover, the
assumption that brought it into existence was nothing else than
this, that it consisted of those abiding portions of legal systems
which prevail everywhere by their own authority. But, though
44 positive morality '* may not be the best phrase to describe
such a code of rules, the distinction insisted on by Austin is
unimpeachable.
The elimination of those laws properly and improperly so called
which are not positive laws brings us to the definition of positive
law, which is the keystone of the system. Every positive law
is " set by a sovereign person, or sovereign body of persons, to a
member or members of the independent political society wherein
that person or body is sovereign or superior." Though pos-
sibly sprung directly from another source, it is a positive law, by
the institution of that present sovereign in the character of a
political superior. The question is not as to the historical origin
of the principle, but as to its present authority. " The legislator
is he, not by whose authority the law was first made, but by
whose authority it continues to be law." This definition in-
volves the analysis of the connected expressions sovereignty,
subjection and independent polilkol society, and of determinate
body— which last analysis Austin performs in connexion with
that of commands. These arc all excellent examples of the
logical method of which he was so great a master. The broad
results alone need be noticed here. In order that a given society
may form a society political and independent, the generality or
bulk of its members must be in a habit of obedience to a certain
and common superior; whilst that certain person or body of
persons must not be habitually obedient to a certain person or
body. All the italicised words point to circumstances in
which it might be difficult to say whether a given society is
political and independent or not. Several of these Austin has
discussed— e.g. the state of things in which a political society
yields obedience which may or may not be called habitual to
some external power, and the stale of things in which a political
society is divided between contending claimants for sovereign
power, and it is uncertain whkh shall prevail, and over how
much of the society. So long as that uncertainty remains we
have a state of anarchy. Further, an independent society to be
political must not fall below a number which can only be called
considerable. Neither then in a state of anarchy, nor in incon-
siderable communities, nor among men living in a state of nature,
have we the proper phenomena of a political society. The last
limitation goes some way to meet the most serious criticism to
which Austin's system has been exposed, and it ought to be
573
stated in his own words. He supposes a society which may be
styled independent, which is considerable in numbers, and which
is in a savage or extremely barbarous condition. In such a
society, " the bulk of its members is not in the habit of obedience
to one and the same superior. For the purpose of attacking an
external enemy, or for the purpose of repelling an attack, the
bulk of its members who are capable of bearing arms submits to
one leader or one body of leaders. But as soon as that emergency
passes the transient submission ceases, and the society reverts
to the state which may be deemed its ordinary state. The bulk
of each of the families which compose the given society renders
habitual obedience to its own peculiar chief, but those domestic
societies are themselves independent societies, or are not united
and compacted into one political society by habitual and general
obedience to one common superior, and there is no law (simply
or strictly so styled) which can be called the law of that society.
The so-called laws which are common to the bulk of the com*
raunity are purely and properly customary laws— that is to say,
laws which are set or imposed by the general opinion of the com-
munity, but are not enforced by legal or political sanctions."
Such, he says, are the savage societies of hunters and fishers in
North America, and such were the Germans as described by
Tacitus. He takes no account of societies in an intermediate
stage between this and the condition which constitutes political
society.
We need not follow the analysis in detail. Much ingenuity
is displayed in grouping the various kinds of government, in
detecting the sovereign authority under the disguises which it
wears in the complicated state system of the United States or
under the fictions of English law, in elucidating the precise mean-
ing of abstract political terms. Incidentally the source of many
celebrated fallacies in political thought is laid bare. That the
question who is sovereign in a given state is a question of fact and
not of law or morals or religion, that the sovereign is incapable
of legal limitation, that law is such by the sovereign's command,
that no real or assumed compact can limit his action — are posi-
tions which Austin has been accused of enforcing with needless
iteration. He cleared them, however, from the air of paradox
with which they had been previously encumbered, and his influ-
ence was in no direction more widely felt than in making them
the commonplaces of educated opinion in this generation.
Passing from these, we may now consider what has been said
against the theory, which may be summed up in the following
terms. Laws, no matter in what form they be expressed, are in
the last resort reducible to commands set by the person or body
of persons who are in fact sovereigns in any independent political
society. The sovereign is the person or persons whose commands
are habitually obeyed by the great bulk of the community; ami
by an independent society we mean that such sovereign head is
not himself habitually obedient to any other determinate body
of persons. The society must be sufficiently numerous to be
considerable before we can speak of it as a political society.
From command, with its inseparable incident of sanction, come
the duties and rights in terms of which laws are for the most part
expressed. Duty means that the person of whom it is predicated
is liable to the sanction in case he fails to obey the command.
Right means that the person of whom it is predicated may set
the sanction in operation in case the command be disobeyed.
We may here interpolate a doubt whether the condition of inde-.
peadence on the part of the head of a community is essential to the
legal analysis. It beems to us that we have all the elements of a
true law present when we point to a community habitually obedient
to the authority of a person or determinatebody of persons, no matter
what the relations of that superior may be to any external or superior
power. Provided that in fact the commands of the lawgiver are
those beyond which the community never looks, it seems immaterial
to inquire whether this lawgiver in turn takes his orders from some-
body else or is habitually obedient to such orders when given. One
may imagine a community governed by a dependent legislatorial
body or person, while the supreme sovereign whose representative
and nominee such body or person may be never directly addresses
the community at all. We do not sec that in such a case anything
is gained in clearness by representing the law of the community as
set by the surerain, rather than the dependent legislator. Nor is
the ascertainment of the ultimate seat of power necessary to define
JURISPRUDENCE
k«bc am m chiak mi me s
■ far the not oae. staay fctvsare
caladsnK. SoiKarebased
'littc ii l i i irr ot
mass oahw. and
nstcaoe as sack to
uviasaase other society. The
e Ljtmjt awd its nfcipr tRtaatdy
«f ihr essrirc. Austins
" onr>a of laws.
Jue tVaaode*
«f tV~s9Krees n
« -«■ z ■jirriM m or w«^ o aaaa i a rt of (be
_ — ^ mm m tasHool ftfuiTi, tbc ideal
— ^ *t onttteat «f the geara! Uvs
« an * tbr tedbml sease. Awtufs
c wl«W at the k* as a "««■*. •**
to
an
evi
SCtli
com
Ausi
three
put •
All
forth
of acts
hour 01
or rule;
Of this c
involves,
of particu
law wouk
according
person*"
office sped
e toe what ovis^saM about
~ -K^ji niMiau mw a sewjabhag.
r '''^ JT^i-s»« H =V «««<» U««latioii
*"* ' '^«v» * **• Odw a«t»*s jol the
' "* *tJ^^^S tv ***** «J the law
- -* ~~Z ** t ^T^A ^ v4 |«nc |*a
■ - ■ ^ VT^SwS «• * w dewlsnment
* *"^L!!ir.K*-^^ W>m«4 men,
-*• - -■ "' * M -c * i . ♦ •*<*>* portion of
m . .«-•*• *** ** * ^^vw are tV «o»t
- * * v l\ xV *^^ N\*w* «h»y
... * ^rr* *^^ v^^»»« i»»f
w*l*w *^ *** lw0
v nV \^ ^^WwhuK It
* ^ Asl V\\tlhMMM
right in any determinate person of a definite description. So,'
again, the rule that " a legacy to the witness of a will is -void.**
Such a rule b not *' designed to give any one any rights, but
simply to protect the public against wills made under undue
influence." Again, the technical rule in Shelley's case that a gift
to A for life, followed by a gift to the heirs of A, is a gift to A in
fee simple, is pronounced to be inconsistent with the definition.
It is an idle waste of ingenuity to force any of these rules into a
form in which they might be said to create rights.
This would be a perfectly correct description of any attempt
to take any of these rules separately and analyse it into a com*
paste command creating specific rights and duties. But there
is no occasion for doing anything of the kind. It is not contended
that every grammatically complete sentence in a textbook or
a statute isfiersc* command creating rights and duties. A law,
like any other command, must be expressed in words, and will
require the use of the usual aids to expression. The gist of it
may be expressed in a sentence which, standing by itself, is not
intelligible; other sentences locally separate from the principal
one may contain the exceptions and the modifications and the
interpretations to which that is subject. In no one of these taken
by itself, but in the substance of them all taken together, a the
true law, in Austin's sense, to be found. Thus the rule that every
wiU must be in writing is a mere fragment— only the limb of a
law. It belongs to the rule which fixes the rights of devisees or
legatees under a will. That rule in whitever form it may be
expressed is, without any straining of language, a command of
the legislator. That " every person named by a testator in his
last will and testament shall be entitled to the property thereby
given him " is surely a command creating rights and duties.
After testament add " expressed in writing "; it is still a com-
mand. Add further, " provided he be not one of the witnesses
to the will," and the command, with its product of rights and
duties, is still there. Each of the additions limits the operation
of the command stated imperatively in the first sentence. So
with the rule in Shelley's case. It is resolvable into the rule that
every person to whom an estate is given by a conveyance ex-
pressed in such and such a way shall take such and such rights.
To take another example from later legislation. An English
statute passed in 1881 enacts nothing more than this, that an act
of a previous session shall be construed as if" that "meant" tbjs.**
It would be futile indeed to force this into conformity with
Austin's definition by treating it as a command addressed to the
judges, and as indirectly creating rights to have such a construc-
tion respected. As it happens, the section of the previous act
referred to (the Burials Act 1880) was an undeniable command
addressed to the clergy, and imposed upon them a specific duty.
The true command— the law— is to be found in the two sections
taken together.
All this confusion arises from the fact that laws are not habitu-
ally expressed in imperative terms. Even in a mature system
like that of England the great bulk of legal rules is hidden under
forms which disguise their imperative quality. They appear
at principles, maxims, propositions of fact, generalizations, points
of pleading and procedure, and so forth. Even in the statutes
t he Imperative form is not uniformly observed. It might be said
that the more mature a legal system is the less do its individual
rules take the form of commands. The greater portion of
Roman law is expressed in terms which would not misbecome
scientific or speculative treatises. The institutional works
abound in propositions which have no legal significance at all,
but which are not distinguished from the true law in which they
art embedded by any difference in the forms of expression.
Aucrtions about matters of history, dubious speculations in
jthllulugy, and reflections on human conduct are mixed up in the
Mine narrative with genuine rules of law. Words of description
are used, not words of command, and rules of law assimilate
I hcmtclvct in form to the extraneous matter with which they are
ntlird up.
1 1 ha% been said that Austin himself admitted to some extent
aW - 'tret of these objections. He includes among laws which
4atntrtUvt " declaratory laws, or laws explaining the
*NN ■>
% v>^
JURISPRUDENCE
import of existing positive law, tod Uws abrogating or repealing
existing positive law." He thus associates them with rules of
positive morality and with laws which are only metaphorically
so called. This collocation is unfortunate and out of keeping
with Austin's method. Declaratory and repealing laws are as
completely unlike positive* morality and metaphorical laws as
are the laws which he describes as properly so called. And if we
avoid the error of treating each separate proposition enunciated
by the lawgiver as a law, the cases in question need give us no
trouble. Read the declaratory and the repealing statutes along
with the principal laws which they affect, and the result is per-
fectly consistent with the proposition that all law is to be resolved
into a species of command. In the one case we have in the
principal taken together with the interpretative statute a law,
and whether it differs or not from the law as it existed before the
interpretative statute was passed makes no difference to the true
character of the latter. It contributes along with the former
to the expression of a command which is a true law. In the same
way repealing statutes are to be taken together with the laws
which they repeal — the result being that there is no law, no
command, at all. It is wholly unnecessary to class them as laws
which are not truly imperative, or as exceptions to the rule that
laws are a species of commands. The combination of the two
sentences in which the lawgiver has expressed himself, yields the
result of silence — absence of law— which is in no way incompat-
ible with the assertion that a law, when it exists, is a kind of
command. Austin's theory does not logically require us to treat
every act of parliament as being a complete law in itself, and
therefore to set aside a certain number of acts of parliament as
being exceptions to the great generalization which is the basis
of the whole system.
• Rules of procedure again have been alleged to constitute
another exception. They cannot, it is said, be regarded as
commands involving punishment if they be disobeyed. Nor is
anything gained by considering them as commands addressed to
the judge and other ministers of the law. There may be no
doubt in the law of procedure a great deal that is resolvable into
law in this sense, but the great bulk of it is to be regarded like
the rules of interpretation as entering into the substantive com-
mands which are laws. They are descriptions of the sanction
and its mode of working. The bare prohibition of murder with-
out any penalty to enforce it would not be a law. To prohibit
it under penalty of death implies a reference to the whole
machinery of criminal justice by which the penalty is enforced.
Taken by themselves the rules of procedure are not, any more
than canons of interpretation, complete laws in Austin's sense
of the term. But they form part of the complete expression of
true laws. They imply a command, and they describe the
sanction and the mode in which it operates.
A more formidable criticism of Austin's position is that which
attacks the definition of sovereignty. There are countries, it is
•aid, where the sovereign authority cannot by any. stretch of
language be said to command the laws, and yet where law mani-
festly exists. The ablest and the most moderate statement of
this view is given by Sir Henry Maine in Early History of
Institutions, p. 380. —
* " It is from no special love of Indian examples that I take one
from India, but because it happens to be the most modern precedent
in point. My instance is the Indian province called the Punjaub,
the country 01 the Five Rivers, in the state in which it was for about
a quarter of a century before its annexation to the British Indian
Empire. After passing through every conceivable phase of anarchy
and dormant anarchy, it fell under the tolerably consolidated
dominion of a half-military half-religious oligarchy known as the
Sikhs, The Sikhs themselves were afterwards reduced to subjection
by a tingle chieftain belonging to their order, Runjeet Singh. At
first sight there could be no more perfect embodiment than Runjeet
Singh of sovereignty as conceived by Austin. He was absolutely
despotic Except occasionally on his wild frontier he kept the most
perfect order. He could have commanded anything; the smallest
disobedience to his commands would have been followed by death
or mutilation; and this was perfectly well known to the enormous
majority of his subjects. Yet I doubt whether once in all his life
he issued a command which Austin would call a law. He took as
his revenue a prodigious share of the produce of the soil. He harried
575
villages which recalcitrated at bis exactions, and he executed great
numbers of men. He levied great armies; he bad all material of
power, and he exercised it in various ways. But he never made a
law. The rules which regulated the lives of his subjects were
derived from their immemorial usages, and those rules were admin-
istered by domestic tribunals in families or village communities —
that is, in groups no larger or little larger than those to which the
application of Austin's principles cannot be effected on his own
admission without absurdity."
So far as the mere size of the community is concerned, there is
no difficulty in applying the Austinian theory. In postulating
a considerably numerous community Austin was thinking
evidently of small isolated groups which could not without pro-
voking a sense of the ridiculous be termed nations. Two or
three families, let us suppose, occupying a small island, totally
disconnected with any great power, would not claim to be and
would not be treated as an independent political community.
But it does not follow that Austin would have regarded the
village communities spoken of by Maine in the same light. Here
we have a great community, consisting of a vast number of smalL
communities, each independent of the other, and disconnected
with all the others, so far as the administration of anything like
law is concerned. Suppose in each case that the headman or
council takes his orders from Runjeet Singh, and enforces them,
each in his own sphere, relying as the last resort on the force at
the disposal of the suzerain. The mere size of the separate
communities would make no sort of difference to Austin's theory.
He would probably regard the empire of Runjeet Singh as divided
into small districts— an assumption which inverts no doubt the
true historical order, the smaller group being generally more
ancient than the larger. But provided that the other condition;
prevail, the mere fact that the law is administered by local
tribunals for minute areas should make no difference to the
theory. The case described by Maine is that of the undoubted
possession of supreme power by a sovereign, coupled with the
total absence of any attempt on his part to originate a law. That
no doubt is, as we are told by the same authority, " the type of
all Oriental communities in their native state during their rare
intervals of peace and order." The empire was in the main in
each case a tax-gathering empire. The unalterable law of the
Medcs and Persians was not a law at all but an occasional com-
mand. So again Maine puts his position clearly in the following
sentences: " The Athenian assembly made true laws for resi-
dents on Attic territory, but the dominion of Athens over her
subject cities and islands was clearly a tax-taking as distinguished
from a legislating empire." Maine, it will be observed, docs not
say that the sovereign assembly did not command the laws in
the subject islands— only that it did not legislate.
In the same category may be placed without much substantial
difference all the societies that have ever existed on the face of
the earth previous to the point at which legislation becomes
active. Maine is undoubtedly right in connecting the theories
of Bentham and Austin with the overwhelming activity of
legislatures in modern times. And formal legislation, as he else-
where shows, comes late in the history of most legal systems.
Law is generated in other ways, which seem irreconcilable with
anything like legislation. Not only the tax-gathering emperors
of the East, indifferent to the condition of their subjects, but
even actively benevolent governments have up to a certain point
left the law to grow by other means than formal enactments.
What is ex facie more opposed to the idea of a sovereign's com-
mands than the conception of schools of law? Does it not
" sting us with a sense of the ridiculous " to hear principles which
are the outcome of long debates between Proculians and Sabi-
nians described as commands of the emperor ? How is sectarian-
ism in law possible if the sovereign's command is really all that
is meant by a law? No mental attitude is more common than
that which regards law as a natural product — discoverable by a
diligent investigator, much in the same way as the facts of science
or the principles of mathematics. The introductory portions
of Justinian's Institutes are certainly written from this point of
view, which may also be described without much unfairness as
the point of view of German jurisprudence. And yet the English
576
JURISPRUDENCE
ki
jurist who accepts Austin's postdate as true for the English
system of our own day would have no difficulty in applying it to
German or Roman law generated under the influence of such
ideas as these.
Again, referring to the instance of Runjeet Singh, Sir H. Maine
says no doubt rightly that " he never did or could have dreamed
of changing the civil rules under which his subjects lived. Pro-
bably he was as strong a believer in the independent obligatory
force of such rules as the elders themselves who applied them."
That too might be said with truth of states to which the applica-
tion of Austin's system would be far from difficult. The sovereign
body or person enforcing the rules by all the ordinary methods
of justice might conceivably believe that the rules which he
enforced had an obligatory authority of their own, just as most
lawyers at one time, and possibly some lawyers now, believe in
the natural obligatoriness, independently of courts or parlia-
ments, of portions of the law of England. But nevertheless,
whatever ideas the sovereign or his delegates might entertain as
to " the independent obligatory force '! of the rules which they
enforce, the fact that they do enforce them distinguishes them
from all other rules. Austin seizes upon this peculiarity and
fixes it as the determining characteristic of positive law. When
the rule is enforced by a sovereign authority as he defines it, it is
his command, even if he should never so regard it himself, or
should suppose himself to be unable to alter it in a single
particular.
It may be instructive to add to these examples of dubious cases
one taken from what is called ecclesiastical law. In so far as this
has not been adopted and enforced by the state, it would, on
Austin's theory, be, not positive law, but cither positive morality
or possibly a portion of the Divine law. No jurist would deny that
there is an essential difference between so much of ecclesiastical law
as is adopted by the state and all the rest of it, and that for scientific
purposes this distinction ought to be recognized. How near this
ind of law approaches to the positive or political law may be seen
from the sanctions on which it depended. " The theory of peniten-
tial discipline was this: that the church was an organized body
with an outward and visible form of government ; that all who were
outside her boundaries were outside the means of divine grace; that
she had a command laid upon her, and authority given to her, to
gather men into her fellowship by the ceremony of baptism, but, as
some of those who were admitted proved unworthy of their calling,
she also had the right by the power of the keys to deprive them
temporarily or absolutely of the privilege of communion with her,
and on their amendment to restore them once more to church
membership. On this power of exclusion and restoration was
founded the system of ecclesiastical discipline. It was a purely
spiritual jurisdiction. It obtained its hold over the minds of men
from the belief, universe 1 '" '*" **-**--*•-- -*——*- -* ^ • eS|
that he who was expel le he
way of salvation, and tl by
God's church on earth i is
Dictionary of Christian /
These laws are not th }le
them closely in many po he
sanction by which they 2 :al
sanction. The force w he
sovereign or the state. x\
obedience to the laws < vs.
But so long as the beli< he
purely spiritual punish n ire
obedience to them, the} by
the state, but by the ch n-
tial. In rejecting spin iw
his example would be f ?ss
include other laws, not by
very similar methods.
Austin's theory in the end comes to this, that true laws are in
all cases obeyed in consequence of the application of regulated
physical force by some portion of the community. That is a
fair paraphrase of the position that laws are the commands
of the sovereign, and is perhaps less objectionable inasmuch as it
does not imply or suggest anything about the forms in which laws
arc enunciated. All rules, customs, practices and laws— or by
« hatever name these uniformities of human conduct may be
called — have either this kind of force at their back or they have
not. Is it worth while to make this difference the basis of a
Kientinc system or not? Apparently it is. If it were a question
oi ^licfii^m'Aing between the law of the law courts and the laws
of fashion no one would hesitate. Why should laws or roles
having no support from any political authority be termed laws
positive merely because there are no other rules in the society
having such support?
The question may perhaps be summed up as follows. Austin's
definitions are in strict accordance with the facts of government
in civilized states; and, as it is put by Maine, certain assumptions
or postulates having been made, the great majority of Austin's
positions follow as of course or by ordinary logical process. But
at the other extreme end of the scale of civilization are societies
to which Austin himself refuses to apply his system, and where, H
would be conceded on all sides, there is neither political commu-
nity nor sovereign nor law — none of the facts which jurisprudence
assumes to exist. There is an intermediate stage of society a
which, while the rules of conduct might and generally would be
spoken of as laws, it is difficult to trace the connexion between
them and the sovereign authority whose existence is necessary
to Austin's system. Are Such societies to be thrown out of
account in analytical jurisprudence, or is Austin's system to be
regarded as only a partial explanation of the field of true law, and
his definitions good only for the laws of a portion of the world?
The true answer to this question appears to be that when the rules
in any given case arc habitually enforced by physical penalties,
administered by a determinate person or portion of the com-
munity, they should be regarded as positive laws and the ap-
propriate subject matter of jurisprudence. Rules which are not
so enforced, but are enforced in any other way, whether by what
is called public opinion, or spiritual apprehensions, or natural
instinct, arc rightly excluded from that subject matter. In all
stages of society, savage or civilized, a large body of rules of
conduct, habitually obeyed, arc nevertheless not enforced by
any state sanction of any kind. Austin's method assimilates
such rules in primitive society, where they subserve the suae
purpose as positive laws in an advanced society, not to the
positive laws which they resemble in purpose but to the
moral or other rules which they resemble in operation. If
we refuse to accept this position we must abandon the attempt
to frame a general definition of law and its dependent terms, or
we must content ourselves with saying that law is one thing tn
one state of society and another thing in another. On the
ground of clearness and convenience Austin's method is, we be-
lieve, substantially right, but none the less should the student of
jurisprudence be on his guard against such assumptions as that
legislation is a universal phenomenon, or that the relation of
sovereign and subject is discernible in all states of human society.
And a careful examination of Maine's criticism will show that it
is devoted not so much to a rectification of Austin's position as to
correction of the misconceptions into which some of his disciples
may have fallen. It is a misconception of the analysis to suppose
that it involves a difference in juridical character between custom
not yet recognized by any judicial decision and custom after such
recognition. There is no such difference except in the case oi
what is properly called "judicial legislation " — wherein an abso-
lutely new rule is added for the first time to the law. The
recognition of a custom or law is not necessarily the beginning
of the custom or law. Where a custom possesses the marks by
which its legality is determined according to well understood
principles, the courts pronounce it to have been law at the time
of the happening of the facts as to which their jurisdiction is
invoked. The fact that no previous instance of its recognition
by a court of justice can be produced is not material. A lawyer
before any such decision was given would nevertheless pronounce
the custom to be law — with more or less hesitation according
as the marks of a legal custom were obvious or not. The char-
acter of the custom is not changed when it is for the first time
enforced by a court of justice, and hence the language used by
Maine must be understood in a very limited sense. " Until
customs arc enforced by courts of justice " — so he puts the posi-
tion of Austin— they are merely " positive morality," rules en-
forced by opinion; but as soon as courts of justice enforce them
they become commands of the sovereign, conveyed through the
judges who are his delegates or deputies. This proposition, on
JURISPRUDENCE
Austin's theory, would only bo true of customs as to which these
marks were absent. It is of course true that when a rule enforced
only by opinion becomes for the first time enforceable by a court
of justice — which is the same thing as the first time of its being
actually enforced— its juridical character is changed. It was
positive morality; it is now law. So it is when that which was
before the opinion of the judge only becomes by his decision a
rule enforceable by courts of justice. It was not even positive
morality but the opinion of an individual; it is now law.
The most difficult of the common terms of law to define is
right, and, as right rather than duty is the basis of classification,
it is a point of some importance. Assuming .the truth of the
analysis above discussed, we may go on to say that in the notion
of law is involved an obligation on the part of some one, or on the
part of every one, to do or forbear from doing. That obligation
is duty; what is right? Dropping the negative of forbearance,
and taking duty to mean an obligation to do something, with the
alternative of punishment in default, we find that duties are of
two kinds. The thing to be done may have exclusive reference
to a determinate person or class of persons, on whose motion or
complaint the sovereign power will execute the punishment or
sanction on delinquents; or it may have no such reference, the
thing being commanded, and the punishment following on dis-
obedience, without reference to the wish or complaint of indi-
vidual*. The last are absolute duties, and the omission to do,
or forbear from doing, the thing specified in the command is in
general what is meant by a crime. The others, are relative
duties, each of them implying and relating: to a right in some one
else, A person has a right who may in this way set in operation
the sanction provided by the state. In common thought and
speech, however, right appears as something a good deal more
positive and definite than this— as a power or faculty residing
in individuals, and suggesting not so much the relative obligation
as the advantage or enjoyment secured thereby to the person
having the right. J. S. Mill, in a valuable criticism of Austin,
suggests that the definition should be so modified as to introduce
the element of " advantage to the person exercising the right."
But it is exceedingly difficult to frame a positive definition of
right which shall not introduce some term at least as ambiguous
as the word to be defined. T. £. Holland defines right in general
as a man's " capacity of influencing the acts of another by means,
not of his own strength, but of the opinion or the force of society."
Direct influence exercised by virtue of one's own strength, physical
or otherwise, over another's acts, is " might " as distinguished
from right. When the indirect influence is the opinion of
society, we have a " moral right " When it is the force
exercised by the sovereign, we have a legal right. It would
be more easy, no doubt, to pick holes in this definition than to
frame a better one. 1
The distinction between rights available against determinate
persons and rights available against all the world, jura in per-
sonam and jura in rem, is of fundamental importance* The
phrases are borrowed from the classical jurists, who used them
originally to distinguish actions according as they were brought
to enforces personal obligation or to vindicate rights of property.
The owner of property has a right to the exclusive enjoyment
thereof, which avails against all and sundry, but not against one
person more than another. The parties to a contract have rights
available against each other, and against no other persons. The
jus in rem is the badge of property ; the jut in personam is a mere
personal claim.
1 Tn English speech another ambiguity is happily wanting which
in many languages besets the phrase expressing a right. ' The
Latin " jus. the German " Recht," the Italian^' diritto," and the
French droit " express, not only a right, but also law in the
abstract. To indicate the distinction between *' taw " and " a
right " the Germans are therefore obliged to resort to such phrases
as " objectives " and " subjective* Recht," meaning by the former
law in the* abstract, and by the latter a concrete right. And
Btackstone, paraphrasing the distinction drawn by Roman law
"between the " jus quod ad res " and the " jus quod ad personas
attinet." devotes the first two volumes of his Commentaries to the
" Rights of Persons and the Rights of Things." See Holland's
Elements of Jurisprudence, loth ed., 78 .seq.
577
That distinction in rights which appears in the division of law
into the law of persons and the law of things is thus stated by
Austin. There are certain rights and duties, with certain capa-
cities and incapacities, by which persons are determined to various
classes. The rights, duties, &c, are the condition or status of
the person; and one person may be invested with many status or
conditions. The law of persons consists of the rights, duties, &c. ,
constituting conditions or status; the rest of the law is the law of
things. The separation is a mere matter of convenience, but of
convenience so great that the distinction is universal. Thus any
given right may be exercised by persons belonging to innumerable
classes. The person who has the right may be under twenty-one
years of age, may have been born in a foreign state* may have been
convicted of crime, may be a native of a particular county, or a
member of a particular profession or trade, &c; and it might very
well happen, with reference to any given right, that, while persons
in general, under the circumstances of the case, would enjoy it in
the same way, a person belonging to any one of these classes
would not. If belonging to any one of those classes makes a
difference not to one right merely but to many, the class may
conveniently be abstracted, and the variations In rights and
duties dependent thereon may be separately treated under the
law of persons. The personality recognized in the law of persons
is such as modifies indefinitely the legal relations into which the
individual clothed with the personality may enter.
T. E. Holland disapproves of the prominence given by Austin
to this distinction, instead of that between public and private law.
This, according to Holland, is based on the public or private
character of the persons with whom the right is connected,
public persons being the state or its delegates. Austin, holding
that the state cannot be said to have legal rights or duties, recog*
nires no such distinction. The term " public law " he confines
strictly to that portion of the law which is concerned with political
conditions, and which ought not to be opposed to the rest of the
law, but " ought to be inserted in the law of persons as one of the
limbs or members of that supplemental department."
Lastly, following Austin, the main division of the law of things
is into (1) primary rights with primary relative duties, (a) sanc-
tioning rights with sanctioning duties (relative or absolute).
The former exist, as it has been put, for their own sake, the latter
for the sake of the former. Rights and duties arise from facts
and events; and facta or events which are violations of rights and
duties are delicts or injuries* Rights and duties which arise from
delicts are remedial or sanctioning, their object being to prevent
the violation of rights which do not arise from delicts.
There is much to be said for Frederic Harrison's view (first
expressed in the Fortnightly Rtfriew, vol. xxxi.), that the re*
arrangement of English law on the basis of a scientific classify
cation, whether Austin's or any other, would not result in
advantages at all compensating for its difficulties. If anything
like a real code were to be attempted, the scientific classification
would be the best; but in the absence of that, and indeed
in the absence of any habit on the part of English lawyers
of studying the system as a whole, the arrangement of facts
does not very much matter. It is essential, however, to the
abstract study of the principles of law. Scientific arrangement
might also be observed with advantage in treatises affecting
to give a view of the whole law, especially those which are
meant for educational rather than professional uses. As an
example of the practical application of a scientific system of
classification to a complete body of law, we may point to W. A.
Hunter's elaborate Exposition of Roman Late (1876).
It is impossible to present the conclusions of historical juris-
prudence in anything like the same shape as those which we have
been discussing. Under the heading Jumspeudencs, Cqmjaia-
txve, an account will be found of the method and results of what
is practically a new science. The inquiry is in that stage which
is indicated in one way by describing it as a philosophy. It
resembles, and is indeed only part of, the study which is described
as the philosophy of history. Its chief interest has been in the
light which it has thrown upon rules of law and legal institutions
which had been and are generally contemplated as positive facts
r -
sy*
Get
idea
Ag
says i
of cha,
bably 1
force ot
That tot
tionof A.
body or j
of justice
enforced li
lawyers al
the natural
men is, of |
whatever id(
to " the ind<
enforce, the l
from all othi
fixes it as the
the rule is end
his command,
should suppose
particular.
It may be ins
one taken from
has not been ad
Austin's theory,
or possibly a port
there is an essent
as is adopted by I
purposes this dk
kind of law appro
from the sanction
tial discipline wa
with an outward «i
outside her bound
she had a comma
father men into h-
•pme of those who
she also had the r
temporarily or ab
and on their arm
membership. On
founded the syst.
spiritual jurisdicti
from the belief, ur
that he who was t
way of salvation. .
God's church on c
^*'"«7 of Ckri
These laws are t
them closely in ma
sanction by which t
sanction. The for
sovereign or the *
obedience to the I.
But so long as the
purely spiritual pur
obedience to them,
the state, but by the
«»!. In rejecting *
his example would L
include other laws, r
very similar methods.
Austin's theory in
all cases obeyed in c
physical force by so
fair paraphrase of t.
of the sovereign, and >
does not impjy or su£r
are enunciated. All
whatever name these
called-have either Un
not. It ft worth wfcj
— 4
and its relations to historical
recognized.
has superseded the verbal aad
af kgal principles, it had apparently,
with the conclusions of the
between the two systems comes
relation to customs. There b i£
ne analytical method between societies
ox Vr regulated physical force and those
■ ssts. At what point in its devdop-
■santo the condition of " an independeat
mr not be easy to determine, for the
* contacting. To the historical jurat
The rule which in one stage of society
a nate of "positive morality," a the
=r n ■jj."smt. By the Irish Land Act 1881 the
-ant>.-3gA* and other analogous customs were
=r s> ii wn of analytical jurisprudence there is
-*n=a. ae act of parliament. The laws known as
-x jt aws solely in virtue of the sovereign
fwar -j»e law as it now is and the custom as it
-* x* Jaese is all the difference in the world
a ar-st a* soch separation is possible. His
■■ na ant ocly be uncomplete without embrac-
bnt the act which made the custom
=* ac3L and by no means the most significant
^r aerjry nf its development. An exactly
t ia : afn i in England of that customary
r a> jauyhufcL It is to the historical jurist
naar as the legalization of the Ulster tenant
issr a 3r»ctjce was made law by formal legis-
■- wr *-t*xxt formal legislation. And there
a-x 3k a an earlier stage of society, when
tw m Vgn aa i the rule, the custom would
-wacr*e*» orach sooner than it actually was.
er ae soar thing as laws to the historical
*» trace the inf l uen ces under which they
decayed, their dependence oa
of society at different
them. The recognized science
to be — with winch historical,
■with "™e_ jurisprudence has most analogy it
nwjna laws aad ofwotm are to the one what
■ v aac each wnaine municipal system has
snnwasnv Legal syst e ms are related together
«. j«*^vt&. and. lie investigation in both cases
» at ^ ^e naengte and obscure records of
u-« m mi % A gnat aaaster of the science of
t .. ass- aieei distinguished it from juris*
«.*x- * » a scaily diacrent class of sciences.
- j_ « aa -sk * zsnt if language be the work of
*cff a ^^ aatarae. wr atemple, orapoem,
of saan, the science of
aaan historical science. We
as we have a history of art, of
we cowU not daia for it a
*> ranr.hu of natural history."
t-*pff 9*nw:«n -af either philology or juns-
-~. * sat wrjsai u i encrw , it would not be
«cnaas on the whole are equally
•a*&*xbtal human wills— which
je not being the work of
•*•■»». * v*i» un. e of Austin's theory that
•<«^> *^e osnannand of the sovereign does
v.n *~* « *<*$ ana the domain of natural
•* an* Jt aj&ae with the scientific study
+** ^as»inwa^K> Max Muller elsewhere
**»* -a .nw nlfcum relations of words and
•■*■ *■** *»*y «f the emperor Tiberius,
1 *. yanaaiai H i| mistake by Marcellus,
i^w pianniii, observed that, if what
* a* nam* I win, it would soon be so.
**. a^Jixi .
> '•".tl'K ??
JURISPRUDENCE
" Capito," said Marcellus, "tea liar; for, Caesar, thou canst give
the Roman citizenship to men, but not to words." The mere
impulse of a single mind, even that of a Roman emperor, how-
ever, probably counts for little more in law than it does in lan-
guage. Even in language one powerful intellect or one influ-
ential academy may, by its own decree, give a bent to modes of
speech which they would not otherwise have taken. But whether
law or language be conventional or natural Is really an obsolete
question, and the difference between historical and natural
sciences in the last result is one of names.
1 The application of the historical method to law has not resulted
in anything like the discoveries which have made comparative
philology a science. There is no Grimm's law for jurisprudence;
but something has been done in that direction by the discovery
of the analogous processes and principles which underlie legal
systems having no external resemblance to each other. But
the historical method has been applied with special success to a
single system — the Roman law* The Roman law presents itself
to the historical student in two different aspects. It is, regarded
as the law of the Roman Republic and Empire, a system whose
history can be traced throughout a great part of its duration
with certainty, and in parts with great detail. It is, moreover,
a body of rationalised legal principles which may be considered
apart from the state system in which they were developed, and
which have, in fact, entered into the jurisprudenceof the whole of
modern Europe on the strength of their own abstract authority
—so much so that the continued existence of the civil law, after
the fall of the Empire, is entitled to be considered one of the first
discoveries of the historical method. Alike, therefore, in its
original history, as the law of the Roman state, and as the source
from which the fundamental principles of modern laws have
been taken, the Roman law presented the most obvious and
attractive subject of historical study. An immense impulse
was given to the history of Roman law by the discovery of the
Institutes of Gaius in 1816. A complete view of Roman law,
as it existed three centuries and a half before Justinian, was
then obtained, and as the later Institutes were, in point of form,
a recension of those of Gaius, the comparison of the two stages
in legal history was at once easy and fruitful. Moreover, Gaius
dealt with antiquities of the law which had become obsolete in the
time of Justinian, and were passed over by him without notice.
Nowhere did Roman law in its modern aspect give a stronger
impulse to the study of legal history than in Germany. The
historical school of German jurists led the reaction of national
sentiment against the proposals for a general code made by
Thibaut. They were accused by their opponents of setting up
the law of past times as intrinsically entitled to be observed, and
they were no doubt strongly inspired by reverence for customs
and traditions. Through the examination of their own custom-
ary laws, and through the elimination and separate study of the
Roman element therein, they were led to form general views of
the history of legal principles. In the hands of Savigny, the
greatest master of the school, the historical theory was developed
into a universal philosophy of law, covering the ground which
we should assign separately to jurisprudence, analytical and his-
torical, and to theories of legislation. There is not in Savigny's
system the faintest approach to the Austinian analysis. The
range of it is not the analysis of law as a command, but that of a
Rechtsterhdltniss or legal relation. Far from regarding law as
the creation of the will of individuals, he maintains it to be the
natural outcome of the consciousness of the people, like their
social habits or their language. And he assimilates changes in
law to changes in language. " As in the life of individual men
no moment of complete stillness is experienced, but a constant
organic development, such also is the case in the life of nations,
and in every individual element in which this collective life
consists, so we find in language a constant formation and develop-
ment, and in the same way in law." German jurisprudence is
darkened by metaphysical thought, and weakened, as we believe,
by defective analysis of positive law But its conception of
laws is exceedingly favourable to the growth of a historical
philosophy, the results of which have a value of their own, apart
579
altogether from the character of the first principles. Such,
for instance, is Savigny's famous examination of the law of
possession.
There is only one other system of law which is worthy of being
placed by the side of Roman law, and that is the law of England.
No other European system can be compared with that which is
the origin and substratum of them all ; but England, as it happens,
is isolated in jurisprudence. She has solved her legal problems
for herself. Whatever element of Roman law may exist in the
English system has come in, whether by conscious adaptation or
otherwise, ab extra; it is not of the essence of the system, nor
does it form a large portion of the system. And, while English
law is thus historically independent of Roman law, it is in alt
respects worthy of being associated with it on its own merits.
Its originality, or, if the phrase be preferred, its peculiarity, is
not more remarkable than the intellectual qualities which have
gone to its formation— the ingenuity, the rigid logic, the reason-
ableness, of the generations of lawyers and judges who have
built it up. This may seemextravagant praise for a legal system,
the faults of which are and always have been matter of daily
complaint, but it would be endorsed by all unprejudiced students.
What men complain of is the practical hardship and inconve-
nience of some rule or process of law. They know, for example,
that the law of real property is exceedingly complicated, and
that, among other things, it makes the conveyance of land ex-
pensive. But the technical law of real property, which rests to
this day on ideas that have been buried for centuries, has never-
theless the qualities we have named. So too with the law of
procedure as it existed under the " science " of special pleading.
The greatest practical law reformer, and the severest critic of
existing systems that has ever appeared in any age or country,
Jeremy Bentham, has admitted this: " Confused, indetermi-
nate, inadequate, ill-adapted, and inconsistent as to a vast
extent the provision or no provision would be found to be that
has been made by it for the various cases that have happened
to present themselves for decision, yet in the character of a
repository of such cases it affords, for the manufactory of real
law, a stock of materials which is beyond all price. Traverse
the whole continent of Europe, ransack all the libraries belonging
to all the jurisprudential systems of the several political states,
add the contents together, you would not be able to compose a
collection of cases equal in variety, in amplitude, in clearness of
statement— in a word, all points taken together, in constructive*
ness — to that which may be seen to be afforded by the collection
of English reports of adjudged cases " (Bentham 's Works, iv. 460).
On the other hand, the fortunes of English jurisprudence are
not unworthy of comparison even with the catholic position of
Roman law. In the United States of America, in India, and in
the vast Colonial Empire, the common law of England constitutes
most of the legal system in actual use, or is gradually being super-
imposed upon it. It would hardly be too much to say that
English law of indigenous growth, and Roman law, between
them govern the legal relations of the whole civilized world.
Nor has the influence of the former on the intellectual habits
and the ideas of men been much if at all inferior. Those who
set any store by the analytical jurisprudence of the school of
Austin will be glad to acknowledge that it is pure outcome of
English law Sir Henry Maine associated its rise with the
activity of modem legislatures, which is of course a characteristic
of the societies in which English laws prevail. And it would
not be difficult to show that the germs of Austin's principles are
to be found in legal writers who never dreamed of analysing a
law It is certainly remarkable, at all events, that the accep-
tance of Austin's system is as yet confined strictly to the domain
of English law. Maine found no trace of its being even known
to the jurists of the Continent, and it would appear that it has
been equally without influence in Scotland, which, like the con*
tincnt of Europe, is essentially Roman in the fundamental
elements of its jurisprudence.
The substance of the above article is repeated from Professor E.
Robertson's (Lord Lochee's) article " Law," in the 9th ed. of this
work.
5&o
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
Among numerous Enflisb textbooks, those specially worth mem-
tion are: T. E. Holland, The Elements of Jurisprudence (1880;
loth ed., 1006); J. Austin, Lectures on Jurisprudence (4th ed., 1873);
W. Jethro Brown, TkeAustinian Theory of Law (1906) ; Sir F. Pollock,
A First Book on Jurisprudence (1896; 2nd ed., 1904).
, JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE. The object' of this
article if to give a general survey of the study of the evolution
of law. It is not concerned with analytical jurisprudence as a
theory of legal thought, or an encyclopaedic introduction to
legal teaching. Jurisprudence in such a philosophic or peda-
gogical sense has certainly to reckon with the methods and
results of a comparative study of law, but its aims are distinct
from those of the latter: it deals with more general problems.
On the other hand, the comparative study of law may itself be
treated in two different ways: it may be directed to a comparison
of existing systems of legislation and law, with a view to tracing
analogies and contrasts in the treatment of practical problems
and taking note of expedients and of possible solutions. Or else
It may aim at discovering the principles regulating the develop-
ment of legal systems, with a view to explain the origin of insti-
tutions and to study the conditions of their life. In the first
sense, comparative jurisprudence resolves itself into a study of
home and foreign law (cf. Hofmann in the Zeitschrift fur das
private und dffentliche Recht der Gcgenwarl, 1878). In the second
sense, comparative jurisprudence is one of the aspects of so-
called sociology, being the study of social evolution in the
special domain of law. From this point of view it is, in substance,
immaterial whether the legal phenomena subjected to investi-
gation are ancient or modern, are drawn from civilized or from
primitive communities. The fact that they are being observed
and explained as features of social evolution characterizes the
inquiry and forms the distinctive attribute separating these
studies from kindred subjects. It is only natural, however,
that early periods and primitive conditions have attracted
investigators in this field more than recent developments. The
Interest of students seems to have stood in inverse ratio to
the chronological vicinity of the facts under consideration— the
wither from the observer, the more suggestive and worthy of
attention the facts were found to be. This peculiarity is easily
explained if we take into account the tendency of all evolution-
ary investigations to obtain a view of origins in order to follow
up the threads of development from their initial starting-point.
Besides, it has been urged over and over again that the simpler
phenomena of ancient and primitive society afford more con-
venient material for generalizations as to legal evolution than
the extremely complex legal institutions of civilized nations.
But there is no determined line of division between ancient and
modern comparative jurisprudence in so far as both are aiming
at the study of legal development The law of Islam or, for
(that matter, the German civil code, may be taken up as a subject
of study quite as much as the code of Hammurabi or the marriage
customs of Australian tribes.
■ The fact that the comparative study of legal evolution is
chiefly represented by investigations of early institutions is
therefore a characteristic, but not a necessary feature in the
treatment of the subject. But it is essential to this treatment
that it should be historical and comparative. Historical, because
it is only as history, i.e. a sequence of stages and events, that
development can be thought of. Comparative, because it is
not the casual notices about one or the other chain of historical
facts that can supply the basis for any scientific induction.
Comparisons of kindred processes nave to be made in order to
arrive at any conception of their general meaning and scientific
regularity. As linguistic science differs from philology in so
far as it treats of the general evolution of language and not of
particular languages, even so comparative jurisprudence differs
from the history of law at a study of general legal evolution
distinct from the development of one or the other national
branch of legal enactment. Needless to say that there are in-
termediate shades between these groups, but it is not to these
shades we have to attend, but to the main distinctions and
divisions.
s. The idea that the legal enactments and customs of different
countries should be compared for the purpose of deducing
general principles from them is as old as political science itsefat.
It was realized with especial vividness in epochs when a con-
siderable material of observations was gathered from different
sources and in various forms. The wealth of varieties and the
recurrence of certain leading views in them led to comparison
and to generalizations based on comparison. Aristotle, who
lived at the close of a period marked by the growth of free
Greek cities, summarized, as it were, their political experience
in his Constitutions and Politics; students of these know that
the Greek philosopher had to 'deal with not only public law and
political institutions, but also to some extent private, criminal
law, equity, the relations between law and morals, &c
Another great attempt at comparative observation was made
at the close of the pre-revolutionary period of modern Europe,
Montesquieu took stock of the analogies and contrast* of law in
the commonwealths of bis time and tried to show to what
extent particular enactments and rules were dependent on certain
general currents in the life of societies— on forms of government,
on moral conditions corresponding to these, and ultimately oa
the geographical facts with which various nationalities and states
have to reckon in their development.
These were, however, only slight beginnings, general forecasts
of a coming line of thought, and Montesquieu's remarks on laws
and legal customs read now almost as if they were meant to
serve as materials for social Utopias, although they were by no
means conceived in this sense. At this distance of time we
cannot help perceiving how fragmentary, incomplete and un-
critical his notions of the facts of legal history were, and how
strongly his thought was biased by didactic considerations, by
the wish to teach his contemporaries what politics and law
should be.
It was reserved for the 19th century to come forward with
connected and far-reaching investigations in this field as in
many others. We are not deceived by proximity and self-
consciousness when we affirm that comparative jurisprudence,
as understood in these introductory remarks, dates from the
10th century and especially from its second half.
There were many reasons for such a new departure: two of
these reasons have been especially manifest and decisive. The
19th century was an eminently historical and an eminently
scientific age. In the domain of history it may be said that it
opened an entirely new vista. While, speaking roughly, before
that time history was conceived as a narrative of memorable
events, more or less skilful, more or less sensational, but appealing
primarily to the literary sense of the reader, it became in the
course of the xoth century an encyclopaedia of reasoned know-
ledge, a means of understanding social life by observing its
phenomena in the past. The immense growth of historical
scholarship in that sense, and the transformation of its aims,
can hardly be denied.
Apart from the personal efforts of eminent writers, a great
and general movement has to be taken into account in order
to explain this ^remarkable stage of human thought. The
historic bent of mind of 19th-century thinkers was to a great
extent the result of heightened political and cultural self-con-
sciousness. It was the reflection in the world of letters of the
tremendous upheaval in the states of Europe and America
which took place from the close of the x8th century onwards.
As one of the greatest leaders of the movement, Niebuhr,
pointed out, the fact of being a witness of such struggles and
catastrophes as the American Revolution, the French Revolu-
tion, the Napoleonic Empire and the national reaction against it,
taught every one to think historically, to appreciate the impor*.
tance of historical factors, to measure the force not only of
logical argument and moral impulse, but also of instinctive
habits and traditional customs. It is not a matter of chance
that the historical school of jurisprudence, Savigny's doctrine
of the organic growth of law, was formed and matured while
Europe collected its forces after the most violent revolutionary
crisis ichad ever experienced, and in most intimate con-
nexion with the romantic movement, a movement p^r^f* by
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
5»*
enthusiastic belief in the historical, traditional life of social
groups as opposed to the intellectual conceptions of indi-
vidualistic radicalism,
\ On the other hand, the 19th century was a scientific age and
especially an age of biological science. Former periods— the
1 6th and 17th centuries especially— had bequeathed to it high
standards of scientific investigation, an ever-increasing weight
of authority in the direction of an exact study of natural phe-
nomena and a conception of the world as ruled by laws and not
by capricious interference. But these scientific views had been
chiefly applied in the domain of mathematics, astronomy and
physics; although great discoveries had already been made in
physiology and other branches of biology, yet the achievements
of 19th-century students in this respect far surpassed those of
the preceding period. And the doctrine of transformation
which came to occupy the central place in scientific thought was
eminently fitted to co-ordinate and suggest investigations • of
social facts. As F. York Powell put it, Darwin is the greatest
historian of modern times, and certainly an historian not in the
sense of a reader of annals, but in that of a guide in the under-
standing of organic evolution. Though much is expressed in
the one name of Darwin, it is perhaps even more momentous as a
symbol of the tendency of a great age than as a mark of personal
work. To this tendency we are indebted for the rise of anthro-
pology and of sociology, of the scientific study of man and of the
scientific study of society. Of course it ought not to be disre-
garded that the application of scientific principles and methods
to human and social facts was made possible by the growth of
knowledge in regard to savage and half-civilised nations called
forth by the increased activity of European and American
business men, administrators and explorers. Ethnography and
ethnology have brought some order into the wealth of materials
accumulated by generations of workers in this direction, and it
is with their help that the far-reaching generalizations of modern
inquirers as to man and society have been achieved.
2. It is not difficult to see that the comparative study of
legal evolution finds its definite place in a scientific scheme
elaborated from such points of view. Let us see how, as a
matter of fact, the study in question arose and what its progress
has been. The immediate incitement for the formation of com-
parative jurisprudence was given by the great discoveries of
comparative philology. When the labours of Franz Bopp,
August Schleicher, Max Mttller, W. D. Whitney and others
revealed the profound connexion between the different branches
of the Indo-European race in regard to their languages, and
showed that the development of these languages proceeded on
lines which might be studied in a strictly scientific manner, on
the basis of comparative observation and with the object of
tracing the uniformities of the process, it was natural that
students of religion, of folk-lore and of legal institutions took
up the same method and tried to win similar results (Sir H.
Maine, Rede lecture in Village Communities, 3rd ed.).
It is interesting to note that one of the leading scholars of the
Gennarustic revival in the beginning of the jotbrtentury, Jacob
Grimm, a compeer of Savigny in his own line, took up with
fervent zeal and remarkable results not only the scientific study
of the German language, but also that of Germanic mythology
and popular law. . His ReehtsaHerthUmer are still unrivalled as a
collection of data as to the legal lore of Teutonic tribes. Their
basis is undoubtedly a narrow one: they treat of the varieties of
legal custom among the continental Germans, the Scandinavians
and. the Germanic tribes of Great Britain, but the method of
treatment is already a comparative one. Grimm takes up the
different subjects— property, contract, procedure, succession,
crime, &c— and examines them in the light of national, provin-
cial and local customs, sometimes noticing expressly affinities
with Roman and Greek law (e.g. the subject of imprisonment for
debt, RechtsaHertkUmer, 4th ed., vol. if., p. 165).
A broader basis was taken up by a linguist who tried fo trace
the primitive institutions and customs of the early Aryans before
their separation into divers branches. Adolphe Pkrtet (Let
Origines indo-europiermes, i. i8$9; ii. 1S63) bad to touch con-
stantly on questions 0/ family law, marriage, property, public
authority, in his attempt to reconstruct the common civilisation
of the Aryan race, and he did soon the strength of a comparative
study of terms used in the different Indo-European languages.
He showed, for instance, how the idea of protection was the
predominant element in the position of the father in the Aryan
household. The names pUar, pater, worijp, father, which
recur in most branches of the Aryan race, go back to a root p&- t
pointing to guardianship or protection. Thus we are led to
consider the patria potestes, so stringently formulated in Roman
law, as an expression of a common Aryan notion, which was
already in existence before the Aryan tribes parted company and
went their different ways. Descriptions of Aryan early culture,
have been given several times since in connexion with linguistic,
observations. An example is W. E. Hearn's Aryan Household
(1879). Fustel de Cotuanges' famous volume on the ancient
city and Rudolf von Jhering's studies of primitive Indo-European
institutions (Vorgfisckichte der Indoeuropttr) start from similar
observations, although the first of these scholars is chiefly,
interested in tracing the influence of religion on the material
arrangements of life, while the latter draws largely on principle*
of public and private law, studied mom especially in Roman
antiquity.
3. The chief work in that direction has been achieved iff one
sense by a German scholar, B.W.Leiat. HisGraeco-Romankgal
history, his Jus Gentium of Primitive Aryans, and his Jus Cwi+
of Primitive Aryans, form the most complete and learned attempt
not only to reconstitute the fundamental rules of common
Aryan law before the separation of tongues and nations, but also
to trace the influence of this original stock of juridical Ideas in
the latef development of different branches of the Aryan race.
These three books present three stages of comparison, marked
by a successive widening of the horizon. He began his legal
history by putting together the data as to Roman and Greek
legal origins; in the Alt-erisches Jus Gentium the material of
Hindu law is not only drawn into the range of observation, but
becomes its very centre; in the Al^crisakes Jus Civile the kgal
customs of the Zend branch, of Celts, Germans and Slavs, are
taken into account, although the most important part of the
inquiry is stilt directed to the combination of Hindu, Greek and
Roman law. In this way Leist builds up his theories by the
comparative method, but he restricts its use consciously and con-
sistently to a definite range, He does not want to plunge into
haphazard analogies, but seeks common ground before all things
in order to be able to watch for the appearance of ramifications
and to explain them. According to his view comparison is of
use only between " coherent " lines of facts. Common origin*
not similarity of features, appears to him as the fundamental
basis for fruitful comparison. It may be said that Leist's work
is characterized by the attempt to draw up a continuous history
of a supposed archaic common law of the Aryan race rather
than to put different solutions of kindred legal problems by the
side of each other. For him Aryan tribal organization with its
double-sided relationship — cognatic and agnatic — through men
and through women— is one, and although he does not draw its
picture as Fustel deCoulangcs does by the help of traits taken in 7
discriminate^ from Hindu, Roman and Greek material, although
he notices divisions, degrees and variations, at bottom be writes
the history of one set of principles exemplified and modulated*
as it were, in the six or seven main varieties of the race. Even
so the nine rules of conduct prescribed by Hindu sacral law
are, according to bis view, the directing rales of Roman, Greek,
Germanic, Celtic, Slavonic legal custom— ^the duties in regard to
gods, parents and fatherland, guests, personal purity, the pro-
hibitions against homicide, adultery and theft— arc variations
of one and the same religious, moral and legal system, and then*
original unity is reflected and proved by the unity of legal
terminology itself.
The same leading idea is embodied in the books of Otto
Schroder — Urgesckkhte umd SpraeJnergfeiekuug (ost ed., 1883;
and ed., 1800) and Rcollatikon 4er indogermamstken Alter*
tumskunde (1001). In this case we have to do not with « jurist
S«*
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
M with a Engmst and a student of cultural history. HU
uwiij made him especially fit to trace the national affinities
in the data of language, and the sense of the intimate connexion
between the growth of institutions on one side, of words and
Hagojstk forms on the other, underlies all his investigations.
Be* Sthrader testifies abo to another powerful influence— to that
of Victor Hefca, the author of a remarkable book on early civili-
aarjoft, JCnf \wt p/Ummmmmd ff mrf frVr in ikrem Vbergang ausAsien
r» £av*s* (tst ce\, 1870; 7th ed., 1002), dealing with the migra-
tions of tribes and their modes of acquiring material civilization.
Although the linguistic and archaeological sides naturally pre-
dominate In Schrader'a works, be has constantly to consider
legal subjects, and he strives conscientiously to obtain a clear and
common acrrwr view of the early legal notions of the Aryans.
Sfcttakiwg of the w ordeals," the " waging of God's law," for
example* he traces the customs of purification by fire, water,
iron, fce„ to the«practicc of oaths (Sans, am; Gr. ojawut; O. Ital.
onw • first group; O. Ger. oih*, Ir. deth - second group; O.
Norn r#a» Arm. mdmnrn - I swear - third group). The central
idea of the ordeal is thus shown to be the imprecation—" Let
him be cursed whose assertion is false."
1 The comparative study of the Aryan group assumed another
4$l*ct In the works of Sir Henry Maine. He did not rely on
linguistic affinities, hut made great use of another element of
investigation which plays hardly any part in the books of the
writers mentioned hitherto. His best personal preparation for
the task was that he had not only taught law in England, but
had come Into contact with living legal customs in India. For
him the comparison between the legal lore of Rome and that of
India did not depend on linguistic roots or on the philological
study of the laws of Manu, but was the result of recognizing
again and again. In actual modern custom, the views, rules and
institutions of which he had read in Gaius or in the fragments
of the Twelve Tables. The sense of historical analogy and evolu-
tion which had shown itself already in the lectures on Ancient.
lew, which, after all, were mainly a presentment of Roman legal
history mapped out by a man of the world, averse from pedantic
disquisitions. But what appears as the expression of Maine's
personal aptitude and intelligent reading in Ancient Law gets
to be the interpretation of popular legal principles by modern as
well as by ancient instances of their application in Village Com-
munities* Tkt Borty History of Institutions, Early Law and Custom.
The evolution of property in land out of archaic collectivism,
ancient forms of contract and compulsion, rudimentary forms of
feudalism and the like, were treated in a new light in conse-
quence of systematic comparisons with the conditions not only
of India hut of southern Slavonic nations, medieval celts and
Teutons. This breadth of view seemed startling when the
lectures appeared, and the original treatment of the subject
was hailed on att sides as a most welcome new departure in the
study of legal customs and institutions. And yet Maine set
v«\ definite boundaries to his comparative surveys. He re-
aouoced the chronological limitation confining such inquiries
to. tW domain of antiquaries, but he upheld the ethnographical
«nMUt«M» confining them to laws of the same race. In bis case
i m** the Aryan race* and in his Law and Custom he opposed in
a 4*<«t«ta»ed manner the attempts of more daring students to
«tt«nd to the Afvana generalizations drawn from the life of
***** utbe* u«*v*nKted with the Aryans by blood.
v2*k «*«Ah*ta*dknf all diversities in the treatment of
-*ttr » at QMQATCMh one leading methodical principle runs
mm» Ae wfk* of all the above-mentioned exponents of
!ZZ*u«« s»u4* K wa» to proceed on the basis of common
' ^ ^ ^ ^ awumrtrtr of a certain common stock of
*"* * T^ap^ nttteeol culture, and law to start with.
*■/<■«%» **.««* ScWJet* and Maine were doing for the
-«■» --, n itutitfUw Smith and others did in a lesser
"""-^ asm* ~»np Wteh started from the discoveries of
\i ^ ^mrtnnthewavbvwhat
- ^ ^Jauei el inquirers. The original
t^Mkhy jnwhto and mst**'
took up the study in the field of andent history, but treated It
from the beginning in such a way as to break up the subdivisions
of historic races and to direct the inquiry to a state of culture beat
illustrated by savage customs. The first impulse may be said
to have come from J. J. Bachofeh (Mutterrecnt, 1861; AuU-
quariscke Britfc, 1880; Die Sage son Tanaquii). All the repre-
sentatives of Aryan antiquities are at one in laying stress on the
patriarchal and agnatic system of the kindreds in the different
Aryan nations; even Leist, although dwelling on the importance
of cognatic ties, looks to agnatic relationship for the explana-
tion of military organization and political authority. And un-
doubtedly, if we argue from the predominant facts and from the
linguistic evidence of parallel terms, we are led to assume that
already before their separation the Aryans lived in a patriarchal
state of society. Now, Bachofen discovered in the very tradition
of classical antiquity traces of a fundamentally different state
of things, the central conception of which was not patriarchal
power, but maternity, relationship being traced through mothers,
the wife presenting the constant and directing element of the
household, while the husband (and perhaps several husbands)
joined her from time to time in more or less inconstant unions.
Such a state of society is definitely described by Herodotus in
the case of the Lycians, it is clearly noticeable even in later his-
torical limes in Sparta; the passage from this matriarchal
conception to the recognition of the claims of the father is
reflected in poetical fiction in the famous Orestes myth, based
on the struggle between the moral incitement which prompted
the son to avenge his father and the absolute reverence for the
mother required by ancient law. Although chiefly drawing his
materials from classical literature, Bachofen included in ha
Antiquarian Letters an interesting study of the marriage custom
and systems of relationship of the Malabar Coast in India; they
attracted his attention by the contrasts between different layers
of legal tradition— the Brahmans living in patriarchal order,
while the class next to them, the Nayirs (Nairs), follow rules of
matriarchy.
Similar ideas were put forward in a more comprehensive form
by J. F. McLennan. His early volume (Studies in Ancient
History, 1876) contains several essays published some time before
that date. He starts from the wide occurrence of marriage by
capture in primitive societies, and groups the tribes of which
we have definite knowledge into endogamous and exogamous
societies according as they take their wives from among the
kindred or outside it. Marriage by capture and by purchase
are signs of exogamy, connected with the custom in many tribes
of killing female offspring. The development of marriage by
capture and purchase is a powerful agent in bringing about
patriarchal rule, agnatic relationship, and the formation of dans
or gentes, but the more primitive forms of relationship appear
as variations of systems based on mother-right. These views
are supported by ethnological observations and used as a due
to the history of relationship and family law in ancient Greece.
In further contributions published after McLennan's death
these researches*!* supplemented and developed in many ways.
The peculiarities of exogamous societies, for instance, are traced
back to the even more primitive practice of Totemiam, the
grouping of men according to their conceptions of animal worship
and to their symbols. McLennan's line of inquiry was taken up
in a very effective manner not only by anthropologists like
E. B. Tylor or A. Lang, but also in a more special manner by
students of primitive family law. One of the most brilliant
monographs in this direction is Robertson Smith's study of
Kinship and Marriage in Arabia.
But perhaps the most decisive influence was exercised on
the development of the ethnological study of law by the dis-
coveries of an American, Lewis H. Morgan. In his epoch-
making works on Systems of Consanguinity {i 860) and on Ancient
Society (1877) he drew attention to the remarkable fact that in
the case' of a number of tribes— the Red Indians of America, the
Australian black tribes, some of the polar races, and several
Asiatic tribes, mostly of Turanian race—degrees of relationship
-Kkoned and distinguished by names, not as ties between
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
S83
t individuals, but as ties between entire groups, classes or genera*
1 tions. Instead of a mother and a father a man speaks of fathers
and mothers; all the individuals of a certain group are deemed
, husbands or wives of corresponding individuals of another group;
t sisters and brothers have 10 be sought in entire generations, and
, not among the descendants of a definite and common parent, and
, so forth. There are variations and types in these forms of
t organization, and intermediate links may be traced between
, unions of consanguine people— brothers and sisters of the same
t blood — on the one hand, and the monogamic marriage prevailing
, nowadays, on the other; but the central and most striking fa a
, seems to be that in early civilizations, in conditions which we
t should attribute to savage and barbarian Kfe, marriage appears
I as a tie, not between single pairs, but between classes, all the
, men of a class being regarded as potential or actual husbands
, of the women of a corresponding class. Facts of this kind
t produce very peculiar and elaborate systems of relationship.
, which have been copiously illustrated by Morgan in his tables.
, In his Ancient Society he attempted to reduce all the known
, forms and facts of marriage and kinship arrangements to a
( comprehensive view of evolution leading up to the Aryan,
Semitic and Uralian family, as exhibiting the most modern
[ type of relationship
These observations, in conjunction with Bachofen's and
i McLennan 's teaching on mother-right, brought about a complete
change of perspective in the comparative study of man and
society. The rights of ethnologists to have their say in regard
to legal, political and social development was forcibly illustrated
from both ends, as it were. On the one hand, classical antiquity
itself proved to be a rather thin layer of human civilization
hardly sufficient to conceal the long periods of barbarism and
primitive evolution which had gone to its making. On the
other hand, unexpected combinations in regard to family,
1 property, social order, were discovered in every corner of the
inhabited world, and our trite notions as to the character of
laws and institutions were reduced to the rank of variations on
themes which recur over and over again, but may be and have
1 been treated in very different ways.
I There is no need to speak of the use made of ethnological
material in the wider range of anthropological and sociological
studies — the works of Tylor, Lubbock, Lippert, Spencer are in
everybody's hands — but attention must be called to the further
influence of the ethnological point of view in comparative
1 jurisprudence. An interesting example of the passage from one
line of investigation to another, from the historical to the anthro-
pological line, if the expression may be used for the sake of
brevity, is presented in the works of one of the founders of the
Zeitschrift fur vgl. Rechtswissenschofl—Fnnz Bernhdft. He
appears in his earlier books as an exponent of the comparative
study of Greek and Roman antiquities, more or less in the style
of Leist. Like the latter he was gradually incited to draw India
into the range of his observations, but unlike Leist, he ended by
fully recognizing the importance of ethnological evidence, and
although he did not do much original research in that direction
himself, the influence of Bachofen and of the ethnologists made
itself felt in Bernhoft's treatment of classical antiquity itself:
in his State and Law in Rome at the Time of the Kings he starts
from the view that patricians and plebeians represent two
ethnological layers of society— a patriarchal Aryan and a
matriarchal pre- Aryan one.
But, of course, the utmost use was made of ethnological
evidence by writers who cut themselves entirely free from the
special study of classical or European antiquities. The enthu-
siasm of the explorers of new territory fed them naturally to
disregard the peculiar claims of European development in the
history of higher civilization They wanted material for 8 study
of the genus homo in all its varieties, and they had no time to
look after the minute questions of philological and antiquarian
research which had so long constituted the daily bread of
inquirers into the history of laws. The most. characteristic
representative of the new methods of extensive comparison was
undoubtedly A 11. Post (1830-1895)— the author of many works,
in which he ranges over the whole domain of mankind — Hovas,
Zulus. Maoris. Tunguses, alternating in a kaleidoscopic fashion
with Hindus, Teutons. Jews, Egyptians. The order of his com-
positions is systematic, not chronological or even ethnographical
in the sense of grouping kindred races together. He takes up
the different subdivisions of law end traces them through all
the various tribes which present any data in regard to them.
His method is not only not bound by history, it is opposed to it.
He writes.- —
" The method of comparative ethnology is different from the
historical method, inasmuch as it collects the given material from
an entirely distinct point of view. Historical investigation tries to
get at the causes of the facts of rational life by observing the develop*
ment of these facts from such as preceded them within the range of
separate kindreds, tribes and peoples. The investigation of com-
parative ethnology inquires after the causes of facts in national
life by collecting identical or similar ethnological data wherever they
may be found in the world, and by drawing inferences from these
materials to identical or similar causes. This method is therefore
quite unhistorical. 1 1 severs things that have been hitherto regarded
as closely joined and arranges these shreds into new combinations "
[fitundrtss, i. 14}.
This is not a mere paradox, but the necessary outcome of the
situation in respect of the material used. What is being sought
is not common origin or a common stock of ideas, but recourse
to similar expedients in similar situations, and it is one of the
most striking results of ethnology that it can show how peoples
entirely cut off from each other and even placed in very different
planes of development can resort to analogous solutions in
analogous emergencies. Is not the custom of the so-called
Couvade — the pretended confinement of the husband when a
child is bdrn to his wife— a most quaint and seemingly recondite
ceremony? Yet we find it practised in the same way by Basques,
Cahfornian Indians, and some Siberian tribes. They have surely
not borrowed from each other, nor have they kept the ceremony
as a remnant of the time when they formed one race: in each
case, evidently the passage from a matriarchal state to a patri-
archal has suggested it, and a very appropriate method it seems to
establish the fact Of fatherhood in a solemn and graphic though
artificial manner. Again, an inscription from the Cretan town
of Gortyn, published in the American Journal of Archaeology
(2nd series, vol. i., 1897) by Halbherr, tells us that the weapons of
a warrior, the wool of a woman, the plough of a peasant, could
not be taken from them as pledges. We find a similar idea in
the prohibition to take from a knight his weapons, from a villein
his plough, in payment of fines, which obtained in medieval
England and was actually inserted in Magna Carta. Here also
the similarity extends to details, and is certainly not derived
from direct borrowing or common origin but from analogies of
situations translating themselves into analogies of legal thought.
It may be said in a sense that for the ethnological school the less
relationship there is between the compared groups the more
instructive the comparison turns out to be.
The collection of ethnological parallels for the use of sociology
and comparative jurisprudence has proceeded in a most fruitful
manner. By the side of special monographs about single tribes
or geographical groups of tribes, such as Kamilaroi and Kurnai,
by L. Fison & A. W. Howitt (1880), and The Native Tribes of
Australia, by Baldwin Spencer & F. C. Gillen (1809), the whole
range of ethnological jurisprudence was gone through by Wilken
in regard to the inhabitants of the Dutch possessions in Asia, by
M M. Kovalevsky in regard to Caucasians, &c. As a rule the
special monographs turned out to be more successful than the
general surveys, but the interest of the special monographs
themselves depended partly on the fact that people's eyes had
been opened to the recurrence of certain widespread phenomena
and types of development.
5. Ethnologists of Post's school have not had it entirely
their own way, however. Not only did their natural opponents,
the philologists, historians and jurists, reproach them with lack
of critical discrimination, with a tendency to disregard funda-
mental distinctions, to wipe out characteristic features, to throw
the most disparate elements into the same pot. In their own
ranks a number of conscientious and scientifically trained
=**
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
. -«-<.'<c- '-tv >twnvv *^a *»: : W kiphixard manner in which the
. .w >- ■ -v-i • ~.'V^.<. t^ were treated. And sought to evolve more
^,*~* .v «*f \v.vi. -. v >. P. *.-*iF.Sarrasinm their description
~^ m *c v\» m %.»..»*> s&vvvd a most primitive race scattered
. ^--.« .•••>*„ -*v rocv^i-tca> and patriarchal in their marriage
^. ^v :ns 4M 5W?«s ot reUtionship. E. A. Weslermarck
*2 * '•• ^« -*r >-»cwx.tx peocrauxauons indulged in by many
2* i vttuve promiscuity in sexual relations
~ -. lct vM all human tribes through the stages
^ .pawriage,
?p*rtare was attempted by Dargun in his
^i . I development of property and his treatise
^.-. r^y aM'*: ramage by capture. His lead was followed
j.. "< .i vvMa^i ic the monograph on law and custom. The
• •• •n.'-v" s.v» v v these inquirers may be stated as follows. We
'„. ^ *x :< ct^Jc^scal as well as historical materials from the
^ **^»< *^ v ^ ^<-t «ibio use doing this indiscriminately. Fruit-
t ^ «.v^)m«»»» may be instituted mainly in the case of tribes
fc .» ^ mv fcrvel in their general culture and especially their
^v***** v r^rw:*. Hunting tribes must be primarily compared
^«*» o<fcee butters, " * i fishers, pastoral nations with
^^sivvil nations, agi with agriculturists; nations in
t « u xv; vaal stages (r t of culture to the other have to
^ y.v„.vd and cxar tmselves. The result would be
t0 , r» .».v->h certain | i in the development of institu-
% ...«* At J customs, point of view both Dargun and
1 1 ah* *and attacked ng theory of primitive commun-
^gi jitid iiubted on I c individualism of the rudimen-
ts
ovtUiationof hv
Collectivism in the treatment
^1 o«nershi|\ common field husbandry, practices of joint
tofciin**. coloration, common stores, &c, make their appearance
^vordinf lo Dargun in consequence of the drawing together of
pattered group* independent settlements. An
c v*)tation oi the ! jng from loose unions around
^others through ipture to patriarchal kindreds
*a» traced in the lionship. Grosse (Die Format
iff Famtlie mmt ii< 96) followed in a similar strain.
Another line of a :aed up from the side of exact
yociokcitftl ttudy. ?n t is Steinmetz, who represents
«rith \fc ilken the investigators of social pheno-
mena. He takes 1 which severs him entirely from
ihe linsui*t»c and historic school. In a discourse on the Meaning
of S+. m'«»*v (p, to) he expresses himself in the following words:
" One who judges of the social slate of the Hindus by the book
of Manu takes the ideal notions of one portion of the people for
the actual conditions of all its parts." In regard to jurisprudence
he di»tingui*hes carefully between art and science. " Juris-
prudence in the wider sense is an art, the art of framing rules
for social intercourse in so far as these rules can be put into exe-
cution by the state and its organs, as well as the art of inter-
preting and applying these rules. In another sense it is pure
nience. the investigation of all consciously formulated and
actually practised rules, and of their conditions and founda-
tions, in fact of the entire social life of existing and bygone
nation*, without a knowledge and understanding of which a
knowledge and understanding of law as its outcome is, of course,
tiur*mibU< ." In this sense jurisprudence is a part of ethnology
and of the comparative history of culture. But in order to
p Appk *uh auih a tremendous task comparative jurisprudence
h*« uot only to call to help Ihe study of scattered ethnological
hv. iv Thi% * not aufneient lo widen the frame of observation
a k! l» K«lwf the relative character of the principles with which
kN**Wat U* vro operate, without ever pulling in question their
*s-H"%l ft\\vman\« or logical derivations. Ethnological studies
'V »..v;w« K* v< to look for guidance lo psychology, especially
.*» . "K .\v , ikvfcvcY ei emotional life and of character. Although
wv-v *,.*, N v % ^ penological science have been much less
*»»v. v »„ v » js^^ ^ nudy of intellectual processes, they still
•***».,.♦.*] a<V ** ln * e lnno,0 « irt ^ the comparative
k .v \ % 4». !.»,*• himself made a remarkable attempt to
v 4 ^v vx*k*1 anatysia oi the feeling* ©I revenge in his
> • • X«.v4flfe<i4
4" WO
6. The necessity of employing more stringent standards of
criticisms and more exact methods is now recognized, and it
is characteristic that the foremost contemporary representative
of comparative jurisprudence, Joseph Kohler of Berlin, principal
editor of the Zeilschnjt jur vgl. Recklswissenxkajt, often
gives expression lo this view. Beginning with studies of
procedure and private law in the provinces of Germany where
the French law of the Code Napoleon was still applied, he has
thrown his whole energy into monographic surveys and investi-
gations in all the departments of historical and ethnological
jurisprudence. The code of Khammurabi and the Babylonian
contracts, the ancient Hindu codes and juridical commentaries
on them, the legal customs of the different tribes and provinces
of India, the collection and sifting of the legal customs of abori-
gines in the German colonies in Africa, the materials supplied
by investigators of Australian and American tribes, the history
of legal customs of the Mahommcdans, and numberless other
points of ethnological research, have been treated by him in
articles in his Zcilschrifl and in other publications. Comprehen-
sive attempts have also been made by him at a synthetic treat-
ment of certain sides of the law — like the law of debt in his Skckt-
spcorevor dem Forum der Jurisprudent (1883) or his Primitive
History of Marriage. Undoubtedly we have not to deal in ihi&case
with mere accumulation of material or with remarks on casual
analogies. And yet the importance of these works consists
mainly in their extensive range of observation. The critical
side is still on the second plane, although not conspicuously
absent as in the case of Post and some of his followers. We may
sympathize cordially with Kohler's exhortation to work for a
universal history of law without yet perceiving dearly what the
stages of this universal history are going to be. We may acknow-
ledge the enormous importance of Morgan's and Bachofen's
discoveries without feeling bound to recognize that all tribes
and nations of the earth have gone substantially through the
same forms of development in respect of marriage custom, and
without admitting that the evidence for a universal spread 0/
group-marriage has been produced. Altogether the reproach
seems not entirely unfounded that investigations of this kind
arc carried on too much under the sway of a preconceived notion
that some highly peculiar arrangement entirely different from
what we arc practising nowadays — say sexual promiscuity or
communism in the treatment of property — must be made out
as a universal clue to earlier stages of development. Kohler's
occasional remarks on matters of method (e.g. Zeiisckift fur
vgl. Recklsvrissensckaft, xii. 193 seq.) seem hardly adequate to
dispel this impression. But in his own work and in that of some
of his compeers and followers, J. £. Hitzig, Hellwig, Max Huber,
R. Dareste, more exact forms and means of inquiry are gradually
put into practice, and the results testify to a distinct heightening
of the scientific standard in this group of studies on comparative
jurisprudence. Especially conspicuous in this respect are
three tendencies: (a) the growing disinclination to accept super-
ficial analysis between phenomena belonging to widely different
spheres of culture as necessarily produced by identical causes
(e.g. Darinsky's review of Kovalevsky's assumptions as to group
marriage among the Caucasian tribes, Z. fur vgl. Rv. y xiv. 1 $i
seq.); (b) the selection of definite historical or ethnological terri-
tories for monographic inquiries, in the course of which arrange-
ments observed elsewhere are treated as suggestive material
for supplying gaps and starling possible explanations: Kohler's
own contributions have been mainly of this kind; (<) the treat-
ment of selected subjects by an intensive legal analysis, bringing
out the principles underlying one or the other rule, its possible
differentiation, the means of its application in practice, &c
Hcllwig's monograph on the right of sanctuary in savage com-
munities (Das Asylrcchl der Naturvolkcr) may be named in illus-
tration of this analytical tendency. Altogether, there can be no
doubt that the stage has been reached by comparative juris-
prudence when, after a hasty, one might almost say a voracious
consumption of materials, investigators begin to strive towards
careful sifting of evidence and a conscious examination of
methods and critical rules which have lo be followed in order
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
5»5
to make the iirve*igaUons undertaken in this line worthy of theft
scientific aims. Until the latter has been done many students,
whose trend of thought would seem to lead them naturally into
this domain, may be repelled by the uncritical indistinctness
with which mere analogies are treated as elusive proofs by some
of the representatives of the comparative school. F. W. Mait-
land, for instance, was always kept back by such considerations.
7. It is desirable, in conclusion, to review the entire domain
of comparative jurisprudence, and to formulate the chief prin-
ciples of method which have to be taken into consideration In
the course of this study. It is evident, to begin with, that a
scientific comparison of facts must be directed towards two aims
— towards establishing and explaining similarity, and towards
enumerating and explaining differences. As a matter of fact
the same material may be studied from both points of view,
though logically these are two distinct processes.
(a) Now at this initial stage we have already to meet a diffi-
culty and to guard against a misconception: we have namely
to reckon with the' plurality of causes, and are therefore debarred
from assuming that, wherever similar phenomena are forth-
coming they are always produced by identical causes. Death
may be produced by various agents— by sickness, by poison, by
a blow. The habit of wearing mourning upon the death of a
relation is a widespread habit, and yet it is not always to be
ascribed to real or supposed grief and the wish to express it in
one's outward get-up. Savage people are known to go into
mourning in order to conceal themselves from the terrible spirit
of the dead which would recognise them in their everyday cos-
tume (Jhcring, Der Zvreck im RecJit, 2nd ed., 1 884-1 886), This is
certainly a momentous difficulty at the start, but it can be greatly
reduced and guarded against in actual investigation. In the
example taken we are led to suppose different origin because
we are informed as to the motives of the external ceremony, and
thus we are taught to look not only to bare facts, but to the
psychological environment in which they appear. And it is
evident that the greater the complexity of observed phenomena,
the more they are made up of different elements welded into one
sum, the less probability there is that we have to do with conse-
quences derived from different causes. The recurrence of group-
marriage in Australia and among the Red Indians of North
America can in no way be explained by the working of entirely
different agencies. And it may be added that in most cases of
an analysis of social institutions the limits of human probability
and reasonable assumption do not coincide with mathematical
possibility in any sense. When we register our facts and causes
in algebraic forms, marking the first with a, b, c, and the latter
with *, y, 1, we are apt to demand a degree of precision which is
hardly ever to be met with in dealing with social facts and
causes. Let us rest content with reasonable inferences and
probable explanations.
(6) The easiest way of explaining a given similarity is by
attributing it to a direct loan. The process of reception, of the
borrowing of one people from the other, plays a most notable
part in the history of institutions and ideas. The Japanese
have in our days engrafted many European institutions on their
perfectly distinct civilisation; the Germans have used for cen-
turies what was termed euphemistically the Roman law of the
present time (heutiges rdmisches Rechl); the Romans absorbed
an enormous amount of Greek and Oriental law in their famous
jurisprudence. A check upon explanation by direct loan will,
of course, lie in the fact that two societies are entirely discon-
nected, so that it comes to be very improbable that one drew its
laws from the other. Although migrations of words, legends,
beliefs, charms, have been shown by Theodor Benfey and his
school to range over much wider areas than might be supposed
on the face of it, still, in the case of law, in so far as it has to
regulate material conditions, the limits have perhaps to be drawn
rather narrowly. In any case we shaU not look to India in order
to explain the burning of widows among the negroes of Africa;
the suttee may be the example of this custom which happens
to be most familiar to us, but it is certainly not the only root of
it on the surface of the earth.
It Is much snore difficult to make out the share of direct
borrowing in the case of peoples who might conceivably have in-
fluenced one another. A hard and fast rule cannot be laid down
in such cases, and everything depends on the weighing of evidence
and sometimes on almost instinctive estimates. The use of a
wager for the benefit of the tribunal in the early procedure of the
Romans and Greeks, the sacramentum and the vfivraMa, with
a similar growth of the sum laid down by the parties in proportion
to the interests at stake, has been explained by a direct borrow-
ing by the Romans from the Greeks at the time of the Twelve
Tables legislation (Hofmann, Beitr&ge tur Gestkiekte da
griechischen und rSntischen Reckss). No direct proof is available
for this hypothesis, and the question in dispute might have
lain for ever between this explanation and that based on the
analogous development in the two closely related branches
of law. The further study of the legal antiquities of other
branches of the Aryan race leads one to suppose, however, that
we have actually to do with the latter and not with the former
eventuality. Why should the popular custom of the Vadini in
Bohemia (Kapras, "Das Pfandrecht in altbdhmischen Land*
recht," Z. fUr tgl. R.-vrissensckaft, xvh*. 424 seq.), regulating the
wager of litigation in the case of two parties submitting their
dispute to the decision of a public tribunal, turn out to be so
similar to the Greek and the Roman process? And the Teutonic
Wedde would further countenance the view that we have to
do in this case with analogous expediency or, possibly, common
origin, not loans. But while dwelling on considerations which
may disprove the assumption of direct loans, we must not omit to
mention circumstances that may render such an assumption the
best available explanation for certain points of similarity. We
mean especially the recurrence of special secondary traits not
deduqble from the nature of the relations compared. Termino-
logical parallels are especially convincing in such cases. An
example of most careful linguistic investigation attended by
important results is presented by W. Thomson's treatment of
the affinities between the languages and cultures of the peoples
of northern and eastern Europe. Taking the indications in
regard to the influence of Germanic tribes on Finns and Lappa,
we find, for instance, that the Finnish race has stood for some
1500 or 2000 years under " the influence of several Germanic
languages— partly of a more ancient form of Gothic than that
represented by Ulfilas, partly of a northern (Scandinavian)
tongue and even possibly of a common Gothic-northern one."
The importance of these linguistic investigations for our subject
becomes apparent when we find that a series of most important
legal and political terms has been imported from Teutonic into
Finnish. For example, the Finnish Kuningas, " king," comes
from a Germanic root illustrated by O. Norse konung, O. H. Get.
doming, A.-S.cy»fft£,Goth. thiuiens. The Finnish 9011a," power,"
" authority/' is of Germanic origin, as shown by O. N. void,
Goth, valdan. The Finnish kikla, a compact secured by solemn
promise, is akin with O. N. gist, A.-S. gisd, O. H. Gcr. gisai,
"hostage." The explanation for Finnish wofcra, "interest,"
"usury," is to be found in Gothic twJferi, O. N. o*r,Gcr. Wucher, &c.
(W. Tbomsen, Ober den Einfiuss der germaniscben Spracken auf
die Finnisck-lappiscken, trans. E. Sievers, 1870, p. 166 seq.;
cf. W. Thomsen, The Relations between Ancient Russia and Scan-
dinavia and the Origin of the Russian State, p. 127 seq.; Miklosich,
" Die Fremdworter ia den slavischen Sprachcn," Denksckriflen
der Wiener Akademie, Ph. hist. Rlasse, XV.).
(c) The next group of analogies is formed by cases which
may be reduced to common origin. In addition to what has
already been said on the subject in connexion with the literature
of the historical school, we must point out that in the case of
kindred peoples this form of derivation has, of course, to be
primarily considered. This is especially the case when we have
to deal with the original stock of cultural notions of a race,
and when analogies in the framing and working of institutions
and legal rules are supported by linguistic affinities. The testi-
mony of the Aryan languages in regard to terms denoting
family organization and relationship can in no way be dis-
regarded, whatever our view may be about the most primitive
S86
JURISPRUDENCE, COMPARATIVE
stages of development in this respect. The fact that the common
stock of Aryan languages and of Aryan legal customs points to
a patriarchal organization of the family may be regarded
as established, and it is certainly an important fact drawn
from a very ancient stage of human history, although there
are indications that still more primitive formations may be
discovered.
Inferences in the direction ot common origin become more
doubtful when we argue, not that certain facts proceed from
a common stock of notions embodied in the early culture of a
race before it was broken up into several branches, but that
they have to be accounted for as instances of a similar treatment
of legal problems by different peoples of the same ethnic family.
The only thing that can be said in such a case is that, methodi-
cally, the customs of kindred nations have the first claim to
comparison. It is evident that in dealing with blood feud,
composition for homicide, and the like, among the Germans or
Slavs, the evidence of other Aryan tribes has to be primarily
studied. But it is by no means useless for the investigator of these
problems to inform himself about the aspect of such customs
in the life of nations of other descent, and especially of savage
tribes. The motives underlying legal rules in this respect are
to a large extent suggested by feelings and considerations which
are not in any way peculiarly Aryan, and may be fully illustrated
from other sources, as has been done e.g. in Steinmetz's Origins
oj Punishment.
(</) This leads to the consideration of what maybe called discon-
nected analogies. They are instructive in so far as they go back,
not to any continuous development, but to the fundamental,
psychological and logical unity of human nature. In similar
circumstances human beings are likely to solve the same problems
in the same way. Take a rather late and special case. In the
Anglo-Saxon laws of Ine, a king who lived in the 7th century,
it is enacted that no landowner should be allowed to claim per-
sonal labour service from his tenants unless he provides them
not merely with land, but with their homesteads. Now an
exactly similar rule is found in the statement of rural by-laws
to be enforced on great domains in Africa, which had been taken
over by the imperial fiscus— the hex Manciana (cf. Schulten,
Lex manciana). There is absolutely no reason for assuming
a direct transference of the rule from one place to the other:
it reflects considerations of natural equity which in both cases
were directed against similar encroachments of powerful land-
owners on a dependent peasant population. In both instances
government interfered to draw the line between the payment
•i rent and the performance of labour, and fastened on the
same feature to fix the limit, namely, on the difference between
yexsaats living in their own homes and those who had been
aKLJed by the landowner on bis farms. Of such analogies,
*ae st*dy of savage life presents a great number, e.g. the widely
i practices of purification by ordeal (H. C. Lea, Superstition
; thought always seeks to substitute order for
Observations as to disconnected analogies lead
1 ti> systematise them from some comprehensive point
attempts may take the shape of a theory
m of development. Similar facts appear over
d
d
d
Their condition, as it may to-day be observed, is truly the 1
ancient condition of man ' (Studies tn Ancient History, and u
9. 15)-
On this basis we might draw up tables of consecutive stages,
of which the simplest may be taken from Post :—
" Four types of organization : the tribal, the territorial, the
seignoria), and the social. The first has as its basts marriage and
relationship by blood, the second, neighbouring occuoation of a.
district: the third, patronage relations between lord and dependants;
the fourth, social intercourse and contractual relations be t we en
individual personalities " (Post, Grundriss, i. 14).
This may be supplemented from Friedrichs in regard to
initial stages of family organization. He reckons four stages of
this kind; promiscuity, loose relations, matriarchal family,
patriarchal family, modem, bilateral family (Z. /. vgi. R-
wissenschaft). This mode of grouping similar phenomena as a
sequence of stages leads to a conception of universal history of a
peculiar kind. And as such it has been realized and advocated
by Kohler (see e.g. his article in Helmolt's World's History,
Eng. trans, i.). Prompted by this conception several represen-
tatives of comparative jurisprudence have found no difficulty
to insert such a peculiar institution as group-marriage into the
general and obligatory course of legal evolution. It b to be
noticed, however, that Kohler himself has entered a distinct
protest against McLennan 's and Post's view that the more
rudimentary a people's culture is, the more archaic it is,
and the earlier it has to be placed in the natural sequence
of evolution. This would create difficulties in the case of tribes
of exceedingly low culture, like the Ceylon Veddahs, who live in
monogamous and patriarchal groups. According to Kohler's
view, neither the mere fact of a low standard of culture, nor the
fact that a certain legal custom precedes another in some cases
in point of time, settles the natural sequence of development.
The process of development must be studied in cases when it is
sufficiently clear, gaps in other cases have to be supplied
accordingly, and the working together of distinct institutions,
especially in coses when there is. no ethnic connexion, has to
be especially noticed. These are counsels of perfection, but
Kohler's own example shows sufficiently that it is not easy to
follow them to the letter. One thing is, however, clearly
indicated by these and similar criticisms; it is, at the least,
premature to sketch anything like a course of universal develop-
ment for legal history. We have grave doubts whether the
time will ever come for laying down any single course of that
kind. The attempts made hitherto have generally led to over-
stating the value of certain parts of the evidence and to squeezing
special traits into a supposed general course of evolution.
(/) Another group of thinkers is therefore content to systema-
tize and explain the material from the point of view, not of
universal history, but of correspondence to economic stages and
types. This is, as we have seen, the leading idea in Dargun's or
Hildebrand's investigations. It is needless to go into the ques-
tion of the right or wrong of particular suggestions made by these
writers. The place assigned to individualism and collectivism
may be adequate or not; how far can be settled only by special
inquiries. But the general trend of study initiated in this direc-
tion is certainly a promising one, if only one consideration of
method is well kept in view. Investigators ought to be very
chary of laying down certain combinations as the necessary
outcome of certain economic situations. Such combinations or
consequences certainly exist; pastoral husbandry, the life of
scattered hunting groups, the conditions of agriculturists under
feudal rule, certainly contain elements which will recur in divers
ethnical surroundings. But we must not forget a feature which is
constantly before our eyes in real life: namely, that different
minds and characters will draw different and perhaps opposite
conclusions in exactly similar outward conditions. This may
happen in identical or similar geographical environment; let us
only think of ancient Greeks and Turks on the Balkan peninsula,
or of ancient Creeks and modern Greeks for that matter. But
even the same historical medium leaves, as a rule, scope for
I treatment of legal problems on divers lines. Take systems of
They exercise the most potent influence on the
JURJANI— JURY
S87
structure and life of society. Undivided succession, whether
in the form of primogeniture or in that of junior right, sacrifices
equity and natural affection to the economic efficiency of estates.
Equal-partition rules, like gavelkind or parage, lead in an exactly
opposite direction. And yet both sets of rules co-existed among
the agriculturists of feudal England; communities placed in
nearly identical historical positions followed one or the other
of these rules. The same may be said of type* of dwelling and
forms of settlement. In other words, it is not enough to start
from a given economic condition as if it were bound to regulate
with fatalistic precision all the incidents of legal custom and
social intercourse. We have to start from actual facts as
complex results of many causes, and to try to reduce as much as
we can of this material to the action of economic forces in a
particular stage or type of development.
(g) The psychological diversities of mankind in dealing
with the same or similar problems of food and property, of
procreation and marriage, of common defence and relationship,
of intercourse and contrast, &&, open another possibility for
the grouping of facts and the explanation of their evolution.
It may be difficult or impossible to trace the reasons and causes
of synthetic combinations in the history of society. That is, we
can hardly go beyond noting that certain disconnected features of
social life appear together and react on each other. But it is
easier and more promising to approach the mass of our material
from the analytical side, taking hold of certain principles,
or rules, or institutions, and tracing them to their natural
consequences either through a direct systematization of re-
corded facts or, when these fail, through logical inferences.
Some of the most brilliant and useful work in the historical
study of law has been effected on these lines. Mommsen's
theory of Roman magistracy, Jhering's theory of the struggle
for right, Kohler's view of the evolution of contract, &c, have
been evolved by such a process of legal analysis; and, even when
such generalizations have to be curtailed or complicated later
on, they serve their turn as a powerful means of organizing
evidence and suggesting reasonable explanations. The attribute
of " reasonableness " has to be reckoned with hugely in such
cases. Analytical explanations are attractive to students
because they substitute logical clearness for irrational accumula-
tion of traits and facts. They do so to a large extent through
appeals to the logic and to the reason common to us and to
the people we are studying. This deductive element has to
be closely watched and tested from the side of a concrete study
of the evidence, but it seems destined to play a very prominent
part in the comparative history of law, because legal analysis
and construction have at all times striven to embody logic
and equity in the domain of actual interests and forces. And,
as we have seen in our survey of the literature of the subject,
recent comparative studies tend to make the share of juridical
analysis in given relative surroundings larger and larger. What
is so difficult of attainment to single workers — a harmonious
appreciation of the combined influences of common origin, re-
ception of foreign custom, recurring psychological combinations,
the driving forces of economic culture and of the dialectical
process of legal thought, will be achieved, it may be hoped, by
the enthusiastic and brotherly exertions of all the workers in
the field.
Bibliography. — Of the principal works of reference may be
mentioned: Zeitschrifl fur vergleichendt Rechtsumsenschaft, edited by
Bcrnhdf t, Cob n and Kohlcr ( 1 878- ) ; Nowelle revue hislorique de
droitfrancais et itranger, edited by Darcste.Esmein, Appert, Fournier,
Tardiff and Prou (1877- ); A. Pictct, Les Origtnes tndo-euro-
ptonnes (i. 1859,11. 1863) ; Fustel dc Coulangcs.La Ctteanliaue (1890) ;
W. E. Hearn. The Aryan Household (1879); R. v. Jhering. Ver-
ge schichte der Indocuropdcr (1894) ; B. W.Leist.Graekoitaliscke Rechts-
geschichle (1 884 ) ,A ll-arisches JusCcntium ( 1 889) ,AIt-arischcsJusCtvile
(1892-1896): Hruza, Geschichle des griechischen und romischen Fami-
lienreckies (1893); O. Schrader. Urgeschichie und Sprachvergletchung
(1890), RealUxikon des indo-germaniscken Altertumskunde (1901);
B. Delbruck, Die indo-germanischen Verwandtschaftsnamen (1889),
Das Mutterrecht bei den Jndogermanen ; Sir H. S. Maine, Ancient Law,
with notes by Sir F. Pollock (1906), Village Communities (1871),
Early Hhtory of Institutions (1875). Early Lav and Custom (1883) ;
M. H d'Axbois de Juoamville, Etudes de droit cettique (1895), La
de
Fi
At
H,
de
T>
JURJANI, the name of two Arabic scholars.
1. AbO fi/out 'Abdu-l-QAhik un 'Abdur-Ra#mAn vl-
JurjAnI (d. 1078,) Arabian grammarian, belonged to the
Persian school and wrote a famous grammar, the Kit&b td-
'Aw&tnU ul-Mi'a or Kit&b Mi'at 'Amil, which was edited by
Erpenius (Leiden, 16x7), by Baillie (Calcutta, 1803), and by
A. Lockett (Calcutta, 1814). Ten Arabic commentaries on this
work exist in MS., also two Turkish. It has been versified five
times and translated into Persian. Another of his grammatical
works on which several commentaries have been written is the
Kit&b Jumalfin-Nakw.
For other works see C. Brockelmann's Ctsch. der Arabischen
LilUratur (1898), i. 288.
2. 'Ail zbn Ma^oioox) ul-JurjAnI (1330-14 1 4), Arabian
encyclopaedic writer, was born near Astarabad and became
professor in Shlraz. When this city was plundered by Timor
(1387) he removed to Samarkand, but returned to Shlraz in 1405,
and remained there until his death. Of his thirty-one extant
works, many being commentaries on other works, one of the best
known is the To rifdl (Definitions), which was edited by G. Flugd
(Leipzig, 1845), published also in Constantinople (1837), Cairo
(1866, &c), and St Petersburg (1897). (G. W. T.)
JURY, in English law, .a body of laymen summoned and
sworn (juratt) to ascertain, under the guidance of a judge, the
truth as to questions of fact raised in legal proceedings whether
civil or criminal. The development of the system of trial by
jury has been regarded as one of the- greatest achievements of
English jurisprudence; it has even been said that the ultimate
aim of the English constitution is " to get twelve good men into
a box." ' In modern times the English system of trial by jury
1 1.e. the jury-box. or enclosed space in which the juror* sit in
court.
388
JURY
has been adopted in many countries in which jury trial was not
native or had been strangled or imperfectly developed under
local conditions.
• The origin of the system in England has been much investi-
gated by lawyers and historians. The result of these investiga-
tions is a fairly general agreement that the germ of jury trial
is to be found in the Frankish inquest {rccogniiio or inqmsitio)
transplanted into England by the Norman kings. The essence
of this inquest was the summoning of a body of neighbours by a
public officer to give answer upon oath (rctognoscere veritatem)
on some question of fact or law (jus), or of mixed fact and law.
At the outset the object of the inquiry was usually to obtain
information for the king, e.g. to ascertain facts needed for
assessing taxation. Indeed Domesday Book appears to be made
up by recording the answers of inquests.
The origin of juries is very fully discussed in W. Forsyth's
History of Trial by Jury (1852), and the various theories advanced
are more concisely stated in W. Stubbs's Constitutional Hisfory
(vol. L) and in E. A. Freeman's Norman Conquest (vol. v.).
Until the modern examination of historical documents proved
the contrary, the jury system, like all other institutions, was
popularly regarded as the work of a single legislator, and in
England it has been usually assigned to Alfred the Great. This
supposition is without historical foundation, nor is it correct to
regard the jury as " copied from this or that kindred institution
to be found in this or that German of Scandinavian land, " or
brought over ready made by Hengist or by William. 1 " Many
writers of authority," says Stubbs, " have maintained that the
entire jury system is indigenous in England, some deriving it
from Celtic tradition based on the principles of Roman law, and
adopted by the Anglo-Saxons and Normans from the people
they had conquered. Others have regarded it as a product of
that legal genius of the Anglo-Saxons of which Alfred is the
mythical impersonation, or as derived by that nation from the
customs of primitive Germany or from their intercourse with
the Danes. Nor even when it is admitted that the system
of ' recognition ' was introduced from Normandy have legal
writers agreed as to the source from which the Normans them-
selves derived it. One scholar maintains that it was brought
by the Norsemen from Scandinavia; another that it was derived
from the processes of the canon law; another that it was developed
on Gallic soil from Roman principles; another that it came
from Asia through the crusades," or was borrowed by the
Angles and Saxons from their Slavonic neighbours in northern
Europe. The true answer is that forms of trial resembling the
jury system in various particulars are to be found in the primitive
institutions of all nations. That which comes nearest in time
and character to trial by jury is the system of recognition by
sworn inquest, introduced into England by the Normans.
"That inquest," says Stubbs, "is directly derived from the
Frank capitularies, into which it may have been adopted from
the fiscal regulations of the Theodosian code, and thus own some
distant relationship with the Roman jurisprudence." However
that may be, the system of " recognition " consisted in questions
of fact, relating to fiscal or judicial business, being submitted
by the officers of the crown to sworn witnesses in the local
courts. Freeman points out that the Norman rulers of England
were obliged, more than native rulers would have been, to rdy
on this system for accurate information. They needed to have
a clear and truthful account of disputed points set before them,
and such an account was sought for in the oaths of the recog-
nitors.* The Norman conquest, therefore, fostered the growth
of those native germs common to England with other countries
out of which the institution of juries grew. Recognition, as
introduced by the Normans, is only, in this point of view,
another form of the same principle which shows itself in the
compurgators, in the frith-bark (frank-pledge), in every detail of
the action of the popular courts before the conquest. Admitting
1 Freeman. Norman Conquest, v, 451.
* This fact would account for the remarkable development of the
lyttenot English ground, as contnuted with iudecay and extinction
in France.
with Stubbs that the Norman recognition was the instrument
which the lawyers in England ultimately shaped into trial by
jury, Freeman maintains none the less that the latter is dis-
tinctively English. Forsyth comes to substantially the same
conclusion. Noting the jury germs of the Anglo-Saxon period,
he shows how out of those elements, which continued in fnl
force under the Anglo-Normans, was produced at last the
institution of the jury. " As yet it was only implied in the
requirement that disputed questions should be determined by
the voice of sworn witnesses taken from the neighbourhood, and
deposing to the truth of what they had seen or heard." The
conclusions of Sir F. Pollock and F.W. Maitland, expressed in
their History of English Law, and based on a closer study, are to
the same effect.
This inquest then was a royal institution and not a survival
from Anglo-Saxon law or popular custom, under which com-
purgation and the ordeal were the accepted modes of trying
issues of fact.
Tfcp inquest by recognition, formerly an inquest of office, i,e. to
ascertain facts in the interests of the crown or the exchequer,
was gradually allowed between subjects as a mode of settling
disputes of fact. This extension began with the assize of novel
disseisin, whereby the king protected by royal writ and inquest
of neighbours every seisin of a freehold. This was followed by
the grand assize, applicable to questions affecting freehold or
status. A defendant in such an action was enabled by an
enactment of Henry II: to decline trial by combat and choose
trial by assize, which was conducted as follows. The sheriff
summoned four knights of the neighbourhood, who being sworn
chose the twelve lawful knights most cognisant of the facts, to
determine on their oaths which had the better right to the land.
If they all knew the facts and were agreed as to their verdict,
well and good; if some or all were ignorant, the fact was certified
in court, and new knights were named, until twelve were found
to be agreed. The same course was followed when the twelve
were not unanimous. New knights were added until the twelve
were agreed. This was called afforcing the assize. At this
time the knowledge on which the jurors acted was their own
personal knowledge, acquired independently of the trial.. " So
entirely," says Forsyth, " did they proceed upon their own
previously formed view of the facte in dispute that they seem
to have considered themselves at liberty to pay no attention to
evidence offered in court, however clearly it might disprove the
case which they were prepared to support." The use of recogni-
tion is prescribed by the constitutions of Clarendon (1166) for
cases of dispute as to lay or clerical tenure. See Forsyth, p. 13 1 ;
Stubbs, i. 617.
This procedure by the assize was confined to real actions, and
while it preceded, it is not identical with the modern jury trial
in civil cases, which was gradually introduced by consent of the
parties and on pressure from th? judges. Jury trial proper
differs from the grand and petty assizes in that the assizes were
summoned at the same time as the defendant to answer a
question formulated in the writ; whereas in the ordinary jury
trial no order for a jury could be made till the parties by their
pleadings had come to an issue of fact and had put themselves
on the country, posuerunt se super patriam (Pollock and Mait-
land, i. 1 10-128; ii. 601, 615, 621).
The Grand Jury.— In Anglo-Saxon times there was an institu-
tion analogous to the grand jury in criminal cases, viz. the twelve
senior tbegns, who, according to an ordinance of jEthelrcd II. #
were sworn in the county court that they would accuse no
innocent man and acquit no guilty one. The twelve thegns
were a jury of presentment or accusation, like the grand jury of
later times, and the absolute guilt or innocence of those accused
by them had to be determined by subsequent proceedings — by
compurgation or ordeal. Whether this is the actual origin of
the grand jury or not, the assizes of Clarendon (1166) and
Northampton (1176) establish the criminal jury on a definite
basis.
In the laws of Edward the Confessor and the earlier Anglo-
Saxon kings are found many traces of a public duty to bring
JURY
589
1 to justice, by hue and cry, or by actios of the jr'Uk-
borhi township, tithing or hundred. By the assise of Clarendon
it is directed that inquiry be made in each county and in each
hundred by twelve lawful (legations) men of the hundred, and
by four lawful men from each of the four vilb nearest to the
scene of the alleged crime, on oath to tell the truth if in the
hundred or vill there is any man accused (rettoius out pubiicatus)
as a robber or murderer or thief, or receiver of such. The assise
of Northampton added forgery of coin or charters (Jahonaria)
and arson. The inquiry is to be held by the justices in eyre,
and by the sheriffs in their county courts. On a finding on the
oath aforesaid, the accused was to be taken and to go to the
ordeal By the articles of visitation of 1194, four knights are
to be chosen from the county who by their oath shall choose
two lawful knights of each hundred or wapentake, or, if knights
be wanting, free and legal men, so that the twelve may answer
for all matters within the hundred, including, says Stubbs, " all
the pleas of the crown, the trial of malefactors and their receivers,
as well as a vast amount of civil business." The process thus
described it now regarded as an employment of the Frankish
inquest for the collection of jama publico. It was alternative to
the rights of a private accuser by appeal, and the inquest were
not exactly either accusers or witnesses, but gave voice to public
repute as to the criminality of the persons whom they presented.
From this form of inquest has developed the grand jury of pre-
sentment or accusation, and the coroner's inquest, which works
partly as a grand jury as to homicide cases, and partly as an
inquest of office as to treasure trove, &c.
The number of the grand jury is fixed by usage at not less than
twelve nor more than twenty-three jurors. Unanimity is not
required, but twelve must concur in the presentment or indict-
ment. l This jury retains so much of its ancient character that
it may present of its own knowledge or information, and is not
tied down by rules of evidence. After a general charge by the
judge as to the bills of indictment on the file of the court, the
grand jury considers the bills in private and hears upon oath in
the grand jury chamber some or all the witnesses called in support
of an indictment whose names are endorsed upon the bill It
does not as a rule hear counsel or solicitors for the prosecution,
nor does it see or hear the accused or his witnesses, and it is not
concerned with the nature of the defence, its functions being to
ascertain whether there is a prima facie case against the accused
justifying his trial. If it thinks that there is such a case, the
indictment is returned into court as a true bill; if it thinks that
there is not, the bill is ignored and returned into court torn up or
marked " no bill," or " ignoramus." Inasmuch as no man can
be put on trial for treason or felony, and few are tried for mis-
demeanour, without the intervention of the grand jury, the latter
has a kind of veto with respect to criminal prosecutions. The
grand jurors are described in the indictment as " the jurors for
our lord the king." As such prosecutions in respect of indictable
offences are now in almost all cases begun by a full preliminary
inquiry before justices, and inasmuch as cases rarely come before
a grand jury until after committal of the accused for trial, the
present utility of the grand jury depends very much on the
character of the justices' courts. As a review of the discretion
of stipendiary magistrates in committing cases for trial, the
intervention of the grand jury is in most cases superfluous; and
even when the committing justices are not lawyers, it is now a
common opinion that their views as to the existence of a case
to be submitted to a jury for trial should not be over-ridden by
a lay tribunal sitting in private, and an this opinion many grand
jurors concur. But the abolition of the grand jury would involve
great changes in criminal procedure for which parliament seems
to have no appetite. Forsyth thinks that the grand jury will
often baffle "the attempts of malevolence " by ignoring a
malicious and unfounded prosecution; but it may also defeat
the ends of justice by shielding a criminal with whom it has
1 Blackstone puts the principle as being that no man shall be
convicted except by the unanimous voice of twenty-four of his
equals or neighbours — twelve on the grand, and twelve on the petty
jury.
strong political or social sympathies. The qualification of the
grand jurymen h that they should be freeholders of the county—
to what amount appears to be uncertain—and they are sum-
moned by the sheriff, or failing him by the coroner.
The coroner's jury must by statute (1887) consist of not more
than twenty-three nor less than twelve jurors. It is summoned
by the coroner to hold an inquest super visum corporis in cases
of sudden or violent death, and of death in prisons or lunatic
asylums, and to deal with treasure trove. The qualification of
the coroner's jurors does not depend on the Juries Acts 1825 and
1870, and in practice they are drawn from householders in the
immediate vicinity of the place where the inquest is held.
Unanimity is not required of a coroner's jury; but twelve must
concur in the verdict. If it charges anyone with murder or
manslaughter, it is duly recorded and transmitted to a court of
assize, and has the same effect as an indictment by a grand
jury, i.e. it is accusatory only and is not conclusive, and is
traversable, and the issue Of guilt or innocence is tried by a
petty jury.
The Petty Jurys— The ordeal by water or fire was used as the
final test of guilt or innocence until its abolition by decree of the
Lateran council (1219). On its abolition it became necessary
to devise a new mode of determining guilt as distinguished from
ill fame as charged by the grand jury. So early as 1 22 1 accused
persons had begun to put themselves on the country, or to pay
to have a verdict for " good or ill "; and the trial seems to have
been by calling for the opinions of the twelve men and the lour
townships, who may have been regarded as a second body of
witnesses who could traverse the opinion of the hundred jury.
(See Pollock and Maitland, ii. 646.) The reference to judicium
parium in Magna Carta is usually taken to refer to the jury, but
it is dear that what is now known as the petty jury was not
then developed in its present form. "The history of that
institution is still in manuscript," says Maitland.
It is not at all clear that at the outset the trial by the country
(in pais; in pciria) was before another and different jury. The
earliest instances look as if the twelve men and the four vifls
were the patria and had to agree. But by the time of Edward I.
the accused seems to have been allowed to call in a second jury:
A person accused by the inquest of the hundred was allowed to
have the truth of the charge tried by another and different
jury. 1 "There is," says Forsyth, *' no possibility of assigning
a date to this alteration." " In the time of Bracton (middle of
the 13th century) the usual mode of determining innocence or
guilt was by combat or*appeal. But in most cases the appellant
had the option of either fighting with his adversary or putting
himself on his country for trial " — the exceptions being murder
by secret poisoning, and certain circumstances presumed by the
law to be conclusive of guilt.* But the separation must have
been complete by 1352, in which year it was enacted " that no
indictor shall be put in inquests upon deliverance of the indictees
of felonies or trespass if he be challenged for that same cause
by the indictee."
The jurors, whatever their origin, differed from the Saxon
doomsmen and the jurats of the Channel Islands in that they
adjudged nothing; and from compurgators or oath-helpers in
£
59<> FRY
that they were not witnesses called by a litigant to support his
case (Pollock and Maitland, i. 1 18). Once established, the jury
of trial whether of actions or indictments developed on the same
lines. But at the outset this jury differed in one material
respect from the modern trial jury. The ancient trial jury
certify to the truth from their knowledge of the facts, however
acquired. In other words, they resemble witnesses or collectors
of local evidence or gossip rather than jurors. The complete
withdrawal of the witness character from the jury is connected
by Forsyth with the ancient rules of law as to proof of written
instruments, and a peculiar mode of trial per sectam. When a
deed is attested by witnesses, you have a difference between the
testimony of the witness, who deposes to the execution of the
deed, and the verdict of the jury as to the fact of execution. It
has been contended with much plausibility that in such cases
the attesting witnesses formed part of the jury. Forsyth doubts
that conclusion, although he admits that, as the jurors themselves
were originally mere witnesses, there was no distinction in
principle between them and the attesting witnesses, and that
the attesting witnesses might be associated with the jury in the
discharge of the function of giving a verdict. However that
may be, in the reign of Edward III., although the witnesses are
spoken of " as joined to the assize," they are distinguished from
the jurors. The trial per sector* was used as an alternative to
the assize or jury, and resembled in principle the system of
compurgation. The claimant proved his case by vouching a
certain number of witnesses (sect a), who had seen the transaction
in question, and the defendant rebutted the presumption thus
created by vouching a larger number of witnesses on his own
side. In cases in which this was allowed, the jury did not
interpose at all, but in course of time the practice arose of the
witnesses of the stela telling their story to the jury. In these
two instances we have the jury as judges of the facts sharply
contrasted with the witnesses who testify to the facts; and, with
the increasing use of juries and the development of rules of
evidence, this was gradually established as the true principle
of the system. In the reign of Henry IV. we find the judges
declaring that the jury after they have been sworn should not see
or take with them any other evidence than that which has been
offered in open court. But the personal knowledge of the
jurors was not as yet regarded as outside the evidence on which
they might found a verdict, and the stress laid upon the selection
of jurymen from the neighbourhood of the cause of the action
shows that this element was counted on, and, in fact, deemed
essential to a just consideration of theVase. Other examples
of the same theory of the duties of the jury may be found in the
language used by legal writers. Thus it has been said that the
jury may return a verdict although no evidence at all be offered,
and again, that the evidence given in court is not binding on
the jury, because they are assumed from their local connexion
to be sufficiently informed of the facts to give a verdict without
or in opposition to the oral evidence. A recorder of London,
temp. Edward VI., says that, " if the witnesses at a trial do not
agree with the jurors, the verdict of the twelve shall be taken
and the witnesses shall be rejected." Forsyth suggests as a
reason for the continuance of this theory that it allowed the jury
an escape from the attaint, by which penalties might be imposed
on them for delivering a false verdict in a civil case. They
could suggest that the verdict was according to the fact, though
not according to the evidence.
In England the trial jury (also called petty jury or traverse
jury) consists of twelve jurors, except in the county court, where
the number is eight. In dvil but not in criminal cases the trial
may by consent be by fewer than twelve jurors, and the verdict
may by consent be that of the majority. The rule requiring
a unanimous verdict has been variously explained. Forsyth
regards the rule as intimately connected with the original
character of the jury as a body of witnesses, and with the
conception common in primitive society that safety is to be
found in the number of witnesses, rather than the character of
their testimony. The old notion seems to have been that to
justify an accusation, or to find a fact, twelve sworn men must
be agreed. The affordng of the jury, already described, marks
an intermediate stage in the development. Where the juries
were not unanimous new jurors were added until twelve were
found to be of the same opinion. From the unanimous twelve
selected out of a large number to the unanimous twelve consti-
tuting the whole jury was a natural step, which, however, was
not taken without hesitation. In some old cases the verdict
of eleven jurors out of twelve was accepted, but it was decided
in the reign of Edward III. that the verdict most be the unani-
mous opinion of the whole jury. Diversity of opinion was taken
to imply perversity of judgment, and the law sanctioned the
application of the harshest methods to produce unanimity.
The jurors while considering their verdict were not allowed a
fire nor any refreshment, and it is said in some of the old books
that, if they failed to agree, they could be put in a cart and
drawn after the justices to the border of the county, and then
upset into a ditch. These rude modes of enforcing unanimity
has been softened in later practice, but in criminal cases toe
rule of unanimity is still absolutely fixed.
In civil cases and in trials for misdemeanour, the jurors are
allowed to separate during adjournments and to return to their
homes; in trials for treason, treason-felony and murder, the
jurors, once sworn, must not separate until discharged. But
by an act of 1897 jurors on trials for other felonies may be
allowed by the court to separate in the same way as on trials
for misdemeanour.
These rules do not apply to a jury which has retired to
consider its verdict. During the period of retirement it is under
the keeping of an officer of the court.
At common law aliens were' entitled to be tried by a jury
de medietate linguae — half Englishmen, half foreigners, not neces-
sarily compatriots of the accused. This privilege was abolished
by the Naturalization Act 1870; but by the Juries Act 1870
aliens who have been domiciled in England or Wales for ten
years or upwards, if in other respects duly qualified, are liable
to jury service as if they were natural-born subjects (s. 8).
A jury of matrons is occasionally summoned, viz. on a writ
de ventre inspiciendo, or where a female condemned to death
pleads pregnancy in stay of execution.
The jurors are selected from the inhabitants of the county,
borough or other area for which the court to which they are
summoned is commissioned to act. In criminal cases, owing to
the rules as to venue and that crime is to be tried in the neigh-
bourhood where it is committed, the mode of selection involves
a certain amount of independent local knowledge on the part
of the jurors. Where local prejudice has been aroused for or
against the accused, which is likely to affect the chance of a fair
trial, the proceedings may be removed to another jurisdiction,
and there are a good many offences in which by legislation the
accused may be tried where he is caught, irrespective of the
place where he is alleged to have broken the law. As regards
civil cases, a distinction was at an early date drawn between
local actions which must be tried in the district in which they
originated, and transitory actions which could be tried in any
county. These distinctions art now of no importance, as the
place of trial of a civil action is decided as a matter of procedure
and convenience, and regard is not necessarily paid to the place
at which a wrong was done or a contract broken.
The qualifications for, and exemptions from, service as a petty
juror are in the main contained in the Juries Acts 1835 and 1870,
though a number of further exemptions are added by scattered
enactments. The exemptions include members of the legislature
and judges, ministers of various denominations, and practising
barristers and solicitors, registered medical practitioners and
dentists, and officers and soldiers of the regular army. Persons
over sixty are exempt but not disqualified. Lists of the jurors
are prepared by the overseers in rural parishes and by the town
clerks in boroughs, and are submitted to justices for revision.
When jurors are required for a civil or criminal trial they are
summoned by the sheriff or, if he cannot act, by the coroner.
Special and Common Juries.— For the purpose of civil trials in
the superior courts there are two lists of jurors, special and
common. The practice of selecting special jurors to try Impor-
tant civil cases appears to have sprung up, without legislative
enactment, in the procedure of the courts. Forsyth says that
the first statutory recognition of it is so late as 3 Geo. II. c 25,
and that in the oldest book of practice in existence (Powell's
Attourney's Academy, 1623) there is no allusion to two classes of
jurymen. The acts, however, which regulate the practice allude
to it as well established. The Juries Act 1870 (33 & 34 Vict,
c. 77) defines the class of persons entitled and liable to serve on
special juries thus: Every man whose name shall be on the
jurors' book for any county, &c, and who shall be legally
entitled to be called an esquire, or shall be a person of higher
degree, or a banker or merchant, or who shall occupy a house of
a certain rateable value (e.g. £100 in a town of 20,000 inhabitants,
£50 elsewhere), or a farm of £300 or other premises at £roo.
A special juryman receives a fee of a guinea for each cause.
Either party may obtain «n order for a special jury, but must
pay the additional expenses created thereby unless the judge
certifies that it was a proper case to be so tried. For the
common jury any man is qualified and liable to serve who has
£10 by the year in land or tenements of freehold, copyhold or
customary tenure; or £20 on lands or tenement held by lease
for twenty-one years or longer, or who being a householder is
rated at £30 in the counties of London and Middlesex, or £20
in any other county. A special jury cannot be ordered in cases
of treason or felony, and may be ordered in cases of misdemeanour
only when the trial is in the king's bench division of the High
Court, or the civil side at assizes.
Challenge. — It has always been permissible for the parties to
challenge the jurors summoned to consider indictments or to
try cases. Both in civil and criminal cases a challenge " for
cause " is allowed, in criminal cases a peremptory challenge is
also allowed. Challenge "for cause" may be either to the
array, i.e. to the whole number of jurors returned, or to the polls,
t. e. to the jurors individually. A challenge to the array is either
a principal challenge (on the ground that the sheriff is a party
to the cause, or related to one of the parties), or a challenge for
favour (on the ground of circumstances implying " at least a
probability of bias or favour in the sheriff "). A challenge to
the polls is an exception to one or more jurymen on either of
the following grounds: (1) propter honoris respectum, as when
a lord of parliament is summoned; (2) propter defectum, for want
of qualification; (3) propter ajfectum, on suspicion of bias or
partiality; and (4) propter delictum, when the juror has been
convicted of an infamous offence. The challenge propter
ajeclum is, like the challenge to the array, either principal
challenge or " to the favour. " In England as a general rule the
juror may be interrogated to show want of qualification; but in
other cases the person making the challenge must prove it
without questioning the juror, and the courts do not allow the
protracted examination on the voir dire which precedes every
cause cilbbrc in the United States. On indictments for treason
the accused has a right peremptorily to challenge thirty-five of
the jurors on the panel; in cases of felony the number is limited
to twenty, and in cases of misdemeanour there is no right
of peremptory challenge. The Crown has not now the right of
peremptory challenge and may challenge only for cause certain
(Juries Act 1825, s. 20). In the case of felony, on the first call
of the list jurors objected to by the Crown are asked to stand by,
and the cause of challenge need not be assigned by the Crown
until the whole list has been perused or gone through, or unless
there remain no longer twelve jurors left to try the case, exclusive
of those challenged. This arrangement practically amounts to
giving the Crown the benefit of a peremptory challenge.
Function of Jury.— The jurors were originally the mouthpiece
of local opinion on the questions submitted to them, or witnesses
to fact as to such questions. They have now become the
judges of fact upon the evidence laid before them. Their
province is strictly limited to questions of fact, and within that
province they are still further restricted to matters proved by
evidence in the course of the trial and in theory must not act
upon their own personal knowledge and observation except so
JURY 591
far as it proceeds from what is called a " view " of the subject
matter of the litigation. Indeed it is now well established that
if a juror is acquainted with facts material to the case, he
should inform the court so that he may be dismissed from the
jury and called as a witness; and Lord EUenborough ruled that
a judge would misdirect the jury ii he told them that they might
reject the evidence and go by their own knowledge. The old
decantatum assigns to judge and jury their own independent
functions: Ad quaestionem legis respondent judices: ad quaes-
tionem facti juratores (Plowden, 114). But the independence
of the jurors as to matters of fact was from an early time
not absolute. In certain civil cases a litigant dissatisfied by
the verdict could adopt the procedure by attaint, and if the
attaint jury of twenty-four found that the first jury had given a
false verdict, they were fined and suffered the villainous judge-
ment. Attaints fell into disuse on the introduction about 1665
of the practice of granting new trials when the jury found against
the weight of the evidence, or upon a wrong direction as to the
law of the case.
In criminal cases the courts attempted to control the verdicts
by fining the jurors for returning a verdict contra plenam ei
manifestam evidentiam. But this practice was declared illegal
in Bushell's case ( 1670) ; and so far as criminal cases are concerned
the independence of the jury as sole judges of fact is almost
absolute. If they acquit, their action cannot be reviewed nor
punished, except on proof of wilful and corrupt consent to
" embracery " (Juries Act 182s, s. 61). If they convict no new
trial can be ordered except in the rare instances of misdemeanours
tried as civil cases in the High Court. In trials for various forms
of libel during the x8th century, the judges restricted the powers
of juries by ruling that their function was limited to finding
whether the libel had in fact been published, and that it was for
the court to decide whether the words published constituted an
offence. 1 By Fox's Libel Act 1792 the jurors in such cases
were expressly empowered to bring in a general verdict of libel
or no libel, i.e. to deal with the whole question of the meaning
and extent of the incriminated publication. In other words,
they were given the same independence in cases of libel as in
other criminal cases. This independence has in tiroes of public
excitement operated as a kind of local option against the existing
law and as an aid to procuring its amendment. Juries in
Ireland in agrarian cases often acquit in the teeth of the evidence.
In England the independence of the jury in criminal trials is
to some extent menaced by the provisions of the Criminal
Appeal Act 1007.
While the jury is in legal theory absolute as to matters of fact,
it is in practice largely controlled by the judges. Not only does
the judge at the trial decide as to the relevancy of the evidence
tendered to the issues to be proved, and as to the admissibility
of questions put to a witness, but he also advises the jury as to
the logical bearing of the evidence admitted upon the matters
to be found by t he jury. The rules as to admissibility of evidence,
largely based upon scholastic logic, sometimes difficult to apply,
and almost unknown in continental jurisprudence, coupled with
the right of an English judge to sum up the evidence (denied to
French judges) and to express his own opinion as to its value
(denied to American judges), fetter to some extent the indepen-
dence or limit the chances of error of the jury.
" The whole theory of the jurisdiction of the courts to interfere
with the verdict of the constitutional tribunal is that the court
is satisfied that the jury have not acted reasonably upon the
evidence but have been misled by prejudice or passion " (WoM v.
Walt (1005), App. Cas. 118, per Lord Halsbury). In civil cases
the verdict may be challenged on the ground that it is against the
evidence or against the weight of the evidence, or unsupported by
any evidence. It is said to be against the evidence when the
jury have completely misapprehended the facts proved and have
drawn an inference so wrong as to be in substance perverse. The
dissatisfaction of the trial judge with the verdict is a potent but
not conclusive element in determining as to the perversity of a
verdict, because of his special opportunity of appreciating the
» See R. v. Dean of St. Asaph (1789). 3 T.R. 418.
59 a JURY
evidence and the demeanour of the witnesses. But his opinion
is less regarded now that new trials are granted by the court of
appeal than under the old system when the new trial was sought
in the court of which he was a member.
The appellate court will not upset a verdict when there is
substantial and conflicting evidence-before the jury. In such
cases it is for the jury to say which side is to be believed, and the
court wul not interfere with the verdict. To upset a verdict
on the ground that there is no evidence to go to the jury implies
that the judge at the trial ought to have withdrawn the case
from the jury. Under modern procedure, in order to avoid the
risk of a new trial, it is not uncommon to take the verdict of a
jury on the hypothesis that there was evidence for their considera-
tion, and to leave the unsuccessful party to apply for judgment
notwithstanding the verdict. The question whether there was
any evidence proper to be submitted to the jury arises oftenest
in cases involving an imputation of negligence—*.;, in an action
of damages against a railway company for injuries sustained in a
collision. Juries are somewhat ready to infer negligence, and
the court has to say whether, on the facts proved, there was any
evidence of negligence by the defendant. This is by no means
the tame thing as saying whether, in the opinion of the court,
these was negligence. The court may be of opinion that on the
facts there was none, yet the facts themselves may be of such a
nature as to be evidence of negligence to go before a jury. When
the facts proved are such that a reasonable man might have come
to the conclusion that there was negligence, then, although the
court would not have come to the same conclusion, it must admit
that there is evidence to go before the jury. This statement
indicates existing practice but scarcely determines what relation
between the facts proved and the conclusion to be established is
necessary to make the facts evidence from which a jury may infer
the conclusion. The true explanation is to be found in the prin-
ciple of relevancy. Any fact which is relevant to the issue con-
stitutes evidence to go before the jury, and any fact, roughly
speaking, is relevant between whfch and the fact to be proved
there may be a connexion as cause and effect (see Evidence).
As regards damages the court has always had wide powers, as
damages are often a question of law. But when the amount of
the damages awarded by a jury is challenged as excessive or
inadequate, the appellate court, if it considers the amount un-
reasonably large or unreasonably small, must order a new trial
unless both parties consent to a reduction or increase of the
damages to a figure fixed by the court; see Welt v. WaU (1905),
App.Cas. 115.
Vohujrf Jury System.— The value of the jury in past history
as a bulwark against aggression by the Crown or executive cannot
be over-rated, but the working of the institution has not escaped
criticism. Its use protracts civil trials. The jurors are usually
unwilling and are insufficiently remunerated; and jury trials in
civil cases often drag out much longer and at greater expense
than tnals hy a judge alone, and the proceedings are occasionally
rendered ineffective by the failure of the jurors to agree.
There is much force in the arguments of Bentham and others
against the need of unanimity— the application of pressure to
force conviction on the minds of jurors, the indifference to veracity
which the concurrence of unconvinced minds must produce in
the public mind, the probability that jurors will disagree and
triA ls be rendered abortive, and the absence of any reasonable
security in the unanimous verdict that would not exist in the
verdict of a majority. All this is undeniably true, but disagree-
ments are happily not frequent, and whatever may happen in the
jury t°° m *° compulsion is now used by the court to induce
agreement.
But, apart from any incidental defects, it may be doubted
whether, as an instrument for the investigation of truth, the
jury system deserves all the encomiums which have been passed
upon it- In criminal cases, especially of the graver kind, it is
pjrbsps the best tribunal that could be devised. There the
dement of moral doubt enters largely into the consideration of
lhc c*»«».*n5 "** can best be measured by a popular tribunal.
Opinion in England has hitherto been against subjecting a man
to serious punishment as a result of conviction before a judge
sitting without a jury, and the judges themselves would be the
first to deprecate so great a responsibility, and the Criminal
Appeal Act 1907, which constituted the court of criminal appeal,
recognized the responsibility by requiring a quorum of three
judges in order to constitute a court. The same act, by permit-
ting an appeal to persons convicted on indictment both 00
questions of fact and of law, removed to a great extent any
possibility of error by a jury. But in civil causes, where the
issue must be determined one way or the other on the balance
of probabilities, a single judge would probably be a better
tribunal than the present combination of judge and jury. Even
if it be assumed that he would on the whole come to the same
conclusion as a jury deliberating under his directions, he would
come to it more quickly. Time would be saved in taking
evidence, summing up would be unnecessary, and the addresses
of counsel would inevitably be shortened and concentrated on
the real points at issue. Modern legislation and practice in
England have very much reduced the use of the jury both in
civil and criminal cases.
In the county courts trial by jury is the exception and not the
rule. In the court of chancery and the admiralty court it was
never used. Under the Judicature Acts many cases which in
the courts of common law would have been tried with a jury are
now tried before a judge alone, or (rarely) with assessors, or
before an official referee. Indeed cynics say that a jury is in-
sisted on chiefly in cases when a jury, from prejudice or other
causes, is likely to be more favourable than a judge alone.
In criminal cases', by reason of the enormous number of
offences punishable on summary conviction and of the provi-
sions made for trying certain indictable offences summarily if
the offender is young or elects for summary trial, juries are less
called on in proportion to the number of offences committed
than was the practice in former years.
Scotland, — According to the Regiam Majeslalem, which is
identical with the treatise of GlanvilT on the law of England (bat
whether the original or only a copy of that work is disputed), trial
by jury existed in Scotland for civil and criminal cases from as early
a date as in England, and there is reason to believe that at all events
the system became established at a very early date. Its history
was very different from that of the English jury system. There vai
no grand jury under Scots law, but it was introduced.in 1708 for the
purpose of high treason (7 Anne c 21). For the trial of criminal
cases the petty jury is represented by the criminal " assize." This
jury has always consisted of fifteen persons and the jurors are <
by oallot by the clerk of the court from the list containing the
of the special and common jurors, five from the special, ten from the
common. Prosecutor and accused each have five peremptory
challenges, of which two only may be directed against the special
jurors ;t>ut there is no limit to challenges for cause. The jury is
not secluded during the trial except in capital cases or on special
order of the court made preprio moiu or on the application of
prosecutor or accused. The verdict need not be unanimous, nor is
enclosure a necessary preliminary to a majority verdict. It is
returned viva voce by the chancellor or foreman, and entered on the
record by the clerk of the court, and the entry read to the jury.
Besides the verdicts of " guilty " and " not guilty," a Scots jury
may return a verdict of " not proven," which has legally the same
effect as not guilty in releasing the accused from further proceeding*
on the particular charge, but inflicts on him the stigma of moral
guilt.
J ury trial in civil cases was at one time in general if not prevailing
use, but was gradually superseded for most purposes on the institu-
tion of the Court of Session (1 Mackay, Ct. Seu. Pr. 33). In this, aa
in many other matters. Scots law and procedure tend to follow
continental rather than Insular models. The civil jury was reintro-
duced in 1815 (55 Geo. Ill.c. 12), mainly on account of the difficulties
experienced by the House of Lords in dealing with questions of fact
raised on Scottish appeals. At the outset a special court was insti-
tuted in the nature of a judicial commission to ascertain by means of
a jury facts deemed relevant to the issues in a cause and sent for
such determination at the discretion of the court in which the cause
was pending. The process was analogous to the sending of an issue
out of chancery for trial in a superior court of common law, or in a
court of assize. In 1830 the jury court ceased to exist as a separate
tribunal and was merged in the Court of Session. By legislation of
1819 and 1825 certain,classes of cases were indicated as appropriate
to be tried by a jury; but in 1850 the cases so to be tried were
limited to actions for defamation and nuisance, or properly and in
substance actions for damages, and under an act of 1866 even in
these cases the jury may be dispensed with by consent of parties.
e jurors are chosen
JUS PRIMAE NOCTIS— JUSSIEU
E
The civil jury consists as in England of twelve jurors chosen by
ballot from the names on the list of those summoned. There ja a
right of peremptory challenge limited to four, and also a right
to challenge for cause. Unanimity was at first but is not now
required. The jury if unanimous may return a verdict immediately
on the close of the case. If they arc not unanimous they are
enclosed and may at any time not less than three hours after being
enclosed return a verdict by a bare majority. If after six hours
they do not agree by the requisite majority, i.e. are equally divided,
they must be discharged, it was stated by Commissioner Adam,
under whom the Scots civil jury was originated, that in twenty years
he knew of only one case in which the jury disagreed. Jury trial
in civil cases in Scotland has not flourished or given general satisfac-
tion, and is resorted to only in a small proportion of cases. This is
partly due to its being transplanted from England.
Ireland.— The jury laws of Ireland do not differ in substance from
those of England. The qualifications of jurors are regulated by
O'Hagan's Acts 1871 and 1872, and the Juries Acts 1878 and 1894.
In criminal cases much freer use is made than in England of the
rights of the accused to challenge, and of the Crown to order jurors
to stand by, and what is called " jury-packing " seems to be the
object of both sides when some political or agrarian issue is involved
in the trial. Until the passing of the Irish Local Government Act
1898. the grand jury, besides its functions as a jury of accusation,
had large duties with respect to local government which are now
transferred to the county councils and other elective bodies.
British Empire.— In most parts of the British Empire the jury
system is in force as part of the original law of the colonists or under
the colonial charters of justice or by local legislation. The grand
iury is not in use in India; was introduced but later abolished in the
2ape Colony ; and in Australia has been for most purposes superseded
by the public prosecutor. The ordinary trial jury for criminal cases
is twelve, but in India may be nine, seven, five or three, according
to certain provisions of the Criminal Procedure Code 1898. In
countries where the British Crown has foreign jurisdiction the jury
• . ..... . ........ *■ * . . 1 .« in
i;
ry
In
JUS PBIMAE NOCTIS, or Droit du Seigneuk, a custom
alleged to have existed in medieval Europe, giving the overlord
a right to the virginity of his vassals' daughters on their wedding-
night. For the existence of the custom in a legalized form there
is no trustworthy evidence. That some such abuse of power may
have been occasionally exercised by brutal nobles in the lawless
days of the early middle ages is only too likely, but the jus, it
seems, is a myth, invented no earlier than the 16th or 17th
century. There appears to have been an entirely religious
custom established by the council of Carthage in 398, whereby
the Church required from the faithful continence on the wedding-
night, and this may have been, and there is evidence that it was,
known as Droit du Seigneur, or " God's right." Later the
XV 10*
593
derical admonition was extended to the first three days of
marriage. This religious abstention, added to the undoubted
fact that the feudal lord extorted fines on the marriages of his
vassals and their children, doubtless gave rise to the belief that
the jus was once an established custom.
The whole subject has been exhaustively treated by Louis Veuillot
in Lt Droit du seigneur au moyen Age (1854).
JUS REUCTAE, in Scots law, the widow's right in the movable
property of her deceased husband. The deceased must have
been domiciled in Scotland, but the right accrues from movable
property, wherever situated. The widow's provision amounts
to one-third where there are children surviving, and to one-half
where there are no surviving children. The widow's right vests
by survivance, and is independent of the husband's testamentary
provisions; it may however be renounced by contract, or be dis-
charged by satisfaction. It is subject to alienation of the
husband's movable estate during bis lifetime or by its conversion
into heritage. See also Will.
JUSSERAND, JEAN ADRIEN ANTOINE JULES (1855- ),
French author and diplomatist, was born at Lyons on the x8th
of February 1855. Entering the diplomatic service in 1876, he
became in 1878 consul in London* After an interval spent in
Tunis he returned to London in 1887 as a member of the French
Embassy. In 1800 be became French minister at Copenhagen,
and in 1902 was transferred to Washington. A close student
of English literature, he produced some very lucid and vivacious
monographs on comparatively little-known subjects: Le Tktdtre
en AngleterredepuislaconquUejusqu' aux prtdicesseurs immtdiots
dc Shakespeare (1878) ; Lt Roman au temps de Shakespeare (1867 ; •
Eng. trans, by Miss E. Lee, 1890); Les Anglais au moyen Age: U
vie nomade el les routes d'Angfctcrre au XIV* stick (1884; Eng.
trans., English Wayfaring Life in the Middle A ges, by L. T. Smith,
1889) ; and L'£popte de Langfand (1893; Eng. trans., Piers Ploth
mon, by M. C. R., 1894). His Histoire littirairedupeuple anglais,
the first volume of which was published in 189s, was completed
in three volumes in 1909. In English he wrote A French
Ambassador at the Court of Charles II, (1892), from the un-
published papers of the count de Corninges.
JUSSIEU, DE, the name of a French family which came into
prominent notice towards the close of the x6th century, and for a
century and a half was distinguished for the botanists it pro*
duced. The following are its more eminent members: —
x. Antoine de Jussieu (1686-1758), born at Lyons on the
6th of July 1 686, was the son of Christopbe de Jussieu (or
Dcjussieu), an apothecary of some repute, who published a
Nouveau traiti de la thtriaque (1708). Antoine studied at the
university of Montpellier, and travelled with his brother Bernard
through Spain, Portugal and southern France. He went to
Paris in 1708, J. P. de Tournefort, whom he succeeded at the
Jardin des Plantes, dying in that year. His own original publica-
tions are not of marked importance, but he edited an edition of
Tournefort 's Inslifutiones rei herbariae (3 vols., 1719), and also a
posthumous work of Jacques Barrelier, Plantae per GallUm,
Hispaniam, et Italiam observatae, &c. (1.714). He practised
medicine, chiefly devoting himself to the very poor. He died at
•Paris on the 22nd of April 1758.
2. Be&nard de Jussieu (1609-X777), a younger brother of
the above, was born at Lyons on the 17th of August 1699. He
took a medical degree at Montpellier and began practice in 1720,
but finding the work uncongenial he gladly accepted his brother's
invitation to Paris in 172s, when he succeeded Sebastien Vaillant
as sub-demonstrator of plants in the Jardin du Roi. In 1725 he
brought out a new edition of Tournefort's Histoire des plantes
qui naissent aux environs de Paris, s vols., which was afterwards
translated into English by John Martyn, the original work being
incomplete. ,In the same year he was admitted into the acade-
mic des sciences, and communicated several papers to that body.
Long before Abraham Trembley (1700-1784) published bis
Histoire des Polypes d'eau douce, Jussieu maintained the doctrine
that these organisms were animals, aad not the flowers of marine
plants, then the current notion; and to confirm his views he made
JUSTICE— JUSTICE OF THE PEACE
594
three journeys to the coast of Normandy. Singularly modest
and retiring, he published very little, but in 1759 he arranged the
plants in the royal garden of the Trianon at Versailles, according
to his own scheme of classification. This arrangement is printed
in his nephew's Genera, pp. UiiL-lxx., and formed the basis of
that work. He cared little for the credit of enunciating new
discoveries, so long as the facts were made public On the
death of his brother Antoinc, he could not be induced to succeed
him in his office, but prevailed upon L. G. Lcmonnier to assume
the higher position. He died at Paris on the 6th of November
1777.
3. Joseph de Jussieu (1704-1770), brother of Antoine and
Bernard, was born at Lyons on the 3rd of September 1704.
Educated like the rest of the family for the medical profession,
he accompanied C. M. de la Condamine to Peru, in the expedition
for measuring an arc of meridian, and remained in South America
for thirty-six years, returning to France in 1771. Amongst the
seeds he sent to his brother Bernard were those of Hdiotr opium
perutianum, Linn., then first introduced into Europe. He died
at Paris on the 1 ith of April 1770.
4. Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836), nephew of the
three preceding, was born at Lyons on the 12th of April 1748.
Called to Paris by his uncle Bernard, and carefully trained by him
for the pursuits of medicine and botany, he largely profited by the
opportunities afforded him. Gifted with a tenacious memory,
and the power of quickly grasping the salient points of subjects
under observation, he steadily worked at the improvement of
that system of plant arrangement which had been sketched out
by his uncle. In 1 780 was issued his Genera plantarum secundum
ordines naturales disposita, juxta mclhodum in korto regio Parisi-
ensi exaratam, anno Moccuoav. This volume formed the basis
of modern classification; more than this, it is certain that Cuvier
derived much help in his zoological classification from its perusal.
Hardly had the last sheet passed through the press, when the
French Revolution broke out, and the author was installed in
•charge of the hospitals of Paris. The museum d'histoire natureHe
was organized on its present footing mainly by him in 1793, and
he selected for its library everything relating to natural history
from the vast materials obtained from the convents then broken
up. He continued as professor of botany there from 1770 to
1826, when his son Adrien succeeded him. Besides the Genera,
be produced nearly sixty memoirs on botanical topics. He died
at Paris on the 17th of September 1836.
5. Adrien Laurent Henri de Jussieu (1797-1853), son
of Antoine Laurent, was born at Paris on the 23rd of Decem-
ber 1797. He displayed the qualities of his family in his thesis
for the degree of M.D., De Euphorbiacearum generibus medicisque
tarundem tiribus tentamen, Paris, 1824. He was also the author
of valuable contributions to botanical literature on the Rulaceae,
Meliaceat and Ualpigkiaeeae respectively, of " Taxonomie " in
the Dictionnoire unveerstUe d'histoire natureUe, and of an intro-
ductory work styled simply Botonique, which reached nine
editions, and was translated into the principal languages of
Europe. He also edited his father's Introductio in kistoriam
plantarum, issued at Paris, without imprint or date, it being a
fragment of the intended second edition of the Genera, which
Antoine Laurent did not live to complete. He died at Paris on
the 29th of June 1853, leaving two daughters, but no son, so
that with him closed the brilliant botanical dynasty.
6. Laurent Pierre de Jussieu (1 792-1866), miscellaneous
writer, nephew of Antoine Laurent, was born at Villeurbanne
on the 7th of February 1792. His Simon de Nantua, ou It mar-
ckandfarain (1818), reached fifteen editions, and was translated
into seven languages. He also wrote Simples notions de physique
el d'histoire natureUe (1857), and a few geological papers. He died
at Passy on the 23rd of February 1866.
JUSTICE (Lat. justitia), a term used both in the abstract, for
the quality of being or doing what is just, i.e. right in law and
equity, and in the concrete for an officer deputed by the sove-
reign to administer justice, and do right by way of judgment.
It has long been the official title of the judges of two of the
English superior courts of common law, and it is now extended to
all the judges in the supreme court of judicature — a judge in the
High Court of Justice being styled Mr Justice, and in the court
of appeal Lord Justice. The president of the king's bench
division of the High Court is styled Lord Chief Justice (o.».).
The word is also applied, and perhaps more usually, to certain
subordinate magistrates who administer justice in minor malted,
and who are usually called justices of the peace (?.».).
JUSTICE OF THE PEACE, an inferior magistrate appointed in
England by special commission under the great seal to keep the
peace within the jurisdiction for which he is appointed. The
title is commonly abbreviated to J.P. and is used after the name.
" The whole Christian world," said Coke, " hath not the like
office as justice of the peace if duly executed.'* Lord Cowper, on
the other hand, described them as " men sometimes illiterate
and frequently bigoted and prejudiced." The truth is that the
justices of the peace perform without any other reward than
the consequence they acquire from their office a large amount
of work indispensable to the administration of the law, and
(though usually not professional lawyers, and therefore apt to be
ill-informed in some of their decisions) for the most part they
discharge their duties with becoming good sense and impartiality.
For centuries they have necessarily been chosen mainly from
the landed class of country gentlemen, usually Conservative in
politics; and in recent years the attempt has been made by the
Liberal party to reduce the balance by appointing others than
those belonging to the landed gentry, such as tradesmen,
Nonconformist ministers, and working-men. But it has been
recognized that the appointment of justices according to their
political views is undesirable, and in 1009 a royal commission
was appointed to consider and report whether any and what
steps should be taken to facilitate the selection of the most
suitable persons to be justices of the peace irrespective of creed
and political opinion. In great centres of population, when
the judicial business of justices is heavy, it has been found
necessary to appoint paid justices or stipendiary magistrates 1
to do the work, and an extension of the system to the country
districts has been often advocated.
The commission of the peace assigns to justices the duty of
keeping and causing to be kept all ordinances and statutes for
the good of the peace and for preservation of the same, and for
the quiet rule and government of the people, and further assigns
" to you and every two or more of you (of whom any one of the
aforesaid A, B, C, D, &c, we will, shall be one) to inquire the
truth more fully by the oath of good and lawful men of the county
of all and all manner of felonies, poisonings, enchantments,
sorceries, arts, magic, trespasses, forestalling*, rcgratings, cn-
grosslngs, and extortions whatever." This part of the commission
is the authority for the jurisdiction of the justices in sessions.
Justices named specially in the parenthetical clause are said to
be on the quorum. Justices for counties are appointed by the
Crown on the advice of the lord chancellor, and usually with the
recommendation of the lord lieutenant of the county. Justices
for boroughs having municipal corporations and separate com-
missions of the peace are appointed by the crown, the lord
chancellor either adopting the recommendation of the town coun-
cil or acting independently. Justices cannot act as such until
they have taken the oath of allegiance and the judicial oath. A
justice for a borough while acting as such must reside in or within
seven miles of the borough or occupy a house, warehouse or
other property in the borough, but he need not be a burgess.
The mayor of a borough is ex officio a justice during his year of
office and the succeeding year. He takes precedence over all
borough justices, but not over justices acting in and for the
county in which the borough or any part thereof is situated,
unless when acting in relation to the business of the borough.
1 Where a borough council desire the appointment of a stipendiary
magistrate they may present a petition for the same to the secretary
of state and it is thereupon lawful for the king to appoint to that
office a barrister of seven years' standing. He is by virtue of his
office a justice for the borough, and receives a yearly salary, payable
in four equal quarterly instalments. On a vacancy, application
must again be made as lor a first appointment. There may be more
than one stipendiary magistrate for a borough.
JUSTICIARY-JUSTIFICATION
The chairman of a county council h ex officio a justice of the
peace for the county, and the chairman of an urban or rural
district council for the county in which the district is situ-
ated. Justices cannot act beyond the limits of the jurisdic-
tion for whkh they are appointed, and the warrant of a justice
cannot be executed out of his jurisdiction unless it be backed,
that is, endorsed by a justice of the jurisdiction in which it is to
be carried into execution. A justice improperly refusing to act
on his office, or acting partially and corruptly, may be proceeded
against by a criminal information, and a justice refusing to act
may be compelled to do so by the High Court of Justice. An
action will lie against a justice for any act done by him in excess
of bis jurisdiction, and for any act within his jurisdiction which
has been done wrongfully and with malice, and without reason-
able or probable cause. But no action can be brought against a
justice for a wrongful conviction until it has been quashed. By
the Justices' Qualification Act 1744, every justice for a county
was required to have an estate of freehold, copyhold, or custo-
mary tenure in fee, for life or a given term, of the yearly value of
£100. By an act of 1875 the occupation of a house rated at £100
was made a qualification. No such qualifications were ever
required for a borough justice, and it was not until 1006 that
county justices were put on the same footing in this respect.
The Justices of the Peace Act 1006 did away with all qualifica-
tion by estate. It also removed the necessity for residence
within the county, permitting the same residential qualification
as for borough justices, " within seven miles thereof." The same
act removed the disqualification of solicitors to be county justices
and assimilated to the existing power to remove other justices
from the commission of the peace the power to exclude ex officio
justices.
The justices for every petty sessional division of a county or
for a borough having a separate commission of the peace must
appoint a fit person to be their salaried clerk. He must be either
a barrister of not less than fourteen years' standing, or a solicitor
of the supreme court, or have served for not less than seven
years as a clerk to a police or stipendiary magistrate or to a
metropolitan police court. An alderman or councillor of a
borough must not be appointed as clerk, nor can a clerk of the
peace for the borough or for the county in which the borough is
situated be appointed. A borough clerk is not allowed to
prosecute. The salary of a justice's clerk comes, in London,
out of the police fund; in counties out of the county fund; in
county boroughs out of the borough fund, and in other boroughs
out of the county fund.
The vast and multifarious duties of the justices cover some
portion of every important head of the criminal law, and extend
to a considerable number of matters relating to the civil law.
In the United States these officers are sometimes appointed by
the executive, sometimes elected. In some states, justices of the
peace have jurisdiction in civil cases given to them by local
regulations.
JUSTICIAR (med. Lat. justkiarius or justitiarius, a judge), in
English history, the title of the chief minister of the Norman and
earlier Angevin kings. The history of the title in this connota-
tion is somewhat obscure. Justkiarius meant simply " judge,"
and was originally applied, as Stubbs points out (Const. Hist.
i. 389, note), to any officer of the king's court, to the chief justice,
or in a very general way to all and sundry who possessed courts
of their own or were qualified to act tsjudkes in the shire-courts,
even the style capitalis justkiarius being used of judges of the
royal court other than the chief. It was not till the reign of
Henry II. that the title summus or capitalis justkiarius, or
justkiarius totius Angliae was exclusively applied to the king's
chief minister. The office, however, existed before the style of
its holder was fixed; and, whatever their contemporary title (e.g.
Custos Angliae), later writers refer to them as justkiarii, with
or without the prefix summus or capitalis (ibid. p. 346). Thus
Ranulf Flam bard, the minister of William II., who was probably
the first to exercise the powers of a justiciar, is called justkiarius
by Ordericus Vitalis.
The origin of the justiciarship is thus given by Stubbs (ibid.
595
p. 976). The sheriff " waa the king's representative in all matters
judicial, military and financial in the shire. From him, or from
the courts of which he was the presiding officer, appeal lay to the
king alone; but the king was often absent from England and did
not understand the language of his subjects. In his absence the
administration was entrusted to a justiciar, a regent or lieutenant
of the kingdom; and the convenience being once ascertained of
having a minister who could in the whole kingdom represent
the king, as the sheriff did in the shire, the justiciar became a
permanent functionary."
The fact that the kings were often absent from England, and
that the justiciarship was held by great nobles or churchmen,
made this office of an importance which at times threatened to
overshadow that of the Crown. It was this latter circumstance
which ultimately led to its abolition. Hubert de Burgh (a. v.)
was the last of the great justiciars; after his fall (1131) the jus-
ticiarship was not again committed to a great baron, and the
chancellor toon took the position formerly occupied by the
justiciar as second to the king in dignity, as well as in power and
influence. Finally, under Edward 1. and his successor, in pLice
of the justiciar— who had presided over all causes vice regis —
separate beads were established in the three branches into which
the curie regis as a judicial body had been divided: justices of
common pleas, justices of the king's bench and barons of the
exchequer.
Outside England the title justiciar was given under Henry II.
to the seneschal of Normandy. In Scotland the title of justiciar
was borne, under the earlier kings, by two high officials, one
having his jurisdiction to the north, the other to the south of the
Forth. They were the king's lieutenants for judicial and ad-
ministrative purposes and were established in the 12th century,
either by Alexander I. or by his successor David I. In the
12th century a magister justitiarius also appears in the Norman
kingdom of Sicily, title and office being probably borrowed
from England; he presided over the royal court {Magna curia)
and was, with his assistants, empowered to decide, inter alia,
all cases reserved to the Crown (see Du Cange, s.v. Magister
Justitiarius).
See \V. Stubbs, Const. Hist, of England; Du Cange, Clossarium
(Niort. 1885) s*. " Justitiarius.'
JUSTICIARY, HIGH COURT OP, in Scotland, the supreme
criminal court, consisting of five of the lords of session together
with the lord justice-general and the lord justice-clerk as president
and vice-president respectively. The constitution of the court
is settled by the Act 1672 c. 16. The lords of justiciary hold
circuits regularly twice a year according to the ancient practice,
which, however, had been allowed to fall into disuse until revived
in 1748. For circuit purposes Scotland is divided into northern,
southern and western districts (sec Circuit). Two judges
generally go on a circuit, and in Glasgow they are by special
statute authorized to sir in separate courts. By the Criminal
Procedure (Scotland) Act 1887 all the senators of the college of
justice are lords commissioners of justiciary. The high court,
sitting in Edinburgh, has, in addition to its general juris-
diction, an exclusive jurisdiction for districts not within the
jurisdiction of the circuits— the three Lothians, and Orkney and
Shetland. The high court also takes up points of difficulty
arising before the special courts, like the court for crown cases
reserved in England. The court of justiciary has authority 16
try all crimes, unless when its jurisdiction has been excluded by
special enactment of the legislature. It is also stated to have an
inherent jurisdiction to punish all criminal acts, even if they
have never before been treated as crimes. Its judgments are
believed to be not subject to any appeal or review, but it may be
doubted whether an appeal on a point of law would not lie to the
bouse of lords. The following crimes must be prosecuted in the
court of justiciary: treason, murder, robbery, rape, fire-raising,
deforcement of messengers, breach of duty by magistrates, and
all offences for which a statutory punishment higher than
imprisonment is imposed.
JUSTIFICATION, in law, the showing by a defendant in a suit
of sufficient reason why be did what he was called upon to a
59*
JUSTIN— JUSTINIAN I.
For example, in an action for assault and battery, the defendant
may prove in justification that the prosecutor assaulted or beat
him first, and that he acted merely in self-defence. The word
is employed particularly in actions for defamation, and has in
this connexion a somewhat special meaning. When a libel
consists of a specific charge a plea of justification is a plea that the
words are true in substance and in fact (see Libel and Slander).
JUSTIN I. (45c-527),East Roman emperor (518-527), was born
in 450 as a peasant in Asia, but enlisting under Leo I. he rose to be
commander of the imperial guards of Anastasius. On the latter 1 *
death in 518 Justin used for his own election to the throne
money that he had received for the support of another candidate.
Being ignorant even of the rudiments of letters, Justin entrusted
the administration of state to his wise and faithful quaestor
Proclus and to his nephew Justinian, though his own experience
dictated several improvements in military affairs. An orthodox
churchman himself, he effected in 519 a reconciliation of the
Eastern and Western Churches, after a schism of thirty-five
years (see Hokuisdas). In 522 he entered upon a desultory war
with Persia, in which he co-operated with the Arabs. In 522 also
Justin ceded to Thcodoric, the Gothic king of Italy, the right of
naming the consuls. On the rst of April 527 Justin, enfeebled
by an incurable wound, yielded to the request of the senate and
assumed Justinian at his colleague; on the 1st of August he died.
Justin bestowed much care on the repairing of public buildings
throughout his empire, and contributed large sums to repair the
damage caused by a destructive earthquake at Antioch.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of (he Roman Empire (cd. Bury,
1896), iv. 206-209.
JUSTIN II. (d. 578), East Roman emperor (565-578), was the
nephew and successor of Justinian I. He availed himself of his
influence as master of the palace, and as husband of Sophia, the
niece of the late empress Theodora, to secure a peaceful election.
The first few days of his reign — when he paid his uncle's debts,
administered justice in person, and proclaimed universal religious
toleration — gave bright promise, but in the face of the lawless
aristocracy and defiant governors of provinces he effected few
subsequent reforms. The most important event of his reign
was the invasion of Italy by the Lombards (q. v.), who, entering
in 568, under Alboin, in a few years made themselves masters of
nearly the entire country. Justin's attention was distracted
from Italy towards the N. and E. frontiers. After refusing to
pay the Avars tribute, he fought several unsuccessful campaigns
against them. In 572 bis overtures to the Turks led to a war
with Persia. After two disastrous campaigns, in which his
enemies overran Syria, Justin bought a precarious peace by pay-
ment of a yearly tribute. The temporary fits of insanity into
which he fell warned him to name a colleague. Passing over his
own relatives, be raised, on the advice of Sophia, the general
Tiberius (q.v.) to be Caesar in December 574 and withdrew for his
remaining years into retirement.
See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
1896), v. 2-17; G. Finlay, History of Greece (cd. 1877), L 291-297;
J. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (1889), U. 67-79. (M. O. B. C.)
JUSTIN (Jvnianus Justxnus), Roman historian, probably
lived during the age of the Antonines. Of his personal history
nothing is known. He is the author of Historiarum Pkilippi-
carum Ubri XUV., a work described by himself in his preface
as a collection of the most important and interesting passages
from the voluminous Historiae philippicae et totius tnundi
engines it knot situs, written in the timeof Augustus by Pompeius
Tragus (q.v.). The work of Trogus is lost; but the prohgi or
arguments of the text are preserved by Pliny and other writers.
Although the main theme of Trogus was the rise and history of
the Macedonian monarchy, Justin yet permitted himself con-
siderable freedom of digression, and thus produced a capricious
anthology instead of a regular epitome of the work. As it stands,
however, the history contains much valuable information. The
style, though far from perfect, is clear and occasionally elegant.
The book was much used in the middle ages, when the author
was sometimes confounded with Justin Martyr.
named the Great, the most famous of all the emperors of the
Eastern Roman Empire, was by birth a barbarian, native of a
place called Tauresium in the district of Dardania, a region of
Illyricum, 1 and was born, most probably, on the z 1 th of May 483.
His family has been variously conjectured, on the strength of
the proper names which its members are stated to have borne,
to have been Teutonic or Slavonic. The latter seems the more
probable view. His own name was originally Uprauda.' Justini-
anus was a Roman name which be took from his uncle Justin L,
who adopted him, and to whom his advancement in life was due.
Of bis early life we know nothing except that he went to Con-
stantinople while still a young man, and received there an excellent
education. Doubtless Ije knew Latin before Greek; it is alleged
that he always spoke Greek with a barbarian accent. When
Justin ascended the throne in 518, Justinian became at once a
person of the first consequence, guiding, especially in church
matters, the policy of his aged, childless and ignorant uncle,
receiving high rank and office at his hands, and soon coming to
be regarded as bis destined successor. On Justin's death in 527,
having been a few months earlier associated with him as co-
emperor, Justinian succeeded without opposition to the throne.
About 523 be had married the famous Theodora (q.v.), who, as
empress regnant, was closely associated in all hb actions till her
death in 547.
Justinian's reign was filled with great events, both at home and
abroad, both in peace and in war. They may be classed under
four heads: (1) his legal reforms; (2) his administration of the
empire; (3) his ecclesiastical policy; and (4) his wars and foreign
policy generally.
z. It is as a legislator and codifier of the law that Justinian's
name is most familiar to the modern world; and it is therefore
this department of his action that requires to be most fully dealt
with here. He found the law of the Roman empire in a state of
great confusion. It consisted of two masses, which were usually
distinguished as old law (jus veins) and new law (jus novum).
The first of these comprised: (i.) all such of the statutes (leges)
passed under the republic and early empire as had not become
obsolete; (ii.) the decrees of the senate (senatus consulta) passed
at the end of the republic and during the first two centuries of the
empire; (iii.) the writings of the jurists of the later republic and
of the empire, and more particularly of those jurists to whom the
right of declaring the law with authority (jus rcspondendi) had
been committed by the emperors. As these jurists had in their
commentaries upon the leges, senatus consulta and edicts of the
magistrates practically incorporated all that was of importance
in those documents, the books of the jurists may substantially
be taken as including (i.) and (ii.). These writings were of course
very numerous, and formed a vast mass of literature. Many of
them had become exceedingly scarce — many had been altogether
lost. Some were of doubtful authenticity. They were so costly
that no person of moderate means could hope to possess any large
number; even the public libraries had nothing approaching to a
complete collection. Moreover, as they proceeded from a large
number of independent authors, who wrote expressing their own
opinions, they contained many discrepancies and contradiction,
the dicta of one writer being controverted by another, while yet
both writers might enjoy the same formal authority. A remedy
had been attempted to be applied to this evil by a law of the
1 It is commonly identified with the modern Kustendil, but
Uskub (the ancient Skupi) has also been suggested. See Tozer,
Highlands of European Turkey, ii. 370.
'The name Uprauda is said to be derived from the word prauda,
which in Old Slavic means jus, juslitia, the prefix being •imply *
breathing frequently attached to Slavonic names.
JUSTINIAN I.
emperors Theodosfas II. and Vatentfaian III., -which gave special
weight to the writings of five eminent jurists (Papinian, Paulus,
Ulpian, Modcstinus, Gaius); but it was very far from removing
it. As regards the jus veins, therefore, the judges and practi-
tioners of Justinian's time had two terrible difficulties to contend
with — first, the bulk of the law, which made it impossible for any
one to be sure that he possessed anything like the whole of the
authorities bearing on the point in question, so that he was always
liable to find his opponent quoting against him some authority
for which he could not be prepared; and, secondly, the uncer-
tainty of the law, there being a great many important points on
which differing opinions of equal legal validity might be cited,
so that the practising counsel could not advise, nor the judge
decide, with any confidence that he was right, or that a superior
court would uphold his view.
The new law {jus novum), which consisted of the ordinances of
the emperors promulgated during the middle and later empires
(edieta, rescripta, mandate, decreta, usually called by the general
name of constitutiones), was in a condition not much better.
These ordinances or constitutions were extremely numerous.
No complete collection of them existed, for although two collec-
tions (Codex gregorianus and Codex kermogenianus) had been
made by two jurists In the 4th century, and a large supple-
mentary collect ion published by the emperor Theodosius II. in
438 (Codex theodosianus), these collections old not include all
the constitutions; there were others which it was necessary to ob-
tain separately, but many whereof it must have been impossible
for a private person to procure. In this branch too of the law
there existed some, though a less formidable, uncertainty; for
there were constitutions which practically, if not formally,
repealed or superseded others without expressly mentioning
them, so that a man who relied on one constitution might find
that it had been varied or abrogated by another he had never heard
of or on whose sense he had not put such a construction. It was
therefore clearly necessary with regard to both the older and the
newer law to take some steps to collect into one or more bodies or
masses so much of the law as was to be regarded as binding,
reducing it within a reasonable compass, and purging away the
contradictions or inconsistencies which it contained. The evil
had been long felt, and reforms apparently often proposed, but
nothing (except by the compilation of the Codex tktodosionus)
had been done till Justinian's time. Immediately alter his
accession, in 528, he appointed a commission to deal with the
imperial constitutions O'w novum), this being the easier part of
the problem. The commissioners, ten in number, were directed
to go through all the constitutions of which copies existed, to
select such as were of practical value, to cut these down by
retrenching all unnecessary matter, and gather them, arranged
in order of date, into one volume, getting rid of any contradictions
by omitting one or other of the conflicting passages. 1 These
statute law commissioners, as one may call them, set to work
forthwith, and completed their task in fourteen months, dis-
tributing the constitutions which they placed in the new collec-
tion into ten books, in general conformity with the order of the
Perpetual Edict as settled by Salvius Julianus and enacted by
Hadrian. By this means the bulk of the statute law was
immensely reduced, its obscurities and internal discrepancies in
great measure removed, its provisions adapted, by the abrogation
of what was obsolete, to the circumstances of Justinian's own
time. This Codex constitution*** was formally promulgated and
enacted as one great consolidating statute in 529, all imperial
ordinances not included in it being repealed at one stroke.
The success of this first experiment encouraged the emperor
to attempt the more dixficult enterprise of simplifying and
digesting the older law contained in the treatises of the jurists.
Before entering on this, however, he wisely took the preliminary
step of settling the more important of the legal questions as to
which the older jurists had been divided in opinion, and which
had therefore remained sources of difficulty, a difficulty aggra-
1 See, for an account of the instructions given to the commission,
the constitution Hate quae, prefixed to the revised Codex in the
Corpus juris etvilu.
597
vated by the general decline, during the last two centuries, of the
level of forensic and judicial learning. This was accomplished
by a series of constitutions known as the "Fifty Decisions"
(Quinquaginta decisiones), along with which there were published
other ordinances amending the law in a variety of points, in
which old and now inconvenient rules had been suffered to subsist.
Then in December 530 a new commission was appointed, con-
sisting of sixteen eminent lawyers, of whom the president, the
famous Tribonian (who had already served on the previous com-
mission), was an exalted official (quaestor) y four were professors
of law, and the remaining eleven practising advocates. The
instructions given to them by the emperor were as follows: —
they were to procure and peruse all the writings of all the author-
ized jurists (those who had enjoyed the jus respondendQ ; were to
extract from these writings whatever was of most permanent
and substantial value, with power to change the expressions of
the author wherever conciseness or clearness would be thereby
promoted, or wherever such a change was needed in order to
adapt his language to the condition of the law as it stood in
Justinian's time; were to avoid repetitions and contradictions by
giving only one statement of the law upon each point; were to
insert nothing at variance with any provision contained in the
Codex constitutionum; and were to distribute the results.of their
labours into fifty books, subdividing each book into titles, and
following generally the order of the Perpetual Edict.*
These directions were carried out with a speed which is surpris-
ing when we remember not only that the work was interrupted
by the terrible insurrection which broke out in Constantinople in
January 532, and which led to the temporary retirement from
office of Tribonian, but also that the mass of literature which had
to be read through consisted of no less than two thousand treat-
ises, comprising three millions of sentences. The commissioners,
who had for greater despatch divided themselves into several com-
mittees, presented then* selection of extracts to the emperor m
533, and he published it as an imperial statute on December 16th
of that year, with two prefatory constitutions (those known as
Omnem reipuUicae and Dedit nobis). It is the Latin volume
which we now call the Digest (Digeeta) or Pandects (noffexroi)
and which is by far the most precious monument of the legal
genius of the Romans, and indeed, whether one regards the intrin-
sic meritsof its substance or the prodigious influence it has exerted
and still exerts, the most remarkable law-book that the world has
seen-. The extracts comprised in it are 9x23 in number, taken
from thirty-nine authors, and are of greatly varying length,
mostly only a feW lines long. About one-third (in quantity)
come from Ulpian, a very copious writer; Paulus stands next. To
each extract there is prefixed the name of the author, and of the
treatise whence it is taken. 9 The worst thing about the Digest
is its highly unscientific arrangement. The orderof the Perpetual
Edict, which appears to have been taken as a sort of model for the
general scheme of books and titles, was doubtless convenient to
the Roman lawyers from their familiarity with it, but was in
itself rather accidental and historical than logical. The dis-
position of the extracts inside each title was still less rational;
it has been shown by a modern jurist to have been the result of
the way in which the committees of the commissioners worked
through the books they bad to peruse. 4 In enacting the Digest
as a law book, Justinian repealed all the other law contained
in the treatises of the jurists (thatjftt vetus which has been already
mentioned), and directed that those treatises should never be
dted in future even by way of illustration; and be of course at
the same time abrogated all the older statutes, from the Twelve
Tables downwards, which had formed a part of the jus vetus. This
was a necessary incident of his scheme of reform. But he went
n Deo auctore (Cod. i. 17, 1).
• people used to cite passages by the initial
as do so stiu, giving, however, the number of
ctract (if there are more paragraphs than one),
imber of the book and title. We ia Britain
lite by the numbers of the book* the title and
it referring to the initial words.
5 Ordnung der Fragmente in den Pandekten-
\eitsckr.j. gesch. Beehtsmssemschafi, vol. iv,
598
JUSTINIAN I.
too far, and indeed attempted what was impossible, when he
forbade all commentaries upon the Digest. He was obliged to
allow a Greek translation to be made of it, but directed this
translation to be exactly literal.
These two great enterprises had substantially despatched
Justinian's work; however, he, or rather Tribonian, who seems
to have acted both as his adviser and as his chief executive
officer in all legal affairs, conceived that a third book was needed,
viz. an elementary manual for beginners which should present
an outline of the law in a clear and simple form. The Utile work
of Gaius, most of which we now possess under the title of Com-
mentarii institutionum, had served this purpose for nearly four
centuries; but much of it had, owing to changes. in the law, be-
come inapplicable, so that a new manual seemed to be required.
Justinian accordingly directed Tribonian, with two coadjutors,
Theophilus, professor of law in the university of Constantinople,
and Dorotheus, professor in the great law school at Bey rout, to
prepare an elementary textbook on the lines of Gaius. This
they did while the Digest was in progress, and produced the useful
little treatise which has ever since been the book with which
students commonly begin their studies of Roman law, the Insti-
tutes of Justinian. It was published as a statute with full legal
validity shortly before the Digest. Such merits as it possesses—
simplicity of arrangement, clearness and conciseness of expres-
sion—belong less to Tribonian than to Gaius, who was closely
followed wherever the alterations in the law had not made him
obsolete. However, the spirit of that great legal classic seems to
have in a measure dwelt with and inspired the inferior men who
were recasting his work; the Institutes is better both in Latinity
and in substance than we should have expected from the con-
dition of Latin letters at that epoch, better than the other laws
which emanate from Justinian.
In the four years and a half which elapsed between the publica-
tion of the Codex and that of the Digest, many important changes
bad been made in the law, notably by the publication of the
" Fifty Decisions," which settled many questions that had exer-
cised the legal mind and given occasion to intricate statutory
provisions. It was therefore natural that the idea should present
itself of revising the Codex, so as to introduce these changes
into it, for by so doing, not only would it be simplified, but the
one volume would again be made to contain the whole statute
law, whereas now it was necessary to read along with it the
ordinances issued since its publication. Accordingly another
commission was appointed, consisting of Tribonian with four
other coadjutors, full power being given tbem not only to
incorporate the new constitutions with the Codex and make in
it the requisite changes, but also to revise the Codex generally,
cutting down or filling in wherever they thought it necessary
to do so. This work was completed in a few months; and in
November 534 the revised Codex {Codex repetilae proekctionis)
was promulgated with the force of law, prefaced by a con-
stitution (Cordi nobis) which sets forth its history, and declares
it to be alone authoritative, the former Codex being abrogated.
It is this revised Codex which has come down to the modern
world, all copies of the earlier edition having disappeared.
The constitutions contained in it number 46X2, the earliest
dating from Hadrian, the latest beins of course Justinian's own.
A few thus belong to the period to which the greater part of the
Digest belongs, ix. the so-called classical period of Roman law down
to the time of Alexander Severn* (244); but the great majority are
later, and bdoog to one or other of the four great eras of imperial
legislation, the eras of Diocletian, of Constant ine t of Thcodosius II.,
and of Justinian himself. Although this Codex is said to have the
same general order as that of the Digest, vix. the order of the Per-
Eual Edict, there are considerable differences of arrangement
ween the two. It is divided into twelve books. Its contents,
although of course of the utmost practical importance to the lawyers
of that time, and of much value still, historical as well as legal, are
far less interesting and scientifically admirable than the extracts
preserved in the Digest. The difference is even greater than that
between the English reports of cases decided since the days of Lord
Holt and the English acta of parliament for the same two centuries.
The e mp er or's scheme was now complete. All the Roman law
had been gathered into two volumes of not excessive sixe, and a
satisfactory manual for beginners added. But Justinian and Tribo-
nian had grown so fond of legislating that they found it hard to leave
fo
mplifications that had been so far effected
ore clearness such anomalies or pieces of
to deform the law. Thus no sooner had
than fresh excrescences began to be created
' laws. Between $34 and 56s Justinian
Mdinances, dealing with all sorts of sub-
r the law on many points— the majority
n of Tribonian, which happened in $45.
d, by way of distinction, .new eonstitu-
ts post codicem (***fi fcarittit). Novels,
I stated in publishing the Codex that all
rould be officially collected, this promise
1 redeemed. The three collections of the
re apparently private collections, nor do
*:utions were promulgated,
with 13 Edicts), bat some
ind Tiberius II. Another,
1 12s Novels in Latin; and
tlgata tersio, has 134. also
rst known and chiefly used
>f its 134 only 97 have been
commentators: these there-
g in those countries which
-according to the maxim
isctt curio. And, whereas
te Codex were all issued in
: tongue, these Kernels were
anslations being of course
es. They are very bulky,
ilarly the 116th and 11 8th,
laudable reforms into the
re interesting, as supplying
cial, economical and eccle-
sgal merits. They may be
us juris civitis.
lortaliaes Justinian's name,
cc bove: (1) The authorised
cc x constuutionum): (a) the
at ie great jurists (Digesta or
Pi ok (Instttutiones)' x (4) the
ur > subsequent to the Codex
(/
From what has been already stated, the reader wfU perceive
that Justinian did not, according to a strict use of terms, codify
the Roman law. By a codification we understand the reduction
of the whole pre-existing body of law to a new form, the re-stating
it in a series of propositions, scientifically ordered, which may ox-
may not contain some new substance, but are at any rate new in
form. If he had, so to speak, thrown into one furnace all the law
contained in the treatises of the jurists and in the imperial
ordinances, fused them down, the gold of the one and the silver
of the other, and run them out into new moulds, this would have
been codification. What he did do was something quite different.
It was not codification but consolidation, not remoulding but
abridging. He made extracts from the existing law, preserving
the old words, and merely cutting out repetitions, removing con-
tradictions, retrenching superfluities, so as immensely to reduce
the bulk of the whole. And he made not one set of such extracts
but two, one for the jurist law, the other for the statute law. He
gave to posterity not one code but two digests or collections of
extracts, which are new only to this extent that they are arranged
in a new order, having been previously altogether unconnected
with one another, and that here and there their words have been
modified in order to bring one extract into harmony with some
other. Except for this, the matter is old in expression as well as
in substance.
Thus regarded, even without remarking that the Hoods, never
having been officially collected, ranch less incorporated with the
Codex, mar the symmetry of the structure, Justinian's work may
appear to entitle him and Tribonian to much less credit than they
have usually received for it. But let it be observed, first, that to
reduce the huge and confused mass of pre-existing law into the
compass of these two collections was an immense practical benefit
to the empire; secondly, that, whereas the work which he under-
took was accomplished in seven years, the infinitely more difficult
task of codification might probably have been left unfinished at
Tribonian 's death, or even at Justinian's own, and been aban-
doned by his successor; thirdly, that in the extracts preserved in
the Digest we have the opinions of the greatest legal luminaries
given in their own admirably lucid, philosophical and concise
JUSTINIAN I.
language, while in the extracts of which the Codex is composed
we find valuable historical evidence beating on the administra-
tion and social condition of the later Pagan and earlier Christian
empire; fourthly, that Justinian's age, that is to say, the intellect
of the men whose services he commanded, was quite unequal to
so vast an undertaking as the fusing upon scientific principles
Into one new organic whole of the entire law of the empire. With
sufficient time and labour the work might no doubt have been
done; but what we possess of Justinian's own legislation, and
still more what we know of the general condition of literary and
legal capacity in his time, makes it certain that it would not have
been well done, and that the result would have been not more
valuable to the Romans of that age, and much less valuable to
the modern world, than are the results, preserved in the Digest
and the Codex t of what be and Tribonian actually did.
To the merits of the work as actually performed some reference
has already been made. The chief delect of the Digest is in point
of scientific arrangement, a matter about which the Roman
lawyers, perhaps one may say the ancients generally, cared very
little. There are some repetitions and some inconsistencies, but
not more than may fairly be allowed for in a compilation of such
magnitude executed so rapidly. Tribonian has been blamed for
the insertions the compilers made in the sentences of the old
jurists (the so-called EmbUmata Tribonian*) ; but it was a part of
Justinian's plan that such insertions should be made, so as to
adapt those sentences to the law as settled in the emperor's
time. On Justinian's own laws, contained in the Codex and in
his Navels, a somewhat less favourable judgment must be pro-
nounced. They, and especially the latter, are diffuse and often
lax in expression, needlessly prolix, and pompously rhetorical.
The policy of many, particularly of those which deal with ecclesi-
astical matters, may also be condemned; yet some gratitude is
due to the legislator who put the law of intestate succession on
that plain and rational footing whereon it has ever since con-
tinued to stand. It is somewhat remarkable that, although
Justinian is so much more familiar to us by his legislation than
by anything else, this sphere of his imperial labour is hardly
referred to by any of the contemporary historians, and then only
with censure. Procopius complains that he and Tribonian were
always repealing old laws and enacting new ones, and accuses
them of venal motives for doing so.
The Corpus Juris of Justinian continued to be, with naturally a
few additions in the ordinances of succeeding emperors, the chief
law-book of the Roman world till the time of the Macedonian dynasty
when, towards the end of the 9th century, a new system was prepared
and issued by those sovereigns, which we know as the Basilica. It
is of course written in Greek, and consists of parts of the substance
of the Codex and the Ditest, thrown together and often altered in
expression, together with some matter from the Novels and imperial
ordinances posterior to Justinian. In the western provinces, which
had been wholly severed from the empire before the publication
of the Basilica, the law as settled by Justinian held its ground;
but copies of the Corpus Juris were extremely rare, nor did the
study of it revive until the end of the 1 1 th century.
The best edition of the Digest is that of Mommsen (Berlin
1868-1870), and of the Codex that of Kruger (Berlin 1875-1877).
a. In his financial administration of the empire, Justinian is
represented to us as being at once rapacious and extravagant.
His unwearied activity and inordinate vanity led him to under*
take a great many costly public works, many of them, such as
the erection of palaces and churches, unremunerative. The
money needed for these, for his wars, and for buying off the
barbarians who threatened the frontiers, had to be obtained by
increasing the burdens of the people. They suffered, not only
from the regular taxes, which were seldom remitted even after
bad seasons, but also from monopolies; and Procopius goes so far
as to allege that the emperor made a practice of further recruiting
his treasury by confiscating on slight or fictitious pretexts the
property of persons who had displeased Theodora or himself.
Fiscal severities were ho doubt one cause of the insurrections
which now and then broke out, and in the gravest of which,
(532) thirty thousand persons are said to have perished in the
capital. It is not always easy to discover, putting together the
trustworthy evidence of Justinian's own laws and the angry
599
complaints of Procopius, what was the nature and justification
of the changes made in the civil administration. But the
general conclusion seems to be that these changes were always
in the direction of further centralization, increasing the power of
the chief ministers and their offices, bringing all more directly
under the control of the Crown, and in some cases limiting the
powers and appropriating the funds of Jocal municipalities.
Financial necessities compelled retrenchment, so that a certain
number of offices were suppressed altogether, much to the dis-
gust of the office-holding class, which was numerous and wealthy,
and had almost come to look on the civil service as its hereditary
possession. The most remarkable instance of this policy was
the discontinuance of the consulship. This great office had re-
mained a dignity centuries after it had ceased to be a power;
but it was a very costly dignity, the holder being expected to
spend large sums in public displays. As these sums were provided
by the state, Justinian saved something considerable by stopping
the payment. He named no consul after Basilius, who was the
name-giving consul of 541.
In a bureaucratic despotism the greatest merit of a sovereign
is to choose capable and honest ministers. Justinian's selections
were usually capable, but not so often honest; probably it was
hard to find thoroughly upright officials; possibly they would not
have been most serviceable in carrying out the imperial will, and
especially in replenishing the imperial treasury. Even the great
Tribonian labours under the reproach of corruption, while the
fact that Justinian maintained John of Cappadoda in power long
after his greed, his unscrupulousneas, and the excesses of his
private life had excited the anger of the whole empire, reflects
little credit on his own principles of government and sense of
duty to his subjects. The department of administration in
which be seems to have felt most personal interest was that of
public works. He spent immense sums on buildings of all sorts,
on quays and harbours, on fortifications, repairing the walls of
cities and erecting castles in Thrace to check the inroads of the
barbarians, on aqueducts, on monasteries, above all, upon
churches. Of these works only two remain perfect, St Sophia in
Constantinople, now a mosque, and one of the architectural
wonders of the world, and the church of SS Sergius and Bacchus,
now commonly called Little St Sophia, which stands about half
a mile from the great church, and is in its way a very delicate and
beautiful piece of work. The church of S. Vitale at Ravenna,
though built in Justinian's reign, and containing mosaic pictures
of bim and Theodora, does not appear to have owed anything to
his mind or purse.
3. Justinian's ecclesiastical poKcy was so complex and varying
that it is impossible within the limits of this article to do more
than indicate its bare outlines. For many years before the
accession of his uncle Justin, the Eastern world had been vexed
by the struggles of the Monophysite party, who recognised only
one nature in Christ, against the view which then and ever since
has maintained itself as orthodox, that the divine and human
natures coexisted in Him. The latter doctrine had triumphed at
the council of Chalcedon, and was held by the whole Western
Church, but Egypt, great part of Syria and Asia Minor, and a
considerable minority even in Constantinople clung to Monophy-
sitism. The emperors Zeno and Anaatasius had been strongly
suspected of it, and the Roman bishops had refused to communi-
cate with the patriarchs of Constantinople since 484, when they
had condemned Acacius for accepting the formula of conciliation
issued by Zeno. One of Justinian's first public acts was to put
an end to this schism by inducing Justin to make the then patri-
arch renounce this formula and declare his full adhesion to the
creed of Chalcedon. When he himself came to the throne he
endeavoured to persuade the Monophysitcs to come in by sum-
moning some of their leaders to a conference. This failing, he
ejected suspected prelates, and occasionally persecuted them,
though with far less severity than that applied to the heretics of
a deeper dye, such as Montanists or even Arians. Not long after-
wards, his attention having been called to the spread of Origen-
istic opinions in Syria, he issued an edict condemning fourteen
propositions drawn from the writings of the great Alexandrian.
6oc
and canted a synod to beheld under the presidency of Mennas
(whom he had named patriarch of Constantinople) , which renewed
the condemnation of the impugned doctrines and anathematized
Origen himself. Still later, he was induced by the machinations
of some of the prelates who haunted his court, and by the influence
of Theodora, herself much interested in theological questions,
and more than suspected of Monophysitism, to raise a needless,
mischievous, and protracted controversy. The Monophysites
sometimes alleged that they could not accept the decrees of the
council of Chakedon because that council had not condemned,
but (as they argued) virtually approved, three writers tainted
with Nestortan principles, Theodore of Mopsuestia, Tbeodoret,
and Ibas, bishop of Edessa. It was represented to the emperor,
who was still pursued by the desire to bring back the schismatics,
that a great step would have been taken towards reconciliation if
a condemnation of these teachers, or rather of such of their books
as were complained of, could be brought about, since then the
Chalcedooian party would be purged from any appearance of
sympathy with the errors of Nestorius. Not stopping to reflect
that in the angry and auspicious state of men's minds he was sure
to lose as much in one direction as he would gain in the other,
Justinian entered into the idea, and put forth an edict exposing
and denouncing the errors contained in the writings of Theodore
generally; in the treatise of Tbeodoret against Cyril of Alexandria,
and in a letter of Bishop Ibas (a letter whose authenticity was
doubted, but which passed under his name) to the Persian bishop
Maris. This edict was circulated through the Christian world to
be subscribed by the bishops. The four Eastern patriarchs, and
the great majority of the Eastern prelates generally, subscribed,
though reluctantly, for it was felt that a dangerous precedent
was being set when dead authors were anathematized, and that
this new movement could hardly fail to weaken the authority of
the council of Chakedon. Among the Western bishops, who
were less disposed both to Monophysitism and to subservience,
and especially by those of Africa, the edict was earnestly resisted.
When it was found that Pope VigUius did not forthwith comply,
he was summoned to Constantinople. Even there he resisted,
not so much, it would seem, from any scruples of his own, for he
was not a high-minded man, as because he knew that he dared
not return to Italy if he gave way. Long disputes and negotia-
tions followed, the end of which was that Justinian summoned
a general council of the church, that which we reckon the Fifth,
which condemned the impugned writings, and anathematized
several other heretical authors. Its decrees were received in the
East but long contested in the Western Church, where a schism
arose that lasted for seventy years. This is the controversy
known as that of theThree Chapters ( Tria capitular pla n&tkauL) ,
apparently from the three propositions or condemnations con*
tained in Justinian's original edict, one relating to Theodore's
writings, and person, the second to the incriminated treatise of
Tbeodoret (whose person was not attacked), the third to the
letter (if genuine) of Ibas (see Hefele, Conc&engcschickk, ii/777).
At the very end of his long career of theological discussion,
Justinian himself lapsed into heresy, by accepting the doctrine
that the earthly body of Christ was incorruptible, insensible to
the weaknesses of the flesh, a doctrine which had been advanced
by Julian, bishop of Halicarnassus, and went by the name of
Aphthartodocetism. According to his usual practice, he issued
an edict enforcing this view, and requiring all patriarchs, metro-
politans, and bishops to subscribe to it. Some, who not un-
naturally held that it was rank Monophysitism, refused at once,
and were deprived of their sees, among them Eutychius the
eminent patriarch of Constantinople. Others submitted or
temporized; but before there had been time enough for the matter
to be carried through, the emperor died, having tarnished if not
utterly forfeited by this last error the reputation won by a life
devoted to the service of Orthodoxy.
As no preceding sovereign had been so much interested in
church affairs, so none seems to have shown so much activity as a
p*roc utor both of pagans and of heretics. He renewed with
*,MitKutal stringency the laws against both these classes. The
Wi mrt embraced a large part of the rural population in certain
JUSTINIAN I.
secluded districts, such as parts of Asia Minor and Pefopea-
nesus; and we are told that the efforts directed against them
resulted in the forcible baptism of 70,000 persons in Asia
Minor alone. Paganism, however, survived; we find it in
Laconia in the end of the 9th century, and in northern Syria it
has lasted till our own times. There were also a good many
crypto-pagans among the educated population of the capital.
Procopius, for instance, if he was not actually a Pagan, was
certainly very little of a Christian. Inquiries made in the third
year of Justinian's reign drove nearly all of these persons into an
outward conformity, and their offspring seem to have become
ordinary Christians. At Athens, the philosophers who taught in
the schools hallowed by memories of Plato still openly professed
what passed for Paganism, though it was really a body of moral
doctrine, strongly tinged with mysticism, in which there was far
more of Christianity and of the speculative metaphysics of the
East than of the old Olympian religion. Justinian, partly from
religious motives, partly because he discountenanced all rivals
to the imperial university of Constantinople, closed these
Athenian schools (529). The professors sought refuge at the
court of Chosroes, king of Persia, but were soon so much disgusted
by the ideas and practices of the fire-worshippers that they re-
turned to the empire, Chosroes having magnanimously obtained
from Justinian a promise that they should be suffered to pasa
the rest of their days unmolested. Heresy proved more obstinate.
The severities directed against the Montardsts of Phrygia led to a
furious war, in which most of the sectaries perished, while the
doctrine was not extinguished. Harsh laws provoked the
Samaritans to a revolt, from whose effects Palestine had not
recovered when conquered by the Arabs in the following century.
The Nestorians and the Eutychian Monophysites were not threa-
tened with such severe civil penalties, although their worship
was interdicted, and their bishops were sometimes banished;
but this vexatious treatment was quite enough to keep them dis-
affected, and the rapidity of the Mahommedan conquests maybe
partly traced to that alienation of the bulk of t|ie Egyptian and
a large part of the Syrian population which dates from Justinian's
persecutions.
4. Justinian was engaged in three great foreign wars, two of
them of his own seeking, the third a legacy which nearly every
emperor had come into for three centuries, the secular strife of
Rome and Persia. The Sassanid kings of Persia ruled a dominion
which extended from the confines of Syria to those of India, and
from the straits of Oman to the Caucasus. The martial char-
acter of their population made them formidable enemies to the
Romans, whose troops were at this epoch mainly barbarians,
the settled and civilized subjects of the empire being as a rule
averse from war. When Justinian came to the throne, his troops
were maintaining an unequal struggle on the Euphrates against
the armies of Kavadh I. (</.».)• After some campaigns, in which
the skill of Belisarius obtained considerable successes, a peace
was concluded in 533 with Chosroes L (q.v.). This lasted till
539, when Chosroes declared war, alleging that Justinian had
been secretly intriguing against him with the Hephthalitc Huns,
and doubtless moved by alarm and envy at the victories which
the Romans had been gaining in Italy. The emperor was too
much occupied in the West to be able adequately to defend his
eastern frontier. Chosroes advanced into Syria with little
resistance, and in 540 captured Antioch, then the greatest city
in Asia, carrying off its inhabitants into captivity. The war
continued with varying fortunes for four years more in this
quarter; while in the meantime an even fiercer struggle had begun
in the mountainous region inhabited by the Lazi at the south-
eastern corner of the Black Sea (see Colchts). When after
two-end-twenty years of fighting no substantial advantage had
been gained by either party, Chosroes agreed in 562 to a peace
which left Lazica to the Romans, but under the dishonourable
condition of then* paying 30,000 pieces of gold annually to the
Persian king. Thus no result of permanent importance flowed
from these Persian wars, except that they greatly weakened the
Roman Empire, increased Justinian's financial embarrassments,
and prevented him from prosecuting with sufficient vigour his
JUSTINIAN L
enterprises io the West. (See further Persia: Ancient History,
" The Sassanid Dynasty.")
These enterprises had begun in 533 with an attack on the
Vandals, who were then reigning in Africa. Belisarius, des-
patched from Constantinople with a large fleet and army, landed
without opposition, and destroyed the barbarian power in two
engagements. North Africa from beyond the straits of Gibraltar
to the Syrtes became again a Roman province, although the
Moorish tribes of the interior maintained a species of indepen-
dence; and part of southern Spain was also recovered for the
empire. The ease with which so important a conquest had been
effected encouraged Justinian to attack the Ostrogoths of Italy,
whose kingdom, though vast in extent, for it included part of
south-eastern Gaul, Ractia, Dalmatia and part of Pannonia, as
well as Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica, had been grievously
weakened by the death first of the great Theodoric, and some
years' later of hb grandson Athalaric, so that the Gothic nation
was practically without a head. Justinian began the* war in
535, taking as his pretext the murder of Queen Amalasunlha,
daughter of Theodoric, who had placed herself under his pro-
tection, and alleging that the Ostrogothic kingdom had always
owned a species of allegiance to the emperor at Constantinople.
There was some foundation for this claim, although of course it
could not have been made effective against Theodoric, who was
more powerful than his supposed suzerain- Belisarius, who had
been made commander of the Italian expedition, overran Sicily,
reduced southern I taly , and in 536 occupied Rome. Here he was
attacked in the following year by Vitiges, who had been chosen
king by the Goths, with a greatly superior force. After a siege
of over a year, the energy, skill, and courage of Belisarius, and the
sickness which was preying on the Gothic troops, obliged Vitiges
to retire. Belisarius pursued his diminished army northwards,
shut htm up in Ravenna, and ultimately received the surrender
of that impregnable city. Vitiges was sent prisoner to Constanti-
nople, where Justinian treated him, as he had previously treated
the captive Vandal king, with clemency. The imperial adminis-
tration was established through Italy, but its rapacity soon began
to excite discontent, and the kernel of the Gothic nation Jiad not
submitted. After two short and unfortunate reigns, the crown
had been bestowed on Totila or Baduila, a warrior of distinguished
abilities, who by degrees drove the imperial generals and governors
out of Italy; Belisarius was sent against him, but with forces
too small for the gravity of the situation. He moved from place
to place during several years, but saw city after city captured
by or open its gates to Totila, till only Ravenna, Otranto and
Ancona remained. Justinian was occupied by the ecclesiastical
controversy of the Three Chapters, and had not the money to fit
out a proper army and fleet; indeed, it may be doubted whether
he would ever have roused himself to the necessary exertions but
for the presence at Constantinople of a knot of Roman exiles,
who kept urging him to reconquer Italy, representing that with
their help and the sympathy of the people it would not be a
difficult enterprise. The emperor at last complied, and in 552
a powerful army was despatched under Narses, an Armenian
eunuch now advanced in life, but reputed the most skilful general
of the age, as Belisarius was the hottest soldier. He marched
along the coast of the Gulf of Venice, and encountered the army
of Totila at Taginae not far from Cesena. Totila was slain, and
the Gothic cause irretrievably lost. The valiant remains of the
nation made another stand under Teias on the Lactarian Hill in
Campania; after that they disappear from history. Italy was
recovered for the empire, but it was an Italy terribly impoverished
and depopulated, whose possession carried Gttle strength with
it. Justinian's policy both in the Vandalk and in the Gothic War
stands condemned by the result. The resources of the state,
which might better have been spent In defending the northern
frontier against Slavs and Huns and the eastern frontier against
Persians, were consumed in the conquest of two countries which
had suffered too much to be of any substantial value, and which,
separated by language as well as by intervening seas, could
not be permanently retained. However, Justinian must have
been almost preternaturally wise to have foreseen this: his
6oi
conduct was in the circumstances only what might have been
expected from an ambitious prince who perceived an opportunity
of recovering territories that had formerly belonged to the
empire, and over which its rights were conceived to be only
suspended.
Besides these three great foreign wars, Justinian's reign was
troubled by a constant succession of border inroads, especially
on the northern frontier, where the various Slavonic and Hunnish
tribes who were established along the lower Danube and on the
north coast of the Black Sea made frequent marauding expedi-
tions into Thrace and Macedonia, sometimes penetrating as far as
the walls of Constantinople in one direction and the Isthmus of
Corinth in another. Immense damage was inflicted by these
marauders on the subjects of the empire, who seem to have
been mostly too peaceable to defend themselves, and whom the
emperor could not spare troops enough to protect Fields were
laid waste, villages burnt, large numbers of people carried into
captivity; and on one occasion the capital was itself in danger.
5. It only remains to say something regarding Justinian's
personal character and capacities, with regard to which a great
diversity of opinion has existed among historians. The civilians,
looking on him as a patriarch of their science, have as a rule
extolled his wisdom and virtues; while ecclesiastics of the
Roman Church, from Cardinal Baronius downwards, have been
offended by his arbitrary conduct towards the popes, and by
his last lapse into heresy, and have therefore been disposed to
accept the stories which ascribe to him perfidy, cruelty, rapacity
and extravagance. The difficulty of arriving at a fair conclusion
is increased by the fact that Procopius, who is our chief authority
for the events of his reign, speaks with a very different voice
in his secret memoirs (the Anccdota) from that which he has used
in his published history, and that some of the accusations con-
tained hi the former work are so rancorous and improbable that a
certain measure of discredit attaches to everything which it con-
tains. The truth seems to be that Justinian was not a great
roter in the higher sense of the word, that is to say, a man of
large views, deep insight, a capacity for forming just such plans
as the circumstances needed, and carrying them out by a skilful
adaptation of means to ends. But he was a man of considerable
abilities, wonderful activity of mind, and admirable industry.
He was interested in many things, and threw himself with ardour
into whatever he took up; he contrived schemes quickly, and
pushed them on with an energy which usually made them succeed
when no long time was needed, for, if a project was delayed, there
was a risk of his tiring of it and dropping it. Although vain and
full of self-confidence, he was easily led by those who knew how
to get at him, and particularly by his wife. She exercised over
him that influence which a stronger character always exercises
over a weaker, whatever their respective positions; and unfortu-
nately it was seldom a good influence, for Theodora (q.v.) seems
to have been a woman who, with all her brilliant gifts of intelli-
gence and manner, had no principles and no pity. Justinian was
rather quick than strong or profound; his policy does not strike
one as the result of deliberate and well-considered views, but
dictated by the hopes and fancies of the moment. His activity
was in so far a misfortune as it led him to attempt too many things
at once, and engage in undertakings so costly that oppression
became necessary to provide the funds for them. Even his
devotion to work, which excites our admiration, in the centre of a
luxurious court, was to a great extent unprofitable, for it was
mainly given to theological controversies which neither he nor
any one else could settle. Still, after making all deductions, it is
plain that the man who accomplished so much, and kept the
whole world so occupied, as Justinian did during the thirty-eight
years of his reign, must have possessed no common abilities. He
was affable and easy of approach to all his subjects, with a
pleasant address; nor does he seem to have been, like his wife,
either cruel or revengeful. We hear several times of his sparing
those who had conspired against him. But he was not scrupulous
in the means he employed , and be was willing to maintain in power
detestable ministers if only they served him efficiently and filled
his coffers. His chief passion, after that for his own fame and
bo 2
JUSTINIAN II.— JUSTIN MARTYR
glory, seems to have been for theology and religion; i». was
in this field that his literary powers exerted themselves (for he
wrote controversial treatises and hymns), and his taste also, for
among his numerous buildings the churches are those on which he
spent roost thought and money. Considering that his legal reforms
are those by which his name is mainly known to posterity, it is
curious that we should have hardly any information as to his legal
knowledge, or the share which he took in those reforms. In
person he was somewhat above the middle height, well-shaped,
with plenty of fresh colour in his cheeks, and an extraordinary
power of doing without food and sleep. He spent most of the
night in reading or writing, and would sometimes go for a day
with no food but a few green herbs. Two mosaic figures of him
exist at Ravenna, one in the apse of the church of S. Vitale, the
other in the church of S. Apollinare in Urbe; but of course one
cannot be sure how far in such a material the portrait fairly repre-
sents the original. He had no children by his marriage with
Theodora, and did not marry after her decease. On his death,
which took place on the 14th of November 565, the crown passed
to his nephew Justin II.
Authorities.— For th e
Procopius (Historiae, De )
the History of Agathias;
of value. Occasional rcl
Jordanes and Marccllini
Cedrcnus and Zonaras.
(Halle, 1731), a work of
by Gibbon in his importai
in the Decline and Fall (a
Juslinien by Isambcrt (
Church of the Sixth Ctntur
(1889): Hodgkin's Italy a
JUSTINIAN II- Rhikotmetus (660-7 » 0» East Roman emperor
685-695 and 704-711, succeeded his father Constaniine IV.,
at the age of sixteen. His reign was unhappy both at home and
abroad. After a successful invasion he made a truce with the
Arabs, which admitted them to the joint possession of Armenia,
Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 1 3,000 Christian Maronites
from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a command over
Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by conquering all
Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the Bulgarians.
Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the
emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the
rapacity with which, through his creatures Stephanus and
Thcodatus, he extorted the means of gratifying his sumptuous
tastes and his mania for erecting costly buildings, drove his
subjects into rebellion. In 695 they rose under Leontius,
and, after cutting off the emperor's nose (whence his surname),
banished him to Chcrson in the Crimea. Leontius, after a
reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned
by Tiberius Absimarus, who next assumed the purple. Jus-
tinian meanwhile had escaped from Cherson and married Theo-
dora, sister of Busirus, khan of the Khazars. Compelled,
however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his new home, be
fled to Terbclis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of 1 5,000
horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople,
slew his rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their
partisans, and once more ascended the throne in 704. His
second reign was marked by an unsuccessful war against Ter-
bclis, by Arab victories in Asia Minor, by devastating expedi-
tions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and Cherson,
where be inflicted horrible punishment upon the disaffected
nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards
his subjects. Conspiracies again broke out: Bardanes, sur-
named Philippicus, assumed the purple, and Justinian, the
last of the house of Hcraclius, was assassinated in Asia Minor,
December 711.
See E. Gibbon, Decline cud Fall of Uu Roman Empire (ed. Bury,
1896), v. 179-183; J. B. Bury, Tko LaUr Roman Empire (1889). u.
320-330.358-367.
JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian
apologists, was born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc Sickem),
now Nablus, in Palestinian Syria (Samaria). Hit parents,
according to his own account, were Pagans (Dial. c. Try ph. 28).
He describes the course of his religious development in the
introduction to the dialogue with the Jew Trypho, in which
he relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger brought
him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of
truth and fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough
study of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans,
Stoics and Platonists, brought home to Justin the conviction
that true knowledge was not to be found in them. On the other
hand, he came to look upon the Old Testament prophets as
approved by their antiquity, sanctity, mystery and prophecies
to be interpreters of the truth. To this, as he tells us in another
place (A pot. ii. 12), must be added the deep impression pro-
duced upon him by the life and death of Christ. His conversion
apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places
his decisive interview with the old man, and there he had
those discussions with Jews and converts to Judaism, the re-
sults of which he in later years set down in his Dialogue. After
his conversion he retained his philosopher's cloak (Euseb.,
Hist. Bui. iv. 1 1. 8), the distinctive badge of the wandering pro-
fessional teacher of philosophy, and went about from place to
place discussing the truths of Christianity in the hope of bringing
educated Pagans, as he himself had been brought, through
philosophy to Christ. In Rome be made a fairly long stay,
giving lectures in a class-room of his own, though not without
opposition from his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents
was the Cynic Crescentius (A pot. n. 13). Eusebius (Hist. Bed.
iv. 16. 7-8) concludes somewhat hastily, from the statement
of Justin and his disciple Tatian (Oral, ad Crate. 19), that the
accusation of Justin before the authorities, which led to his
death, was due to Crescentius. But we know, from the un-
doubtedly genuine Acta SS Justini et sociorum, that Justin
suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus
between 163 and 167.
To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian,
we must turn to his Apology and to the Dialogue with the Jew
Trypho, for the authenticity of all other extant works attri-
buted to him is disputed with good reason. The Apology — it
is more correct to speak of one A fology than of two, for the second
is only a continuation of the first, and dependent upon it— was
written in Rome about 150. In the first part Justin defends his
fellow-believers against the charge of atheism and hostility to
the state. He then draws a positive demonstration of the truth
of his religion from the effects of the new faith, and especially
from the excellence .of its moral teaching, and concludes with a
comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which the
latter are set down with naive confidence as the work of demons.
As the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity
appears his detailed demonstration that the prophecies of the
old dispensation, which are older than the Pagan poets and philo-
sophers, have found their fulfilment in Christianity. A third part
shows, from the practices of their religious worship, that the
Christians had in truth dedicated themselves to God. The
whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with a reference
to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians. In
the so-called Second Apology, Justin takes occasion from the
trial of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the inno-
cence of the Christians was proved by the very persecutions.
Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By
his conscious recognition of the Creek philosophy as a pre-
paration for the truths of the Christian religion, he appears
as the first and most distinguished in the long list of those who
have endeavoured to reconcile Christian with non-Christian
culture. Christianity consists for him in the doctrines, guaran-
teed by the manifestation of the Logos in the person of Christ,
of Cod, righteousness and immortality, truths which have been
to a certain extent foreshadowed in the monotheistic religious
philosophies. In this process the conviction of the recon-
ciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of the world
and the individual through Christ, fell into the background
before the vindication of supernatural truths intellectually
conceived. Thus Justin may give the impression of having
JUTE
603
rationalized Christianity, and of not hiving gtrea it its full
value as a religion of salvation. It must not, however, be
forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of Christi-
anity to an educated Pagan public, on whose philosophical view
of life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not
expect ah intimate comprehension of the religious position of
Christians. That he himself had a thorough comprehension of
it he showed in the Dialogue with the Jew Trypho. Here, where
he had to deal with the Judaism that believed in a Messiah, he
was far better able to do justice to Christianity as a revelation;
and so we find that the arguments of this work are much more
completely In harmony with primitive Christian theology than
those of the Apology. He also displays in this work a consider-
able knowledge of the Rabbinical writings and a skilful polemical
method which was surpassed by none of the later anti- Jewish
writers.
Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian
Church in the middle of the and century. While we have else-
where no connected account of this, Justin's Apology contains a
few paragraphs (61 seq.), which give a vivid description of the
public worship of the Church and its method of celebrating
the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist). And from this
it is clear that though, as a theologian, Justin wished to go his
own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make bis
standpoint that of the Church and its baptismal confession of
faith. His works are also of great value for the history of the
New Testament writings. He knows of no canon of the New
Testament, i.e. no fixed and inclusive collection of the apostolic
writings. His sources for the teachings of Jesus are the
" Memoirs of the Apostles," by which are probably to be under-
stood the Synoptic Gospels (without the Gospel according to
St John), which, according to his account, were read along
with the prophetic writings at the public services. From
fail writings we derive the impression of an amiable personality,
who is honestly at pains to arrive at an understanding with bis
opponents. As a theologian, he is of wide sympathies; as a
writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat dull. There are
not many traces of any particular literary influence of his
writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise
us. The Church as a whole took but little interest in apolo-
getics and polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive
feeling that in these controversies that which she held holy
might easily suffer loss. Thus Justin's writings were not much
read, and at the present time both the Apology and the Dialogue
are preserved in but a single MS. (cod. Paris, 450, aj>. 1364).
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JUTS, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manu-
facturing scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute
appears to have been first used in 1746, when the captain of the
" Wake " noted in his log that be had sent on shore " 60 bales
of gurmey with all the jute rope" (NaoEng. Did. *.*.). In 1705
W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of the East India Company a
bale of the fibre which he described as " the jute of the natives."
Importations of the substance had been made at earlier times
under the name of pM, an East Indian native term by which
the fibre continued to be spoken of in England tiH the early yean
of the 19th century, when it was supplanted by the name it now
bears. This modern name appears to be derived from jkoi or
jhput (Sansk.yta/), the vernacular name by which the substance
is known in the Cuttack district, where the East India Company
had extensive roperies when Roxburgh first used the team.
Fie. i.— Capsules of Jute Plants.
6, C. olilorius.
m
9-
c
a, Corchorus capsularis;
The fibre is obtained from two species of Corchorus (nat. ord.
Tilioccae), C. capsularis and C. olilorius, the products of both
being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agricul-
ture is any distinction made between them. These and various
other species of Corchorus are natives of Bengal, where they have
been cultivated from very remote times for economic purposes,
although there is reason to believe that the cultivation did not
originate in the northern parts of India. The two species
cultivated for jute fibre are in all respects very similar to each
other, except in their fructification and the relatively greater
size attained by C. capsularis. They are annual plants from
5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man's
finger, and hardly branching except near the top. The light-
green leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by if in. broad above the
base, and taper upward into a fine point; the edges are serrated;
the two lower teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The
small whitish-yellow flowers are produced in clusters of two or
three opposite the leaves.
The capsules or seed-pods in the case of C. capsularis are
globular, rough and wrinkled, while in C. olilorius they are
slender, quiil-like cylinders (about 1 in. long), a very marked
distinction, as may be noted from fig. i, in which a and b show
the capsules of C. capsularis and C. olitorius respectively.
Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of C. olitorius.
\ Both species arc cultivated in India, not only on account
*o»
JUTE
v v- ^^^^^^elCstf^fcrthe
, -* — ~^V^^,*^»is»**fctfis^beidenti-
w . „ ^ j^TtiTtw ■**•• ***> ■ enUoned to
fcN . ».-* *<**""* ^^^ K ^ Bfcltow. It is cerliin that
V ^JT -k ^-^ * ** M^emneen this use of it
*«.. »*~~. jjJ<>t< TW«i«ho(U Bengal the name
— . 1 C I^\^«s«d at e^bk vegetables are recog-
V ^£ ** tt* «ther hand they are spoken of
* 7v/ .~^U A * «*-•** wafer the name *K. The culti-
* *t***«Jt A sftMt pftvalent in central and eastern
*' v " U* » * W »<« h h ««rhood of Calcutta, where, however,
^.^ ^kAh osiu**u«s is limited, C. olitorius is prindpaUy
t>* »fcr* •**•■ a* China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the
^Vutv v* *•<**«* P*w»*t Abtdilv* Avicennae, a member of the
v v« **» V . ,
, v* \ . •« jW 0*##**f — Attempts have been made to grow
,K .v ^Uat in America, Egypt, Africa, and other places, but
^ w tW present the fibre has proved much Inferior to that
yvNiAx^ct from plants grown in India. Here the cultivation
v4 tfce plant extends from the Hugli through eastern and
iK^thern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant
demands a hot, moist climate, with a fair amount of rain. Too
much rain at the beginning of the season is detrimental to the
growth, while a very dry season is disastrous. The climate of
eastern and northern Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth
of the plant.
The quality of the fibre and the produce per acre depend in a
measure on the preparation of the soil. The ground should be
ploughed about four times and all weeds removed. The seed is
then sown broadcast as in the case of flax. It is only within
quite recent years that any attention has been paid to the
selection of the seed. The following extract from Capital
(Jan. 17, 1907) indicates the new interest taken in it.
M Jute seed experiments are beinfr continued and the report for
1906 has been issued. The object ofthese experiments is, of course,
to obtain a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially
for no other purpose than to obtain their seed. The agricultural
department has about 300 maunda (25,000 lb) of selected seed for
distribution this year. The selling price is to be Jb. 10 per maund.
The agricultural department of the jgovernmeitt of Bengal are now
fully alive to the importance of fostering the jute industryby showing
conclusively that attention to scientific agriculture will make two
maunds of jute grow where only one maund grew before. Let them
go dn (as they will) till all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated
into the new system."
The time of sowing extends from the middle of March to the
middle of June, while the reaping, which depends upon the time
of sowing and upon the weather, is performed from the end of
June to the middle of October. The crop is said to be ready
for gathering when the flowers appear} if gathered before, the
fibre is weak, while if left until the seed is ripe, the fibre it
stronger, but is coarser and lacks the characteristic lustre.
The fibre is separated from the stalks by a process of retting
similar to that for flax and hemp. In certain districts of
Bengal it is the practice to stack the crop for a few days previous
to retting in order to allow the leaves to dry and to drop off the
stalks. It is stated that the colour of the fibre is darkened if the
leaves are allowed to remain on during the process of retting.
It is also thought that the drying of the plants before retting
facilitates the separation of the fibre. Any simple operation
which improves the colour of the fibre or shortens the opera t too
of retting is worthy of consideration. The benefits to be derived
from the above process, however, cannot be great, for the bundles
are usually taken direct to the pools and streams. The period
necessary for the completion of the retting process varies
according to the temperature and to the properties of the water,
and may occupy from two days to a month. After the first few
days of immersion the stalks are examined daily to test the
progress of the retting. When the fibres are easily separated
from the stalk, the operation is complete and the bundles should
be withdrawn. The following description of the retting of
jute is taken from Royle's Fibrous Plants of India: —
"The proper point being attained, the native operator, . ._.
up to his middle in water, takes as many of th« sticks in his 1
as he can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the
ends next the roots, and graspuig them together, he strips off the
whole with a little management from end to end, without breaking
either stem or fibre. Having prepared a certain quantity into this
half state, he next proceeds to wash off: this is done by taxing a
large handful; swinging it round his head he dashes it repeatedly
against the surface of the water, drawing it through towards him.
so as to wash off the impurities; then, with a dexterous throw he
fans it out on the surface of the water and carefully picks off aD
remaining black spots. It is* now wrung out so as to remove as
much water as possible, and then hung up on lines prepared on the
spot, to dry in the sun."
The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for
sending to one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted
into different qualities, and then each lot is subjected to an enor-
mous hydraulic pressure from which it emerges in the shape
of the well-known bales, each weighing 400 lb.
The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil,
and upon the attention which the fibre has received in its
various stages; the yield per acre varies in different districts.
Three bales per acre, or 1200 lb is termed a 100% crop, but the
usual quantity obtained is about 2*6 bales per acre. Sometimes
the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales each. The crop in
1006 reached nearly 9,000,000 bales, and in 1007 needy
10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued
on the 19th of September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Soutet & Co,,
Dundee: —
Year.
Actual
■ acreage.
Estimated yield
(wo%
equal 3 bales
Estimated
total
crop.
Shipment to Europe.
Shipment to America.
Supplies to
Indian mills'
and local
Out-turn
total crop.
Jute.
Cuttings.
Jute.
Cuttings.
per acre).
Bales.
Bales.
Bales.
Bales.
Bales.
consumption.
Bales.
1901— 1st
2,216.500
6,250,000
Final
2,249,000
6,500,000
3.528,691
54427
295.921
426^31
3,100,000-
7405470
100a— 1st
2,200,000
5,280.000
Final
2.200,000
5,280,000
2,773.621
39.019
230415
207,999
2,600,000 »
535**54
1905— 1st
Final
2,100,000
«5%—
5400,000
0,500,000
2.250,000
#
Irt.
Outlying
3.«6l,7yi
59.562
329*048
236,959
3,650,000-
7437460
1904— 1st
Final
2,700,000
2,850,000
3.163,500
7,100,000
7400,000
8.250,000
2.939.940
44.0Q2
253,882
290.854
3*75.782-
7*04460
1905— 1st
Final
3.14&000
8,200,000)
20o.ooo(
Mains
3.48&315
75.3*4
63,118
347.974
*45*44
4*18,523 j-
8,23345*
1906— 1st
3.271.400}
67,000 J
• 87%-
Madras
8,713.000
Outlying
100,000
Final
3.336.400
8,736,220
(Outlying districts am
ad<
Madras, say 250,1
litional)
MO bales
JUTE
605
, of jute 1906-1907.
In Europe ♦ Bales per anmim.
Scotland 1,250,000
England 20,000
Ireland 25,000
France 475.000
Belgium
Germany
Austria and Bohemia
Norway and Sweden
Russia ....
Holland . . . .
Spain ....
Italy
In America .
In India-
Mills . ,
Local , . .
120,000
750,000
262,000
62,500
180,000
95,000
90.000
160.000
600,000 '
3419,500 bales
600,000 „
3,900,000
500,000
' 4*400,000
8419,500 bales
Statistics of consumption of jute, rejections and cuttings.
Consumption.
Bales.
A 9 ? 4 -
Bales.
1906.
Bales.
United Kingdom . . .
Continent .....
America
Indian mills ....
Local Indian consumption .
Total jute crop consumption
1,200,000
1,100,000
500,000
1,500.000
500,000
1,200,000
1^00,000
500.000
2.900.000
500,000
1,295,000
9,124400
600,000
3,900.000
500,000
4,800,000
6,900,000
8419.500
A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made
during 1006, and the report showed that very encouraging
results were obtained from land manured with cow-dung. If
more scientific attention be given to the cultivation it Is quite
possible that what is now considered as 100% yield may be
exceeded.
CkaracUrhtics.— The characters by which qualities of jute are
judged arc colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness,
uniformity and absence of roots. The best qualities are of a
dear whitish-yellow colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and
smooth to the touch, and fine, long and uniform in fibre.
When the fibre is intended for goods in the natural colour it is
essential that it should be of a light shade and uniform, but if
intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark shade, the colour
is not so important. The cultivated plant yields a fibre with a
length of from 6 to xo ft., but in exceptional cases it has been
known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in length. The fibre is decidedly
inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing
to a peculiarity in its microscopic structure, by which the walk
of the separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness
at different points, the single strands of fibre are of unequal
strength. Recently prepared fibre is always stronger, more
lustrous, softer and whiter than such as has been stored for some
time— age and exposure rendering it brown in colour and harsh
and brittle in quality. Jute, indeed, is much more woody in
texture than either flax or hemp, a circumstance which may be
easily demonstrated by its behaviour under appropriate re-
agents; and to that fact is due the change in colour and character
it undergoes on exposure to the air The fibre bleaches with
facility, up to a certain point, sufficient to enable it to take
brilliau.. and delicate shades of dye colour, but it is with great
difficulty brought to a pure white by bleaching. A very striking
and remarkable fact, which has much practical interest, is its
highly hygroscopic nature. While in a dry position and atmo-
sphere it may not possess more than 6% of moisture, under
damp conditions it will absorb as much as 23%.
Sir G. Watt, in his Dictionary of the Economic Products of India,
mentions the following eleven varieties of iute fibre: Scrajganji,
Narainganji, Desi, Deora, Uttariya, Desw&l, Bakrabadi, Bhatial,
Karimgmji, Mirganji and Junetjpuri. There are several other
varieties of minor importance. The first four form the four classes
Into which the commercial fibre is divided, and they are commonly
known as Serajgunge, Naraingunge, Daiscc and Dowrah. Seraj-
gungc is a soft fibre, but it is superior in colour, which ranges from
white to grey. NarsJngnnge n a strong fibre, pc*se«esgc<>dspimunf
qualities, and is very suitable for good warp yarns. Its colour,
which is not so high as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and
approaches red at the roots. All the better class yarns arc spun
from these two kinds. Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness,
is of good quality and of great length; its drawback b the low
colour, and hence it is not so suitable tor using in natural colour. It
is, however, a valuable fibre for carpet yarns, especially for dark
yarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh and low quality fibre, and is
used principally for heavy wefts. Each class is subdivided according
to Hie quality and colour of the material, and each class receives a
distinctive mark called a baler's mark. Thus, the finest fibres may
be divided as follows:—
Superfine first marks.
Extra fine first marks 1st, 2nd and 3rd numbers.
Superior first marks „ „ „
Standard „ „ „ „ ,;
Good „ „ „ „ „
Ordinary „ „ „ „ „
Good second „ „ „ „
Ordinary „ „
The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties.
Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed
equal in equality
to some standard
mark. It would
be impossible to
give a list of the
different marks, for
there are hun-
dreds, and new
marks are con-
stantly being
added. A list of
all the principal
marks is issued in
book form by the
Calcutta Jute
Baler's association.
The relative
!)rices of the dif-
erent classes de-
pend upon the
crop, upon the de-
mand and upon
the quality of the
fibre; in 1905 the
prices of Daisee
iute and First
Marks were prac-
tically the same,
although the for-
mer is always con-
sidered inferior to
the latter. It does
not follow that a
large crop of jute
will result in low
prices, for the year
1906-1907 was not „ „ , ,. .
only a record one Fie. 2.—Corchorus oltiortus.
for crops, but also •
for prices. R. F. C. grade has been as high as £40 per ton, while its
lowest recorded price is £12. Similarly the price for First Marks
reached £20, 15s. in 1906 as compared with £9, 5% per ton in l«97-
The following table shows a few well-known grades with the average
prices during December for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906.
Class.
Dec. 1903.
Dec. 1904.
Dec 1905.
Dec. 1906.
£s. d.
£ s.d.
£ s. d.
£ * d.
First marks . . .
12 15
16
19 15
27 15
BlackSCC . . .
11 2 6
14 5
17 15
18 15
20 15
Red SCC . . .
12 O
14 17 6
23 15
Natf ' ^*->ns. .
826
-T-
14 10
IS 17 6
38
R F group
—
—
25 10
—
—
—
36
R F group
14 10
l6 15 O
21 10
—
R F .
II 15
14 2 6
17 12 6
99 O O
NB
14 5
—
21 O O
39 O O
Heart T 4 . . .
14 12 6
17 10
23 IO O
34 ©
Heart T 5. . . .
14 12 6
17 10
21 O
31
Daisee 2 ....
12 17 6
—
18 15
25 10
Daisee assortment
12 10
14 17 6
18 5 6
"~
Mixed cuttings . .
4 5
"~
to
10
Jute Manufacture.— Long before jute came to occupy a
prominent place amongst the textile fibres of Europe; it formed
6o6
JUTB
the raw material of a Urge aa£ isaportas* industry t hr o ughou t
the regions of Eastern IlerigaL The Hiodn populatioo made the
material op into cordage, paper and doth, the chief use of the
latter beinf in the manufacture of gunny bags. Indeed, up to
1830-1840 there was tittle or no competition with hand labour for
tins dam of material. The process of weaving gunnies for bags
and other coarse articles by these hand-loom weavers has been
described as follows: —
" Seven stacks or chatter weaving-posts. caBed Ami peri or warp,
are fixed upon the ground, occopyiaw the length equal to Uie measure
of the piece to be woven, and a suf fic ient number of twine or thread
is wound 00 them as warp cafled lend. The warp is taken up and
removed to the weaving machine. Two pieces of wood are placed
at two ends, which are tied to the •kmri and other or roller . they are
— -*- '-- » — »»— *.!>-».- iv. l~i~* — *~eadle is pot into the ws —
r of wood is bid upon
made Cast to the kkotL The hdmt or treadle is pot into the warp,
next to that is the smmdi a thin piece of wood is bid upon the
warp, called ckupen or regulator. There u no sley osed in this, nor
jute are principally (1) gunny
<-like bag for carrying
s a shuttle necessary; in the room of the latter a stick covered with
thread called naga is thrown into the warp as woof, which b beaten
in by a piece of plank called beymo. and as the doth is woven it is
wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood called
hketone. which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof; a
stick is fastened to the warp to keep the woof straight."
Gonny doth b woven of nomeroos qualities, according to the
purpose to which it is devoted. Some kinds are made dose and
dense in texture, for carrying such seed as poppy or rape and
sugar; others less close are used for rice, pulses, and seeds of tike
size, and coarser and opener kinds again are woven for the outer
cover of packages and for the sails of country boats. There is
a thin close-woven doth made and used as garments among the
females of the aboriginal tribes near the foot of the Himalayas,
and in various localities a doth of pure jute or of jute mixed with
cotton is used as a sheet to sleep on, as well as for wearing pur-
poses. To indicate the variety of uses to which jute is applied,
the following quotation may be cited from the official report of
Hem Chunder Kerr as applying to Midnapur.
" The articles manufactured from jute are prim
bags; (2) string, rope and cord ; (3) kampa, a net-lik ,
wood or hay on bullocks; (4) chat, a strip of stuff for tying bales of
cotton or cloth; (5) dola, a swing on which infant* are rocked to
sleep; (6) sktka. a kind of hanging shelf for little earthen pot*. Ac;
(7) dtdtna, a floor-cloth ; (8) beera. a small circular stand for wooden
plates used particularly in poojeks; (9) painter's brush and brush for
white-washing; (10) ghunsi. a waist -band worn next to the skin;
(1 1) gockk-doh. a hair-band worn by women; (12) mukbar, a net bag
used as muzzle for cattle: (13) porckula. false hair worn by players;
(14) rakki-bandkan, a slender arm-band worn at the Rakhi-poomima
festival, and (15) dkup, small incense sticks burned at poojeks."
The fibre began to receive attention in Great Britain towards
the dose of the 18th century, and early in the 19th century it was
spun into yarn and woven into- cloth in the town of Abingdon.
It is claimed that this was the first British town to manufacture
the material. For years small quantities of jute were imported
into Great Britain and other European countries and into
America, but it was not until the year 1832 that the fibre may
be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain.
The first really practical experiments with the fibre were made
in this year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experi-
ments proved to be the foundat ion of an enormous industry. It
is interesting to note that the site of Chapelshade Works was in
1907 cleared for the erection of a large new technical college.
In common with practically all new industries progress was
sJdw for a time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth
I from it had become known the development was more
The pioneers of the work were confronted with many
most people condemned the fibre and the doth, many
were discarded as unfit for weaving, and any attempt
: *he Sire with flax, tow or hemp was considered a form of
rmsv The real cause of most of these objections was the
machinery and methods of treatment had
1 lor preparing yarns from this useful fibre,
i rrairsays: —
-•' vur ,0 ionu d u ct ioo the principal spinners refused
-• ■ » 'm wtH jute, and cloth made of it long retained
•— ■» •««•*. is was not until Mr Rowan got
" -•—■ i/amm Uj8. to substitute Jute yarns Tor
<w> •uasufactore of the coffee bagging for
~mmmm- mm the jute trade in Dundee got a
^ Thar fortunate <
spinning of the fibre which it 1
progress has been truly a
The demand for this dam of bagging, which i
hrwhn yarns, is still great. These fine Rio I
an important branch of the Dundee trade, and i
during 1006 as many as 1000 bales were «Vfp nfh td to Braum\
besides numerous quantities to other parts of the world.
For many years Great Britain was the only European country
engaged in the manufacture of jute, the great seat being I
Gradually, however, the trade began to extend, and now a
every European country is partly engaged m the trade.
The success of the mechanical method of 'p-^i ami
weaving of jute in Dundee and district led to the in u o du c tku i
of textile machinery into and around Calcutta. The first miB
to be run there by power was started in 1854, while by 187a
three others had been established. In the next ten years no
fewer than sixteen new mills were erected and fi pi rpp n l with
modern machinery from Great Britain, while in 1907 there were
thirty-nine mills engaged in the industry. The "|""vi*Tt of
the Indian power trade may be gathered from the following
particulars of the number of looms and spindles from 1892 to
1006. In one or two cases the number of spindles is ^'WH
approximately by reckoning twenty spindles per loom, which is
about the average for the Indian mills.
Year.
Looms.
Spindles.
1892-3
8.479
177732
1893-4
9.082
189.144
i&S
9.504
197*73
10.071
212.595
254.610
1898-9
12.276
12-737
13.3*3
27 1 .362
277 .39«
1899-1900
14.021
293*21*
1900-01
15.242
16.059
315-264
1901-02
329-300
1902-03
17.091
350.120
1904*
19.901
398^20»
1905
21.318
426J60*
1906 1
26.799
520.98o«
The Calcutta looms are engaged for the most part with a few
varieties of the commoner classes of jute fabrics, but the success
in this direction has been really remarkable. Dundee, on the
other hand, turns out not only the commoner dasses of fabrics,
but a very large variety of other fabrics. Amongst these may
be mentioned the following: Hessian, bagging, tarpaulin,
sacking, scrims, Brussels carpets, Wilton carpets, imitation
Brussels, and several other types of carpets, rugs and matting,
in addition to a large variety of fabrics of which jute forms a part.
Calcutta has certainly taken a large part of the trade which
Dundee held in its former days, but the continually increasing
demands for jute fabrics for new purposes have enabled Dundee
to enter new markets and so to take part in the prosperity of the
trade.
The development of the trade with countries outside India
from 1828 to 1006 may be seen by the following figures of
exports: —
1828 to 1832-33
1833-34.. 1837-38
1838-39 » 1842-43
Average per year from
1843-44 .. 1847-48
1848-49 „ i8f
1853-54 ..
»858-59 ..
1863-64 ,.
1868-09,.
1878-79 M
1883-84 .,
1888-89 h
I898-99..
1903-O4 .»
1887-88
1897-98
I902-03
1905-06
1 1.800 cat.
67483 ..
117.047 ..
234*055 m
439.85O ..
7I0.826 .,
969.724 ..
S.628.I10 „
4^58.162 „
5.362.267 ..
7.274^00 „
8.223.859 «
to,37».99t ~
12.084.202 ,,
11.959.189 ~
13.693.090 „
1 End of calendar year, the remainder being taken to the 31st of
March, the end of financial year.
1 Approximate number of spindles.
JUTE
607
The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from, an
agricultural, as well as from a manufacturing, point of view.
The difference between the production and the exports represents
the native consumption, for very little jute is sent overland.
The figures are taken to the 31st of March, the end of the
Indian financial year.
Year.
Acres under
cultivation.
Production
incwt.
Exports by
sea incwt.
«893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
2.181,334
2.230,570
2.275.335
2,248.593
2.215,105
2.159.908
1.690.739
2,070.668
2,102.236
2,278.205
2.142.700
2,275,050
2,899.700
3.181,600
20419.000
17,863,000
21.944400
19.825,000
20418.000
24425.000
19.050.000
19.329.000
23.307.000
26.564.000
23489.000
25,861,000
26.429,000
29.945.000
10,537.512
8.690,133
12,976,791
12,266,781
11464,356
15.023.325
9.864.545
9.725.245
12414.552
I4.755.ii5
13.036486
13.721447
12.875.312
I4.5«i.307
Manufacture.— In their general features the spinning and
weaving of jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery
and processes from those employed in the manufacture of
hemp and heavy flax goods. Owing, however, to the woody
and ^rittle nature of the fibre, it has to undergo a preliminary
treatment peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the jute industry,
who did not understand this necessity, or rather who did* not
know how the woody and brittle charactei of the fibre could be
remedied, were greatly perplexed by the difficulties they had
to encounter, the fibre spinning badly into a hard, rough and
hairy yarn owing to the splitting and breaking of the fibre.
This peculiarity of jute, coupled also with the fact that the
machinery on which it was first spun, although quite suitable
for the stronger and more elastic fibres for which it was designed,
required certain modifications to suit it to the weaker jute,
was the cause of many annoyances and failures in the early days
of the trade.
The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching.
Batch setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of select-
ing the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind
of yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom exceeds twelve, in-
deed it is generally about six. and of these there may be three, four
or even more varieties or marks. The" streaks "» or u heads "of jute
as they come from the bale are in a hard
condition in consequence of having been
subjected to a high hydraulic pressure
during baling; it is therefore necessary
to soften them before any further process
U entered. The streaks are sometimes
partly softened or crushed by means of a
steam hammer during the process of
opening the bale, then taken to the
•* strikers-up " where the different varie-
ties are selected and hung on pins, and '
then taken to the jute softening machine.
The more general practice, however, is
to employ what is termed a " bale
opener." or " jute crusher " The essential
parts of one type of bale opener are
three specially shaped rollers, the peri-
pheries of which contain a number of
small knobs. Two of these rollers are
supported in the same horizontal plane
of the framework, while the third or *
top roller is kept in close contact by
means of weights and springs acting on
each end of the arbor. Another type of
machine termed the three pair roller jute
opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the different bales are laid
upon the feed cloth which carries them up to the rollers, between
which the layers are crushed and partly separated The proximity
of the weighted roller or rollers to the fixed ones depends upon the
1 Also in the forms " streck," " strick " or " strike." as in Chaucer,
Cant. Tales, Prologue 676, where the Pardoner's hair is compared
with a " strike of flax. ' The term is also used of a handful of
hemp or other fibre, and is one of the many technical applications
of " strike " or " streak," which etymologicarly are cognate words.
thickness of material passing through the machine. The fibre
is delivered by what is called the delivery cloth, and the batcher
usually selects small streaks of about 1* lb to 2 lb weight each and
passes them on to the attendant or feeder of the softening machine.
These small streaks are now laid as regularly as possible upon the
feed-cloth of the softening machine, a general view of which is
shown in fie. 4. The fibre passes between a series of fluted rollers,
each pair of which is kept in contact by spiral springs as shown in
the figure. The standard number of pairs is sixty-three, but different
lengths obtain. There is also a difference in the structure of the
Fio. 3.— Jute Opener. (The three machines shown in this article
are made by Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.)
flutes, some being straight, and others spiral, and each pair may or
may not contain the same number of flutes. The springs allow the
top rollers of each pair to rise as the material passes through the
machine. Advantage is taken of this slight upward and downward
movement of the top rollers to automatically regulate the flow of
water and oil upon the material. The apparatus for this function
is placed immediately over the nth and 12th rollers of the softening
machine and an idea of its construction may be gathered from fig. 5.
In many cases the water and oil are applied by less automatic, but
equally effective, means. The main object is to sec that the liquids
are distributed evenly while the fibre is passing through, and to
stop the supply when the machine stops or when no fibre is passing.
The uniform moistening of the fibre in this machine facilitates the
subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this preliminary
process (originally by hand) constituted the first important step in
the practical solution of the difficulties of jute spinning. The rela-
tive quantities of oil and water depend upon the quality of the batch.
Sometimes both whale and mineral oils are used, but in most cases
the whale oil is omitted. About 1 to 1 J gallons of oil is the usual
amount given per bale of 400 lb of jute, while the quantity of water
per bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The delivery attendants remove
the streaks, give them a twist to facilitate future handling, and place
them on what are termed jute barrows. The streaks are now handed
over to the cutters who cut off the roots, and finally the material is
allowed to remain for twelve to twenty-four hours to allow the mix-
ture of oil and water to thoroughly spread over the fibre.
When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken
to the " breaker card." the first machine in the preparing department.
A certain weight of jute, termed a " dollop.' is laid upon the feed
cloth for each revolution of the latter. The fibre, which should be
arranged on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the
feed cloth and passes between the feed roller and the shell on to the
JUTBRBOG
*■* wrf«e *x*d.
rtrsr^
"*«* Other, thoaeof
«?<-*>£»£■* rrMi.li' I
^- •* —
IV»'
» taefefar*
•ceiatkeswface
bess* broke* and
H
>U
>UI
den
*u*
size,
cove
atbv
ietna
andi
cotto
poses
the Co
bags]*
woodo
cotton
•Jeep;/
(7) <*«*
plates u
white-w.
(U )£<*'>
used as . i
(14) "»**
festival ,
The 61
the close —
spun into
Itisdain , -s
the maten
into Grca ^~
America, t -<
be said to ^
The first tc
in this ye*' ^
inents provi s
is interests -
,007 cleared
In commo-
tio* for a lv
produced froi
rapid. The [
difficulties; mo
warps were di
to mix the fibre
deception. Th
fact that suital
not been develo
Warden in his L\
" For years aft<
to have anything t
a uinted reputati
the Dutch goveroi
those made Trom ft
their East Indian f>
«=•* :ar-*s fc n«d to
': :> -Tias- pcx=t ra tie
a rJe ct . s oer s cart
rrr * f.-Je-ws t*at tbe
^rr s ^rnr - Kward
per* rar ■ ■■ji;;* zst a
*- :t?«ssm£ :^e last
-vr T»rt rrwx-c? the
*a»r tae icrr » T»trd
"5 * ^&SC* *lt Bill toe
: — r :-ai isxN- trt i w 1
-- ~ crv h but he
- act ti r wu. c *ri fair
i-n: taar ccr*i— £ *•*$
thl?u ^/ r 3? nn !r P ? ocew is th&t ot ""«*• In this operation
fch hL^SW *, ** s, i vers - but «* sifter passS se£SSJ
i&2j£ Mcbne. from the can to the spindle.TaVawTS to
bobbin (each layer of the bobbin has its own particular Se3 2i,2h
-constant for the full traverse, but each chant?of direct^ of^te
budder is accompanied by a quick change of s>ed to tte£)bbinf
Itjs «emial that the bobbin should hate sucha mStioS bcatSL
the delivery of the sliver and the speed of the flyer are ££»s££? S
k r2Kl?hi* fc? b,n * Is ;i n th * J ute moving frame the tSbbin
2 & iS^ ,,,ttd '" ,he whol,! ,raver » e f"»»^io U*S£
Let R - the revolutions per second ot the flyer-
r - the revoluUons per second of the bobbin;
L Z It fcj?S *?• ^S 1 ? 'ili 1 p,us the material;
then (R — r) , ) J n ^ h J > {^ ,lver delivered per second ;
d hLcre^^ttST^ " 5' * iTi L are c0 ««tant, therefore as
"^^ tne term (R-7-r) must decrease; this can haDoen mJv
-to. r » wotiased. thatis, when the bobbin revolvw SSS It
- £X ••S!f ro £| the a .5°r ^^on that if the K wSe the
kadcr its speed would have to decrease as it filled
The budder. which receives its motion from the disk and stmn
frwtbe cooes, or from the expanding pulfey, has 1 aho an l£~'
■styry variable speed. It begSs at ! rna^'umspeS thei ?£*
b*b» -empty, M cooatant for each layer, but de5*te?2 JbT
The ro>Tj^rn is now ready for the spinning frame, where a farther
*"? ^J^SL^ h g ? VCn - The PrinripTe. of jute s^nninTar^
s»uUr to those of dry spuming for flax. For vcry'heavy^ute^a™
ike spcnaing frame is not useJ-the desired amount ItftSSn b^
pvea at the ro\ing frame. *»•»«■ l "w ooof
The count of jute yarn is based upon the weight in pounds ot
14400 yds., such length receiving the name of ^spyndL?" The
*"*? FTfF^lJr 10 ** kP^Pyndle, but the coSmowtt kimfc
« 7 UK S lb. 9 J^d lofb per spynjte. The sizes rise in^nSS
\ X ~iriF X ' - h ». ,S not "ncomnin to find 2 » ft
i*n? «^ nf WC,ght occas,ona, . , y ^ches 450 lb per
crent sires of varn ai» #vi0n.;.«t.. ..-^j 7ri % F ^*
3S U -»'
rl btir litter
to about jo lb, then by 2 lb u|
Ixrpcr jumps above "
to 300 R> rove yarn. -.._ ...^ „ VI|Slll u^sujrraHy reaches 4 so lb ner
stn ndk. Thed.ffcrent sires of yarn are extensively used in a uS
2^l2L f,lbnCS • ~ mct,m « *tene. sometimes in injunction wSb
other fibres, e. t with worsted in the various kinds of carpets wiX
cotton in tapwtnes and household cloths, with line and tW'vaJns
l T the same fabnes and for paddings. &c, and with wool for SS
. . 4./ •"• i~—»8». ««.., anu wim wool or how
^hmc The yarns are capable of being dyed brilliant cotewi
clothe colours are not very fast to light. ThefiS
me.
URJOl
r* ■■**_
- £ r a^
j.ji
.... x :***<* •>£*?' I
_-^ w *r« ^w '*l^^ r$ • ^ I
w, ■# WWW*' '
i kH,t * " R f c ^ un * tc W«^ vv.v,u, a «re noi very tast to light. Tb
_ ^„ caaabo be prepared to imitate human hair with remarkable^
■tr- ; — ~-/ ~ . -« v-cie rto f»v*^ • "*?» * , advantage of this is largely taken in making staae wira
.-*---• 3SE ^?| e ^« v«5?wk .^d I Jf» *»W information regarding jute, the clolrSadT^m «
- « "*- *^ - -^- - And the machinery used, see the following works; Watts* DirtiZLZ.
> ' *^* /"ducts of Indta, Royl!'. K^F&m?SS^
sharp % /^wr. Ton and Jute Spinning; Leggatt's Jmtt sii**imml
U.xvlh^use and Milne's Jute and Ltnen wiring. *andWc£dK2:
( and Milne's Textile Dtstgn. Pure and Appltel <Xw!$F
JOTCRBOO. or GOterboc, a town of Germany in the Prussian
province o( Brandenburg, on the Nuthe, 39 m. S W of Berlin,
at the junction of the main lines of railway from Berlin to Dresden
ir*\ Letpng. Pop. (1000), 7407. The town is surrounded by
a mcviirval wall, with three gateways, and contains two Protes-
tant churrhrt, of which that of St Nicholas (14th century) is
remarkable for its three fine aisles. There are also a Roman
Catholic church, an old town-hall and a modern school. Jfiter-
N* carries on weaving and spinning both of flax and wool, and
trade* in the produce of those manufactures and in cattle.
Vittc* are cultivated in the neighbourhood. Juterbog belonged
in the Utcr middle ages to the archbishopric of Magdeburg,
iv».w..'\f tv> electoral Saxony in 1648, and to Prussia in 1815. It
was here that a treaty over the succession to the duchy of Jtilich
wa* mjK*e in March 161 1 between Saxony and Brandenburg,
atin! here in November 1644 the Swedes defeated the Imperialists.
1N*» miks S.W. of the town is the battlefield of Dcnnewiu
>nssians defeated the French on the 6th of Septcm-
JUTES— JUTURNA
609
. JUTB, the third of the Teutonic -nations which invaded
Britain in the 5th century, called by Bede lutat or luti (see
Britain, Anglo-Saxon). They settled in Kent and toe Isle of
Wight together with the adjacent parts of Hampshire. In the
latter case the national name is said to have survived until
Bede's own time, in the New Forest indeed apparently very
much later. In Kent, however, it seems to have soon passed
out of use, though there is good reason for believing that the
inhabitants of that kingdom were of a different nationality from
their neighbours (see Kent, Kingdom of). With regard to the
origin of the Jutes, Bede only says that Angulus (Angel) lay
between the territories of the Saxons and the Iutae— a statement
which points to their identity with the luti or Jyder of later
times, «.*. the inhabitants of Jutland. Some recent writers
have preferred to identify the Jutes with a tribe called Eucii
mentioned in a letter from Tbeodberht to Justinian (Mom.
Germ. Hist., Episi. m., p. 132 seq.) and settled apparently in the
neighbourhood of the Franks. But these people may themselves
have come from Jutland.
See Bede, Hisk Ecclts. i. 15, to. x6. . (H. M. C.)
JUTIGALPA, or Juticalpa, the capital of the department of
Jutigalpa in eastern Honduras^ on one of the main roads from
the Bay of Fonseca to the Atlantic coast, and on a small left-
hand tributary of the river Patuca. Pop. (1005), about 1 8,00a
Jutigalpa is the second city of Honduras, being surpassed only
by Tegucigalpa. It is the administrative centre of a moun-
tainous* region rich in minerals, though mining Is rendered
difficult by the lack of communications and the unsettled con*
dition of the country. The majority of the inhabitants are.
Indians or half-castes, engaged in the cultivation of coffee,
ba nana s, tobacco, sugar or cotton.
JUTLAND (Danish /yftussV though embracing several
islands as well as a peninsula, may be said to belong to the
continental portion of the kingdom of Denmark. The peninsula
(Chersonese or Cimbric peninsula of ancient geography) extends
northward, from a line between Lubeck and the mouth of the
Elbe, for 270 m. to the promontory of the Skaw (Skagen), thus
preventing a natural communication directly east and west
between the Baltic and North Seas. The northern portion only
is Danish, and bears the name Jutland. The southern is Ger-
man, belonging to Schleswig-Hobtein. The peninsula is almost
at its narrowest (36 m.) at the frontier, but Jutland has an
extreme breadth of iro m. and the extent from the south-western
point (near Ribe) to the Skaw is 180 m. Jutland embraces nine
omter (counties), namely, HjSrring, Thisted, Aalborg, RingkjSb-
fng, Viborg, Randers, Aarhus, Vejle and Ribe. The main water-
shed of the peninsula lies towards the east coast; therefore
such elevated ground as exists is found on the east, while the
western slope is gentle and consists of a low sandy plain of
slight undulation. The North Sea coast (western) and Skager-
rack coast (north-western) consist mainly of a sweeping line
of dunes with wide lagoons behind them. In the south the
northernmost of the North Frisian Islands (Fan5) is Danish.
Towards the north a narrow mouth gives entry to the Limf jord,
or Liimfjord, which, wide and ramifying among islands to the
west, narrows to the east and pierces through to the Cattegat, thus
isolating the counties of Hjttrring and Thisted (known together as
Vendsyssel). It is, however, bridged at Aalborg, and its depth
rarely exceeds 12 ft. The seaward banks of the lagoons are fre-
quently broken in storms, and the narrow channels through them
are constantly shifting. The east coast is slightly bolder than the
west, and indented with true estuaries and bays. From the
south-east the chain of islands forming insular Denmark ex-
tends towards Sweden, the strait between Jutland and Funen
having the name of the Little Belt. The low and dangerous
coasts, off which the seas are generally very shallow, are effi-
ciently served by a scries of lifeboat stations. The western coast
region is well compared with the Landes of Gascony. The
interior is low. The Varde, Omme, Skjeme, Stor and Karup,
sluggish and tortuous streams draining into the western lagoons,
rise in and flow through marshes, while the eastern Limf jord
Is flanked by the swamps known as Vildmose. The only
considerable river is the Gndenma, flowing from S.W. into the
Randersfjord (Cattegat), and rising among the picturesque
lakes of the county of Aarhus, where the principal elevated
ground in the peninsula is found in the Himmelbjerg and adjacent
hills (exceeding 500 ft.). The German portion of the peninsula
is generally similar to that of western Jutland, the main difference
lying in the occurrence of islands (the North Frisian) off the west
coast in place of sand-bars and lagoons. Erratic blocks arc of
frequent occurrence in south Jutland. (For geology, and the
general consideration of Jutland in connexion with the whole
kingdom, see Denmark.)
Although in ancient times well wooded, the greater portion
of the interior of Jutland consisted for centuries of barren drift-
sand, which grew nothing but heather; but since x866, chiefly
through the instrumentality of the patriotic Heath association,
assisted by annual contributions from the state, a very large
proportion of this region has been more or less reclaimed for
cultivation. The means adopted are: (i.) the plantation of trees;
(ii.) the making of irrigation canals and irrigating meadows;
(iii.) exploring for, extracting and transporting loam, a process
aided by the construction of short light railways; and (iv.), since
1889, the experimental cultivation of fenny districts. The
activity of the association takes the form partly of giving
gratuitous advice, partly of experimental attempts, and partly
of model works for imitation. The state also makes annual
grants directly to owners who are willing to place their plants-'
(Jons under state supervision, for the sale of plants at half price
to the poorer peasantry, for making protective or sheltering
plantations, and for free transport of marl or loam. The species
of timber almost exclusively planted are the red fir (Pkta
exedsa) and the mountain pine ( Pinus montana) . This admirable
work quickly caused the population to increase at a more rapid
rate in the districts where it was practised than in any other part
of the Danish kingdom. The counties of Viborg, Ringkjobing
and Ribe cover the principal heath district.
Jutland is well served by railways. Two Knes cross the fron-
tier from Germany on the east and west respectively and run
northward near the coasts. The eastern touches the ports of
Kolding, Fredericia, Vejlc, Horsens, Aarhus, Randers, Aalborg
on Limf jord, Frederikshavn and Skagen. On the west the only
port of first importance is Esbjerg. The line runs past Skjerne,
Ringkjobing, Vemb and Holstebro to Thisted. Both throw off
many branches and are connected by lines east and west between
Kolding and Esbjerg, Skanderborg and Skjerne, Langaa and
Struer on Limfjord via Viborg. Of purely inland towns only
Viborg in the midland and Hjdrring in the extreme north are
of importance.
JUTURNA (older form Diuturna, the lasting), an old Latin
divinity, a personification of the never-failing springs. Her ori-
ginal home was on the river Numicius near Lavinium, where
there was a spring called after heT, supposed to possess heal-
ing qualities (whence the old Roman derivation from j*vor*,
to help). Her worship was early transferred to Rome,
localized by the Lacus Juturnae near the temple of Vesta, at
which Castor and Pollux, after announcing the victory of lake
Rcgillus, were said to have washed the sweat from their horses.
At the end of the First Punic War Lutatius Catulus erected a
temple in her honour on the Campus Martius, subsequently re-
stored by Augustus.' Juturna was associated with two festivals:
the Juturnalia on the nth of January, probably a dedication
festival of a temple built by Augustus, and celebrated by the
college of the fonlcni, workmen employed in the construction
and maintenance of aqueducts and fountains; and the Volcan-
alla on the 23rd of August, at which sacrifice was offered to
Volcanus, the Nymphs and Juturna, as protectors against
outbreaks of fire. In Virgil, Juturna appears as the sister of
Turnus (probably owing to the partial similarity of the names),
on whom Jupiter, to console her for the loss of her chastity,
bestowed immortality and the control of all the lakes and rivers
of Latium. For the statement that she was the wife of Janus
and mother of Font us (or Fons), the god of fountains, Arnobius
(Adv. gentes iii. 29) is alone responsible.
"^ - *-^« *>*** ^ *» *** Set-nws mi loc: OvW. Fa***. iL
^.— - * % »J .v<'— ^ *"~^ . * i v l~ Uwiboer. - Juturna und die
-r -*• ,_,., *.. a-« v»»»c<^fi» («ntn, in Nnut Jakrb. /. das
#~ •- * ""**a,Xl .!***■•* Jvmvs Jvvbnaus) (c. 60-140), Roman
• tf \J >* *'**- *** **** ** A< * uiaum - Brief accounls of his
^^-.^ " ^ o.v^wcabjy in details, arc prefixed to different
JUVENAL
- ^. «v«t*. H«t *&<» common original cannot be traced
"** ^ir***** 1 * ttllwil y» * nd s 0111 * °f their statements
k ±;;> improbable. According to the version which
^ the earliest:—
— - . t be*« iiaiemcnwi are so much in consonance with the
S **? •vit»«» ce » ffo 1 " ied 1 b > r ** *"«*» that they may be a
Uwli^S VonJ«« lttrcs 1 . ba ??. upon thcm * The rare passages in
terl** <* ooct U*** 8 of * a own position, as in satires xi. and
"^ t I^atT lK * i J? was »»«atorubk but moderate circum-
*UU 4i%a \V« » bould mfer . 9ho that hc was not dependent on
--— •- - — ■ ~""™^» ■«* •»-• •-- was separated in
1 manners, from the
mged, as he was by
wealth by servility
c pride and dignity,
presentatives of the
ampion of the more
gan of the rancours
sed and embittered
has no leanings to
on the serious epic
hat he was a trained
his own words (i. 16)
oughts and illustra-
te dates when his
ce of life which they
not come before the
age.
e satires long before
I the nature of their
-ir composition, and
tic but yet guarded
ry of Roman litera-
ius, Horace and Per-
in our own day, dis-
II be heard of here-
»man writer of satire
Lhers by so judicious
:h a writer of satire
; sufficiently obvious;
suppression thus im-
ly affected his whole
1 a not improbable
y of the poet's exile
erence to Juvenal in
ftge of an actor only
1 the varyingversions
ed before the middle
was banished at the
could not have been
om the original lines
were written, as Paris was put to death in 83, and Juvenal was
certainly writing satires long after 100. The satire in which the
lines now appear was probably first published soon after the
accession of Hadrian, when Juvenal was not an octogenarian
but in the maturity of his powers. The cause of the poet's
banishment at that advanced age could not therefore have beta
either the original composition or the first publication of the
lines.
An expression in xv. 45 is quoted as a proof that Juvenal had
visited Egypt. He may have done so as an exile or in a military
command; but it seems hardly consistent with the importance
which the emperors attached to the security of Egypt, or with
the concern which they took in the interests of the army, that
these conditions were combined at an age so unfit for military
employment. If any conjecture is warrantable on so obscure a
subject, it is more likely that this temporary disgrace should have
been inflicted on the poet by Domitian. Among the many vic-
tims of Juvenal's satire it is only against him and against one of
the vilest instruments of his court, the Egyptian Crispinus, that
the poet seems to be animated by personal hatred. A sense of
wrong suffered at their hands may perhaps have mingled with
the detestation which be felt towards them on public grounds.
But if he was banished under Domitian, it must have bees
either before or after 03, at which time, as we learn from aa
epigram of Martial, Juvenal was in Rome.
More ancient evidence is supplied by an inscription found at
Aquinum, recording, so far as it has been deciphered,- the dedi-
cation of an altar to Ceres by a Iunius Iuvenalis, tribune of the
first cohort of Dalmatians, duumvir quinquennalis, and fiamen
Divi Vcspasiani, a provincial magistrate whose functions
corresponded to those of the censor at Rome. This Juvenalis may
have been the poet, but he may equally well have been a relation.
The evidence of the satires does not point to a prolonged absence
from the metropolis. They are the product of immediate and
intimate familiarity with the life of the great city. An epigram
of Martial, written at the time when Juvenal was most vigorously
employed in their composition, speaks of him as settled in Rome.
He himself hints (iii. 318) that he maintained his connexion with
Aquinum, and that he had some special interest in the worship
of the " Helvinian Ceres. 1 ' Nor is the tribute to the national
religion implied by the dedication of the altar to Ceres incon-
sistent with the beliefs and feelings expressed in the satires.
While the fables of mythology are often treated contemptuously
or humorously by him, other passages in the satires clearly
imply a conformity to, and even a respect for, the observances of
the national religion. The evidence as to the military post filled
by Juvenal is curious, when taken in connexion with the con-
fused tradition of his exile in a position of military importance.
But it cannot be said that the satires bear traces of military
experience; the life described in them is rather such as would
present itself to the eyes of a civilian.
The only other contemporary evidence which affords a glimpse
of Juvenal's actual life is contained in three epigrams of Martial
Two of these (vii. 24 and 91) were written in the time of Domitian,
the third (rii. 18) early in the reign of Trajan, after Martial had
retired to his native Bilbilis. The first attests the strong regard
which Martial felt for him; but the subject of the epigram seems
to hint that Juvenal was not an easy person to get on with. In
the second, addressed to Juvenal himself, the epithet Jocund**
is applied to him, equally applicable to his "eloquence" as
satirist or rhetorician. In the last Martial imagines his friend
wandering about discontentedly through the crowded streets of
Rome, and undergoing all the discomforts incident to attendance
on the levees of the great. Two lines in the poem suggest that
the satirist, who inveighed with just severity against the worst
corruptions of Roman morals, was not too rigid a censor of the
morals of his friend. Indeed, his intimacy with Martial is a
ground for not attributing to him exceptional strictness of life.
The additional information as to the poet's life and circum*
stances derivable from the satires themselves is not important.
He had enjoyed the training which all educated men received in
his day (i. 15); he speaks of his farm in the territory of Hour
JUVENAL
6zi
(at 65), which famished m young kW mnd mountain
for a homely dinner to which be invites a friend during the f estiva!
of the Megalesia. From the satire in which this invitation is
contained we are able to form an idea of the style in which be
habitually lived, and to think of him as enjoying a bale and
vigorous age (203), and also as a kindly master of a household
(159 acq.). The negative evidence afforded in the account of his
establishment suggests the inference that, Uke Ludhus and
Horace, Juvenal bad no personal experience of either the cares
or the softening influence of family life. A comparison of this
poem with the invitation of Horace toTorquatus (Ep. i. 5) brings
out strongly the differences not in urbanity only but in kindly
feeling between- the two satirists. Gaston Boissier has drawn
from the indications afforded of the career and character of
the persons to whom the satires are addressed most unfavourable
conclusions as to the social circumstances and associations of
Juvenal. If we believe that these were all real people, with whom
Juvenal lived in intimacy, we should conclude that be was most
unfortunate in his associates, and that his own relations to them
were marked rather by outspoken frankness than dviHty. But
they seem to be more " nominis umbrae " than real men; they
serve the purpose of enabling the satirist to aim his blows at
one particular object instead of declaiming at large. They have
none of the individuality and traits of personal character dis-
cernible in the persons addressed by Horace in his Satirts and
Epistlto. It is noticeable that, while Juvenal writes of the poets
and men of letters of a somewhat earlier time as if they were still
living, he makes no reference to his friend Martial or the younger
Pliny and Tacitus, who wrote their works during the years of his
own literary activity. It is equally noticeable that Juvenal's
name does not appear in Pliny's letters.
The times at which the satires were given to the world do not
in all cases coincide with those at which they were written and
to which they immediately refer. Thus the manners and per-
sonages of the age of Domitian often supply the material of satiric
representation, and are spoken of as if they belonged to the actual
life of the present, 1 whUe allusions even in the earliest show that,
as a finished literary composition, it belongs to the age of Trajan.
The most probable explanation of these discrepancies is that in
their present form the satires are the work of the last thirty
years of the poet's life, while the first nine at least may have pre-
served with little change passages written during his earlier
manhood. The combination of the impressions, and, perhaps
of the actual compositions, of different periods also explains a
certain want of unity and continuity found in some of them.
There is no reason to doubt that the sixteen satires which we
possess were given to the world in the order in which we find them,
and that they were divided, as they are referred to in the ancient
grammarians, into five books. Book I., embracing the first five
satires, was written in the freshest vigour of the author's powers,
and is animated with the strongest hatred of Domitian. The
publication of this book belongs to the early years of Trajan.
The mention of the exile of Marias (49) shows that it was not
published before 100. In the second satire, the lines 29 seq.,
" Qualis erat nuper tragico pollutus adulter
Concubitu,"
show that the memory of one of the foulest scandals of the reign
of Domitian was still fresh in the minds of men. The third satire,
imitated by Samuel Johnson in his London, presents such a picture
as Rome may have offered to the satirist at any time in the
1st century of our era; but it was under the worst emperors, Nero
and Domitian, that the arts of flatterers and foreign adventurers
were most successful, and that such scenes of violence as that
described at 277 seq. were most likely tooccur ;* while the mention
of Vciento (185) as still enjoying influence is a distinct reference
to the court of Domitian. The fourth, which alone has any
political significance, and reflects on the emperor as a frivolous
1 This n especially noticeable in the seventh satire, but it applies
also to the mention of Crispinus, Latinus, the class of ddatores, &c,
in the first, to the notice of Vciento in the third, of Rubellius Blandus
In the eighth, of Gallicus in the thirteenth, &c
* Cf. Tacitus, Anmh, xiiL 25.
trifler rather than as a monster of Inst and cruelty, is the reproduc-
tion of a real or imaginary scene from the reign of Domitian, and
is animated by the profoundest scorn and loathing both of the
tyrant himself and of the worst instruments of bis tyranny.
The fifth is a social picture of the degradation to which poor
guests were exposed at the banquets of the rich, but many of the
epigrams of Martial and the more sober evidence of one of Pliny's
letters show that the picture painted by Juvenal, though perhaps
exaggerated in colouring, was drawn from a state of society
prevalent during and immediately subsequent to the times of
Domitian.* Book II. consists of the most elaborate of the
satires, by many critics regarded as the poet's masterpiece, the
famous sixth satire, directed against the whole female sex,
which shares with Domitian and his creatures the most cherished
place in the poet's antipathies. It shows certainly no diminu-
tion of vigour either in its representation or its invective. The
time at which this satire was composed cannot be fixed with
certainty, but some allusions render it highly probable that it
was given to the world in the later years of Trajan, and before
the accession of Hadrian. The date of the publication of
Book III., containing the seventh, eighth and ninth satires, seems
to be fixed by its opening line to the first years after the accession
of Hadrian. In the eighth satire another reference is made ( 1 20)
to the misgovernment of Marhis in Africa as a recent event,
and at line 51 there may be an allusion to the Eastern wars that
occupied the last years of Trajan's reign. The ninth has no
allusion to determine its date, but it is written with the same
outspoken freedom as the second and the sixth, and belongs to
the period when the poet's power was most vigorous, and his
exposure of vice most uncompromising. In Book IV., comprising
the famous tenth, the eleventh and the twelfth satires, the author
appears more as a moralist than as a pure satirist. In the tenth,
the theme of the " vanity of human wishes " is illustrated by
great historic instances, rather than by pictures of the men and
manners of the age; and, though the declamatory vigour and
power of expression in it are occasionally as great as in the earlier
satires, and although touches of Juvenal's saturnine humour,
and especially of his misogyny, appear in all the satires of this
book, yet their general tone shows that the white heat of his
indignation is abated; and the lines of the eleventh, already
referred to (aoi seq.),
" Spectent jtrvenes quos clamor et audax
Sponsio, quos cultae decet assediase puellae:
Nostra bibat vernum contracta cuticula solem,"
leave no doubt that he was well advanced in years when they
were written.
Two important dates are found In Book V., comprising satires
xiii.-rvi. At xiii. 16 Juvenal speaks of his friend Calvinus as
now past sixty years of age, having been born in the consulship
of Fonteius. Now L. Fonteius Capito was consul in 67. Again
at xv. 27 an event is said to have happened in Egypt " nuper
consule Iunco." There was a L. Aemilius Iuncus consul
suffectus in 127. The fifth book must therefore have been pub-
lished some time after this date. More than the fourth, this
book bears the marks of age, both in the milder tone of the senti-
ments expressed, and in the feebler power of composition exhi-
bited. The last satire is now imperfect, and the authenticity
both of this and of the fifteenth has been questioned, though on
insufficient grounds.
Thus the satires were published at different intervals, and for
the most part composed between 100 and 130, but the most
powerful in feeling and vivid in conception among them deal
with the experience and impressions of the reign of Domitian,
occasionally recall the memories or traditions of the times of
Nero and Claudius, and reproduce at least one startling page
from the annals of Tiberius. 4 The same overmastering feeling
which constrained Tacitus (Agric. 2, 3), when the time of long
endurance and silence was over, to recall the " memory of the
• Pliny's remarks on the vulgarity as well as the ostentation of his
host imply that he regarded such behaviour as exceptional, at least
in the circle in which he himself lived (£f . ii. 6).
• x. 56-107.
6r*
JUVENAL
^"W mitW acted upon Juvenal. There is no evidence
*** ***** *** •*"•* *«**»i *n° lived and wrote at the same
»*» *w> vcr animated by the same hatred of the tyrant under
™»tke best years of their manhood were spent, and who both
*ett moat deeply the degradation of their times, were even known
to one another. Tacitus belonged to the highest official and
senatorial class, Juvenal apparently to the middle dass and to
that of the struggling men of letters; and this difference in posi-
tion had much influence in determining the different bent of their
genius, and in forming one to be a great national hfetorian, the
other to be a great social satirist. If the view of the satirist is
owing to this circumstance more limited in some directions, and
ljj*taate and temper less conformable to the best ancient stan-
dards of propriety, he is also saved by it from prejudices to which
the traditions of his class exposed the historian. But both
writers are thoroughly national in sentiment, thoroughly mascu*
Ine in tone. No ancient authors express so strong a hatred of
tvu. The peculiar greatness and value of both Juvenal and
Tackus is that they did not shut their eyes to the evil through
which they had lived, but deeply resented it— the one with a
xeheaaent and burning passion, like the " saeva indignatio " of
S«»X the other with perhaps even deeper but more restrained
tawtions of mingled scorn and sorrow, like the scorn and sorrow
oi aQtaa when " fallen on evil days and evil tongues. 1 ' In one
toped there is a difference. For Tacitus the prospect is not
«t*ty cheerless, the detested tyranny was at an end, and its
vfiects might disappear with a more beneficent rule. But the
fttam of Juvenal's pessimism is unlighted by hope.
X. C Swinburne has suggested that the secret of Juvenal's
esaoestiated power consisted in this, that he knew what he
sated, and that what he did hate was despotism and democracy.
Bat it wouki be hardly true to say that the animating motive of
tesacae was political It is true that he finds the most typical
ewanks of lust, cruelty, levity and weakness in the emperors
mi their wives— in Domitian, Otho, Nero, Claudius and Messa-
ba It is true also that he shares in the traditional idolatry of
smb. that he strikes at Augustus in his mention of the three
fe*ksof Sutta," and that he has no word of recognition for
Se^Tadtus acknowledges as the beneficent rule of Trajan
stains scorn for the Roman populace of his time, who cared
^*?W dole of bread and the public games, is unqualified.
r -^btSwithiU^ ^ seems
He somiy m umuwu thought of democracy at
u L»~£^^^?5m ^ old national manliness and
*^mS^ hb detesution of foreign
«'*"^ ~iSEL ^us loathing not only of inhuman
wmm * ^^LT«en of the lesser derelictions from self-
C|-B— ftoatws wk* ^d of art as ministering to luxury,
»^ac, sbsooo at mxa ^j ^ ^ stale and dilettante culture
i awwotrrei ****** *!l & indifference to the schools of
t m « ts^aao «asfs»w idcnti f y rU the professors of
**- ** **— ! -? md dose-cropped puritans, who
a- jsi ** unto an outward appearance of
tt •» ^Jte character, as it appears in his
* ^^'"^-lively *&&&* this xnood ' II a
^ »*. ** , * < *jlrbt ^^ and admired lhan
"_._-*■*/' "•TLjstic of his strong nature that,
M t " a i^atB sympathy or tenderness,
J ^* ' ^ position are dependent
li ^* •* tbe peasant boy with the
* nae home-sick ^d from ^
* c (jm whom he has not seen
_ **^TS tbe familiar kids."«
■**V-!» " ' C ^L macalist. it is not for his
" *" " ^** •* *■* ~\ a moral questions. In
"^ ' " ' *\L^ tenth satire, for in-
- "^^-^he gallant and des-
'*^a* speech-are quoted
tra.
the
Side
prov
of Oh
of the
age of
the °i
,***-!*
Ac.— ix. 60.
as mere examples of disappointed ambition; and, in the ntdb-
criminate condemnation of the arts by which men sought to gain
a livelihood, he leaves no room for the legitimate pursuits of
industry. His services to morals do not consist in any p o siti ve
contributions to the. notions of active duty, but in the strength
with which he has realized and expressed the restraining influ-
ence of the old Roman and Italian ideal of character, and also
of that religious conscience which was becoming a new power in
the world. Though he disclaims any debt to philosophy (xffi.
1 ax), yet he really owes more to the " Stoka dogmata," then
prevalent, than he is aware oi But his highest and rarest
literary quality is his power of painting characters, scenes,
incidents and actions, whether from past history or from con-
temporary life. In this power, which is also the great power of
Tacitus, he has few equals and perhaps no superior among ancient
writers. The difference between Tadtus and Juvenal in power
of representation is that the prose historian is more of an imagi-
native poet, the satirist more of a realist and a grotesque humor-
ist. Juvenal can paint great historical pictures in all their
detail— as in the famous representation of the fall of Sejanus;
he can describe a character elaboratdy or hit it off with a single
stroke. The picture drawn may be a caricature, or a misrepre-
sentation of the tact— as that of the father of Demosthenes.
" blear-eyed with the soot of the glowing mass," &c — but it is,
with rare exceptions, realistically conceived, and it is brought
before us with the vivid touches of a Defoe or a Swift, or of the
great pictorial satirist of the 18th century, Hogarth. Yet evea
in this, his most characteristic talent, his proneness to exaggera-
tion, the attraction which coarse and repulsive images have for
his mind, and the tendency to sacrifice general effect to minute-
ness of detail not infrequently mar his best effects.
The difficulty is often felt of distinguishing between a powerful
rhetorician and a genuine poet, and it is felt particularly in the
case of Juvenal He himself knew and has well described
(vii. 53 seq.) the conditions under which a great poet could
flourish; and he fdt that his own age was incapable of producing
one. He has little sense of beauty either in human life or nature.
Whenever such sense is evoked it is only as a momentary relief to
his prevailing sense of the hideousness of contemporary life, or in
protest against what he regarded as the enervating influences of
art. Even his references to the great poets of the past indicate
rather a blast sense of indifference and weariness than a fresh
enjoyment of them. Yet his power of touching the springs of
tragic awe and horror is a genuine poetical gift, of the same kind
as that which is displayed by some of the early English dramatists.
But he is, on the whole, more essentially a great rhetorician than
a great poet. His training, the practical bent of his understand-
ing, his strong but morose character, the rircumstances of his
time, and the materials available for his art, all fitted him to
rebuke his own age and all after-times in the tones of a powerful
preacher, rather than charm them with the art of an accom-
plished poet. The composition of his various satires shows no
negligence, but rather excess of elaboration; but it produces
the impression of mechanical contrivance rather than of organic
growth. His movement is sustained and powerful, but there is
no rise and fall in it. The verse is most carefully constructed,
and is also most effective, but it is so with the rhetorical effec-
tiveness of Lucan, not with the musical charm of Virgil. The
diction is full, even to excess, of meaning, point and emphasis.
Few writers have added so much to the currency of quotation.
But his style altogether wants the charm of ease and simpfinty.
It wearies by the constant strain after effect, its mock-heroics
and allusive periphrasis, and excites distrust by its want of
moderation.
On the whole no one of the ten or twelve really great writers
of ancient Rome leaves on the mind so mixed an impression,
both as a writer and as a man, as Juvenal. He has little, if
anything at all, of the high imaginative mood — the mood of
reverence and noble admiration— which made Ennius, Lucretius
and Virgil the truest poetical representatives of the genius of
Rome. He has nothing of the wide humanity of Cicero, of the
^ity of Horace, of the ease and grace of Catullus. Yet he
JUVENCUS— JUVENILE OFFENDERS
613
represents 1
her before:
thought, i
Domitian, <
let for his c
haps under
whkh is his
As a man h<
plebeian — t
and privilcj
to the sens
nothing sm<
he loses nc
though he
It is, indeed
of love of <
writing, tna
his verse,
reading hin
sincere and
debauchery
and frauds,
Rome, and
mind were
the fierce n
Authori*
in a late Ital
lunio I u vert
Clandio Nci
babuil Sepn
necessarily 1
The earli<
Sidonius Ap
Caetaris sec
ddnde casu
trionisexul,
fate and Ju>
banishment
subsequent 1
Citron, x. a
is as follows
restorations
I trib.coh.II
vit dedicavj
snq. The I
Montpcltier
neglected.
MS. (Canor
existence of
the Classic*
Bibliotheqw
Quarterly (J
interest take
There are t
published b
value, specii
The carlles!
P. Pithoeus,
later ones w
C.F.Hcinrk
the old scho
verbal inde>
J. E. B. Ma
of the Satin
a prose tran
being omitt
chiefly base*
scholia) and
side, by A. E
tions, in the
named edit<
There are 1
Dryden trar
to inferior h;
and C. Bad!
are well kn<
the criticism
toTeuffers(
I 331, and 5
J0VENCT
flourished c
is known of him except that he was a Spanish presbyter of dis*
tinguished family. About 330 he published his Libri cvangdi-
arum IV., each book containing about 800 hexameters. The
division into books is possibly a reminiscence of the number of
the Gospels. The work itself, written with the idea of ousting
the absurdities of Pagan mythology and replacing them by the
truths of Christianity, may be called the first Christian epic.
In the Praefaiic the author expresses the hope that the sacred*
ness of his subject may procure him safety at the final con-
flagration of the world and admission into heaven. The whole
is, in the main, a poetical version of the Gospel of Matthew, the
other evangelists only being used for supplementary details.
It is founded upon a pre-vulgate Latin translation, although
there is evidence that Juvencus also consulted the Greek. In
spite of metrical irregularities, the language and style are simple
and show good taste, being free from the artificiality of other
Christian poets and prose writers, and the author has made
excellent use of Virgil (his chief model) and other classical
writers. Juvencus set the fashion of verse translations of the
Bible, and the large number of MSS. of his poem mentioned in
lists and still extant are sufficient evidence of its great popularity.
According to Jerome, he was also the author of some poems on
the sacraments, but no trace of these has survived. The Latin
Heptateuch, a hexameter version of the first seven books of the
Old Testament, has been attributed to Juvencus amongst
others; but it is flow generally supposed to be the work of a
certain Cyprianus, a Gaul who lived in the (ith century, possibly
a bishop of Toulon, author of the Life of Caaarius, bishop of
Ai ' " ' v
A.
(1
Cc
18
m<
(1
JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In modern social science the
question of the proper penal treatment of juvenile (i.e. non-
adult) offenders has been increasingly discussed; and the
reformatory principle, first applied in the case of children, has
even been extended to reclaimable adult offenders (juveniles in
crime, if not in age) in a way which brings them sufficiently
within the same category to be noticed in this article. In the
old days the main idea in England was to use the same penal
methods for all criminals, young and old; when the child broke
the law he was sent to prison like his elders. It was only in com-
paratively recent times that it was realized that child criminals
were too often the victims to circumstances beyond their own
control. They were cursed with inherited taint; they were
brought up among evil surroundings; they suffered from the
culpable neglect of vicious parents, and still more from bad
example and pernicious promptings. They were rather poten-
tial than actual criminals, calling for rescue and regeneration
rather than vindictive reprisals. Under the old system a
painstaking English gaol chaplain calculated that 58% of
all criminals had made their first lapse at fifteen. Boys
and girls laughed at imprisonment. Striplings of thirteen and
fourteen had been committed ten, twelve, sixteen or seventeen
times. Religion and moral improvement were little regarded in
prisons, industrial and technical training were impossible. The
chief lesson learnt was an intimate and contemptuous acquain-
tance with the demoralizing interior of a gaol. There were at
one time in London 200 " flash houses " frequented by 6000
boys trained and proficient in thieving and depredation.
The substantial movement for reform dates from the protests
of Charles Dickens, who roused public opinion to such an extent
that the first Reformatory School Act was passed in 1854.
Sporadic efforts to meet the evil had indeed been made
earlier. In 1756 the Marine Society established a school for the
reception and reform of younger criminals; in 1788 the City of
London formed a similar institution, which grew much later into
JUVENILE OFFENDERS
fe ^ K ^SttKto( parliament
t*ta«rst for the detention and
% " ^ ~ — »> _Ja*ur~» m whom pardon was given
" % % ""Ju-mt^ *** 9umt <** riublc institution.
--****"■* %-i> «<*«»>«» *od educational instruction.
" """ HT*. *►* Wwever, been quite insufficient to
x • "* N V ^ a the y**» immediately preceding 1854
•^ v * " ^ vvoata*t(y reinforced in its beginnings,
" % uT ^rT-^t !*•** «y* tem » tftat lt threatened to
" xv ^ sV *^. VwAcial, but more or less accurate,
^ ^v«^ v*»rt between 11,000 and 12,000 juveniles
rV«T w «W> i**v«*h the prisons of England and Wales, a
* v **" % v % v^c n»mhrr being contributed by London alone.
^ * V ***: «»cs*d 14.000. The ages of offenders ranged
4vm. *»* iVia twelve to seventeen; 60% of the whole were
*tx%w* ***<«*• »*d seventeen; 46% had been committed
4k** ;{**■% ^osv. »4% four limes and more.
tvr Kv<g*w*tory School Act 1854, which was thrashed out
M >>*tav«rwx» held in Birmingham in 1851 and 1853, substituted
to< ^ Wot lor the gaol, and all judicial benches were empowered
W vk*! oVtoaquenta to schools when they had been guilty of
*u punishable by short imprisonment, the limit of which was
a; not fourteen and became afterwards ten days. A serious
few in this act long survived; this was the provision that a
*ho«l period of imprisonment in gaol must precede reception
into the reformatory; it was upheld by well-meaning but mis*
taken people as essential for deterrence. But more enlightened
opinion condemned the rule as inflicting an indelible prison
taint and breeding contamination, even with ample and effective
safeguards. Wiser legislation has followed, and an act of 1899
abolished preliminary imprisonment.
Existing reformatories, or "senior home office schools"- as
they are officially styled, in England numbered 44 in 1007.
They receive all juvenile offenders, up to the age of sixteen, who
have been convicted of an offence punishable with penal servi-
tude or imprisonment. The number of these during the years
between 1894 and 1906 constantly varied, but the figure of the
earliest date, 6604, was never exceeded, and In some years it
was considerably less, while in 1006 it was no more than 5586.
though the general population had increased by several millions
in the period. These figures, in comparison with those of 1854,
must be deemed highly satisfactory, even when we take into
account that the latter went up to the age of seventeen. Older
offenders, between sixteen and twenty-one, come within the
category of juvenile adults and are dealt with differently (see
Borstal Scheme below).
Other schools must be classed with the reformatory, although
they have no connexion with prisons and deal with youths
who are only potential criminals. The first in importance are
the industrial schools. When the newly devised reformatories
were doing excellent service It was realized that many of the
rising generation might some day lapse into evil ways but were
still on the right side and might with proper precautions be kept
there. They wanted preventive, not punitive treatment, and
for them industrial schools were instituted. The germ of these
establishments existed in the Ragged Schools, "intended to
educate destitute children and save them from vagrancy and
crime." They had been invented by John Pounds (1766-1839),
a Portsmouth shoemaker, who, early In the 19th century,
was moved with sympathy for these little outcasts and devoted
himself to this good work. The ragged school movement found
powerful support in active philanthropists when public atten-
tion was aroused to the prevalence of juvenile delinquency.
The first Industrial School Act was passed in 1856 and applied
only to Scotland. Next year its provisions were extended to
England, and their growth was rapid. There were 45 schools
in the beginning; in 1878 the number had more than been
doubled; in 1907 there were 102 In England and Wales and 31
in Scotland.
The provisions of the Education Acts 1871 and 1876 led to a
large increase in the number of children committed for breaches
of the law and to the establishment of two kinds of 1
industrial schools, short detention of truant schools and day
industrial schools in which children do not reside brt receive
their meals, their elementary education and a certain amount
of industrial training. The total admissions to truant schools
in 1907 were 1368 boys, and the numbers actually in the schools
on the last day of that year were 112$ with 2568 on licence.
The average length of detention was fourteen weeks and three
days on first admission, seventeen weeks and five days on first
re-admission, and twenty-three weeks six days on second re-
admission. The total number of admissions into truant schools
from 1878 to the end of 1907 was 44,315, of whom just half had
been licensed and not returned, 11,239 bad been licensed and
once re-admitted, 8000 had been re-admitted twice or oftener.
The day industrial schools owed their origin to another reason
than the enforcement of the Education Acts. It was found that
some special treatment was required for large masses of youths
in large cities, who were in such a neglected or degraded con-
dition that there was little hope of their growing into healthy
men and women or becoming good citizens. They were left un-
clean, were ill-fed and insufficiently clothed, and were not use-
fully taught. The total number who attended these day schools
in 1907 was 1951 boys and 1232 girls.
The disciplinary system of the English schools is planned
upon the establishment or institution system, as opposed to
that of the " family " or " boarding out " systems adopted in
some countries, and some controversy has been aroused as to
the comparative value of the methods. The British practice
has always favoured the well-governed school, with the proviso
that it is kept small so that the head may know all of his charges.
But a compromise has been effected in large establishments by
dividing the boys into " houses," each containing a small
manageable total as a family under an official father or head.
Under this system the idea of the home is maintained, while
uniformity of treatment and discipline is secured by grouping
several houses together under one general authority. The plan
of " boarding out " is not generally approved of in England; the
value of the domestic training is questionable and of uncertain
quality, depending entirely upon the character and fitness of
the foster-parents secured. Education must be less systematic
in the private home, industrial training is less easily carried out,
and there can be none of that esprit de corps that stimulates
effort in physical training as applied to athletics and the playing
of games. No very definite decision has been arrived at as to
the comparative merits of institution life and boarding out.
Among the Latin races— France, Italy, Portugal and Spain —
the former is as a rule preferred; also in Belgium; in Germany,
Holland and the United Slates placing out in private families
is very much the rule; in Austria-Hungary and Russia both
methods are in use.
admissions to English reformatory schools from their
( the 31st of December 1007 amounted to 76,455. or
( . and 12,424 girls. The total discharges for the same
I 70.890. or $9,081 boys and 11.809 girts. The results
1 led by the figures for those discharged in 1904, 1905
1
,73 were placed out. of whom 66 had died, leaving 3507;
— i found **— * ' *~ «•'»
$8 (or
unknown.
was found that 2735 (or about 78%) were in regular
t; 158 (or about 4 %) were in casual employment; 439
3%) had been convicted ; and 175 (or about 5%) were
Girls.— 480, of whom II had died, leaving 469; of these it was
found that 384 (or about 82 %) were in regular employment ; 28 (or
about 6%) were in casual employment ; 17 (or about 4%) had been
convicted, and 40 (or about 8%) were unknown.
For industrial schools, including truant and day schools, the
total admissions, up to the 31st of December 1907, were 153.893. or
1 20.955 boys and 32,938 girls. The total discharges to the same diate
(excluding transfers) were 136.961. or 108.398 boys and 28.563 girls.
The results as tested by those discharged in 1904. 1905 and 1906
were as follow: —
Boys.— 8909 were placed out. of whom 118 had since died.
leaving 8791 to be reported on; of these it was found that 7547
(or about 86%) were in regular employment; 415 (or about 4- 7%J
were in casual employment; 419 (or about 47%) convicted or re*
committed; and 410 (or about 4-6%) unknown.
Girls.— 2503 placed out, of whom 50 had died, leaving 945}; ol
JUVENILE OFFENDERS
6i S
these «8o (or aba
about 4 %) were in
or re-committed; ai
These results are
by the juvenile-adi
October 1902. Tb
system showed thai
to the system and |
An interesting pa
ally inclined juveni
thev have been rec
done so well. In 1
discharged and pja
these, nearly a sixi... .
bands: 292 joined the navy
ch
. the mercantile marine; 1567 went
to farm service; 414 workecftn factories or mills as skilled hands;
but others joined as labourers, a general class the total of which was
1096. Other jobs found included miners (629), carters (352), iron
or steel workers (214), mechanics (301), shoemakers (181), tailors
(161). shop assistants (228), carpenters (178), bakers (131), messen-
Jters and porters, including 112 errand boys (315). The balance
ound employment in smaller numbers at other trades. The fate
of 585 was unknown, 858 had been re-convicted, and the balance
were in unrecorded or casual employment.
The outlets found by the girls from these various schools naturally
follow lines appropriate to their sex and the instruction received.
Out of a total of 2985 discharged in the three years mentioned,
1235 became general servants. 268 housemaids, 203 laundry- maids,
J\2 cooks, 98 nursemaids, 65 dressmakers, 221 were engaged in
actories and mills, and the balance was made up by marriage,
death or casual employment.
In Ireland the reformatory and industrial school system conforms
to that of Great Britain. There were in 1905 mx reformatory and
70 industrial schools in Ireland, mostly under Reman Catholic
management.
A short account of the reformatory methods of dealing with
juvenile offenders in certain other countries will fitly find a
place here.
Austria- H un tar y.— The law leaves children of less than ten
years of age to domestic discipline, as also children above that
age if not exactly criminal, although the latter may be sent to
correctional schools. There they are detained for varying
periods, but never after twenty years of age, and they may be
sent out on licence to situations or employment found for them.
These schools also receive children between ten and fourteen
guilty of crimes which arc, however, by law deemed " contra-
ventions " only; also the destitute between the same ages and
the incorrigible whose parents cannot manage them.
In Hungary the penal code prescribes that children of less
than twelve cannot be charged with offences; those between
twelve and sixteen may be deemed to have acted without dis-
cretion, and thus escape sentence, but are sent to a correctional
school where they may be detained till they are twenty years of
age. An excellent system prevails in Hungary by which the
supervision of those liberated is entrusted to a " protector," a
philanthropic person in the district who visits and reports upon
the conduct of the boys, much like the " probation officer " in the
United "States.
Belgium— Tht law of November 1891 places the whole
mass of juveniles— those who are likely to give trouble and
those who have already done so— at the disposal of the state.
The system is very elastic, realizing the infinite variety of child-
ish natures. The purely paternal regime would be wasted upon
the really vicious; a severe discipline would press too heavily
on the well-disposed. Accordingly, all juveniles, male and
female, are divided into six principal classes with a corre-
sponding treatment, it being strictly ruled that there is no
intermingling of the classes; the very youngest, rescued early,
are never to be associated with the older, who may be already
vicious and degraded and who could not fail to exercise a per-
nicious influence. One of the great merits of the Belgian system
is that the regulations may be relaxed, and children of whose
amendment good hopes are entertained may be released provi-
sionally, either to the care of parents and guardians or to em-
ployers, artisans or agriculturists who will teach them a trade.
Denmark.— There were 61 establishments of all classes for
juveniles in Denmark in 1006, holding some 2000 inmates. In
1874, by the will of Countess Danncr, a large female refuge
was founded at Castle Jagerspris, which holds some 360 girls.
Another of the same class is the Royal Vodrofsvei Bonnehjem
at Copenhagen, founded in the same year by Mlic Schneider.
The regime preferred in Denmark is that of the family or the
very small school. The Jagerspris system is to divide the whole
number of 360 into small parties of 20 each under a nurse or
official mother. Employment in Danish schools is mainly
agricultural, field labour and gardening, with a certain amount
of industrial training; and on discharge the inmates go to
farms or to apprenticeship, while a few emigrate.
France. — There are five methods of disposing of juvenile
offenders in France: —
t. The preliminary or preventative prison (maisons tfarrtt and
de justice) for those arrested and accused.
2. The ordinary prison for all sentenced to less than six months*
whose time of detention is too short to admit of their transfer to a
provincial colony. It also receives children whom parents have
found unmanageable.
3. The public or private penitentiary colony for the irresponsible
children, acquitted as " without discretion," as well as for the guilty
sentenced to more than six months' and less than two years'
detention.
4. The correctional colony, where the system is more severe,
receiving all sentenced for more than two years and all who have
misconducted themselves in the milder establishments.
5. Various penitentiary houses for young females, whatever their
particular sentence.
Foremost among French penal reformers stands the name of
F. A. Demetz (1796-1873), the founder of the famous colony
of Mettray. M. Demetz was a judge who, aghast at the evils
inflicted upon children whom he was compelled by law to im-
prison, left the bench and undertook to find some other outlet
for them. At that time the French law, while it acquitted
minors shown to have acted wit.iout discretion, still consigned
them for safe keeping and inevitable contamination (o the
common gaols. M. Demetz conceived the idea of an agricul-
tural colony, and in 1840 organized a small " socilti patcrnclle"
as it was called, of which he became vice-president. Another
philanthropist, the Vicomte de Bretigniires de Courteillcs, a
landed proprietor in Touraine, associated himself in the enter-
prise and endowed the institution with land at Mettray near
Tours. The earliest labours at Mettray were in the development
of the institution, but as this approached completion they were
applied to farm work, agricultural employment being the chief
feature of the place. The motto and device of Mettray was
" the moralization of youth by the cultivation of the soil ";
a healthy life in the open air was to replace the enervating and'
demoralizing influences of the confined prisons; and this was
effected in the usual farming operations, to which were added
gardening, vine-dressing, the raising of stock and the breeding
of silkworms. The labour was not light; on the contrary, the
directors of the colony sought by constant employment to send
their charges to bed tired, ready to sleep soundly and not romp
and chatter in their dormitories. The excellence of its aims,
and the manifestly good results that were growing out of the
system, soon made Mettray a model for imitation in France and
beyond it. Many establishments were planned upon it, started
by the state or private enterprise; penitentiary colonies were
created for boys in connexion with some of the great central
prisons. The colony of Val de Yevre has a good record. It
was started by a private philanthropist, Charles J. M. Lucas,
( 1 803-1 889) but after five-and-twenty years was handed over to
the state. Other cognate establishments are those of Petit
Quevilly near Rouen, Petit Bourg near Paris, St Hiliar and
Eysses. There are several female colonies, especially that of
Dametal at Rouen.
It is for the magistrate or juge ^instruction to select the class
of establishment to which the juvenile delinquents brought
before him shall be committed. The very young, those of twelve
years of age and under, are placed out in the country with fami-
lies, unless they can be again entrusted to their parents or com-
mitted to maisons paterttcls, containing very limited numbers,
twenty or thirty, in charge of a large staff. After twelve, and
from that age to fourteen or fifteen, the " ungrateful age " as
6i6
JUVENILE. OFFENDERS
the French emit it, boys are sent to a reformatory or "preservative
school," where they will be under stronger discipline. For the
third class, from fifteen to sixteen or eighteen, stricter measures
are necessary, so as to dispose of them in specially selected penal
colonics, as has already been done at Eysses, where the discipline
is severe, while embodying technical and industrial instruction.
Germany s— In most parts of the German Empire juvenile
delinquents and neglected youths are treated in the same estab-
lish meats. No child of less than twelve years of age can be
proceeded against in a court of law, although in some German
states destitute or abandoned children have been taken at the
££» of six, five and even three years. Youths between twelve
a=>£ eighteen may be convicted, but their offences are passed
©%«r if they are proved to have acted without discretion. There
are many kinds of correctional institutions and a number of
schools not of a correctional character. These last are generally
very small, the largest taking barely a hundred, but are very
numerous, Many private persons have devoted themselves to the
work. Count A. von der Recke-Volmerstcin (i 791-1878) about
18*1 founded a refuge for neglected children in Diisselthal,
between DQsseldorf and Elberstadt. Pastor T. F. Flicdner
(1800- 1 864) built up a fine establishment at Kaiserswerth from
i 8 33. in which was an infant school, a penitentiary and an
orphan asylum. Another famous name is that of W. von Turk
(1774-1846), who studied under Pestalozzi in Switzerland.
A school which has largely influenced public opinion in Great
Britain, as in Germany, is the Rauhe Haus, near Hamburg,
founded by Dr Wickern in 1833. This began with a single
cottage but had grown in twenty years to a hamlet of twenty
houses, with from twelve to sixteen inmates in each. Tho
establishment is a Lutheran one; both boys and girls are ad-
■■tted, in separate bouses, and a marked feature of the place
is the number of " brothers," young men of good character
^nfifying for rescue work as superintendents of homes, prison
l&cers and schoolmasters. They take part in the work and arc
* constant touch with the boys whom they closely supervise,
*es*g bound to" keep them in sight day and night, eat with them,
^esf in their dormitories, direct their labour, accompany them to
inayd, join in their recreations and sports." These " brothers "
fs. hMKMirably known throughout the world and have per-
f r~* a large work in distant lands a- missionaries, prison
^bss and schoolmasters. The Rauhe Haus receives three
isvsai javeniles: first, the boys, mostly street arabs; second,
jHnie same category; third, children taken as boarders
^ XDcue families, who confess their inability to manage
^- ^ae instruction given is in trades, in farming operations,
^^ m ^ xai fruit-raising. The pupils are largely assisted on
^y^ the good offices of the citizens of Hamburg*
~ \^~ — *» the Low Countries, refuges, called " Gods-
as early as the 14th century, intended for
«i neglected youth and indigent old age.
people came from all parts of Europe to
— . K Aca how orphans and unfortunate children
^ ' m . ri — .^ "ae Godshuis of Amsterdam was a vast
« *-**-" st ^ga m many as 4000 juveniles were some*
1*— ~ , ' M ^ r " .^ .«ca lisastrous effects that its name was
&t& jm m )|ir¥l1 '» iod the government in the begin-
10^ C ' ^*7 M ~*r w jcdered it to be emptied and dosed.
-*r **'"*"*_ " ^ .. — m Holland are the Netherlands
_, near the Arnheim railway
thai of Alkmaar for boys;
de Paul at Amsterdam for
for young vagabonds,
!.t a Smallepod at Amsterdam.
About five hours' journey
b
P 4
ti<
T*
on 1
En,
in 1
dou>
inS<
Th
Urge
.»., Rissjelt, near Zutphen, is
tvi Meitray and was founded
jj watch philanthropist, long
^oa in Amsterdam.
^ jctwecn the treatment
.-c'icd in youth. There
^ t 1 l lt*hmcnts. '
which are state institutions and the rest founded by private
benevolence or by charitable associations or local communities.
None of these is exclusively agricultural; ten are industrial,
seven industrial and agricultural combined. In Italy the age
of responsibility is nine, below which no child can be charged
with an offence. The Italian schools are mostly planned on a
large scale. That of Marchiondi Spagfiardi accommodates 550,
divided among three bouses under one supreme head. The
Turazza institution at Trcviso holds 380, and there are eight
others with from 200 to 300 inmates. The regime is very
various; the larger number of schools are on the congregate
system, with daily labour in association and isolation by night.
The "family " method is also practised with small groups, divi-
sions or companies, into which the children are formed according
to age or conduct.
•Sttxafen.— All children below the age of sixteen may be sent
to a correctional establishment or boarded out in respectable
families: —
I. If they have committed acts punishable by law which indicate
moral perversity and it is deemed advisable to correct them.
a. It they are neglected, ill-used, or if their moral deterioration is
feared from the vicious life and character of parents or friends.
3. If their conduct at school or at home is such that a more severe
correctional treatment is necessary for their rescue.
Under this law the state is also to provide special schools to
take all above ten who have shown peculiar depravity; all
who have reached eighteen and who are not yet thought fit
for freedom; all who have relapsed after provisional release.
Sweden is rich in institutions devoted to the care of destitute and
deserted children, all due to the efforts of the charitable. The
largest correctional establishment is that founded at Hall,
near the town of Sodertelgc on the shores of the Baltic This
admirable agricultural colony, modelled on that of Met tray,
owes its existence to the " Oscar- Josephine society," founded by
Queen Josephine, widow of Oscar I.
United States.-^ln the words of a report made in 1878 by
F. B. Sanborn, secretary of the American Social Science Society,
14 America can justly plume herself upon the work accom-
plished by her juvenile reformatories since their inauguration
down to the present lime." The first in point of date and still
the most considerable of the reformatories in the United States
is that founded in 1825, thanks to the unwearied efforts of the
great American publicist and philanthropist Edward Livingston,
which now has its home on Randall's Island in New York
City. In the following year a reformatory of the same class
was founded in Boston, and another in the year after in
Philadelphia. All were intended to receive criminal youth.
There are state reformatories now in almost all the states of
the Union, and those for juvenile adults in New York and
Massachusetts have attracted world-wide, attention, aiming so
high and with such an elaboration of means that they deserve
particular description.
The great state reformatory establishment of Elmira, New
York, called into existence in 1889 with the avowed aim of
compassing the reformation of the criminal by new processes,
partakes of the system involved in the treatment of juvenile
offenders. It was based upon the principle that crime ought
to be attacked in its beginnings by other than ordinary punitive
and prison methods. Under this view, the right of society to
defend itself by punishment was denied, and it was held that a
youthful offender was more sinned against than sinning. It was
urged that his crime, due largely to inherited defects, mental or
physical and vicious surroundings, was not his own fault,
and he bad a paramount claim to be treated differently by the
state when in custody. The state was not justified in using powers
of repression to imprison him in the usual mechanical hard and
fast fashion and then return him to society, no better, possibly
worse, than before; it was bound to regenerate him, to change hb
nature, improve his physique, and give him a new mental equip-
ment, so that when again at large be might be fitted to take his
place amongst honest citizens, to cam his living by reputable
-s. and escape all temptation to drift back into crime. This
JUVENILE OFFENDERS
617
It the plausible explanation given for the state reformatory
movement, which led to the creation oa such costly and extensive
fines of Elmira, and of Concord in Massachusetts, a cognate
establishment. There is very little penal about the treatment,
which is that of a boarding school; the education, thorough and
carried far, includes languages, music, science and industrial
art; diet is plentiful, even luxurious; amusements and varied
recreation are permitted; well stocked libraries are provided
with entertaining books; a prison newspaper is issued (edited
by an inmate). Physical development is sedulously cultivated
both by gymnastics and military exercises, and the whole course
is well adapted to change entirely the character of the individual
subjected to it. The trouble taken in the hope of transforming
erring youth into useful members of society goes still further.
The original sentence has been indefinite, and release on parole
will be granted to inmates who pass through the various courses
with credit and arc supposed to have satisfied the authorities
of their desire to amend. The limit of detention need not exceed
twelve months, after which parole is possible, although the
average period passed before it is granted is twenty-two months.
The hope of permanent amendment is further sought by the
fact that a situation, generally with good wages and congenial
work, provided by the authorities, awaits every inmate at the
time of his discharge. The inmates, selected from a very large
class, are first offenders, but guilty generally of criminal offences,
which include manslaughter, burglary, forgery, fraud, robbery
and receiving. The exact measure of reformation achieved
can never be exactly known, from the absence of authentic
Statistics and the difficulty of following up the surveillance of
individuals when released on parole. Reports issued by the
manager of Elmira claim that 81 % of those paroled have done
well, but these results are not definitely authenticated. They
are based upon the ascertained good conduct during the term of
surveillance, six or twelve months only, during which time these
Subjects have not yet spent the gratuities earned and have pro-
bably still kept the situations found for them on discharge.
No doubt the material treated at Elmira and Concord is of a
kind to encourage hope of reformation, as they are first offenders
and presumably not of the criminal classes. Although the
processes are open to criticism, the discipline enforced in these
state reformatories does not err in excessive leniency. They are
not "hotels," as has been sometimes said in ridicule, where
prisoners go to enjoy themselves, have a good time, study
Plato and conic sections, and pass out to an assured future.
There is plenty of hard work, mental and physical, and the
" inmates " rather envy their fellows in state prisons. A point
to which great attention is paid is that physical degeneracy lies
at the bottom of the criminal character, and great attention
is paid to the development of nervous energy and strengthening
by every means the normal and healthful functions of the
body. A leading feature in the treatment is the frequency and
perfection with which bathing is carried out. A series of
Turkish baths forms a part of the course of instruction; the baths
being fitted elaborately with all the adjuncts of shower bath,
cold douche, ending with gymnastic exercises.
A remarkable and unique institution is the state reformatory
for women at Shcrborn, Massachusetts, for women with
sentences of more than a year, who in the opinion of the court
arc fit subjects for reformatory treatment. The majority of
the inmates were convicted of drunkenness, an offence which
the law of Massachusetts visits with severity — a sentence of two
years being very common. This at once differentiates the
class of women from that in ordinary penal establishments.
At the same time we find that Other women guilty of serious
crime are sent by the courts to this prison with a view to
their reform. Thus of 352 inmates, while no fewer than 200 were
convicted of drunkenness, there were also 63 cases of offences
against chastity and 30 of larceny. The average age was
thirty-one and the average duration of sentence just over a
year. In appearance and in character it more resembles a
hospital or home for inebriates than a state convict prison. A
system of grades or divisions is relied upon as a stimulus to
reform. The difference in grades is denoted by smaH and
scarcely perceptible variations of the little details of everyday
life, such as are supposed in a peculiar degree to affect the appre-
ciation of women, e.g. in the lowest division the women have
their meals off old and chipped china; in the next the china is
less chipped; in the highest there is no chipped china; in the
next prettily set out with tumblers, cruet-stands and a pepper
, pot to each prisoner. The superintendent relies greatly also on
' the moralizing influence of animals and birds. Well-behaved
convicts are allowed to tend sheep, calves, pigs, chickens,
canaries and parrots. This privilege is highly esteemed and
productive, it is said, of the most softening influences.
The " George Junior Republic " (q.i.) is a remarkable institu-
tion established in 1895 at Freeville, near the centre of New
York State, by Mr. William Reuben George. The original
features of the institution are that the motto " Nothing without
labour " is rigidly enforced, and that self-government is carried
to a point that, with mere children, would appear whimsical
were it not a proved success. The place is, as the name implies,
a miniature "republic" with laws, legislature, courts and
administration of its own, all made and carried on by the
"citizens" themselves. The tone and spirit of the place
appeared to be excellent and there is much evidence that in
many cases strong and independent character is developed in
children whose antecedents have been almost hopeless.
Borstal Scheme in England. — The American system of stale
reformatories as above described has been sharply criticized, but
the principle that underlies it is recognized as, in a measure,
sound, and it has been adopted by the English authorities. Some
time back the experiment of establishing a penal reformatory for
offenders above the age hitherto committed to reformatory
schools was resolved upon. This led to the foundation of the
Borstal scheme, which was first formally started in October
1002. The arguments which had led to it may be briefly stated
here. It bad been conclusively shown that quite half the whole
number of professional criminals had been first convicted when
under twenty-one years of age, when still at a malleable period
of development, when in short the criminal habit had not yet
been definitely formed. Moreover these adolescents escaped
special reformatory treatment, for sixteen is in Great Britain the
age of criminal majority, after whkh no youthful offenders can
be committed to the state reformatory schools. But there was
always a formidable contingent of juvenile adults between
sixteen and twenty-one, sent to penal servitude, and their numbers
although diminishing rose to an average total of 1 5,000. It was
accordingly decided to create a penal establishment under state
control, which should be a half-way house between the prison .
and the reformatory school. A selection was made of juvenile
adults, sentenced to not less than six months and sent to Borstal
in 1902 to be treated under rules approved by the home secretary*
They were to be divided on arrival into three separate classes,
penal, ordinary and soedal, with promotion by industry and
good conduct from the lowest to the highest, in which they
enjoyed distinctive privileges. The general system, educational
and disciplinary, was intelligent and governed by common sense.
Instruction, both manual and educational, was well suited te
the recipients; the first embraced field work, market gardening,
and a knowledge of useful handicrafts; the second was elemen-
tary but sound, aided by well-chosen libraries and brightened
by the privilege of evening association to play harmless but
interesting games. Physical development was also guaran-
teed by gymnastics and regular exercises. The results were
distinctly encouraging. They arrived at Borstal "rough,
untrained cubs," but rapidly improved in demeanour and inward
character, gaining self-reliance and self-respect, and left the
prison on the high road to regeneration. It was wisely remem-
bered that to secure lasting amendment it is not enough to
chasten the erring subject, to train his bands, to strengthen bis
moral sense while still in durance; it is essential to assist him
on discharge by helping him to find work, and encourage him
by timely advice to keep him in the straight path. Too much
praise cannot be accorded to the agencies and associations
6x8
which labour strenuously and unceasingly to this excellent end.
Especial good work has been done by the Borstal association,
founded under the patronage of the best known and most
distinguished persons in English public life — archbishops,
judges, cabinet ministers and privy councillors — which receives
the juvenile adults on their release and helps them to employ-
ment. Their labours, backed by generous voluntary contribu-
tions, have produced very gratifying results. Although the
offenders originally selected to undergo the Borstal treatment
were those committed for a period of six months, it was recog-
nised that this limit was experimental, and that thoroughly
satisfactory results could only be obtained with sentences of
at least a year's duration, so as to give the reforming agencies
ample time to operate. In the second year's working of the
system it was formally applied to young convicts sentenced to
penal servitude between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one.
In the next year it was adopted for all offenders between the
ages of sixteen and twenty-one committed to prison, as far as
the length of sentence would permit. The commissioners of
prisons, in their Report for the year 1008 (Cd. 4300) thus
expressed themselves on the working of the experiment:—
" Experience soon began to point to the probable success of this
general application of the principle, in spite of the fact that the
prevailing shortness of sentences operated against full benefit being
derived from reformatory effort. The success was most marked in
those localities where magistrates, or other benevolent persons,
personally co-operated in making the scheme a success. Local
Borstal committees were established at all prisons, and it was arranged
that those members of the local committees should become ex
officio honorary members of the Central Borstal Association, which
it was intended should become, what it now is, the parent society
directing the general aid on discharge of this category of young
prisoners."
In spite of the general adoption of the Borstal system, there
was a large class of young criminals who were outside its effects,
those who were sentenced to terms of ten days and under for
trifling offences. These juvenile adults, once having had the fear
of prison taken away by actual experience, were found to come
back again and again. To remedy this state of affairs, a bill
was introduced in 1007 to give effect to the principle of a long
period of detention for all those showing a tendency to embark
on a criminal career. The bill was, however, dropped, but a
somewhat similar bill was introduced the next year and became
law under the title of The Prevention of Crime Act 1008.
This measure introduces a new departure in the treatment of
professional crime by initiating a system of detention for habitual
criminals (see Recidivism). The act attempts the reformation
of young offenders by giving the court power to pass sentence of
, detention in a Borstal institution for a term of not less than one
' year nor more than three on those between the ages of sixteen
and twenty-one who by reason of criminal habits or tendencies or
association with persons of bad character require such instruction
and discipline as appear most conducive to their reformation.
The power of detention applies also to reformatory school offences,
while such persons as are already undergoing penal servitude or
imprisonment may be transferred to a Borstal institution if
detention would conduce to their advantage. The establish-
ment of other Borstal institutions is authorized by the act, while
a very useful provision is the power to release on licence if there
is a reasonable probability that the offender will abstain from
crime and lead a useful and industrious life. The licence is
issued on condition that he is placed under the supervision or
authority of some society ox person willing to take charge of
him. Supervision is introduced after the expiration of the term
of sentence, and power is given to transfer to prison incorrigibles
or those exercising a bad influence on the other inmates of a
Borstal institution. The act marks a noteworthy advance in
the endeavour to arrest the growing habit of crime.
(A. G. ; T. A. I.)
JUVENTAS— JUXON
JDVENTAS (Latin for " youth " : later Jttventus), in Ro
mythology, the tutelar goddess of young men. She was wor-
shipped at Rome from very early times. In the front court of
the temple of Minerva on the Capitol there was a chapel of
Juventas, in which a coin had to be deposited by each youth 00
his assumption of the toga viriJis, and sacrifices were offered
on behalf of the rising manhood of the state. In connexion with
this chapel it is related that, when the temple was in course of
erection, Terminus, the god of boundaries, and Juventas refused
to quit the sites they had already appropriated as sacred to
themselves, which accordingly became pan of the new sanctuary.
This was interpreted as a sign of the immovable boundaries arid
eternal youth of the Roman state. It should be observed that in
the oldest accounts there is no mention of Juventas, whose name
(with that of Mars) was added in support of the augural predic-
tion. After the Second Punic War Greek elements were intro-
duced into her cult. In a 18 B.C., by order of the Sibylline books,
a Icctislcrnium was prepared for Juventas and a public thanks-
giving to Hercules, an association which shows the influence of
:he Greek Hebe, the wife of Heracles. In 207 Marcus Li\ ius
Salinator, after the defeat of Hasdrubal at the battle of Sena,
vowed another temple to Juventas in the Circus Maximus,
which was dedicated in 191 by C. (or M.) Licinius Lucultus, it
was destroyed by fire in 16 B.C. and rebuilt by Augustus. In
imperial times, Juventas personified! not the youth of the RomaA
state, but of the future emperor.
See Dion. Halic., Hi. 69, iv. 15, Livy v. 54, xxi. 62, xxxvi. 36.
JUXON, WILLIAM (1582-1663), English prelate, was the
son of Robert Juxon and was born probably at Chichester, being
educated at Merchant Taylors' School, London, and at St John's
College, Oxford, where he was elected to a scholarship in 1508.
Hc studied law at Oxford, but afterwards he took holy orders,
and in 1609 became vicar of St Giles, Oxford, a living which be
retained until he became rector of Somerton, Oxfordshire, in
1615. In December 1621 he succeeded his friend, William
Laud, as president of St John's College, and in 1626 and 1627
he was vice-chancellor of the university. Juxon soon obtained
other important positions, including that of chaplain-in-ordinary
to Charles I. In 1627 he was made dean of Worcester and in
1632 he was nominated to the bishopric of Hereford, an event
which led him to resign the presidency of St John's in January
1633. However, he never took up his episcopal duties at Here-
ford, as in October 1633 he was consecrated bishop of London
in succession to Laud. He appears to have been an excellent
bishop, and in March 1636 Charles I. entrusted him with impor-
tant secular duties by making him lord high treasurer of England;
thus for the next five years he was dealing with the many
financial and other difficulties which beset the king and his
advisers. He resigned the treasurcrship in May 1641. During
the Civil War the bishop, against whom no charges were brought
in parliament, lived undisturbed at Fulham Palace, and his
advice was often sought by the king, who had a very high
opinion of him, and who at his execution selected him to be with
him on the scaffold and to administer to him the last consola-
tions of religion. Juxon was deprived of his bishopric in 1640
and retired to Little Complon in Gloucestershire, where he had
bought an estate, and here he became famous as the owner of a
pack of hounds. At the restoration of Charles II. he became
archbishop of Canterbury and in his official capacity he took part
in the coronation of this king, but his health soon began to fail
and he died at Lambeth on the 4th of June 1663. By his will
the archbishop was a benefactor to St John's College, where
he was buried; he also aided the work of restoring St Paul's
Cathedral and rebuilt the great hall at Lambeth Palace.
See W. H. Marah, Memoirs of Archbishop Juxon omA his Tunes
(1869); the best authority for the archbishop's life is the article by
W. 11. Hutton in the Diet. NaL Bio%. (1892).
K— KABBABISH
619
KThe eleventh letter fn the Phoenician alphabet and in its
descendant Greek, the tenth in Latin owing to the omis-
sion of Tcth (see 1), and once more the eleventh in the
alphabets of Western Europe owing to the insertion of J.
In its long history the shape of K has changed very little. It
Is on the inscription of the Moabite Stone (early 9th cent, bx.)
in the form (written from right to left) of 4 and 4 . Similar forms
are also found in early Aramaic, but another form H or H , which
is found in the Phoenician of Cyprus in the 9th or xoth century
B.c. has had more effect upon the later development of the
Semitic forms. The length of the two back strokes and the
manner in which they join the upright are the only variations
in Greek. In various places the back strokes, treated as an
angle <, become more rounded ( , so that the letter appears as
K , a form which in Latin probably affected the development of
C (<7»). In Crete it is elaborated into K and P . In Latin K,
which is found in the earliest inscriptions, was soon replaced by
C, and survived only in the abbreviations for Kalcndae and the
proper name Kact*. The original name Kaph became in Greek
Kappa. The sound of K throughout has been that of the un-
voiced guttural, varying to some extent in its pronunciation
according to the nature of the vowel sound which followed it.
In Anglo-Saxon C replaced K through Latin influence, writing
being almost entirely in the hands of ecclesiastics. As the sound-
changes have been discussed under C it is necessary here only to
refer to the palatalization of K followed earlier by a final e as in
vnkk (Middle English wacche, Anglo-Saxon wacce) by the side
of wake (M.E. waken, A.-S. wacan) ; batch, bake, &c Sometimes
an older form of the substantive survives, as m the Elizabethan
and Northern make* mate alongside match. (P. Gi.)
Ks, or Mt Godwin-Austen, the second highest mountain
in the world, ranking after Mt Everest. It is a peak of the
Karakoram extension of the Muxtagh range dividing Kashmir
from Chinese Turkestan. The height of K, as at present deter-
mined by triangulation is 28,250 ft., but it is possible that an
ultimate revision of the values of refraction at high altitudes
may have the effect of lowering the height of K?, while it would
elevate those of Everest and Kinchinjunga. The latter moun-
tain would then rank second, and Kj third, in the scale of all itude,
Everest always maintaining its ascendancy. Ks was ascended
for the first time by the duke of the Abruzzi in June 1909, being
the highest elevation on the earth's surface ever reached by man.
KA'BA, KAABA, or Kaabeh, the sacred shrine of Mahom-
medanism, containing the H black stone," in the middle of the
great mosque at Mecca (gv).
KABARDIA, a territory of S. Russia, now part of the province
of Terek. It is divided into Great and Little Kabardia by the
upper river Terek, and covers 3780 sq. m. on the northern slopes
of the Caucasus range (from Mount Elbruz to Pasis-mta, or
Edena), including the Black Mountains (Kara-dagh) and the high
plains on their northern slope. Before the Russian conquest it
extended as far as the Sea of Azov. Its population is now about
70,000. One-fourth of the territory is owned by the aristocracy
and the remainder is divided among the auts or villages. A great
portion is under permanent pasture, part under forests, and some
under perpetual snow. Excellent breeds of horses are reared,
and the peasants own many cattle. The land is well cultivated
in the lower parts, the chief crops being millet, maize, wheat
and oats. Bee-keeping is extensively practised, and Kabardian
honey is in repute. Wood-cutting and the manufacture of
wooden wares, the making of burkas (felt and fur cloaks), and
saddlery are very general. Nalchik is the chief town.
The Kabardians are a branch of the Adyghi (Circassians).
The policy of Russia was always to be friendly with the Kabardian
aristocracy, who were possessed of feudal rights over the Ossetes,
the Ingushes, tl e Abkhasians and the mountain Tatars, and had
command of th? roads leading into Transcaucasia. Ivan the
Terrible took Kabardia under his protection in the x6th century.
Later, Russian Influence was counterbalanced by that of the
Crimean khans, but the Kabardian nobles nevertheless supported
Peter the Great during his Caucasian campaign in 1722- 23. In
1739 Kabardia was recognized as being under the double pro-
tectorate of Russia and Turkey, but thirty-five years later it was
definitively annexed to Russia, and risings of the population in
1804 and 1822 were cruelly suppressed. Kabardia is considered
as a school of good manners in Caucasia; the Kabardian dress
sets the fashion to all the mountaineers. Kabardians constitute
the best detachment of the personal Imperial Guards at St
Petersburg.
A short grammar of the Kabardian language and a Russian-
Kabardian dictionary, by Lopatinsky, were published in Sbornik
Materiaicv dla Opisauiyo Kavkaaa (vol. xii., Tiflis, 1891). Frag-
raents of the poem " Sosyruko," some Persian tales, ana the tenets
of the Mussulman religion were printed in Kabardian in 1864. by
Kazi Atazhukin and Shardanov. The common law of the Kabar-
dians has been studied by Maxim Kovalevsky and Vsevolod Miller.
KABBA, a province of the British protectorate of Northern
Nigeria, situated chiefly on the right bank of the Niger, between
7 s' and 8° 45f N. and 5 30* and 7 E. It has an area of 7800 sq.
m. and an estimated population of about 70,000. The province
consists of relatively healthy uplands interspersed with fertile
valleys. It formed part at one time of the Nupe emirate, and
under Fula rule the armies of Bida regularly raided for slaves ^
and laid waste the country. Amongst the native inhabitants*
the Igbira are very industrious, and crops of tobacco, indigo, all
the African grains, and a good quantity of cotton are already
grown. The sylvan products are valuable and include palm oil,
kolas, shea and rubber. Lokoja, a town which up to 1902 was
the principal British station in the protectorate, is situated in
this province. The site of Lokoja, with a surrounding tract of
country at the junction of the Bcnue and the Niger, was ceded
to the British government in 1841 by the atlak of ldah, whose
dominions at that time extended to the right bank of the river.
The first British settlement was a failure. In 1854 MacGregor
Laird, who had taken an active part in promoting the explora-
tion of the river, sent thither Dr W. B. Baikie, who was success-
ful in dealing with the natives and in 1857 became the first
British consul in the interior. The town of Lokoja was founded
by him in i860. In 1868 the consulate was abolished and the
settlement was left wholly to commercial interests. In 1879
Sir George Goldie formed the Royal Niger Company, which
bought out its foreign rivals and acquired a charter from the
British government. In 1886 the company made Lokoja its
military centre, and on the transfer of the company's territories
to the Crown it remained tor a time the capital of Northern
Nigeria. In 1902 the political capital of the protectorate was
shifted to Zungem in the province of Zaria, but Lokoja remains
the commercial centre. The distance of Lokoja from the sea
at the Niger mouth is about 250 m.
In the absence of any central native authority the province
is entirely dependent for administration upon British initiative.
It has been divided into four administrative divisions. British
and native courts of justice have been established. A British
station has been established at Kabba town, which is an admir-
able site some so m. W. by N. of Lokoja, about 1300 ft. above
the sea, and a good road has been made from Kabba to Lokoja.
Roads have been opened through the province. (See Nigeria.)
KABBABISH (" goatherds ": James Bruce derives the name
from Hcbsk, sheep), a tribe of African nomads of Semitic origin.
It is perhaps the largest " Arab " tribe in the Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, and its many clans are scattered over the country extend-
ing S.W. from the province of Dongola to the confines of Darfur.
The Kabbabish speak Arabic, but their pronunciation differs
much from that of the true Arabs. The Kabbabish have *
tradition that they came from Tunisia and are of Mogrebin or
western descent; but while the chiefs look like Arabs, the tribes-
mco resemble the Beja family. They themselves declare that
few
KA'BBAIAH
«mk' of their dans, Kawahla, is not of Kabbabish blood, but was
athliated to them long ago. Kawahla is a name of Arab forma-
tion, and J. L. Burckhardt spoke of the clan as a distinct one
living about Abu Haraz and on the Atbara. The Rabbabish
probably received Arab rulers, as did the Ababda. They are
chiefly employed in cattle, camel and sheep breeding, and before
the Sudan wars of 1883-99 they had a monopoly of all trans-
port from the Nile, north of Abu Gussi, to Kordofan. They also
cultivate the lowlands which border the .Nile, where they have
permanent villages. They are of fine physique, dark with black
wiry hair, carefully arranged in tightly rolled curb which cling
to the head, with regular features and rather thick aquiline noses.
Some of the tribes wear ktrge hats like those of the Kabyles of
Algeria and Tunisia.
See James Bruce, Travels to Discover Pie Source of the Nil* (1796);
A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (1884); Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan (edited by Count Glekhen, 1905).
KABBALAH (late Hebrew kabbalah, qobbtiah), the technical
name for the system of Jewish theosophy which played an im-
portant part in the Christian Church in the middle ages. The
term primarily denotes " reception " and then " doctrines
received by tradition." In the older Jewish literature the name
is applied to the whole body of received religious doctrine with
the exception of the Pentateuch, thus including the Prophets and
Hagiographa as well as the oral traditions ultimately embodied
in the Mishnah. 1 It is only since the nth or 12th century that
Kabbalah has become the exclusive appellation for the renowned
system of theosophy which claims to have been transmitted
• uninterruptedly by the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets
ever since the creation of the first man.
The cardinal doctrines of the Kabbalah embrace the nature
of the Deity, the Divine emanations or Stpkirdth, the cosmogony,
Dactrlai tne creation of angels and man, their destiny, and
ottho the import of the revealed law. According to this
Stphtoth. esoteric doctrine, God, who is boundless and above
everything, even above being and thinking, is called En Sdph
(aireipos); He is the space of the universe containing rd ray,
but the universe is not his space. In this boundlessness
He could not be comprehended by the intellect or described in
words, and as such the Cn Sdph was in a certain sense Ayin, non*
existent {Zdhar, iii. 283)* To make his existence known and
comprehensible, the £n SOph had to become active and creative.
As creation involves intention, desire, thought and work, and as
these are properties which imply limit and belong to a finite
being, and moreover as the imperfect and circumscribed nature
of this creation precludes the idea of its being the direct work
of the infinite and perfect, the En S6ph had to become creative,
through the medium of ten Sephiroth or intelligences, which
emanated from him like rays proceeding from a luminary.
Now the wish to become manifest and known, and hence the
idea of creation, is co-eternal with the inscrutable Deity, and the
first manifestation of this primordial will is called the first
Sephirah or emanation. This first Scphirah, this spiritual sub-
stance which existed in the £n SOph from all eternity, contained
nine other intelligences or Scphirolh, These again emanated
one from the other, the second from the first, the third from the
second, and so on up to ten.
The ten Sc ■
En Soph a str \
of one and tl ?
Crown. (2) Wi
V) Firmness,
heir evoluti
ccalcd of all < 1
the form of r f
ether form. X
•T develop me r
name of the r
Vyisdora expa 1
from it, and 1 e
father tfnd I r
1 C. Taylor, Sayings of th* Jewish Fathers (1897), pp. 106 sqq.,
175 seq.: W. Backer, Jew. Quart. Rev. xx. 572 sqq. (1908).
■On the Z&har, " the Bible of the KabbatisU. see below.
pairs of Sephiroth successively emanated" (Zohar, iii. 290). These
two opposite potencies, via. the masculioe Wisdom or Sephirah
jjr» 9 «nH tk» Umini M Intelligence or Sephirah No. 3 are joined
t potency, the Crown or Sephirah No. 1 ; they
j the Scphiric decade, and constitute the divine
1 I man.
I Sephiroth Nog. 2 and 3 emanated the masa*-
1 Mercy (4) and the fe ••--■-----•-*--
( iction of the latter t\
1 ty (6). Beauty, the
t e archetypal man, an
J nstitute the divine a
i phiric decade. From
c isculine potency Firnu
j I), which constitute
i these sent^ forth Foun<
f ium of union between
1 iiric decade. Kingdor
1 ah, encircles all tne «
i s divine halo, which en
i «•
In their totality and unity the ten Sephiroth are not only
denominated the World of Sephiroth, or the World of Emana-
tions, but, owing to the above representation, are called the
primordial or archetypal man (=xpwr6yowrt) and the heavenly
man. It is this form which, as we are assured, the prophet
Ezekiel saw in the mysterious chariot (Ezek. L 1-28), and of
which the earthly man is a faint copy.
As the three triads respectively represent intellectual, moral
and physical qualities, the first is called the Intellectual, the
second the Moral or Sensuous, and the third the Material World.
According to this theory of the archetypal man the three
Sephiroth on the right-hand side are masculine and represent
the principle of rigour, the three on the left are feminine and
represent the principle of mercy, and the four central or uniting
Sephiroth represent the principle of mildness. Hence the right
is called " the Pillar of Judgment," the left " the Pillarof Mercy,"
and the centre " the Middle Pillar." The middle Sephiroth are
synccdochically used to represent the worlds or triads of which
they are the uniting potencies. Hence the Crown, the first
Scphirah, which unites Wisdom and Intelligence to constitute
the first triad, is by itself denominated the Intellectual World.
So Beauty is by itself described as the Sensuous World, and in
this capacity is called tfie Sacred King or simply the King, whilst
Kingdom, the tenth Scphirah, which unites all the nine Sephiroth,
is used to denote the Material World, and as such is denominated
the Queen or the Matron, ^hus a trinity of units, via. the
Crown, Beauty and Kingdom, is obtained within the trinity of
triads. But further, each Sephirah is as it were a trinity in
itself. It (1) has its own absolute character, (2) receives from
above, and (3) communicates to what is below. " Just as the
Sacred Aged is represented by the number three, so are all the
other lights (Sephiroth) of a threefold nature " (lobar, iii. 2&8).
In this all-important doctrine of the Scphirolh, the Kabbalah
insists upon the fact that these potencies are not creations of
the £n Soph, which would be a diminution of strength; that they
form among themselves and with the £n SOph a strict unity, and
simply represent di fie rent aspects of the same being, just as the
different rays which proceed from the light, and which appear
diftcrenl things to the eye, are only different manifestations of
one and the same light; that for. this reason they all alike partake
of the perfections of the En Soph; and that as emanations from
the Infinite, the Sephiroth arc infinite and perfect like the £n
Sfiph, and yet constitute the first finite things. They arc infinite
and perfect when the £n Sdph imparts his fullness to them, and
finite and imperfect when that fullness is withdrawn from them.
The conjunction of the Sephiroth, or, according to the language
of the Kabbalah, the union of the crowned King and Queen, pro-
duced the universe in their own image. Worlds
came into existence before the £n Soph manifested votvtrm.
himself in the human form of emanations, but they
could not continue, and necessarily perished because the con-
ditions of development which obtained with the sexual opposites
of the Scphirolh did not exist. These worlds which perished are
compared to sparks which fly out from a red-hot iron beaten by
a hammer, and which are extinguished according to the distance
KABBALAH
6zi
they ire removed from the burnin* »*••• Creation is not «
*Uttio\ ft is simply a farther expansion or evolution of the
Sephiroth.* The world reveals and makes visible tht Boundless
and the concealed of the concealed. And, though it exhibit!
the Deity in leaf splendour than its Sephiric parents exhibit the
fin Soph, because it is farther removed from the primordial
source of light than the Sephiroth, still, as it is God manifested,
all the multifarious forms in the world point out the unity which
they represent. Hence nothing in the whole universe can be
annihilated. Everything, spirit as well as body, must return
to the source whence it emanated (Zohor, U. »i8). The universe
consists of four different worlds, each of which forms a separate
Sephiric system of a decade of emanations.
' They were evolved m the following order, (i) The World of
Emanations, also called the Image and the Heavenly or Archetypal
Man, is, as we have seen, a direct emanation from the En Soph.
Hence it is most intimately allied to the Deity, and is perfect and
immutable. From the conjunction of the King and Queen (.i.e. these
ten Sepbiroth) is produced (2) the World of Creation, or the Briatic
world, also called " the Throne." Its ten Sephiroth, being farther
removed from the En Soph, are of a more limited and circumscribed
potency, though the substances they comprise are of the purest
nature and without any admixture of matter. The angel Metatron
inhabits this world. He alone constitutes the world of pure spirit,
and is the garment of Shaddai, »\*. the visible manifestation of the
Deity. His name is numerically equivalent to that of the Lord
(Zokar, lii. 231). He governs the visible world, preserves the
harmony and guides the revolutions of all the spheres, and is the
captain of all the myriads of angelic beings. This Briatic world
again gave rise to (i) the World 01 Formation, or Yetziratic World.
Its ten Sephiroth, being still farther removed from the Primordial
Source, are of a less refined substance. Still they are yet without
matter. It is the abode of the angels, who are wrapped in luminous
garments, and who assume a sensuous form when they appear to
men. The myriads of the angelic hosts who people this world are
divided into ten ranks, answering to the ten Sephiroth, and each
one of these numerous angels is set over a different part of the
universe, and derives his name from the heavenly body or element
which he guards (Zokar, i. 42). From this world finally emanated
(4) the World of Action, also called the World of Matter. Its ten
Sephiroth are made up of the grosser elements of the former three
worlds; they consist of material substance limited by space and
perceptible to the senses in a multiplicity of forms. This world is
subject to constant changes and corruption, and is the dwelling of
the evil spirits. These, the grossest and most deficient of all forms,
are also divided into ten decrees, each lower than the other. The
first two are nothing more than the absence of all visible form and
organization; the third degree is the abode of darkness; whilst the
remaining seven are " the seven infernal halls,'' occupied by the
demons, who are the incarnation of all human vices. These seven
hells arc subdivided into innumerable compartments corresponding
dea
to every species of sin, where the demons torture the poor deiudi _
human beings who have suffered themselves to be led astray whilst
on earth. The prince of this region of darkness is Sftmael, the evil
spirit, the serpent who seduced Eve. His wife is the Harlot or the
Woman of Whoredom. The two are treated as one person, and are
called " the Beast " (Zokar, ii. 255-259, with i. 35).
The whole universe, however, was incomplete, and did not
receive its finishing stroke till man was formed, who is the
Dodrtn* acme of the creation and the microcosm. " The
•iMmm. heavenly Adam (ix. the ten Sephiroth) who eman-
ated from the highest primordial obscurity (i.e. the £n Soph)
created the earthly Adam " (Zokar, ii. 70). " Man is both the
import and the highest degree of creation, for which reason he
was formed on the sixth day. As soon as man was created
everything was complete, including the upper and nether worlds,
for everything is comprised in man. He unites in himself all
forms " (Zokar, iii. 48). Each member of his body corresponds
to a part of the visible universe. " Just as we see in the firma-
ment above, covering ail things, different signs which are formed
o( the stars and the planets, and which contain secret things and
profound mysteries studied by those who are wise and expert in
these things; so there art in the skin, which is the cover of the
body of the son of man, and which is like the sky that covers all
things above, signs and features which are the stars and planets
of the skin, indicating secret things and profound mysteries
whereby the wise are attracted who understand the reading of
'The view of a mediate creation, in the place of immediate
creation out of nothing, and that the mediate beings were emana-
tions, was much influenced by Solomon ibn Gabirol' (102 1-1070).
the irrytteries In the human face'' (Ztf*ar,H. 76). Thehumaaform
is shaped after the four letters which constitute the Jewish
Tetragrammaton (q.v.\ see also Jehovah). The head is in the
shape oi J the arms and the shoulders are like n , the breast like
\ and the two legs with the back again resemble" (Zokar, ii. 72).
The souls of the whole human race pre-exist in the World of
Emanations, and are all destined to inhabit human bodies.
Like the Sephiroth from which it emanates, every soul has ten
potencies, consisting of a trinity Of triads. (1) The Spirit
(ntsk&mak), which is the highest degree of being, corresponds
to and is operated upon by the Crown, which is the highest
triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Intellectual World;
(2) the Soul (rMh), which is the seat of the moral qualities,
corresponds to and is operated upon by Beauty, which is
the second triad in the Sephiroth, and is called the Moral
World*, and (3) the Cruder Soul (mpbesk), which is imme-
diately connected with the body, and is the cause of its lower
instincts and the animal life, corresponds to and is operated
upon by Foundation, the third triad in the Sephiroth, called
the Material World. Each soul prior to its entering into
this world consists of male and female united into one being.
When it descends on this earth the two parts are separated and
animate two different bodies. " At the time of marriage the
Holy One, blessed be he, who knows all soub and spirits, unites
them again as they were before; and they again constitute one
body and one soul, forming as it were the right and the left of
the individual. . . . This union, however, is influenced by the
deeds of the man and by the ways in which he walks. If the
man is pure and his conduct fs pleasing In the sight of God, he is
united with that female part of the soul which was his component
part prior to his birth " (Zokar, i. 91). The soul's destiny upon
earth is to develop those perfections the germs of which are eter-
nally implanted in it, and it ultimately must return to the infinite
source from which it emanated. Hence, if, after assuming a
body and sojourning upon earth, it becomes polluted by sin and
fails to acquire the experience for which it descends from heaven,
it must three times reinhabit a body, till it is able to ascend in a
purified state through repeated trials. If, after its third resi-
dence in a human body, it is still too weak to withstand the con-
tamination of sin, it is united with another soul, in order that by
their combined efforts it may resist the pollution which by itself
it was unable to conquer. When the whole pleroma of pre-
existent souls in the world of the Sephiroth shall have descended
and occupied human bodies and have passed their period of
probation and have returned purified to the bosom of the infinite
Source, then the soul of Messiah will descend from the region of
souls; then the great Jubilee will commence. There shall be no
more sin, no more temptation, no more suffering. Universal
restoration will take place. Satan himself, "the venomous
Beast," will be restored to his angelic nature. Life will be an
everlasting feast, a Sabbath without end. All souls will be united
with the Highest Soul, and will supplement each other in the
Holy of Holies of the Seven Halls (Zokar, i. 45, 168; ii. 97).
According to the Kabbalah all these esoteric doctrines are
contained in the Hebrew Scriptures. The uninitiated cannot
percefve them; but they are plainly revealed to the Amtl9tl ff r
spiritually minded, who discern the profound import m*4 imO*
of this theosophy beneath the surface of the letters •*'*•'
and words of Holy Writ. " If the law simply con- JC ***"* A
sists of ordinary expressions and narratives, such as the words
of Esau, Hagar, Laban, the ass of Balaam or Balaam himself,
why should it be called the law of truth, the perfect law, the true
witness of God ? Each word contains a sublime source, each
narrative points not only to the single instance in question, but
also to generals " (Zokar y iii. 149, cf. 152).
To obtain these heavenly mysteries, which atone make the Torah
superior to profane codes, definite hermeneutical rules are employed,
of which the following are the most important. (1) The words of
several verses in the Hebrew Scriptures which are regarded as
containing a recondite sense are placed over each other, and the
letters are formed into new words by reading them vertically. (2)
The words of the text are ranged in squares in such a manner as to
be read either vertically or boustrophedon. (3) The words are
622
KABBALAH
Joined together and redivided. (4) The initial* and final letters of 1
■everal words are formed into separate words. (5) Every letter of
a word is reduced to its numerical value, and the word is explained
by another of the same quantity. (6) Every letter of a word is
taken to be the initial or abbrevtar ' ' '~ % " 1 "' y-
two letters of the alphabet arc di ilf
is placed above the other, and th nc
associated are interchanged. By I rst
letter of the alphabet, becomes Hh
becomes Mem, and so on. This m,
from the first interchangeable paii he
twenty-two letters is effected by K?t
taking the place of the first, the las id.
and so forth. This cipher is call< al
canons are much older than the b he
synagogue from time immemorial, an
fathers in the interpretation of Scr rd-
ing to which a word is reduced to it cd
by another word of the same value La-
ment (cf. Rev. xiii. 18). Canon ' , . . -ho
tells us that, according to the learned among the Hebrews, the name
Jesus contains two letters and a half, and signifies that Lord who
contains heaven and earth (mt • pin dtt nvr] (Atainst Heresies,
ii. xxiv., i. 205, cd. Clark). The cipher Atbask (Canon VIII.) is
used in Jeremiah xxv. 26. Ii. 41, where Sheshacn is written for
Babel. In ler. Ii. 1, *c? aS, Leb-Kamai (" the heart of them that
rise up against me "), is written for onra, Chatdea, by the same
rule.
Exegesis of this sort is not the characteristic of any single circle,
people or century; unscientific methods of biblical interpreta-
tion have prevailed from Philo's treatment of the Pentateuch
to modern apologetic interpretations of Genesis, ch. i.' The
Kabbalah itself is but an extreme and remarkable develop-
ment of certain forms of thought which had never been absent
from Judaism; it is bound up with earlier tendencies to mysti-
cism, with man's inherent striving to enter into communion with
the Deity. To seek its sources would be futile. The Pytha-
gorean theory of numbers, Neoplatonic ideas of emanation, the
Logos, the personified Wisdom, Gnosticism — these and many
other features combine to show the antiquity of tendencies which,
clad in other shapes, are already found in the old pre-Christian
Oriental religions.* In its more mature form the Kabbalah
belongs to the period when medieval Christian mysticism was
beginning to manifest itself (viz. in Eckhart, towards end of
13th century); it is an age which also produced the rationalism
of Maimonides (?.».). Although some of its foremost exponents
were famous Talmudisls, it was a protest against excessive
intellectualism and Aristotelian scholasticism. It laid stress,
not on external authority, as did the Jewish law, but on in-
dividual experience and inward meditation. " The mystics
accorded the first place to prayer, which was considered as a
mystical progress towards God, demanding a state of ecstasy." 4
As a result, some of the finest specimens of Jewish devotional
literature and some of the best types of Jewish individual
character have been Kabbalist.' On the other hand, the
Kabbalah has been condemned, and nowhere more strongly
than among the Jews themselves. Jewish orthodoxy found
itself attacked by the more revolutionary aspects of mysticism
and its tendencies to alter established customs. While the
medieval scholasticism denied the possibility of knowing
anything unattainable by reason, the spirit of the Kabhatafc held
that the Deity could be realized, and it sought to bridge the gulf.
Thus it encouraged an unrestrained emotionalism, rank super-
stition, an unhealthy asceticism, and the employment of artificial
means to induce the ecstatic stale. That this brought moral
laxity was a stronger reason for condemning the Kabbalah,
1 See F. Weber, Jidische Theohgie (1807), pp. 118 sqq.
• See C. A. Briggs. Study of Holy Sci iplure ( 1 899). pp. 427 sqq., 570.
•Even the "over-Soul" of the mystic Isaac Luria (1534-1572)
1» a conception known in the 3rd century a. P. (Rabbi Resh Lakish).
For the early stages of Kabbalistic theories, see K. Kohler. Jew.
Ency. iii. 457 sea., and L. Ginsberg, ibid. 45Q seq. ; and for examples
of the relationship between old Oriental (especially Babylonian)
and Jewish Kabbalistic teaching (early and late), see especially
A. Jeremias. Babylonisches %n N. Test. (Leipzig, 1905) : E. Bischoff ,
Bab. Astrales im Wettbilde des Thalmud u. htidrasch (1907).
• L. Ginzberg. Jew. Ency. iii. 465.
•See, especially, on the mystics of Safcd in Upper Galilee, S.
Schechter, Studies (1908), pp. 202-285.
and the evil effects of nervous defeneration find a 1
illustration in the mysticism of the Chasidjm (Hdsidim, " saints "),
a Jewish sect in eastern Europe which started from a movement
in the t8th century against the exaggerated casuistry of con-
temporary rabbis, and combined much that was spiritual and
beautiful with extreme emotionalism and degradation.* The
appearance of the Kabbalah and of other forms of mysticism in
Judaism may seem contrary to ordinary and narrow concep-
tions of orthodox Jewish legalism. Its interest lies, not in its
doctrines, which have often been absurdly over-estimated
(particularly among Christians), but in its contribution to the
study of human thought. It supplied a want which has always
been felt by certain types, and it became a movement which
had mischievous effects upon ill-balanced minds. As usual,
the excessive self-introspection was not checked by a rational
criticism; the individual was guided by his own reason, the
limitations of which he did not realize; and in becoming a
law unto himself he ignored the accumulated experiences of
civilized humanity '
A feature of greater interest is the extraordinary part which
this theosophy played in the Christian Church, especially at the
lime of the Renaissance. We have already seen that the Sephirie
decade or the archetypal man, like Christ, is considered to be of a
double nature, both infinite and finite, perfect and imperfect.
More distinct, however, is the doctrine of the Trinity. In
Deut. vi. 43, where Yahweh occurs first, then ftfthenO, and then
again Yahweh, we arc told " The voice though one, consists of
three elements, fire (i.e. warmth), air (i.e. breath), and water
(i.e. humidity), yet all three are one in the mystery of the voice
and can only be one. Thus also Yahweh, £ldh€nQ, Yahweh, con-
stitute one — three forms which are one " (Zohar, ii. 43; compare
iii. 65). Discussing the thrice holy in Isaiah vi. 3, one codes of the
Zohar had the following remark: " The first holy denotes the
Holy Father, the second the Holy Son, and the third the Holy
Ghost" (cf. Galatinus, De arcanis caihol. lib. ii. c 3, p. 31;
Wolf, Bibliotheca hebraica, i. 1136). Still more distinct is
the doctrine of the atonement. " The Messiah invokes all the
sufferings, pain, and afflictions of Israel to come upon Him. Nov
if He did not remove them thus and take them upon Himself,
no man could endure the sufferings of Israel, due as their
punishment for transgressing the law; as it is written (Isa. list. 4),
Surely He hath borne our griefs and carried our sorrows"
(Zohar, ii. 12). These and similar statements favouring the
doctrines of the New Testament made many Kabbalists of the
highest position in the synagogue embrace the Christian faith
and write elaborate books to win their Jewish brethren over to
Christ. As early as 1450 a company of Jewish converts in Spain,
at the head of which were Paul de Heredia, Vidal de Saragassa
de Aragon, and Davila, published compilations of Kabbalistk
treatises to prove from them the doctrines of Christianity.
They were followed by Paul Rid, professor at Pavia, and physi-
cian to the emperor Maximilian I. Among the best-known
non-Jewish exponents of the Kabbalah were the Italian count
Pico di Mirandola (1463-1494), the renowned Johann Rcucblin
(U5S-»5«), Hcinrich Cornelius Agrippa of Neltesheim (1487-
IS35). Theophrastus Paracelsus (1493-1541)! and, later, the
Englishman Robert Fludd (1574-1637)- Prominent among the
" nine hundred theses " which Mirandola had placarded in
Rome, and which he undertook to defend in the presence
of all European scholars, whom he invited to the Eternal
City, promising to defray their travelling expenses, was the
following: " No science yields greater proof of the divinity of
Christ than magic and the Kabbalah." Mirandola so convinced
Pope Sixtus of the paramount importance of the Kabbalah
as an auxiliary to Christianity that his holiness exerted himself
to have Kabbalistic writings translated into Latin for the use of
divinity students. With equal zeal did Reuchlin act as the
• See the instructive article by S. Schechter. Studies ts Judmum
(London. 1896). pp. 1-55-
1 See the discriminating estimates by S. A. Hirsch, Jew. Quart.
Rev. xx. 50-73: I. Abrahams, Jew. Lit. (1906), ch. xviL: Judaism
I (1907). ch. vi.
KABINDA— KABIR
623
apostle of tlie Kabbalah. His treatises excreted an almost
magic influence upon the greatest thinkers of the time. Pope
Leo X. and the early Reformers were alike captivated by the
charms of the Kabbalah as propounded by Reuchlin, and not
only divines, but statesmen and warriors, began to study the
Oriental languages in order to be able to fathom the mysteries
of Jewish theosophy. The Zohar, that farrago of absurdity
and spiritual devotion, was the weapon with which these
Christians defended Jewish literature against hostile ecclesiastic
bodies (Abrahams, Jew. Lit. p. 106). Thus the Kabbalah
finked the old scholasticism with the new and independent
inquiries in learning and philosophy after the Renaissance,
and although it had evolved a remarkably bizarre conception
of the universe, it partly anticipated, in its own way, the scientific
study of natural philosophy. 1 Jewish theosophy, then, with its
good and evil tendencies, and with its varied results, may thus
daim to have played no unimportant part in the history of
European scholarship and thought.
The main sources to be noticed are:—
1. The Slbher Ylfrah, or " book of creation/* not the old
Hilkoth Y. ( rules of creation "), which belongs to the Talmudic
period (on which see Kohler, Jew. Eney. xii. 602 scq.),
but a later treatise, a combination of medieval natural
philosophy and mysticism. It has been variously
•scribed to the patriarch Abraham and to the illustrious rabbi
'Aqiba; its essential elements, however, may be of the 3rd or 4th
century A.D., arid it is apparently earlier than the 9th (see L. Cinz-
berg. op. cit. 603 sqq.). It has " had a greater influence on the
development of the Jewish mind than almost any other book after
the completion of the Talmud " (ibid.).
2. The Mh\r ("brilliant," Job. xxxvii. 21), though ascribed to
Nehunyah b. Haqqanah (1st century A.D.). is first quoted by
Nabmanides, and is now attributed to his teacher Ezra or Azriel
(1160-1238). It shows the influence of the Siphtr Yislrah, is
marked by the teaching of a celestial Trinity, is a rough outline of
what the Zohar was destined to be, and gave the first opening to
a thorough study of metaphysics among the Jews. (See further
I. Broydo, Jew. Ency. ii. 442 scq.).
3. The Zohar (" shining," Dan. xii. 3) is a commentary on the
Pentateuch, according to its division into fifty-two hebdomadal
lessons. It begins with the exposition of Gen. 1. 4 (" let there be
light ") and includes eleven dissertations: (1) " Additions and
Interpretation," deducing esoteric doctrine from the narratives in
the Pentateuch; (5) " The Faithful Shepherd," recording discussions
between Moses the faithful shepherd, the prophet Elijah and R.
Simon b. Yobal, the reputed compiler of the Zohar ; (6) " The Secret
of Secrets," a treatise on physiognomy and psychology; (7) " The
Aged." ix. the prophet Elijah, discoursing with R. Simon on the
doctrine of transmigration as evolved from Exod. xxi. i-xxiv. 18;
(8) " The Book of Secrets," discourses on cosmogony and demon-
otogy; (9) " The Great Assembly," discourses of R. Simon to his
numerous assembly of disciples on the form of the Deity and on
pncumatology ; (10) " The Young Man," discourses by young men
of superhuman origin on the mysteries of ablutions; and (l 1) The
Small Assembly," containing the discourses on the Sephiroth which
R. Simon delivered to the small congregation of six surviving
disciples. The Zohar pretends to be a compilation made by Simon
b. Yobai (the second century a.d.) of doctrines which God com-
municated to Adam in Paradise, and which have been received
uninterruptedly from the mouths of the patriarchs and prophets.
It was discovered, so the story went, in a cavern in Galilee where it
had been hidden for a thousand years. Amongst the many facts,
however, established by modern .criticism which prove the Zohar
to be a compilation of the 13th century, are the following. (1) the
Zohar itself praises most fulsomdy R. Simon, its reputed author,
and exalts him above Moses; (a) it mystically explains the Hebrew
vowel points, which did not obtain till 570; (3) the compiler borrows
two verses from the celebrated hymn called 7 ' The Royal Diadem,"
written by Ibn Gabirol, who was born about 1 021 ; (4) it mentions
the capture of Jerusalem by the crusaders and the re- taking of the
Holy City by the Saracens ; (5) it speaks of the comet which appeared
at Rome. 15th July 1264, under the pontificate of Urban IV.; (6) by
a slip the Zohar assigns a reason why its contents were not revealed
before 5060-5066 a.m.. ix. 1300-1306 A.D., (7) the doctrine of the
fcn S6ph and the Sephiroth was not known before the 13th century ;
and (8) the very existence of the Zohar itself was not known prior
1 See, #.«., G. Margoliouth, " The Doctrine of Ether in the
Kabbalah, Jew. Quart. Rev. xx. 828 sqq. On the influence of the
Kabbalah on the Reformation, ate Stockl, Cesch, d. Philosophic des
UiUotalUrs, ii. 232-25 1.
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KABINDA, a Portuguese possession on the west coast of
Africa north of the mouth of the Congo. Westwards it borders
the Atlantic, N. and N.E. French Congo, S. and S.E. Belgian
Congo. It has a coast-line of 93 m., extends inland, at its
greatest breadth, 70 m., and has an area of about 3000 sq. m.
In its physical features, flora, fauna and inhabitants, it resembles
the coast region of French Congo (q.v.). The only considerable
river is the Chiloango, which in part forms the boundary between
Portuguese and Belgian territory, and in its tower course divides
Kabinda into two fairly even portions. The mouth of the
river is in 5 12' S., 12° 5* E. The chief town, named Kabinda,
is a seaport on the right bank of the small river Bele, m 5 ^ S.,
1 2 10' E.; pop. about 10,000. From the beauty of its situation,
and the fertility of the adjacent country, it has been called the
paradise of the coast. The harbour is sheltered and commo-
dious, with anchorage in four fathoms. Kabinda was formerly
a noted slave mart. Farther north arc the ports of Landana and
Massabi. Between Kabinda and Landana is Molembo at the
head of a small bay of the same name. There is a considerable
trade in palm oil, ground nuts and other jungle produce, largely
in the hands of British and German firms.
The possession of the enclave of Kabinda by Portugal is a
result of the efforts made by that nation during the last quarter
of the 19th century to obtain sovereignty over both banks of
the lower Conga Whilst Portugal succeeded in obtaining the
southern bank of the river to the limit of navigability from
the sea, the northern bank became part of the Congo Free State
(see Africa, § 5). Portuguese claims to the north of the river
were, however, to some extent met by the recognition of her
right to Kabinda. The southernmost part of Kabinda is
25 m. (following the coast-line) north of the mouth of the Congo.
This district as far north as the Chiloango river (and including
the adjacent territory of Belgian Congo) is sometimes spoken
of as Kacongo. The name Loango (q.v) was also applied to this
»-gion as well as to the coast -lands immediately to the north.
Administratively Kabinda forms a division of the Congo dis-
trict of the province of Angola (q.v.). The inhabitants are Bantu
negroes who are called Kabindas. They are an intelligent,
energetic and enterprising people, daring sailors and active
traders.
KABlR, the most notable of the Vaishnava reformers of
religion in northern India, who flourished during the first half
of the 1 5th century. He is counted as one of the twelve disciples
of Ramanand, the great preacher in the north (about a.d. 1400)
of the doctrine of bhakti addressed to Rama, which originated
with Rlmanuja (12th century) in southern India. He himself
also mentions among his spiritual forerunners Jaideo and
Namdeo (or Nama) the earliest Marat hi poet (both about 1 250).
Legend relates that Kablr was the son of a Brahman widow, by
whom he was exposed, and was found on a lotus in Lahar Talao,
a pond oear Benares, by a Musalman weaver named 'All (or
624
KABUL
NOri), who with his wife Nlma adopted him and brought him
up in their craft as a Musalmftn. He lived most of his life at
Benares, and afterwards removed to Magfaar (or Magahar), in
the present district of Basil, where he is said to have died in
1449. There appears to be no reason to doubt that he was
originally a Musalmftn and a weaver; his own name and that
of his son Kamal are Mahommedan, not Hindu. His adhesion
to the doctrine of Ramlnand is not a solitary instance of the
religious syncretism which prevailed at this time in northern
India. The religion of the earlier Sikh Gurus, which was largely
based upon his teaching, also aimed at the fusion of Hinduism
and Islam; and the example of Malik Muhammad, 1 the author
of the Padmawat, who lived a century later than Kablr, shows
that the relations between the two creeds were in some cases
extremely intimate. It is related that at Kablr's death the
Hindus and Musalmans each claimed him as an adherent of
their faith, and that when his funeral issued forth from his bouse
at Maghar the contention was only assuaged by the appearance
of Kablr himself, who bade them look under the cloth which
covered the corpse, and immediately vanished. On raising the
doth they found nothing but a heap of flowers. This was
divided between the rival faiths, half being buried by the
Musalmans and the other half burned by the Hindus. 1
Kablr's fame as a preacher of bltakti, or enthusiastic devotion
to a personal God, whom he preferred to call by the Hindu names
of Rama and Hari, is greater than that of any other of the
Vaishnava spiritual leaders. His fervent conviction of the truth
and power of his doctrine, and the homely and searching expres-
sion given to it in his utterances, in the tongue of the people and
not in a learned language remote from their understanding, won
for him multitudes of adherents; and his sect, the Kablrpanthls,
is still one of the most numerous in northern India, its numbers
exceeding a million. Its headquarters are the Kablr Chaurd at
Benares, where are preserved the works attributed to Kablr
(called the Granth), the greater part of which, however, were
written by his immediate disciples and their followers in his
name.
Kablr taught the life of bhaJtli (faith, or personal love and
devotion), the object of which is a personal God, and not a philo-
sophical abstraction or an impersonal quality-less, all-pervading
spiritual substance (as in the Vedanta of Sankaracharya). His
utterances do not, like those of Tulsl Das, dwell upon the inci-
dents of the human life of Rama, whom he takes as his type of the
Supreme; nevertheless, it is the essence of his creed that God
became incarnate to bring salvation to His children, mankind,
and that the human mind of this incarnation still subsists in the
Divine Person. He proclaims the unity of the Godhead, the
vanity of idols, the powerlcssness of brdhmans or mull&s to guide
or help, and the divine origin of the human soul, divinae particula
«Mru<. AU evil in the world is ascribed to Mdyd, illusion or false-
hood, and truth in thought, word and deed is enjoined as the
«hic( duty of man: " No act of devotion can equal truth; no
crime U to heinous as falsehood; in the heart where truth abides
> Se« artieW HrNOOSTAW LiTBtATO*B.
• A* tUKtW ftimiLr tale is told of Naoak, the first Guru of the
Sikh* who died ia !&}*»
there is My abode.'* The distinctions of creeds are declared to
be of no importance in the presence of God: " The city of Hara*
is to the east, that of 'All h i* to the west; but explore your owa
heart, for there are both Rdma and Kartm; " * " Behold but One
in all things: it is the second that leads you astray. Every man
and woman that has ever been born is of the same nature as
yourself. He, whose is the world, and whose are the children of
% AU and Rdma, He is my Guru, He is my Pir." He proclaims
the universal brotherhood of roan, and the duty of kindness to
all living creatures. Life is the gift of God, and must not be
violated, the shedding of blood, whether of man or animals, is a
heinous crime. The followers of Kablr do not observe celibacy,
and live quiet unostentatious lives; Wilson (p, 97) compares
them to Quakers for their hatred of violence and unobtrusive
piety.
The resemblance of many of Kablr's utterances to those of
Christ, and especially to the ideas set forth in St John's gospel,
is very striking; still more so is the existence in the ritual of the
sect of a sacramental meal, involving the eating of a consecrated
wafer and the drinking of water administered by the Mahant or
spiritual superior, which bears a remarkable likeness to the
Eucharist. Yet, though the deities of Hinduism and the prophet
of Islam are frequently mentioned in his sayings, tbe name of
Jesus has nowhere been found in them. It is conjectured that
the doctrine of Ramanand, which came from southern India, has
been influenced by the Christian settlements in that region,
which go back to very early times. It is also possible that
Sufi ism, the piettstic (as distinguished from the theosophk) form
of which seems to owe much to eastern Christianity, has contri-
buted some echo of the Gospel to Kablr's teaching. A third
(but scarcely probable) hypothesis is that the sect has borrowed
both maxims and ritual, long after Kablr's own time, from the
teaching of the Roman Catholic missionaries, who were estab-
lished at Agra from the reign of Akbar (1556-1605) onwards.
No critical edition of the writings current under the name of
Kablr hat yet been published, though collections of his sayings
(chiefly the SdkhSs) are constantly appearing from Indian presses.
The reader is referred, for a summary account of his life and doctrine,
to H. H. Wilson's Sketch of the Religious Sects of the Hindus (Works,
i. 68 sqq.). Dr E. Trumpp's edition of the Adi Granth (Introduction).
pp. xcvii. sqq.) may also be consulted. Recent publications dealing
with the subject are the Rev. G. H. Westcott's Kablr and the eXakir
Panlh (Cawnpore, 1008), and Mr. M. A. Macauliffe's The Sikh RHigmn
(Oxford, 1909), vi 122-316. (C J. L.)
KABUL, the .capital of Afghanistan, standing at an elevation
of 6000 ft. above the sea in 34 32' N. and 6o° 14' E. Estimated
pop. (1001), 140,000. Lying at the foot of the bare and rocky
mountains forming the western boundary of the Kabul valley,
just below the gorge made by the Kabul River, the city extends
a mile and a half east to west and one mile north to south.
Hemmed in by the mountains, there is no way of extending it,
except in a northerly direction towards the Sherpur cantonment.
As the key of northern India, Kabul has been a city of vast
importance for countless ages. It commands all the passes
which here debouch from the north through the Hindu Kush,
and from the west through Kandahar; and through it passed
successive invasions of India by Alexander the Great, Mahmud
of Ghazni, Jenghiz Khan, Baber, Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah.
Indeed from the lime of Baber to that of Nadir Shah (1526-1738)
Kabul was part of the empire of Delhi. It is now some 160 zn.
from the British frontier post of Jamrud near Peshawar.
Kabul was formerly walled; the old wall had seven gates, of
which two alone remain, the Lahorf and the Sirdar. The city
itself is a huddle of narrow and dirty streets, with the Balk
Hissar or fort forming the south-east angle, and rising about
150 ft. above the plain. The Amir's palace is situated outside
the town about midway between it and the Sherpur cantonment
which lies about a mile to the north-east. Formerly the greatest,
* This and the following passages in quotation marks are from
Professor Wilson's translation of 100 S&khU, pp. 83-90.
* Benares; Hara, a name of Siva.
■ I.e. Mecca.
' " The Bountiful," one of the Koranic names of God (Allah).
fcABUL RIVBRr-^KABYLES
625
ornament of the dty was the treaded and roofed bazaar called
Chihdr Ck&tS, ascribed to Ali Mardan Khan, a noble of the 17th
century, who has left behind him many monuments of his munifi-
cent public spirit both in Kabul and in Hindustan. Its four
arms had an aggregate length of about 600 ft., with a breadth
of 30. The display of goods was remarkable, and in the evening
it was illuminated. This edifice was destroyed by Sir G. Pollock
on evacuating Kabul in 1842 as a record of the treachery of
the city.
The tomb of the Sultan Baber stands on a slope about a mile
to the west of the city in a charming spot. The grave is marked
by two erect slabs of white marble. Near him lie several of his
wives and children; the garden was formerly enclosed by a
marble wall; a clear stream waters the flower-beds. From the
hill that rises behind the tomb there is a noble prospect of his
beloved city, and of the all-fruitful plain stretching to the north
of it.
After the accession of Abdur Rahman in 1880 the city under-
went great changes. The Bala Hissar was destroyed and has
never since been entirely rebuilt, and a fortified cantonment at
Sherpur (one side of which was repre se nted by the historic
Bemara ridge) had taken the place of the old earthworks of the
British occupation of 1843 which were constructed on nearly the
same site. The city streets were as narrow and evil-smelling, the
surrounding gardens as picturesque and attractive, and the wealth
of fruit was as great, as they had been fifty years previously.
The amir, however, effected many improvements. Kabul is now
connected by well-planned and metalled roads with Afghan Turk-
estan on the west, with the Oxus and Bokhara on the north, and
with India on the east. The road to India was first made by
British and is now maintained by Afghan engineers. The road
southwards to Ghazni and Kandahar was always naturally ex-
cellent and has probably needed little engineering, but the general
principle of road-making in support of a military advance has
always been consistently maintained, and the expeditions of
Kabul troops to Kafiristan have been supported by a very well
graded and substantially constructed road up the Kunar valley
from Jalalabad to Asmar, and onwards to the Bashgol valley of
Kafiristan. The city ways have been improved until it has be-
come possible for wheeled vehicles to pass, and the various roads
connecting the suburbs and the cky are efficiently maintained.
A purely local railway has also been introduced, to assist in
transporting building material. The buildings erected by Abdur
Rahman were pretentious, but unmarked by any originality
in design and hardly worthy representation of the beauty and
dignity of Mabommedan architecture. They included a new
palace and a durbar hall, a bridge across the river and embank-
ment, a pavilion and garden laid out around the site of Baber 's
tomb overlooking the Chardch valley; and many other buildings
of public utility connected with stud arrangements, the manu-
facture of small arms and ammunition, and the requirements
of what may be termed a wholesale shop under European direc-
tion, besides hospitals, dispensaries, bazaars, &c. The new
palace is within an entrenchment just outside the city. It is
enclosed in a fine garden, well planted with trees, where the harem
serai (or ladies' apartments) occupies a considerable space. The
public portion of the buildings comprise an ornamental and lofty
pavilion with entrances on each side, and a high-domed octagonal
room in the centre, beautifully fitted and appointed, where public
receptions take place. The durbarball, which is a separate build-
ing, is 60 yards long by so broad, with a painted roof supported
by two rows of pillars. But the arrangement of terraced gardens
and the lightly constructed pavilion which -graces the western
slopes of the hills overlooking Chardeh are the most attractive
of these innovations. Here, on a summer's day, with the scent
of roses pervading the heated air, the cool refreshment of the
passing breezes and of splashing fountains may be enjoyed by
the officials of the Kabul court, whilst they look across the beauty
of the thickly planted plains of Chardeh to the rugged outlines
of Paghman and the snows of the Hindu Kush. The artistic
taste of the landscape gardening is excellent, and the mountain
scenery is not unworthy of Kashmir. It is pleasant to record
XV II
that die graveyard of those officers who fell in the Kabul
campaign of 1870-1880, which lies at the northern end of the
Bemaru ridge, is not uncared for.
Kabul fo believed to be the Ortosponum or Ortospana of the
geographies of Alexander's march, a name conjectured to be a
corruption of Urddhasthdna, " high place." This is the meaning of
%
KABUL RIVER, a river of Afghanistan, 300 m.'in length. The
Kabul (ancient Kophcs), which is the most important (although
not the largest) river in Afghanistan, rises at the foot of the Una!
pass leading over the Sanglakh range, an offshoot of the Hindu
Kush towards Bamian and Afghan Turkestan. Its basin forms
the province of Kabul, which includes all northern Afghanistan,
between the Hindu Kush and the Safed Koh ranges. From its
source to the city of Kabul the course of the river is only 45 m.,
and this part of it is often exhausted in summer for purposes of
irrigation. Half a mile cast of Kabul it is joined by the Logar,
a much larger river, which rises beyond Ghazni among the slopes
of the Gul Koh (14,200 ft.), and drains the rich and picturesque
valleys of Logar and Waidak. Below the confluence the Kabul
becomes a rapid stream with a gTeat volume of water and gradu-
ally absorbs the whole drainage of the Hindu Kush. About 40 m.
below Kabul the Panjshir river joins it; 15 m. farther the Tagao;
20 m. from the Tagao junction the united streams of Alingar and
Alishang (rivers of Kafiristan) ; and 20 m. below that, at Balabagh,
the Surkhab from the Safed Koh. Two or three miles below Jala-
labad it is joined by the Kunar, the river of Chitral. Thence-
forward it passes by deep gorges through the Mohmand hills,'
curving northward until it emerges into the Peshawar plain at
Michni. Soon afterwards it receives the Swat river from the
north and the Bara river from the south, and after a further
course of 40 m. falls into the Indus at Attock. From Jalalabad
downwards the river is navigable by boats or rafts of inflated
skins, and is considerably used for purposes of commerce.
KABYLBS, or Kabaxl, a confederation of tribes in Algeria,
Tunisia, and a few oases of the Sahara, who form a branch
of the great Berber race. Their name is the Arabic gabilat
(pL: gobail), and was at first indiscriminately applied by the
Arabs to all Berber peoples. The part of Algeria which they
inhabit is usually regarded as consisting of two divisions— Great
Kabylia and Lesser Kabylia, the former being also known as
the Kabylia of the Jurjura (also called Adrar Budf el, " Mountain
of Snow "). Physically many Kabyles do nol present much
contrast to the Arabs of Algeria. Both Kabyle and Arab are
white at birth, but rapidly grow brown through exposure to air
and sunshine. Both have in general brown eyes and wavy hair
2a
EACH GANDAVA— K ADUR
.-_ X
_ ^y— . raa**^ To-f -tr* 4aek brown to Jet black. In
"" ^ j^v *|er-*ue*.t - . >.* Terence in favour of the Kabyie,
^^ «vn^f*^* **«" « * ^ « beavier build and more muscular.
* ^ clear:* k-c^ S»ie*L Some, however, of the purer
^£>}y«t>> -i ^*.>L* proper have fair skins, ruddy com*
r ** r ~-- a»^* **■* ** s^T «y es ' *» kc* that arc two distinct
^-.w-*-"**^^- Kbytes; tswse wnkh by much admixture have
V~ r—r *^ -na-^ : * Ar *^ *** negroid types, and those which prc-
i,^-~ w "' -p T ; »a» features. Active, energetic and enterprising, the
^- -^ '~ . *"^'r# be fassnd far from borne — as a soldier in the French
j^ > r * *** A workman in the towns, as a field labourer, or as a
st—* .^-irsder earning the means of purchasing his bit of ground
r%r . -~]l S i>« village. The Kabylcs are Mahommedans of the
-r- ^"* ^^»nch and tbe Hanldte rite, looking to Morocco as the
^1 r- "- r ^ r **tte of their religion. Some of the Kabyles retain their
I K .jir* -r y^ T speech, whik others have more or less completely
« "^^^^Uc The best known of the Kabyle dialects is
V*i or Igaouaooen, those speaking it having been
., t be northern side of the Jurjura at least from the time
. • *!«■** C~V*Jdun; it is the principal basis of Hanotcau's Essai
'if** %^yir« ***** C 1 *"*. >S 5 8). Unlike their southern
* c
^rc»
,be KabyJes have no alphabet, and their literature is
!^t ^ rC ^L c ***** °* cnX tr * nsmission . 'or the most part by pro-
rr/ll »* Wrcc****- Haooteaua Pdste fopulaircs dc la Kabylic
jVjjc*****, (Taris, 1S67) gives the text and translation of a
yT~ J** 3 *-*!* number of historical pieces, proverbial couplets and
«e
tin
th
-a,
>n-
nt
en
5er
by
ch
he
cr,
fe.
:ct
^\:^J^ S W * <k * r ' vo1 - vu (Bombay, 1907).
""^^Tp Jl* ^^ "PP 01 Burma, in-
;< ,0^^ * af ,"e known on the
number of
of the Kachin
the M yitkyina
chin hill tracts
there are many
era Shan States.
ghly estimated at
'_ ^ for the most part
pulleys, all leading
"^ .try. There were
Sg^oi. Philological
*# ^ the progenitors
t T 1 ■ i H»e Zouave dialect
1 ©*Wa>besor-»' J
of the Kachins or Chingpaw were the Indo-Chinese race who,
before the beginnings of history, but after the Mdn-Annam wave
had covered Indo-China, forsook their home in western China
to pour over the region where Tibet, Assam, Burma and China
converge, and that the Chingpaw are the residue left round the
headquarters of the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin after those
branches, destined to become the Tibetans, the Nagas, the Bur-
mans and the Kuki Chins, had gone westwards and southwards.
In the middle of the 19th century the southern limit of the
Kachins was 200 m. farther north than it is now. Since then
the race has been drifting steadily southward and eastward,
a vast aggregate of small independent clans united by no
common government, but all obeying a common impulse to
move outwards from their original seats along the line of least
resistance. Now the Kachins are on both sides of the border of
Upper Burma, and are a force to be reckoned with by frontier
administrators. According to the Kachin Hill Tiibes Regula-
tion of 1805, administrative responsibility is accepted by the
British government on the left bank of the Irrawaddy for the
country south of the Nmaikha, and on the right bank for the
country south of a line drawn from the confluence of the Malikha
and Nmaikha through the northern limit of the Laban district
and including the jade mines. The tribes north of this line were
told that if they abstained from raiding to the south of it they
would not be interfered with. South of that line peace was to be
enforced and a small tribute exacted, with a minimum of inter-
ference in their private affairs. On the British side of the border
the chief objects have been the disarmament of the tribes and
the construction of frontier and internal roads. A light tribute
is exacted.
The Kachins have been the object of many police operations and
two regular expeditions: (1) Expedition of 1892-9*. Bhamo was
occupied by the British on the 28th of December 1885, and almost
immediately trouble began. Constant punitive measures were carried
on by the military police; but in December 1892 a police column
proceeding to establish a post at Sima was heavily attacked, and
simultaneously the town of M yitkyina was raided by Kachins. A
force of 1200 troops was sent to put down the rising. The enemy
received their final blow at Palap, but not before three officers were
killed, three wounded, and 102 sepoys and followers killed and
wounded. (2) Expedition of 1895-96. The continued misconduct
of the Sana Kachins from beyond the administrative border ren-
dered punitive measures necessary. They had remained unpunished
6tncc the attackon My itkyina in December 1 892. Two columns were
sent up, one of 250 rifles from Myitkyina, the other of 200 rifles
from Mogaung, marching in December 1895. The resistance was
insignificant, and the operations were completely successful. A
strong force of military police is stationed at Myitkyina, with several
outposts in the Kachin hills, and the country is never wholly free
from crimes of violence committed by the Kachins.
KADuH, a district of Mysore state, in southern India, with an
area of 2813 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 362,752, showing an increase
of 9% in the decade. The larger portion of the district consists
of the Malnad or hill country, which contains some of the wildest
mountain scenery in southern India. The western frontier is
formed by the chain of the Ghats, of which the highest peaks
arc the Kudremukh (6215 ft.) and the Meruti Gudda (5451 ft.).
The centre is occupied by the horse-shoe range of the Baba
Budans, containing the loftiest mountain in Mysore, Mulaingiri
(63x7 ft.). The Maidan or plain country lying beneath the
amphitheatre formed by the Baba Budan hills is a most fertile
region, well watered, and with the famous " black cotton soil. w
The principal rivers are the Tunga and Bhadra, which rise near
each other in the Ghats, and unite to form the Tungabhadra, a
tributary of the Kistna. The eastern region is watered by the
Vedavati. At the point where this river leaves the Baba Budan
hills it is embanked to form two extensive tanks which irrigate
the lower valley. From all the rivers water is drawn off into
irrigation channels by means of anicuts or weirs. The chief
natural wealth of Kadur is in its forests, which contain inex-
haustible supplies of the finest timber, especially teak, and also
furnish shelter for the coffee plantations. Iron is found and
smelted at the foot of the hills, and corundum exists in certain
localities. Wild beasts and game are numerous, and fish an
KAEMPPBR— KAFFIRS
627
The largest town it Tarfkere (pop. 10,164); the headquarters
are at CMkmagalur (0515). The staple crop is rice, chiefly
grown on the hill slopes, where the natural rainfall is sufficient,
or in the river valley, where the fields con be irrigated. Coffee
cultivation is said to have been introduced by a Mahommedan
saint, Bttba Budan, more than two centuries ago; but it first
attracted European capital in 184a The district is served by
the Southern Mahratta railway.
KAEMPFER, ENGBLBRECHT (1651-1716), German traveller
and physician, was born on the x6th of November 1651 at Lemgo
in Lippe-Detmold, Westphalia, where his father was a pastor.
He studied at Hametn, Lffneburg, Hamburg, Lflbeck and
Danzig, and after graduating Ph.D. at Cracow, spent four years
at KGnigsberg in Prussia, studying medicine and natural science.
In 1681 he* visited Upsala in Sweden, where he was offered
inducements to settle; but his desire for foreign travel led him to
become secretary to the embassy -which Charles XI. sent through
Russia to Persia in 1683. He reached Persia by way of Moscow,
Kazan and Astrakhan, landing at Nizabad in Daghestan after
a voyage in the Caspian; from Shemakha in Shirvan he made an
expedition to the Baku peninsula, being perhaps the first modern
scientist to visit these fields of " eternal fire/' In 1684 be
arrived in Isfahan, then the Persian capital. When after a stay
of more than a year the Swedish embassy prepared to return,
Kaempfer joined the fleet of the Dutch East India Company in
the Persian Gulf as chief surgeon, and in spite of fever caught
at Bander Abbasi he found opportunity to see something of
Arabia and of many of the western coast-lands of India. In
September 1689 he reached Bat a via; spent the following winter
in studying Javanese natural history; and in May 1600 set out
for Japan as physician to the embassy sent yearly to that country
by the Dutch. The ship in which he sailed touched at Siara,
whose capital he visited; and in September 1600 he arrived at
Nagasaki, the only Japanese port then open to foreigners.
Kaempfer stayed two years in Japan, during which he twice
visited Tfikyft. His adroitness, insinuating manners and medical
skill overcame the habitual jealousy and reticence of the natives,
and enabled him to elicit much valuable information. In
November 1692 he left Japan for Java and Europe, and in
October 1693 he landed at Amsterdam. Receiving the degree
of M.D. at Leiden, he settled down in his native city, becom-
ing also physician to the count of Lippe. He died at Lemgo on
the 2nd of November 17 16.
The only work Kaempfer lived to publish was Amoenitatttm
exoticarum poUtico-physxco-medicarum fasciculi V. (Lemgo, 17 12),
a selection from his papers giving results of his invaluable observa-
tions in Georgia, Persia and Japan. At his death the unpublished
manuscripts were purchased qy Sir Hans Sloanc, and conveyed to
England. Among them was nJJislory of Japan, translated from the
manuscript into English by J.G.Scheuchzer and published at London,
in 2 vols., in 1727. The original German has never been published,
the extant German version being taken from the English. Besides
Japanese history, this book contains a description of the political,
social and physical state of the country in the 17th century. For
upwards of a hundred years it remained the chief source of informa-
tion for the general reader, and is still not wholly obsolete. A life
of the author is prefixed to the History.
KAPPA, a country of N.E. Africa, part of the Abyssinian
empire. Kaffa proper (formerly known also as Gomara) has
an area of little more than 5000 sq. m., but the name is used
in a general sense to include the neighbouring territories of
Gimirra, Jimma, Ennarea, &c. la this larger acceptation Kaffa
extends roughly from 6° to 9 N. and from 35 to 37J E. It
forms the S.W. part of the great Abyssinian plateau and consists
of broken table-land deeply scored by mountain torrents and
densely wooded. Hie general elevation is about 8000 ft., while
several peaks are over 10,000 ft. From the western slopes of
the plateau descend headstreams of the Sobat. The principal
river however is the Omo r the chief feeder of Lake Rudolf.
Kaffa proper is believed to be the native home of the coffee plant
(whence the name), which grows in profusion on the mountain
sides. The principal town was Bonga, 7$° N., 36 12' E., a
great trading centre, but the Abyssinian headquarters are at
Anderacha, about 12 m. S.S.W. of Bonga. Jiren, the capital
of Jimma, 60 m. N.E. of Bonga, is a still more Important town,
its weekly market being attended by some 20,000 persons.
A great variety of races inhabit these countries of southern
Ethiopia. The Kaficho (people of Kaffa proper) are said to be
of the same stock as the northern Abyssinians and to have been
separated from the rest of the country by the Mahommedan
invasion of the x6th century. Thus Jimma, immediately north
of Kaffa proper, is peopled by Mahommedan Gallas. The
Kaficho, though much mixed with Galla blood, retained their
Christianity and a knowledge of Geez, the ecclesiastical tongue
of Abyssinia, The ordinary language of the Kaficho has no
outward resemblance to modern Abyssinian. Their speech was,
however, stated by Dr C. T. Beke \c. 1850) to be cognate with
the Gonga tongue, spoken in a portion of Damot, on the northern
side of the Abai. Kaffa, after having been ruled by independent
sovereigns, who were also suzerains of the neighbouring states,
was about 189^ conquered by the Abyssinians. The first
European explorer of Kaffa was Antoine de'Abbadie, who visited
it in 1843. Not until the early years of the 20th century was
the country accurately mapped.
KAFFIR BREAD, in botany, the popular name for a species
of Enccphalartos (£. caffra), one of the cycads, a native of South
Africa, so called from the farinaceous food-stuff which is found at
the apex of the stem (Gr.iv, in, «0aXij, head, and Apros, bread).
It is a tree reaching nearly 20 ft. in height, with very stiff,
spreading pinnate leaves 3 to 4 ft. long and recurving at the tip.
The species of Enccphalartos, which are natives of tropical and
South Africa, form handsome greenhouse and conservatory
plants; some species are effectively used in subtropical gardening
in the summer months.
KAFFIRS (Arabic Kafir, an unbeliever), a name given by the
Arabs to the native races of the east coast of Africa. The terra
was current along the east coast at the arrival of the Portuguese,
and passed from them to the Dutch and English, and to the
natives themselves under the form of Kafula. There are no
general or collective national names for these peoples, and the
various tribal divisions are mostly designated by historical or
legendary chiefs, founders of dynasties or hereditary chief-
taincies. The term has no real ethnological value, for the Kaffirs
have no national unity. To-day it is used to describe that large
family of Bantu negroes inhabiting the greater part of the Cape,
the whole of Natal and Zululand, and the Portuguese dominions
on t be east coast south of the Zambezi. The name is also loosely
applied to any negro inhabitant of South Africa. For example,
the Bechuana of the Transvaal and Orange Free State are usually
called Kaffirs.
The Kaffirs are divisible into two great branches: the Ama-
Zulu with the Ama-Swazi and Ama-Tonga and the Kaffirs proper,
represented by the Ama-Xosa, the Tembu {q.v.) and the Pondo
(g. v.). Hence the compound term Zulu-Kaffir applied in a
collective sense to all the Kaffir peoples. Intermediate between
these two branches were several broken tribes now collectively
known as Ama-Fengu, i.c u wanderers M or " needy " people,
Imm fenpaa, to seek service 1 (see Fxnco).
The ramifications of the Kaffirs proper cannot be understood
without reference to the national genealogies, most of the tribal
names, as already stated, being those of real or reputed founders
of dynasties. Thus the term Ama-Xosa means simply the " people
of Xosa," a somewhat mythical chief supposed to have flourished
about the year 1530. Ninth in descent from his son Toguh was
Palo, who died about 1780, leaving two sons, Gcaleka and Rarabe
(pronounced Kha-Kha-be), from whom came the Ama-Gcaleka,
Ama-Dhlambc (T'slambics) and the Ama-Ngquika (G a ilea or
Sandili's people). The Pondo do not descend from Xosa, but
prcl>ably from an cider brother, while the Tembu, though apparently
representing a younger branch, are regarded by all the Kaffir tribes
as the royal race. Hence the Gcaleka chief, who is the head of all
1 The Ama-Fengu are retarded both by the Zulu and Ama-Xosa
as slaves or out-castes, without any right to the privileges of true-
born Kaffirs. Any tribes which become broken and mixed would
probably be regarded as Ama-Fengu by the other Kaffirs. Hence
the multiplicity of clans, such as the Ama-Bcle, Aba-Scmbotwcni
Ama-Zizi. Ama-Kuze, Aba-Sekunene, Ama-Ntokazc, Ama-Tetyeni
Aba-Shwawa, &c., all of whom are collectively grouped as Ama-
Fengu.
6a8
KAFFIRS
the Ama-Xosa tribes, always takes his first or " great wife " from
the Tembu royal family, and her issue alone have any claim to
the succession. The subjoined genealogical tree will place Kaffir
relations in a clearer light: —
Zuide (1500?), reputed founder of the nation.
I
Tembu.
I
Ama-Tembu
(Tambookies),
Tcmbuland
and Emigrant
Tembuland.
ieka.
Xoea (1530?).
Toguh.
Palo (ob. 1780?),
10th in descent
from Xosa.
I
-L
Mpondo.
Ama-Mponda, Ama-Mpondu
between river
Umtata and
NataL
i-Mp
mtsi
Abelungu
(dispersed?)
Gcal
Klanta.
Hinza.
Kreli.
Ama-Gcaleka
(Galeka),
between the
Basheeand
Umtata rivers.
Rarabe
(Khakhabe).
Omlao.
Ngqika.
Macomo
TyalL
Sandili.
Ama-Ngqika
Amatola highlands.
Mbalu. * Ndhlambe
Ama-Mbalus. Ama-Ndhlambes
Ama-Gwali. or T'slambics,
Ama-Ntinde. between the
Ama-Gqunuk- Kciskamma and
webi. Great Ket rivers.
Ama-Velclo.
Ama-Baxa.
Imi-Dange.
Imi-Dushane,
Ama-Khakhabe.
Ama-Xosa.
It will be seen that, as representing the elder branch, the Gcalcka
stand apart from the rest of Xosa's descendants, whom they group
collectively as Aroa- Rarabe (Ama-Khakhabe), and whose genealogies,
except in the case of the Gaikas and T'slambics, are very confused.
The Ama-Xosa country lies mainly between the Keiskama and
Umtata rivers.
The Zulu call themselves Abantu ba-Kwa-Zulu, ijt. *' people of
Zulu's land," or briefly Bakwa-Zulu, from a legendary chief Zulu,
founder of the royal dynasty. They were originally an obscure tribe
occupying the basin of the Umfolosi river, but rose suddenly to
power under Chaka, 1 who had been brought up among the neigh-
bouring and powerful Umtetwas, and who succeeded the chiefs of
that tribe and of his own in the beginning of the 19th century.
But the true mother tribe seems to have been the extinct Ama-
Ntombela, whence the Ama-Tefulu, the U'ndwande, U'mlclas,
U'mtetwas and many others, all absorbed or claiming to be true
Zulus. But they are only so by political subjection, and the gradual
adoption of the Zulu dress, usages and speech. Hence in most cases
the term Zulu implies political rather than blood relationship.
This remark applies also to the followers of Mosilikatze (properly
Umsilikazi), who, after a fierce struggle with the Bcchuana, founded
about 1820 a second Zulu state about the head waters of the Orange
river. In 1837 most of them were driven northwards by the Boers
and are now known as Matabele.
The origin of the Zulu-Kaffir race has given rise to much
controversy. It is obvious that they ore not the aborigines
of their present domain, whence in comparatively recent times —
since the beginning of the x6th century— they have displaced
the Hottentots and Bushmen of fundamentally distinct stock.
They themselves are conscious of their foreign origin. Yet
they are closely allied in speech (see Bantu Languages) and
physique to the surrounding Basuto, Bcchuana and other mem-
Deis of the great South African Negroid family. Henc* their
appearance in the south-east corner of the continent is sufficiently
explained by the gradual onward movement of the populations
pressing southward on the Hottentot and Bushman domain.
The specific differences in speech and appearance by which tbey
arc distinguished from the other branches of the family must
in the same way be explained by the altered conditions of their
new habitat. Hence it is that the farther they have penetrated
southwards the farther have they become differentiated from
the pure Negro type. Thus the light and clear brown complexion
1 Seventh in descent from Zulu, through Kumede, Makeba,
Punga, Ndaba, Yaroa and Tczengakona or Scnzangakona (Blcck,
Zulu Liscndi^.
prevalent amongst the southern Tembu becomes gradually
darker as we proceed northwards, passing at last to the blue*
black and sepia of the Ama-Swaxi and Tekeza. Even many of
the mixed Fingo tribes are of a polished ebony colour, like that
of the Jolofs and other Senegambian negroes. The Kaffir hair
is uniformly of a woolly texture. The head is dolichocephalic,
but it is also high or long vertically, 1 and it is in this feature of
hypsistenocephaly (height and length combined) that the Kaffir
presents the most striking contrast with the pure Negro. But,
the nose being generally rather broad ' and the lips thick, the
Kaffir face, though somewhat oval, is never regular in the
European sense, the deviations being normally in the direction
of the Negro, with which race the peculiar odour of the skin
again connects the Kaffirs. In stature they rank next to the
Patagonians, Polynesians and West Africans, averaging from
5 ft. 9 in. to s ft. n in., and even 6 ft.* They are slim, well-
proportioned and muscular. Owing to the hard life they lead,
the women are generally inferior in appearance to the men,
except amongst the Zulu, and especially the Tembu. Hence
in the matrimonial market, while the Ama-Xosa girl realizes no
more than ten or twelve head of cattle, the Tembu belle fetches
as many as forty, and if especially fine even eighty.
The more warlike
skins, of late years f
feather head-dresses
necklaces. The Mai
Ama-Xosa arc fond
ochre. Their arms <
the kerrie or club, a
one long, with o-in. r
broad blade 12 to 18
conical huts grouped
1, ana hi
id in leopard or oc
xan blankets, with
s, bead armlets and
c tattooing, and the
cir bodies with red
elds 4 to 6 ft. long,
tare are two kinds*
be other short, * ith
dwellings are simple
igh cattle form their
heir main pursuits,
ise regular crops of
s species of millet,
iblcs. Milk (never
1 of food, and meat
chief wealth,
many have turned 1
" mealies " (maize),
tobacco, water mclc
taken fresh), millet
is seldom eaten except m nine <* wa
A young Kaffir attains man's estate socially, not at puberty, but
upon his marriage. Polygyny is the rule and each wife is regarded
as adding dignity to the household. Marriage is by purchase, the
price being paid in cattle. Upon the husband's death family life
is continued under the headship of the eldest son of the house, the
widows by virtue of levirate becoming the property of the uncle or
nearest males, not sons. A son inherits and honourably liquidates*
if he can, his father's debts. # •
Mentally the Kaffirs are superior to the Negro. In their social
and political relations they display great tact and intelltc
they are remarkably brave, warlike and hospitable, and were Lm^
and truthful until through contact with the whites they became
suspicious, revengeful and thievish, besides acquiring most European
vices. Of religion as ordinarily understood they have very little,
and have certainly never developed any mythologies or dogmatic
systems. It is more than doubtfuF whether they had originally
formed any notion of a Supreme Being. Some conception, however,
of a future state is implied by a strongly developed worship of
ancestry, and by a belief in spirits and ghosts to whom sacrifices are
made. There are no idols or priests, but belief in witchcraft formerly
gave the " witch-doctor " or medicine-man overwhelming power.*
Circumcision and polygyny are universal; the former is sometimes
attributed to Mahommedan influences, but has really prevailed
almost everywhere in East Africa from the remotest time.
Dearer than anything else to the Kaffir are his cattle; and many
ceremonial observances in connexion with them were once the rule.
Formerly ox-racing was a common sport, the oxen running, riderless,
over a ten-mile course. The owner of a champion racing ox was a
popular hero, and these racers were valued at hundreds of head of
cattle. Cattle arc the currency of the Kaffirs in their wild state.
Ten to twenty head are the price of a wife. When a girl marries.
* P. Topinard, Anthropdogy (1878), p. 374.
* This feature varies considerably, " in the T'slambie tribes bang
broader and more of the Negro shape than in the Gaika or Gcaleka,
while among the Ama-Tembu and Ama-Mpondo it assumes more of
the European character. In many of them the perfect Grecian and
Roman noses are discernible " (Fleming's Kaffmria, p. 92).
* Gustav Fritsch gives the mean of the Ama-Xosa as 1*718 metres,
less than that of the Guinea Negro (1 724), but more than the English
(1708) and Scotch (1-710).
■ Since the early years of the 19th century Protestant and Roman
Catholic missions nave gained hundreds of thousands of converts
among the Kaffirs. Purely native Christian churches have also
been organized.
KAFFRARIA
629
her father (if well off) presents her "with a cow from his herd.
This animal u called ubulungu or " doer of good " and is regarded as
sacred. It mast never be killed nor may its descendants, as long
as it lives. A hair of its tail is tied round the neck of each child
immediately after birth. In large kraals there is the " dancing-ox,"
usually of red colour. Its horns are trained to peculiar shapes by
early mutilations. It figures in many ceremonies when it is paid
a kind of knee-worship.
The Kaffirs have three, not four, seasons: "Green Heads,"
" Kindness" and "Cutting"; the first and last referring to the
crops, the second to the " warm weather." Women and children
only eat after the men are satisfied. A light beer made from
sorghum is the national drink:
Of the few industries the chief are copper and iron smelting,
practised by the Tembu, Zulu and Swazi, who manufacture weapons,
spoons and: agricultural implements both for their own use and for
trade. The Swazi display some taste in wood-carving, and others
prepare a peculiar water-tight vessel of grass. Characteristic of this
race is their neglect of the art of navigation. Not the smallest
boats are ever made for crossing the rivers, much less for venturing
on the sea, except by the Makazana of Delagoa Bay and by the
Zambezi people, who have canoes and flat-bottomed boats made of
planks.
The Kaffir race had a distinct and apparently very old political
system, which may be described as a patriarchal monarchy limited
by a powerful aristocracy.
dence of the Kaffirs has disappeared. Varying _ ,
have been granted, but the supreme powers of the chiefs have gone,
Under British rule the tribal indepen-
disappeared. Varying degrees of autonomy
the Swazi being in 1904 the last to be bright to order. In the
Transkeian Territories tribal organization Ousts, but it is modified
by special legislation and the natives are under the control of
special magistrates. To a considerable extent in Natal and through-
out Zululand the Kaffirs arc placed in reserves, where tribal
organization is kept up under European supervision. In Basuto-
land the tribal organization is very strong, and the power of chiefs
is upheld by the imperial government, which exercises general
supervision. ^
See Gustav Fritsch, Die Eingtborenen SUdafrikas, with atlas, 30
plates and 120 typical heads (Breslau, 1872); W. H. I. Blcek,
Comparative Grammar of the South African Languages (London and
^ — ^ : ..... _. : , .„^v. tl-, fl ahn Crumdzav
Zolenso, Grammar of
allc, Lex PeupUs de
r . Stow, The Native
. Theal, History and
>oW, London, 1907*
roU., London, 1908J,
e Kaffirs; Caesar C.
(Hamburg, 1903);
si, The South African
ifir (1904) and Kafir
te many social and
he Kaffir races with
Europeans,
KAFFRARIA, the descriptive name given to the S.E. part of
the Cape province, South Africa. Kaffraria, i.e. the land of the
Kaffirs (q.v.) , is no longer an official designat ion. It used to com-
prise the districts now known as King William's Town and
East London, which formed British Kaffraria, annexed to Cape
Colony in 1865, and the territory beyond the Kei River south of
(he Drakensberg Mountains as far as the Natal frontier, known
as Kaffraria proper. As a geographical term it is still used to
indicate the Transkeian territories of the Cape provinces com-
prising the four administrative divisions of Transkei, Pondoland,
Tcmbuland and Griqualand East, incorporated into Cape
Colony at various periods between 1879 anc * 1894* They have a
total area of 18,310 sq. m., and a population (1004) of 834,644,
of whom 16,777 were whites. Excluding Pondoland — not
counted previously to 1004 — the population bad increased from
487,364 in 1891 to 631,887 in 1904.
Physical Features. — The physical characteristics of Kaffraria bear
a general resemblance to those of the Cape province proper. The
country rises from sea-level in a series of terraces to the rugged range
of the Drakensberg. Between that range and the coast-lands
are many subsidiary ranges with fertile valleys through which a
large number of rivers make their way to the Indian Ocean. These
rivers have very rapid falls in comparison to their length and when
less than 40 m. from the coast are still 2000 ft. above sea-leveL
The chief, beginning at the south, are the Kei, the Bashee, the
Umtata, the St John's or Umzimvubu, and the Umtamvuna,
which separates Kaffraria from Natal. The St John's River rises
in the Drakensberg near the Basuto-Natal frontier. The river
valley has a length of 140 m., the river with its many twists being
double that length. It receives numerous tributaries, one. the
Ttkca, potsf B Sia g a m a gnificent waterfall, the river leaping over an
almost vertical precipice of 375 ft. The St John's reaches the
sea between precipitous cliffs some 1 300 ft. high and covered with
verdure. The mouth is obstructed by a sand bar over which there
is 14 ft. of water. None of the rivers of Kaffraria except the
St John's is navigable.
Kaffraria is one of the most fertile regions in South Africa. The
mountain gorges abound in fine trees, thick forest and bush cover
the river banks, grass grows luxuriantly in the lower regions, and
the lowlands and valleys are favourable to almost any kind of fruit,
field and garden cultivation. The coast districts are very hot in
summer, ' * ~ - ■ • •■
tion in altitude places climates of all grades within easy reach,
from the burning coast to the often snow-clad mountain. Thunder-
storms are frequent in summer; the winters are generally dry.
On the whole the climate is extremely healthy. At St John's are
sulphur springs.
A considerable area is devoted to the raising of wheat and other
cereals, especially in the northern district (Griqualand East), where
in the higher valleys are many farms owned by Europeans. Large
quantities of stock are raised. Most of the land is held by the
natives under tribal tenure, and the case with which their wants are
supplied is detrimental to the full cultivation of the land. Kaffraria
is, however, one of the chief recruiting grounds for labour throughout
South Africa. Most of the white inhabitants are engaged in trade.
Towns and Communication. — The chief town is Kokstad (q.v.),
pop. (1904), 3903, the capital of Griqualand East. Umtata (2100 ft.
above the sea, pop. 2342) on the river of the same name, capital of
Tcmbuland, is the residence of an assistant chief magistrate.tnead-
Juarters of a division of the Cape Mounted RiHes, and seat of the
nglican bishopric of Kaffraria. The principal buildings are the
cathedral, a Gothic structure, built 1001 -1906, and the town-half:
a fine building in Renaissance style, erected 1 907-1908. Port St John
is the chief town in Pondoland, and the only harbour of the country.
Butterworth is the chief town in Transkei. Cala (pop. about 1 000),
in the N. W. part of Tembuland, is the educational centre of Kaffraria.
A railway, 107 m. long, the first link in the direct Cape-Natal line,
runs from Indwe, 65 m. from Sterkstroom function on the main
line from East London to the Transvaal, to Maclear, an agricultural
centre in Griqualand East. Another railway parallel but south pf
that described also traverses Kaffraria. Starting from Amabelc,
a station on the main line from East London to the north, it goes
via Butterworth (132 m. from East London) to Umtata (234 m.).
Administration and Justice. — The Cape administrative and judicial
Stem is in force, save as modified by special enactments of the
pc parliament. A " Native Territories Penal Code " which came
into operation on the 1st of January 1887 governs the relations of
the natives, who are under the jurisdiction of a chief magistrate
(resident at Cape Town) with subordinate magistrates in the Terri-
tories. In civil affairs the tribal organization and native laws are
maintained. No chief, however, exercises criminal jurisdiction. Since
1898 certain provisions of the Glen Grey Act have been applied
to Kaffraria (see Glen Grey). The revenue is included in the ordi-
nary budget of the Cape province. The expenditure on Kaffraria
considerably exceeds the revenue derived from it. The franchise
laws are the same as in the Cape proper. Though the Kaffirs out-
number the whites by fifty to one, white men' form the bulk of the
electorate, which in 1904 numbered 4778.
Religion. —Numbers of Protestant missionary societies have
churches and educational establishments in Kaffraria, but, except
in Fingoland, the bulk of the Kaffirs are heathen. The Griquas
profess Christianity and have their own churches and ministers.
The Anglican diocese of St John's, Kaffraria, was founded in 1873.
Annexation to the Cape.— The story of the conflicts between
the Kaffir tribes and the Cape colonists is told under Cafe
Colony. As early as 1819 Kaffirland, or Kaffraria, was held
not to extend west beyond the Keiskamma River. The region
east of that river as far as the Kei River became in 1847 the
Crown colony of British Kaffraria, and was annexed to Cape
Colony in 1865. The Transkeian territories remained in nominal
independence until 1875, when the Tembu sought British pro-
tection. An inter-tribal war in 1877 between Fingo and Gcalcka
resulted in the territory of the GcaJeka chief Kreli being occupied
by the British. It was not, however, till 1879 that Fingoland
and the Idutywa Reserve, together with the district then
commonly called Noman's-land, were proclaimed an integral
part of the Cape. About this time most of £he rest of
Kaffraria came under British control, but it was 1885 before
Gcalekaland, the coast region of Transkei, and the various dis-
tricts comprising Tembuland— Bom vanaland on the coast, Tcm-
buland Proper and Emigrant Tembuland— were annexed to the
colony. By the annexation, the frontier of the colony was
<>3°
KAFIRISTAN
t River. so tkat by f«8 5 «ly^^
«* med *° ^,* ~ dUn Oceao, separated tbe Cape from NataL
tT^S^id rartStJobn.proc^m^BrliuhUTTiloryiniMi,
la Fco-oU^ ^ , wcx rcacitt ^ ^ ^ joha . i r,^ ««_
**ittd*wVb Cape Co/,r 7 ka i>>-*; .a it«6 tne Xoibe country
Klc-iat A>^5 was azaeavs£ fc> «Jbe C*:>e zrA added to Crieraa-
j^-j F^c? ;' a»i Ls. ti* ( sX*** =<g ?«** Y±*j*Jt YaSey was included
r ■ v --. J>t 'xs.tmrsasj -jut, Ts* s*r.i «£ Fc«dob*d. ebsevy ia virtue
c£ a br/.^a yrsj*?sja:x «*»-*-•-» -t -j*d ever aB tbe coast region
«. :»>.'.. »aa ijzk*.'.} vsr+ •* v.-» v^ier British control, and in
i ? -. t, • wxi a.*, ^io^: -v •«• "-*£* -i - .s exlircty. Thus Lbe whole
«- Ju^f,?*.*^ »w. as.x-^i-j*. .a C^^O^y, wnhtbeexcrptjoo
10 *rs*« .',*& *v *- : ^*a- f**t «{ Atacaan's-kod, annexed by
y -»~ a 'VX m*c *z.Tj*t *J:t/i rr/czty. To lbe wise adxanris-
*.-v />* </ K</>r Vr H.~.~7 O- L£ot, who jerved in Kafrxria in
**«^» vt>^ « a»a < . r«m faaa» 1*77 to iooj, lbe country owes
>*~-r-wwr» ^MAcrxsac cadi of tbe four dtosioos of Kaffrara
/ "> >~~**+l g*4 '*r*a, 7^4 «,,. «.), to called to < EsUm ,*i sa k
>-. >-;o-*-*a*S **»•*«, a <i»«hct north of the Oraage Rjwct. !*s i
v -* ^*«»*?u«4 (S.VVj. Natal (N.E.). Tembtaaad vSU J
* •'• -w>A*atf jL;. Jt occupies the southern rioocs of rbt
/- '♦*»-• y-'r, *r t "^ fertile valley* at their feet- It nrljdes aat of
' -- '-..'V *ijrn*rf\y called Noma o's- land, and afterwards Bawd
/.-*** fl/xr * Land front the Grioua chief who occepkd a ia i**c
». • *v '/amtiU of the Uritifth aurhorities. aad fL"*e rwed the
,/>. : r> r.!l hit drath ia 1 876, establishing a tcitsrmd oa tbe Dat.4: i
*//Vx The <"'f«|Ma» arc still ruled by an oincially appoiated head- ,
w«a Ihe msjorttv of the inhabiunu are Basutos and Kafirs .
<yiA*Umi*, Arna-luka and other tribes). Tbe Cnqoas r^-Scr J
iMM t <m*x>' bincc its annexation to Cape Colony Gnooataad East |
'-. m<ula fairly rapid progress The Dooulation rose froai ui^mo
If.
te
*e
id
GeneraJ Sir W. (tkea Colonel) Lockhart headed a mission to
examine the passes oc tie Hintlu Kush range in 1&85-1886. He
pcnetraled into tise vppa part of the Basbgal valley, but after
a few days be food ttmsHf compelled to return to ChitraJ.
Previously Major Taaoer, ILA., had sought to enter Kafiristan
from Jalalabad, but sadden severe illness cut short his enterprise,
M'Xair, tbe famous ezpiorer of tbe Indian Survey department,
believed that be had actually visited this little-known Land
daring an adventurous journey which he made from India and
tbroogb Cbitral in disguise; but the internal evidence of bis
reports shows that he mistook tbe Kalash district of Cbitral,
with ks debased and idolatrous population, for the true Kafir-
tstan of bis hopes. In 1889 Mr G. S. Robertson (afterwards Sir
George Robertson, K.C.S.I.) was sent on a mission to Kanristaa.
He ocly remained a few days, but a year later he revisited
lbe country, slaying amongst the Kafirs for nearly a year.
Although his movements were hampered, his presence in the
coantry being regarded with suspicion, he was able to study
tbe people, and, in spite of intertribal jealousy, to meet members
of many of the tribes. The facts observed and the information
collected by him during his sojourn in eastern Kaiiristan, and
dvrrag short expeditions to the inner valleys, are the most trust-
worthy foundations of our knowledge of this interesting country,
aonristan, which literally means " the land of tbe infidel," is
tbe name given to a tract of country enclosed between Cbitral
and Afghan territory. It was formerly peopled by pagan
mountaineers, who maintained a wild independence until 1805,
when they were finally subdued by Abdur Rahman, the amir of
Kabul, who also compelled them to accept the religion of Islam.
Tbe territory thus ill named is included between S4° 30' and
56* N., and from about 70 to 71 30' E. As the western and
northern boundaries are imperfectly known, its size cannot be
estimated with any certainty. Its greatest extent is from east
to west at is° 10' N.; its greatest breadth is probably about
;i° E. The total area approximates to 5000 sq. m. Along tbe
N. tbe boundary is the province of B&dakshan, on the N.E. tbe
Lutkho valley of Chitral. Chitral and lower Chitral enclose it
to the E., and the Kunar valley on the S.E. Afghanistan proper
supplies the S. limit. The ranges above the Nijrao and Pansher
valleys of Afghanistan wall it in upon the W. The northern
frontier is split by the narrow Minjan valley of Badakshan,
which seems lo rise in the very heart of Kafiristan.
Speaking generally, the country consists of an irregular series of
main valleys, for the most part deep, narrow and tort nous, into which
a varying number of still deeper, narrower and more twisted valleys.
ravines and glens pour their torrent water. The mountain ranges
of Metamorphic rock, which separate the main drainage valleys, are
all of considerable altitude, rugged and difficult, with the outline of
a choppy sea petrified. During the winter months, when the snow
tic-* deep, Kafiristan becomes a number of isolated communities,
with few if any means of intercommunication. In the whole land
t here i< probably nothing in the shape of a plain. M uch of the silent,
gigantic country warms the heart as well as captivates the eye with
its grandeur and varied beauty; much of it is the bare skeleton of
the world wasted by countless centuries -of storms and frost, and
profoundly melancholy in its sempiternal ruin. Every variety of
mountain scenery can be found : silent peaks and hard, naked ridges,
snow fields and glaciers; mighty pine forests, wooded slopes and
gr.uing grounds; or wild vine and pomegranate thickets bordering
sparkling streams. At low elevations the hill-sides are covered with
the wild olive and evergreen oaks. Many kinds of fruit trees —
walnuts, mulberries, apricots and apples — grow near the villages
or by the wayside, as well as splendid horse-chestnuts and other
shade trees. Higher in elevation, and from 4000 to 8000 ft., are
the dense pine and cedar forests. Above this attitude tbe slopes
become dreary, the juniper, cedar and wild rhubarb gradually
giving place to scanty willow patches, tamarisk and stunted birches.
OvtT 13,000 ft. there are merely mosses and rough grass. Familiar
wild flowers blossom at different heights. The rivers teem with fish.
Immense numbers of red-legged partridges live in the lower valleys,
n« well as pigeons and doves. Gorgeously ptumaged pheasants are
plentiful. Of wild animals the chief arc the markhtr (a goat) and
1 he <M»r in/ (a sheep). 1 n the winter -the former are recklessly slaugh-
tered by hunters, being either brought to bay by trained hounds
or I rapped in pits, or caught floundering in the snow-dnfts; but in the
aummrr Immense herds move on the higher slopes. The iter ia very
n»rv. I War* and leopards are fairly common, as well as the smaller
bill creatures.
KAFIRISTAN
631
All Che northern paste* leading Into Badakshan or into the Mtajan
valley of Badakshan seem to be over 15.000 ft. in altitude. Of
t these the chief are the Mandal, the Kamah (these two
alone have been explored by a European traveller), the
Kti, the Kulam and the Ram gal pastes. Those to the
east, the Chitral passes, are somewhat lower, ranging from 12,000 to
14,000 ft., t.g. the Zidig, the Shui, the Shawal and the Parpit, while
the Patkun, which crosses one of the dwindled spurs near the Kunar
river, is only 8400 ft. high. Between neighbouring valleys the
very numerous communicating footways must rarely be lower than
10,000, while they sometimes exceed 14,000 ft. The western passes
are unknown. All these toilsome paths arc so faintly indicated,
even when free from snow, that to adventure them without a local
guide is usually unsafe. Yet the light-framed cattle of these jagged
mountains can be forced over many of the worst passes. Ordinarily
the herding tracks, near the crest of the ridges and high above the
white torrents, are scarcely discoverable to untutored eyes. They
wind and waver, rise, drop and twist about the irregular semi-
precipitous slopes with baffling eccentricity and abruptness. Never-
theless the cattle nose their way along blunderingly, but without
hurt. Of no less importance in the open months, ana the sole trade
routes during winter, are the lower paths by the river. An unguided
traveller is continually at fault upon these main lines of intercourse
and traffic.
All the rivers find their tumultnons way into the Kabul, either
directly, as the Alingar at Laghman, or after commingling with the
IMwiu. Kunar at Arundu and at Chigar-Scrai. The Bashgal,
******* draining the eastern portion of the country, empties
itself into the Kunar at Arundu. It draws its highest waters from
three main sources at the head of the Bashgal valley. It glides
gently through a lake close to this origin, and then through a smaller
tarn. The first affluent of importance is the Skoriga), which joins
it above the village of Pshui. Next comes the noisier Manangal water,
from the Shawal pass, which enters the main stream at Lutdch or
Bragamatal. the chief settlement of the Bashgal branch of the Katir
tribe. By-and-by the main stream becomes, at the hamlet of
Sunra, a raging, shrieking torrent in a dark narrow valley, its run
obstructed by giant boulders and great tree-trunks. > Racing past
Bagalgrom, the chief village of the Madugal Kafirs, the river clamours
round the great spur which, 1800 ft. higher up, gives space for the
terraces and houses of Kamdesh, the headquarters of the Kam
people. The next important affluent is the river which drains the
Pittigal valley, its passes and branches. Also on the left bank, and
still Tower down, is the joining-place of the Gourdcsh valley waters.
Finally it ends in the Kunar jUBt above Arundu and Birkot. The
middle part of Kafiristan, including the valleys occupied by the
Presun, Kti, Ashkun and Wai tribes, is drained by a river variously
called the Pech, the Kamah, and the Presun or Viron River. It has
been only partially explored. Fed by the fountains and snows of
the upper Presun valley, it is joined at the village of Shtevgrom by
the torrent from the Kamah pass. Thence it moves quietly past
meadowland, formerly set apart as holy ground, watering on its
way all the Presun villages. Below the last of them, with an abrupt
bend, it hurries into the unexplored and rockbound Tsaru country,
where it absorbs on the right hand the Kti and the Ashkun and
on the left the Wai rivers, finally losing itself in the Kunar, close
to Chigar-Scrai. Concerning the Alingar or Kao, which carries
the drainage of western Kafiristan into the Kabul at Laghman,
there are no trustworthy details. It is formed from the waters of
all the valleys inhabited by the Ramgal Kafirs, and by that small
branch of the Katirs known as the Kalam tribe.
The climate varies with the altitude, but in the summer-time it is
pot at all elevations. In the higher valleys the winter is rigorous.
,-„ ,, Snow falls heavily everywhere over 4000 ft. above the
** mm9 ' sea-level. During the winter of 1800-1801 at Kamdesh
(elevation 6100 ft.) the thermometer never fell below 17° F. In
many of the valleys the absence of wind is remarkable. Consc-
auently a great deal of cold can be borne without discomfort. The
oinar valley, which 'is wet and windy in winter, but where snow,
if it falls, melts quickly, gives a much greater sensation of cold than
the still Kafiristan valleys of much lower actual temperature. A
deficiency of rain necessitates the employment of a somewhat
elaborate system of irrigation, which in its turn is dependent upon
the snowfall.
The present inhabitants are probably mainly descended from
the broken tribes of eastern Afghanistan, who, refusing to accept
7WK*nYs. * slam ( in tnc I0th centur y)t were driven away by the
fervid swordsmen of Mahomet. Descending upon
the feeble inhabitants of the trackless slopes and perilous valleys
of modern Kafiristan, themselves, most likely, refugees of an
earlier date, they subjugated and enslaved them and partially
amalgamated with them. These ancient peoples seem to be
represented by the Tresun tribe, by the slaves and by fragments
of lost peoples, now known as the Jazhis and the Aroms. The
old division of the tribes into the Siah-Posh, or the black-robed
Kafirs, and the Safcd-Posh, or the white-robed, wai neither
scientific nor convenient, for while the Siah-Posh have much in
common in dress, language, customs and appearance, the Safcd-
Posh divisions were not more dissimilar from the Siah-Posh
than they were from one another. Perhaps the best division
at present possible is into (1) Siah-Posh, (*) Waigulis, and
(3) Prcsungalis or Viron folk.
The black-robed Kafirs consist of one very large, widely spread
tribe, the Katirs, and four much smaller communities, the Kam.
the Madugalis, the Kashtan or Kashtoz, and the T%m9am ^ m
Gourdcsh. Numerically, it is probable that the Katirs J?^""*
The Prcsungalis, also called Viron, live in a high valley. t In all
respects they differ from other Kafirs, in none more than in their
unwarlike disposition. Simple, timid, stolid-featured^
and rather clumsy, they arc remarkable for their ^- PnsunaliMm
dustry and powers of endurance. They probably repre-
sent some of the earliest immigrants. Six large well-built villages
are occupied by them — Shtevgrom, Ponugrom, Diogrom, Kstigi-
grom, Satsumgrom and Paskigrom.
The slaves arc fairly numerous. Their origin is probably partly
from the very ancient inhabitants and partly from war prisoners.
Coarse in feature and dark in tint, they cannot b*~^«|
distinguished from the lowest class of freemen, while
their dress is indistinctive. They are of two classes — household
slaves, who are treated not unkindly; and artisan slaves, who are
the skilled handicraftsmen — carvers, blacksmiths, bootmakers and
so forth ; many of the musicians are also slaves. They live in a
particular portion of a village, and were considered to a certain
extent unclean, and might not approach closely to certain sacred
spots. All slaves seem to wear the Siah-Posh dress, even when they
own as masters the feeble Presungal folk.
Little respect is shown to women, except in particular cases to a
few of advanced years. Usually they are mistresses and slaves,
saleable chattels and held- worker*. Degraded, immoral, Wotwa.
overworked and carelessly fed, they are also, as a rule,
unpleasant to the sight. Little girls are sometimes quite beautiful,
but rough usage and exposure to all weathers soon make their
complexions coarse and dark. They are invariably dirty and
uncombed. In comparison with the men they are somewhat short.
Physically they are capable of enormous labour, and arc very
enduring. All the field-work falls to them, as well as all kinds of
inferior occupations, such as load-carrying. They have no rights as
against their husbands or, failing them, their male relations. They
cannot inherit or possess property.
There are certainly three tongues spoken, besides many dialects,
that used by the Siah-Posh being of course the most common; and
although it has many dialects, the employers of one seem Lmagutgm,
to understand all the others. It is* Prakritic language. # .
Of the remaining two, the Wai and the Presun have no similarity;
they are also unlike the Siah-Posh. Kafirs themselves maintain
that very young children from any valley can acquire the Wai
speech, but that only those born in the Presungal can ever converse
in that language, even roughly. To European ears it is disconcert-
ingly difficult, and it is perhaps impossible to learn.
63a
KAFIRISTAN
Before their conquest by Abdor Rahman all the Kafirs were
idolaters of a rather low type. There were lingering traces of
JntAfao. ancestor-worship, and perhaps of fire-worship also. The
«cvj«iwh g CX j g ^^^ nuraerous . tribal, family, household deities
had to be propitiated, and mischievous spirits and fairies haunted
forests, rivers, vales and great stones. Imra was the Creator, and
all the other supernaturarpowers were subordinate to him. Of the
inferior gods, Moni seemed to be the most ancient; but Gfsh, the
war-god, was by far the most popular. It was his worship, doubt-
less, which kept the Kafirs so long independent. In Ike as a hero,
and after death as a god, he symbolized hatred to the religion of
Mahomet. Every village revered his shrine; some possessed two.
Imra, Gish and Moni were honoured with separate little temples,
as was usually Dizani goddess; but three or four of the others would
share one between them, each looking out of a small separate square
window. The worshipped object was either a large fragment of
stone or an image of wood conventionally carved, with round white
stones for eyes. Different animals were sacrificed at different
shrines: cows to Imra, male goats and bulls to Gfsh, sheep to the
als
he
ed
wn
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ng
ige
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ily
A
bis
>d.
nd
of
ce.
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he
en
ith
wo
ts,
nd
ill
de
Ily
tat
would be debated in informal parliaments of the whole tribe* Kafirs
have a remarkable fondness for discussing in conclave. Orators,
consequently, are influential. The internal business of a tribe was
. — * ..... — . — ... . — . . _ 1. 7a$
d;
ed.
int
ley
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jse
he
ito
submission.'"
Habitations are generally strong, and built largely of wood.
They arc frequently two or more storeys high, often with an open
gallery at the top. Wealthy owners were fond of elaborate carving
in simple designs and devices. A room is square, with a smoke-
bole «*— .— :»vU. -unai! window*, with shutters and bolts, and
heavy doors fastened by a sliding wooden pin, _
The nature of the ground, its defensible character, the 1
of not encroaching upon the scanty arable land, and such .
considerations, determine the design of the villages. Sped- %
mens of many varieties may be discovered. There is the
shockingly overcrowded oolong kind, fort-shaped, three storeys
high, and on a river's bank, which is pierced by an underground
way leading to the water. Here all rooms look on to the large
central courtyard : outwards are few or no windows. There is also
the tiny hamlet of a few piled-up hovels perched on the flattish top
of some huge rock, inaccessible when the ladder connecting it with
the neighbouring hill-side or leading to the ground » withdrawn.
Some vulages on mounds are defended at the base by a circular wall
strengthened with an entanglement of branches. Others cling to
the knife-edged back of some difficult spur.' Many are hidden away
up side ravines. A few boldly rely upon the numbers of their
fighting men, and are unprotected save by watch-towers. While
frequently very picturesque at a distance, all are dirty and grimed
with smoke; bones and horns of slaughtered animals litter the
ground. The ground floor of a house is usually a winter stable for
cows and the latrine, as well as the manure store for the household ;
the middle part contains the family treasures; on the top is the
living-place. In cold valleys, such as the Presungal, the houses are
often clustered upon a hillock, and penetrate into the aoQ to the
depth of two or more apartments. Notched poles are the universal
ladders and stairways.
In height Kafirs average about 5 ft. 6 in. They are lean; always
in hard condition; active jumpers, untiring walkers, expert moun-
taineers; exceptionally they are tall and heavy. With ctmrmdm*
chests fairly deep, and muscular, springy legs, there is ^^^
some lightness and want of power about the shoulder
muscles, the arms and the hand-grasp. In complexion they are
purely Eastern. Some tribes, notably the Wai, are fairer than
others, but the average colour is that of the natives of the Punjab.
Albinos, or red-haired people, number less than | % of the popula-
tion. As a rule, the features arc well-shaped, especially the nose.
The glance is wild and bold, with the wide-lidded, restless gaze of
the hawk; or the exact converse — a shifty, furtive peer under
lowered brows. This look is rather common amongst the wealthier
families and the most famous tribesmen. The shape of a man's
head not uncommonly indicates his social rank. Several have the
brows of thinkers and men of affairs. The degraded forms are the
bird-of-prey type — low, hairy foreheads, hooked noses with receding
chin, or the thickened, coarse features of the darker slave class.
Intellectually they are of good average power. Their moral charac-
teristics are passionate covetousness, and jealousy so intense that
it. smothers prudence. Before finally destroying, it constantly
endangered their wildly cherished independence. Revenge, espe-
cially on neighbouring Kafirs, is obtained at any price. Kafirs are
subtle, crafty, quick in danger and resolute, as might be expected
of people who nave been plunderers and assassins for centuries,
whose lives were the forfeit of a fault in unflinchingncss or of a
moment's vacillation. Stealthy daring, born of wary and healthy
nerves and the training of generations, almost transformed into an
instinct, is the national characteristic. Ghastly shadows, they
flitted in the precincts of hostile villages far distant from their own
valleys, living upon the poorest food carried in a fetid goatskin
bag; ever ready to stab in the darkness or to wriggle through aper-
tures, to slay as they slept men, women and babies. Then, with
clothing for prize, and human ears as a trophy, they sped, watchful
as hares, for their far-away hills, avenger Pathans racing furiously
in their track. Kafirs, most faithful to one another, never aban-
doned a comrade. If he were killed, they sought to carry away his
head for funeral observances. As traders, though cunning enough,
they are no match for the Afghan. They were more successful as
brigands and blackmailers than as skilled thieves. In night robbery
and in pilfering they showed little ingenuity. Truth was considered
innately dangerous; but a Kafir is far more trustworthy than his
Mahommedan neighbours. Although hospitality is generally
viewed as a hopeful investment, it can be calculated on, and is
unstinted. Kafirs are capable of strong friendship. They are not
cruel, being kind to children and to animals, and protective to the
weak and the old. Family ties and the claim of blood even triumph
over jealousy and covetousness.
The national attire of the men b a badly-cured goatskin, confined
at the waist by a leather belt studded with nails, supporting the
I -hiked dagger, strong but clumsy, of slave manufacture, iw-.
sheathed in wood covered with iron or brass, and often ~- wm *
prettily ornamented. Women are dressed in a long,
very dark tunic of wool, ample below the shoulders, and
edged with red. This is fastened at the bosom by an iron pin, a
thorn, or a fibula; it is gathered round the body by a woven band,
an inch wide, knotted in front to dangle down in tassels. On thin
girdle is carried a fantastically handled knife in a leather covering.
The woman's tunic is sometimes worn by men. As worn by women
its shape is something between a long frock-coat and an Inverness
cape. Its hue and the blackness of the hairy goatskin give ttra
name of Siah-Posh, " black-robed," to the majority of the clans.
The other tribes wear such articles of cotton attire as they can
obtain by barter, by theft, or by killing beyond the border, for
KAFIRISTAN
633
ttUyraUeadothisiDadea-tiitoottfftry. Of late years long robes
from Chitral and Badaksban have been imported by the wealthy,
as well as the material for loose cotton trousers and wide shirts.
Clothing, always hard to obtain, is precious property. Formerly
tittle girls, the children of slaves, or else poor relations, used to be
•old in exchange for clothes and ammunition, Mahommedans
eagerly bought the children, which enabled them in one transaction
to acquire a female slave and to convert an infidel. Men go bare-
headed, which wrinkles them prematurely, or they wear Chitral
caps. Certain priests, and others of like degree, wind a strip of
cotton cloth round their brows. Siah-Posh women wear curious
horned caps or a small square white head-dress upon informal
occasions. Females of other tribes bind their heads with turbans
ornamented with shells and other finery. Excellent snow gaitere
•re made of goat's hair for both sexes, and of woollen material for
women. Boots* strongly sewn, of soft red leather cannot be used
in the snow or when it is wet, because they are imperfectly tanned.
For the ceremonial dances all manner of gay-coloured articles of
attire, made of cheap silk, cotton velvet, and sham cloth-of-gold,
are displayed, and false jewelry and tawdry ornaments; but they
are not manufactured in the country, but brought from Peshawar
by pedlars. Woollen blankets and goat'a-hair mats cover the bed-
steads— four-legged wooden frames laced across with string or
leather thongs. Low square stools, 18 in. broad, made upon the
same principle as the bedsteads, are peculiar to the Kafirs and their
half-breed neighbours of the border. Iron tripod tables, singularly
Creek in design, are fashioned in WaiguL A warrior's weapons are
a matchlock (rarely a flintlock), a bow and arrows, a spear and the
dagger which he never puts aside day or night. The axes, often
carried, are tight and weak, and chiefly indicate rank. Clubs, care-
fully ornamented by carving, are of little use in a quarrel; their
purpose is that of a walking-stick. As they are somewhat long,
these walking-clubs have been often supposed to be leaping-poles.
Swords are rarely seen, and shields, carried purely for ostentation,
seldom. Soft stone is quarried to make large utensils, and great
grim chests of wood become grain boxes or coffins indifferently.
Prettily carved bowls with handles, or with dummy spouts, bold
milk, butter, water or small quantities of flour. Wine, grain,
everything else, is stored or carried in goatskin bags. Musical
instruments are represented by reed flageolets, small drums, primi-
tive fiddles, and a kind of harp.
Isolated and at the outskirts of every village is a house used by
women when menstruating and for lying-in. Children are named
p^-jug. as soon as born. The infant is given to the mother to
Cnttttmt suckle, while a wise woman rapidly recites the family
ancestral names; the name pronounced at the instant
the baby begins to feed is that by which it is thereafter known.
Everybody has a double name, the father's being prefixed to that
Siven at birth. Very often the two are the same. There is a special
ay for the first head-shaving. No hair is allowed on a male's
scalp, except from a 4-in. circle at the back of the head, whence long
locks hang down straight. Puberty is attained ceremoniously by
boys. Girls simply change a fillet for a cotton cap when nature
proclaims womanhood. Marriage is merely the purchase of a wife
through intermediaries, accompanied by feasting. Divorce is often
merely a sale or the sending away of a wife to slave for her parents
in shame. Sexual morality is low. Public opinion applauds gal-
lantry, and looks upon adultery as hospitality, provided it is not
discovered by the husband. If found out , in flagrante delicto, there is a
fiscal fine in cows. There is much collusion to get this penalty paid
in poor households. Funeral rites are most elaborate, according to the
rank and warrior fame of the deceased, if a male, and to the wealth
and standing of the family, if a woman. Children are simply carried
to the cemetery in a blanket, followed by a string of women lamenting.
A really great man is mourned over for days with orations, dancing,
wine-drinking and food distribution. Gun-firing gives notice of
the procession. After two or three days the corpse is placed in the
coffin at a secluded spot, and the observances are continued with a
straw figure lashed upon a bed, to be danced about, lamented over,
and harangued as before. During regular intervals for business and
refreshment old women wail genealogies. A year later, with some-
what similar ritual, a wooden statue is inaugurated preliminary to
erection on the roadside or in the village Valhalla. The dead are
not buried, but deposited in great boxes collected in an assigned
place. Finery is placed with the body, as well as vessels holding
water and food. Several corpses may be heaped in one receptacle,
which is, rarely, ornamented with flags; its lid is kept from warping
by heavy stones. The wooden statues or effigies are at times
sacrificed to when there is sickness, and at one ofthe many annual
festivals food is set before them. Among the Prcsungal there are
none of these images. Blood-feuds within a tribe do not exist.
The slayer of his fellow, even by accident, has to pay a heavy
compensation or else become an outcast. Several hamlets and at
least one village are peopled by families who had thus been driven
forth from the community. The stigma attaches itself to children
and their marriage connexions. Its outward symbol is an Inability
to look in the face any of the dead person's family. This avoidance
is ceremonial. In private and after dark all may be good friends
after a decorous interval. The compensation is seldom paid,
although payment carries with it much enhancement of family
dignity. All the laws to punish theft, assault, adultery and other
injury are based on a system of compensation whenever possible,
and of enlisting the whole of the community in all acts of punish-
ment. Kafirs have true conceptions^ justice. There is no death
penalty; a fighting male is too valuable a property of the whole
tribe to be so wasted. War begins honourably with proper notice,
as a rule, but the murder of an unsuspecting traveller may be the
first intimation. Bullets or arrow-heads sent to a tribe or village
is the correct announcement of hostilities. The slaying of a tribes-
man need not in all cases cause a war. Sometimes it may be avoided
by the sinning tribe handing over a male to be killed by the injured
relations. Ambush, early morning attacks by large numbers, and
stealthy killing parties of two or three are the favourite tactics.
Peace is made by the sacrifice of cows handed over by the weaker
tribe to be offered up to a special god of the stronger. When both
sides have shown equal force and address, the same number of
animals are exchanged. Field-work falls exclusively to the women.
It is poor. The ploughs are light and very shallow. A woman, who
only looks as if she were yoked with the ox, keeps the beast in the
furrows, while a second holds the handle. All the operations of
agriculture are done primitively. Grazing and dairy-fanning are
the real trade of the Kafirs, the surplus produce being exchanged on
the frontier or sold for Kabul rupees. Herders watch their charges
fully armed against marauders.
History. — The history of Kafiristan has always been of the
floating legendary sort. At the present day there are men living
in Chitral and on other parts of the Kafiristan frontier who
are prepared to testify as eye-witnesses to marvels observed,
and also heard, by them, not only in the more remote valleys
but even in the Afghan borderland itself. It is not surprising
therefore that the earlier records are to a great extent fairy tales
of a more or less imaginative kind and chiefly of value to those
interested in folk-lore. Sir Henry Yule, a scientific soldier, a
profound geographer and a careful student, as the result of his
researches thought that the present Kafiristan was part of that
pagan country stretching between Kashmir and Kabul which
medieval Asiatics referred to vaguely as Bilaur, a name to be
found in Marco Polo as Bolor. The first distinct mention of the
Kafirs as a separate people appears in the history of Timur.
On his march to the invasion of India the people at Andarab
appealed to Timur for help against the Kator and the Siah-Posh
Kafirs. He responded and entered the country of those tribes
through the upper part of the Panjhir valley. It was In deep
winter weather and Timur had to be let down the snows by
glissade in a basket guided by ropes. A detachment of 10,000
horse which he speaks of as having been sent against the Siah-
Posh to his left, presumably therefore to the north, met with
disaster; but he himself claims to have been victorious. Never-
theless he seems quickly to have evacuated the impracticable
mountain land, quitting the country at Khawak. He caused an
inscription to be carved in the defiles of Kator to commemorate
his invasion and to explain its route. Inside the Kafir country
on the Najil or Alishang River there is a fort still called Timur's
Castle, and in the Kalam fort there is said to be a stone engraved
to record that as the farthest point of his advance. In the
Memoirs of Baber there is mention of the Kafirs raiding
into Panjhir and of their taste for drinking, every man having a
leathern wine-bottle slung round his neck. The Ain-i-Akbari
makes occasional mention of the Kafirs, probably on the autho-
rity of the famous Memoirs; it also contains a passage which
may possibly have originated the widespread story that the
Kafirs were descendants of the Greeks. Yule however be-
lieved that this passage did not refer to the Kafirs at all, but
to the claims to descent from Alexander of the rulers in Swat
before the time of the Yusufzai. Many of the princelings
of the little Hindu-Kusb states at the present day pride them-
selves on a similar origin, maintaining the founders of thefr
race to be Alexander, " the two-horned," and a princess sent
down miraculously from heaven to wed him.
Benedict Goes, travelling from Peshawar to Kabul in 1603,
heard of a place called Capper stam, where no Mahommedan
might enter on pain of death. Hindu traders were allowed to
visit the country, but not the temples. Benedict Goes tasted
the Kafir wine, and from all that he heard suspected
that the Kafirs might be Christians. Nothing more is heard of
the Kafirs until 1788, when RconelPs Memoir of a Map of
*>3+
KAGERA— K'AI-FENG FU
Hindustan was published. Twenty-six years later Elphinstone's
Caubal was published. During the British occupation of
Kabul in 1839-1840 a deputation of Kafirs journeyed there to
invite a visit to their country from the Christians whom they
assumed to be their kindred. But the Afghans grew furiously
jealous, and the deputation was sent coldly away.
After Sir George Robertson's sojourn in the country and the
visit of several Kafirs to India with him in 1802 an increasing
intimacy continued, especially with the people of the eastern
valleys, until 1895, when by the terms of an agreement entered
into between the government of India and the ruler of Afghani-
stan the whole of the Kafir territory came nominally under the
sway of Kabul. The amir Abdur Rahman at ence set about
enforcing his authority, and the curtain, partially lifted, fell
again heavily and in darkness. Nothing but rumours reached
the outside world, rumours of successful invasions, of the
wholesale deportation of boys to Kabul for instruction in the
religion of Islam, of rebellions, of terrible repressions. Finally
even rumour ceased. A powerful Asiatic ruler has the means
of ensuring a silence which is absolute, and nothing is ever
known from Kabul except what the amir wishes to be known.
Probably larger numbers of the growing boys and young men of
Kafiristan are fanatical Mahommcdans, fanatical with the zeal
of the recent convert, while the older people and the majority
of the population cherish their ancient customs in secret and
their degraded religion in fear and trembling— waiting dumbly
for a sign.
See Sir G. S. Robertson. Kafirs of the Hindu-Kush (London,
1896). (G.S.R.)
KAGERA, a river of east equatorial Africa, the most remote
headstream of the Nile. The sources of its principal upper
branch, the Nyavarongo, rise in the hill country immediately
east of Lake Kivu. After a course of over 400 m. the Kagcra
enters Victoria Nyanza on its western shore in o° 58' S. It is
navigable by steamers for 70 m. from its mouth, being
obstructed by rapids above that point. The river was first
heard of by J. H. Speke in 1858, and was first seen (by white
men) by the same traveller (Jan. 16, 1862) on his journey to
discover the Nile source. Speke was well aware that the Kagera
was the chief river emptying into the Victoria Nyanza and in
that sense the headstream of the Nile. By him the stream was
called " KitanguleV' kagera being given as equivalent to " river."
The exploration of the Kagera has been largely the work of
German travellers.
See Nile; also Speke s Discovery of the Source of the Nile (Edin-
burgh, 1863); R. Kandt's Caput Nili (Berlin, 1004); and map by
P. Sprigade and M. Moisel in Grosser deutscher Kolonialallas, No. 16
(Berlin, 1906).
KAHLUR, or Bilaspur, a native state of India, within the
Punjab. It is one of the hill states that came under British
protection after the first Sikh war in 1846. The Gurkhas
had overrun the country in the early part of the 19th century,
and expelled the raja, who was, however, reinstated by the
British in 181 5. The state occupies part of the basin of the
Sutlej amid the lower slopes of the Himalaya. Area, 448 sq. m.
Pop. (tooi), 00,873; estimated gross revenue, £10,000; tribute,
£530. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Chandcl Rajput. The
town of Bilaspur is situated on the left bank of the Sutlej,
1465 ft. above sea-level; pop. (1001), 3192.
KAHN. GTUSTAVE (1859- ), French poet, was born at
Metz on the 21 si of December 1859. He was educated in Paris
at the Ecole des Charles and the Ccole des Ungues orientales,
and began to contribute to obscure Parisian reviews. After
four years spent in Africa he returned to Paris in 1885, and
founded in 1886 a weekly review, La Vogue, in which many of
his early poems appeared. In the autumn of the same year he
founded, with Jean Morcas and Paul Adam, a short-lived periodi-
cal, Le Symbol isle, in which they preached the nebulous poetic
doctrine of Stepbane Mallarrai; and in 1888 he became one
of the editors of the Revue indipendante. He contributed
poetry and criticism to the French and Belgian reviews favour-
able to the extreme symbolists, and, with Catulle Mcndes,
he founded at the Odeon, the Thtttre Antoine and the Theatre
Sarah Bernhardt, matinees for the production of the plays of
the younger poets. He claimed to be the earliest writer of the
vers libre, and explained his methods and the history of the move-
ment in a preface to his Premiers poemes ( 1 897). Later books are
Le Litre a" images (1897); Les Fleurs de la passion (1900); some
novels; and a valuable contribution to the history of modern
French verse in Symbol isles ct dicadents (1902);
KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1 814-1888), German
Lutheran theologian, was born at Greiz on the 22nd of December
18(4. He Studied at Halle, and in 1850 was appointed professor
ordinarius at Leipzig. Ten years later he was made canon of
Meissen. He retired in 1886, and died on the 20th of June
1888 at Leipzig. Kahnis was at first a neo-Lutheran, blessed
by E. W. Hcngstenberg and his pietistic friends. He then
attached himself to the Old Lutheran party, interpreting Luther-
anisra in a broad and liberal spirit and snowing some appre-
ciation of rationalism. His Lutherische Dogmatik, kistorisek-
genetisch dargesteJU (3 vols., 1861-1868; 2nd ed. in 2 vols-,
1874-1875), by making concessions to modern criticism, by
spiritualizing and adapting ihe old dogmas, by attacking the
idea of an infallible canon of Scripture and the conventional
theory of inspiration, by laying stress on the human side of
Scripture and insisting on the progressive character of revelation,
brought him into conflict with his former friends. A. W.
Dickhoff, Franz Delitzsch (Fur und wider Kahnis, 1863) and
Hengstenberg (Evangel ische KirchenzeUung, 1862) protested
loudly against the heresy, and Kahnis replied to Hengstenberg
in a vigorous pamphlet, Zeugniss far die Crundwahrkeiten des
Protestaniismus gegen Dr Hengstenberg (1862)
Other works by Kahnis are Lehre vom AbendmaU (1851), Der
innere Gang des deuischen Protestaniismus sett Mute des vo rig em
Jahrhundcrts (1854. 3rd ed. in 2 vols., 1874; Eng. trans.. 1856);
"' ' Lw ' .-.-..... ...
Christentum und Lutherium (1871 ) ; Gesckichie der deutseken Reft*
tion, vol. i. (1872) : Der Gang der Kirche in bebensbdderu (1881, Ac.);
and Ober das VerhdUnu der alien Pktlosopkte turn CkrisUntmn (18&4).
K*AI-FftNG FU, the capital of the province of Honao, China.
It is situated in 34* 52' N., 114* a* E., on a branch line of
the Peking-Hankow railway, and forms also the district city of
Siang-fu. A city on the present site was first built by Duke
Chwang (774-700 B.C.) to mark oil (k'ai) the boundary of hit
fief (Jfrtg); hence its name. It has, however, passed under
several aliases in Chinese history. During the Chow, Suy and
T'ang dynasties ($57-907) it was known as P'ien-chow. During
the Wu-tai, or five dynasties (007-060), it was the Tung-king, or
eastern capital Under the Sung and Kin dynasties (060-1760)
it was called P'ien-king. By the Yuan or Mongol dynasty
(1260-1368) its name was again changed to P'ien-liang, and
on the return of the Chinese to power with the establishment of
the Ming dynasty (1368- 1644), its original name was restored.
The city is situated at the point where the last spur of the
Kucn-Iun mountain system merges in the eastern plain, and a
few miles south of the Hwang-ho. Its position, therefore, lays it
open to the destructive influences of this river. In 1642 it was
totally destroyed by a flood caused by the dikes bursting, and
on several prior and subsequent occasions it has suffered injury
from the same cause. The city is large and imposing, with
broad streets and handsome buildings, the most notable of
which are a twelve-storeyed pagoda 600 ft. high, and a watch
tower from which, at a height of 200 ft., the inhabitants are
able to observe the approach of the yellow waters of the
river in times of flood. The city wall forms a substantial
protection and is pierced by five gates. The whole neighbour-
hood, which is the site of one of the earliest settlements of
the Chinese in China, is full of historical associations," and it
was in this city that the Jew* who entered China in aj>. 1163
first established a colony. For many centuries these people
held themselves aloof from the natives, and practised the
riles of their religion in a temple built and supported by
themselves. At last, however, they fell upon evil times, and
in 1 851, out of the seventy families which constituted the
original colony, only seven remained. For fifty years no rabbi
KAILAS— KAIRAWAN
*35
bad ministered to the wants of this remnant. In 1853 the
city was attacked by the T'ai-p'ing rebels, and, though at
the first assault its defenders successfully resisted the enemy,
it was subsequently taken. The captors looted and partially
destroyed the town. It has now little commerce, but contains
several schools on Western lines— including a government college
opened in 1002, and a military school near the railway station.
A mint was established in 1005, and there is a district branch
of the imperial post. The population — largely Mahommedan —
was estimated (1008) at 200,00a Jews numbered about 400.
KAILAS, a mountain in Tibet. It is the highest peak of
the range of mountains lying to the north of Lake Manasora-
war, with an altitude of over 22,000 ft. It is famous in Sanskrit
literature as Siva's paradise, and is a favourite place of pil-
grimage with Hindus, who regard it as the most sacred spot
on earth. A track encircles the base of the mountain, and it
takes the pilgrim three weeks to complete the round, pros-
trating himself all the way.
KAIN, the name of a sub-province and of a town of Khorasan,
Persia. The sub-province extends about 300 m. N. to S., from
Khal to Sctstan, and about 150 m. W. to E., from the hills of
Tun to the Afghan frontier, comprising the whole of south-
western Khorasan. It is very hilly, but contains many wide
plains and fertile villages at a mean elevation of 4000 ft. It has
a population of about 150,000, rears great numbers of camels
and produces much grain, saffron, wool, silk and opium. The
chief manufactures are felts and other woollen fabrics, princi-
pally carpets, which have a world-wide reputation. The best
Kaini carpets are made at Darakhsh, a village in the Zirkuh
district and 50 m. N.E. of Birjcnd. It is divided into eleven
administrative divisions:— Shahabad (with the capital Birjcnd),
Nabarjan, Alghur, Tabas sunnl Khanch, ZlrkOh Shakhan, Kain,
Nlmbuluk, Nchbandan, KhQsf, Arab Khanch or Momcnabad.
The town of Kain, the capital of the sub-province until 1 740,
when it was supplanted by Birjend, is situated 65 ra. N. of
Birjcnd on the eastern side of a broad valley, stretching from
N. to S., at the base of the mountain Abuzar, in 33 42' N. and
50° 8' E., and at an elevation of 4500 ft. Its population is
barely $000. It is surrounded by a mud wall and bastions,
and near it, on a hill rising 500 ft. above the plain, are the ruins
of an ancient castle which, together with the old town, was
destroyed either by Shah Rukh (1404-1447), a son, or by
Baysunkur (d. 1433), a grandson of Timur (Tamerlane), who
afterwards built a new town. After a time the Uzbcgs took
possession and held the town until Shah Abbas I. (1 587-1639)
expelled them. In the 18th century it fell under the sway of the
Afghans and remained a dependency of Herat until 1851.
A large number of windmills arc at work outside the town. The
great mosque, now in a ruinous state, was built a.h. 706 (a.d.
1394) by Karen b. Jamshid and repaired by YOsof Dowlatyar.
KAIRA* or Khlda, a town and district of British India,
in the northern division of Bombay. The town is 20 m. S.W.
of Ahmedabad and 7 m. from Mehmadabad railway station.
Pop. (1001), 10,302. Its antiquity is proved by the evidence of
copperplate grants to have been known as early as the 5th
century. Early in the 18th century it passed to the Babi family,
with whom it remained till 1763. when it was taken by the
Mahrattas; it was 6 nail y handed over to the British in 1803.
It was a large military station till 1830, when the cantonment
was removed to Dccsa.
The District or Kaira has an area of 1595 sq. m.; pop.
(1901), 716.332. showing a decrease of 18% in the decade, due
to the results of famine. Except a small corner of hilly ground
near its northern boundary and in the south-cast and south,
where the land along the Mahi is furrowed into deep ravines,
the district forms one unbroken plain, sloping gently towards
the south-west. The north and north-east portions are dotted with
patches of rich rice-land, broken by unlillcd tracts of low brush-
wood. The centre of the district is very fertile and highly
cultivated; the luxuriant fields are surrounded by high hedges,
and the whole country is clothed with clusters of shapely trees.
To the west this belt of rich vegetation passes into a bare
though well-cultivated tract of rice-land, growing more barren
and open till it reaches the maritime belt, whitened by a salt-like
crust, along the Gulf of Carobay. The chief rivers are the
Mahi on the south-east and south, and the Sabaanati on the
western boundary. The Mahi, owing to its deeply cut bed and
sandbanks, is impracticable for either navigation or irrigation;
but the waters of the Sabaxmati are largely utilized for the latter
purpose. A smaller stream, the Khari, also waters a consider-
able area by means of canals and sluices. The principal crops
are cotton, milieu, rice and pulse; the industries are calico-
printing, dyeing, and the manufacture of soap and glass. The
chief centre of trade is Nadiad, on the railway, with a cotton-
mill. A special article of export is gki, or clarified butter. The
Bombay & Baroda railway runs through the district. The famin e
of 1 809-1000 was felt more severely here than in any other part
of the province, the loss of cattle being specially heavy.
KAIRA WAN (Kebouan), the " sacred " City of Tunisia, 36 m.
S. by W. by rail from Susa, and about 80 m. due S. from the
capital, Kairawan is built in an open plain a little west of a
stream which flows south to the Sidi-el-Hani lake. Of the
luxuriant gardens and olive groves mentioned in the early Arabic
accounts of the place hardly a remnant is left. Kairawan,
in shape an irregular oblong, is surrounded by a crenellated
brick wall with towers and bastions and five gates. The city,
however, spreads beyond the walls, chiefly to the south and
west. Some of the finest treasures of Saracenic art in Tunisia
are in Kairawan; but the city suffered greatly from the vulgari-
zation which followed the Turkish conquest, and also from the
blundering attempts of the French to restore buildings falling
into ruin. The streets have been paved and planted with
trees, but the town retains much of its Oriental aspect. The
houses are built round a central courtyard, and present nothing
but bare walls to the street. The chief buildings are the mosques,
which are open to Christians, Kairawan being the only town in
Tunisia where this privilege is granted.
In the northern quarter stands the great mosque founded by
Sidi Okba ibn Nafi, and containing his shrine and the tombs of
many rulers of Tunisia. To the outside it presents a heavy
buttressed wall, with little of either grandeur or grace. It
consists of three parts: a cloistered court, from which rises the
massive and stately minaret, the maksuraor mosque proper, and
the vestibule. The maksura is a rectangular domed chamber
divided by 296 marble and porphyry columns into 17 aisles,
each aisle having 8 arches. The central aisle is wider than the
others, the columns being arranged by threes. All the columns
are Roman or Byzantine, and are the spoil of many ancient
cities. Access to the central aisle is gained through a door of
sculptured wood known as the Beautiful Gate. It has an in-
scription with the record of its construction. The walls are of
painted plaster-work; the mimbar or pulpit is of carved wood,
each panel bearing a different design. The court is surrounded
by a double arcade with coupled columns. In all the mosque
contains 439 columns, including two of alabaster given by one
of the Byzantine emperors. To the Mahommedan mind the
crowning distinction of the building is that through divine
inspiration the founder was enabled to set it absolutely true
to Mecca. The mosque of Sidi Okba is the prototype of
many other notable mosques (sec MosQUfc). Of greater external
beauty than that of Sidi Okba is the mosque of the Three Gates.
Cufic inscriptions on the facade record Its erection in the 9th and
its restoration in the 15th century a.d. Internally the mosque
is a single chamber supported by sixteen Roman columns. One
of the finest specimens of Moorish architecture in Kairawan h
the zateia of Sidi Abid-el-Ghariani (d. c. a.d. 1400). one of Ihe
Almoravidcs, in whose family is the hereditary governorship
of the city. The entrance, a door in a false arcade of black
and white marble, leads into a court whose arches support an
upper colonnade. The town contains many other notable
buildings, but none of such importance as the mosque of the
Companion (i.e. of the Prophet), outside the walls to the N.W.
This mosque is specially sacred as possessing what are said to be
three hairs of the Prophet's beard, buried with the saint, who
.. , x.o ,s V nV»jsv »s«*s of Mahomet. (This legend gave rise
^ .v vvnsv sW *v. ,>«*>b contained the remains of Mahomet's
v v» • v tW *s*s*v+ consists of several courts and chambers,
A ., w^*i** »n»* Wtutiful stained glass. The court which
v.. -> .V <t»****c* to the shrine of the saint is richly adorned
%.. \ ,ta,« mkI plaster- work, and is surrounded by an arcade of
%.>.,s **,**- columns, supporting a painted wooden rooL The
j» .KtvvH t» laced with tiles and is surmounted by a gilded crescent,
i'v ivta-At-ntury mosque of Sidi Amar Abada, also outside the
«.*U. * ui the form of a cross and is crowned with seven cupolas.
I» the suburbs are huge cisterns, attributed to the 9th century,
«hkh still supply the city with water. The cemetery covers a
Urge area and has thousands of Cufk and Arabic inscriptions.
Formerly famous for its carpets and its oil of roses, Kairawan
is now known in northern Africa rather for copper vessels,
articles in morocco leather, potash and saltpetre. The town
has a population of about 20,000, including a few hundred
Europeans.
Arab historians relate the foundation of Kairawan by Okba with
miraculous circumstances (Tabari it 63; Yaqut iv. 213). The date
is variously given (sec Weil, Gesck. d. Chaltfen, i. 283 acq.) ; accord-
ing to T*ban it must have been before 670. The legend says that
Okba determined to found a city which should be a raUying-point for
the followers of Mahomet in Africa. He led his companions into
the desert, and having exhorted the serpents and wild beasts, in the
name of the Prophet, to retire, he struck his spear into the ground
exclaiming " Here is your Kairawan " (resting-place), so naming
the city. 1 In the 8th century Kairawan was the capital of the
province of Ifrikia governed by' amirs appointed by the caliphs.
Later it became the capital of the Aghlabite princes, thereafter
following the fortunes of the successive rulers 01 the country (see
Tunisia : History). After Mecca and Medina Kairawan is the most
sacred city in the eyes of the Mahommcdans of Africa, and constant
pilgrimages are made to its shrines. Until the time of the French
occupation no Christian was allowed to pass through the gates
without a special permit from the bey, whilst Jews were altogether
forbidden to approach the holy city. Contrary to expectation no
opposition was offered by the citizens to the occupation of the place
by the French troops in 1881. On that occasion the native troops
hastened to the mosques to perform their devotions; they were
followed by European soldiers, and the mosques having thus been
" violated ' have remained open ever since to non-Mahommedans.
See Murray's Handbook to Algeria and Tunis, by Sir R. L. Playfair
(1895); A. M. Broadley, The Last Punic War: Tunis Past and
Present (1882) and H. Saladin, Tunis et Kairouan (1908).
KAISERBLAUTERN, a town in the Bavarian palatinate, on
the Waldlauter, in the hilly district of West rich, 41 m. by rail
W. of Mannheim. Pop. (1005), 52,306. Among its educational
institutions are a gymnasium, a Protestant normal school, a
commercial school and an industrial museum. The house of
correction occupies the site of Frederick Barbarossa's castle,
which was demolished by the French in 17 13. Kaiserslautern is
one of the most important industrial towns in the palatinate.
Its industries include cotton and wool spinning and weaving,
iron-founding, and the manufacture of beer, tobacco, gloves,
boots, furniture, &c. There is some trade in fruit and in timber.
Kaiserslautern takes its name from the emperor (Kaiser)
Frederick I., who built a castle here about 11 52, although it
appears to have been a royal residence in Carotingian times. It
became an imperial city, a dignity which it retained until 1357,
when it passed to the palatinate. In 1621 it was taken by the
Spanish, in 1631 by the Swedish, in 1635 by the imperial and
in 17 13 by the French troops. During 1793 and 1794 it was the
scene oX fighting; and in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 it was
the base of operations of the second German army, under Prince
Frederick Charles. It was one of the early stations of the
Reformation, and in 1849 was the centre of the revolutionary
spirit in the palatinate.
See Lchmann, Urkundliche Gesckichte von Kaiserslautern (Kaisers-
lautern. 1853). and E. Jost, Gesckichte der Stadi Kaiserslautern
(Kaiserslautern, 1886).
KAISERSWBRTH, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on
the right bank of the Rhine, 6 m. below Dusseldorf. Pop. (1905).
2462. It possesses a Protestant and a large old Romanesque
1 Though Okba founded his city in a desert place, excavations
undertaken in 1908 revealed the existence of Roman ruins, including
a temple of Saturn, in the neighbourhood.
KAISERSLAUTERN— KAKAPO
Roman Catholic church of the 12th or 13th century, with a
valuable shrine, said to contain the bones of St Suitbert, and has
several benevolent institutions, of which the chief is the Diakon-
issen Arts tali, or training-school for Protestant sisters of charity.
This institution, founded by Pastor Theodor Fliedner (1800-
1864) in 1836, has more than 100 branches, some being in Asia
and America; the head establishment at Kaiserswerth includes
an orphanage, a lunatic asylum and a Magdalen institution.
The Roman Catholic hospital occupies the former Franciscan
convent. The population is engaged in silk-weaving and other
small industries.
In 71
Suitbei
town g
but in
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of the
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Julicrs,
possess
dispute
1702 tl
the Kai
by Arc
See
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KAITHAL, or Kythal, an ancient town of British India in
Karnal district, Punjab. Pop. (1001), 14,408. It is said to have
been founded by the mythical hero Yudisthira, and is con-
nected by tradition with the monkey-god Hanuman. In 1767
it fell into the hands of the Sikh chieftain, Bhai Desu Singh,
whose descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, ranked among the
most powerful Cis-Sutlej chiefs. Their territories lapsed to the
British in 1843. There remain the fort of the bhate, and several
Mahommedan tombs of the 13th century and later. There is
some trade in grain, sal-ammoniac, live stock and blankets; and
cotton, saltpetre, lac ornaments and toys are manufactured.
KAKAPO* the Maori name, signifying " night parrot/' and
frequently adopted by English writers, of a bird, commonly
called by the British in New Zealand the "ground-parrot" or
"owl-parrot." The existence of this singular form was first
made known in 1843 by Ernst DiefTenbach (Travels in N. Zealand,
ii. 194), from some of its tail-feathers obtained by him, and he
suggested that it was one of the Cuculidae, possibly belonging
to the genus Centropus, but he added that it was becoming scarce,
and that no example had been seen for many years. G. R. Gray.
noticing it in June 1845 (Zool. Voy. ". Erebus " and " Terror;*
pt. ix. p. 9), was able to say little more of it, but very soon after-
wards a skin was received at the British Museum, of which, in
the following September, he published a figure (Gen. Birds,
pt. xvii.), naming it Strigops* habroplilus f and rightly placing
it among the parrots, but he did not describe it technically for
another eighteen months (Proc. Zool. Society, 1847, p. 61). Many
specimens have now been received in Europe, so that it is repre-
sented in most museums, and several examples have reached
England alive.
In habits the kakapo is almost wholly nocturnal,* hiding in
holes (which in some instances it seems to make for itself) under
the roots of trees or rocks during the day time, and only issuing
forth about sunset to seek its food, which is solely vegetable in
kind, and consists of the twigs, leaves, seeds and fruits of trees,
grass and fern roots— some observers say mosses also. It some-
times climbs trees, but generally remains on the ground, only
using its comparatively short wings to balance itself in running
or to break its fall when it drops from a tree— though not always
then— being apparently incapable of real flight. It thus becomes
an easy prey to the marauding creatures— cats, rats and so forth
—which European colonists have, by accident or design, let
loose in New Zealand. Sir G. Grey says it had been, within the
memory of old people, abundant in every part of that country,
1 This generic term was subsequently altered by Van der Hoeveo,
rather pedantically, to Strineops, a spelling now generally adopted.
• It has, however, been occasionally observed abroad by day;
and, in captivity, one example at least is said to have been as active
by day as by night.
KAKAR— KALAHARI DESERT
637
but (writing in 1854) was then found only in the unsettled
districts.
The kakapo is about the size of a raven, of a green or brownish-
green colour, thickly freckled and irregularly barred with dark
brown, and dashed here and there with longitudinal stripes of
light yellow. Examples are subject to much variation in colour
and shade, and in some the lower parts are deeply tinged with
yellow. Externally the most striking feature of the bird is its
head, armed with a powerful beak that it well knows how to use,
and its face clothed with hairs and elongated feathers that
sufficiently resemble the physiognomy of an owl to justify the
generic name bestowed upon it. Of its internal structure little
has been described, and that not always correctly. Its furcula
has been said (Proe. ZoU. Society, 1874, p. 504) to be " lost,"
whereas the clavicles, which in most birds unite to form that
bone, are present, though they do not meet, while in like manner
the bird has been declared (op. cit', 1867. p. 624, note) to furnish
among the Carinata* " the only apparent exception to the pres-
ence of a keel " to the sternum. The keel, however, is undoubt-
edly there, as remarked by Blanchard (Ann. NaL Sc, Zoologie,
4th series, vol. xi p. 8j) and A. Milne Edwards (Ois. Foss. de la
France, ii< 516), and, though much reduced in size, is nearly as
much developed as in the Dodo and the Ocydrome. The aborted
condition of this process can hardly be regarded but in connexion
with the incapacity of the bird for flight, and may very likely be
the result of disuse. There can be scarcely any doubt as to the
propriety of considering this genus the type of a separate family
of Psitlaci; but whether it stands alone or some other forms
{Poo poms or Geopsittacus, for example, which in coloration and
habits present some curious analogies) should be placed with it,
must await future determination. In captivity the kakapo is
said to show much intelligence, as well as an affectionate and
playful disposition. Unfortunately it docs not seem to share
the longevity characteristic of most parrots, and none that has
been held in confinement appears to have long survived, while
many succumb speedily.
For further details see Gould's Birds of Australia (ii. 347). and
Handbook (ii.syi); Or Finsch' s Du Pa f*t™*(i- a4«).and Sir Walter
BuUer's Birds of New Zealand especially. (A. N.)
KAKAR, a Pathan tribe on the Zhob valley frontier of Balu-
chistan. The Rakars inhabit the back of the Suliman mountains
between Quetta and the Gonial river; they are a very ancient
race, and it is probable that they were In possession of these
slopes long before the advent of Afghan or Arab. They are
divided into many distinct tribes who have no connexion beyond
the common name of Kakar. Not only is there no chief of the
Kakirs, or general jirtah (or council) of the whole tribe, but in
most cases there are no recognised heads of the different clans.
In 1 001 they numbered 105,444. During the second Afghan
War the Kakars caused some annoyance on the British line of
communications; and the Kakars inhabiting the Zhob valley
were punished by the Zhob valley expedition of 1884.
KALA-AZAR, or Dum-Dum fever, a tropical disease, character-
ized by remittent fever, anaemia and enlargement of the spleen
(splenomegaly) and often of the liver. It is due to a protozoon
parasite (see Parasitic Diseases), discovered in 1900 by Leish-
man in the spleen, and to of a malarial type. The treatment is
shnoar to that for malaria. In Assam good results have been
obtained by segregation.
KALABAGH, a town of British India In the MianwaH district
of the Punjab. Pop. (1001), 5824. It is picturesquely situated
at the foot of the Salt range, on the right bank of the Indus,
opposite the railway station of Mari. The houses nestle against
the side of a precipitous hill of solid rock-salt, piled in successive
tiers, the roof of each tier forming the street which passes in front
of the row immediately above, and a cliff, also of pure rock-salt,
towers above the town. The supply of salt, which is worked
from open quarries, is practically inexhaustible. Alum also
occurs in the neighbouring hills, and forms a considerable item
of local trade. Iron implements are manufactured.
KALACH, ako known as Donbkaya, a village of S.E.
Razzia, in the territory of -the Don Cossacks, and a river port on
the Don, $1 m. NX of Nizhne-Chirskaya, in 43° 30' E. and 48*
43' N. Its permanent population, only about 1200, increases
greatly in summer. It is the terminus of the railway (45 m.)
which connects the Don with Tsaritsyn on the Volga, and all the
goods (especially fish, petroleum, cereals and timber) brought
from the Caspian Sea up the Volga and destined for middle
Russia, or for export through the Sea of Azov, are unloaded at
Tsaritsyn and sent over to Kalach on the Don.
KALAHAND1 (formerly Karokd), a feudatory state of India,
which was transferred from the Central Provinces to the Orissa
division of Bengal in 1005. A range of the Eastern Ghats runs
from N.E. to S.W. through the state, with open undulating
country to the north. Area 374$ sq. m.; pop. (1001), 350,520;
estimated revenue, £8000; tribute, £800. The inhabitants
mostly belong to the aboriginal race of Khonds. A murderous
outbreak against Hindu settlers called for armed intervention
in 1882. The chief, Raghu Kishor Deo, was murdered by a
servant in 1897, and during the minority of his son, Brij Mohan
Deo, the state was placed in charge of a British political agent.
The capital is Bhawani Patna.
KALAHARI DESERT, a region of South Africa, lying mainly
between ao° and 28 S. and io° and 24° E., and covering fully
120,000 sq. «u The greater part of this territory forms the
western portion of the (British) Bechuanaland protectorate, but
it extends south into that part of Bechuanaland annexed to the
Cape and west into German South-West Africa. The Orange
river marks its southern limit; westward it reaches to the foot of
the Nama and Damara hills, eastward to the cultivable parts
of Bechuanaland, northward and north-westward to the valley
of the Okavango and the bed of Lake Ngami. The Kalahari,
part of the immense inner table-land of South Africa, has an
average elevation of over 3000 ft. with a general slope from east
to west and a dip northward to Ngami. Described by Robert
Moffat as " the southern Sahara," the Kalahari resembles the
great desert of North Africa in being generally arid and in being
scored by the beds of dried-up rivers. It presents however
many points of difference from, the Sahara. The surface soil
is mainly red sand, but in places limestone overlies shale and
conglomerates. The ground is undulating and its appearance
is comparable with that of the ocean at times of heavy swell.
The crests of the waves are represented by sand dunes, rising
from 30 to 100 ft.; the troughs between the dunes vary greatly
in breadth. On the eastern border long tongues of sand project
into the veld, while the veld in places penetrates far into the
desert. There are also, and especially along the river beds,
extensive mud flats. After heavy rain these become pans or
lakes, and water is then also found in mud-bottomed pools along
the beds of the rivers. The water in the pans is often brackish,
and in some cases thickly encrusted with salt. Pans also occur
in crater-like depressions where rock rises above the desert sands.
A tough, sun-bleached grass, growing knee-high in tufts at
intervals of about 15 in., covers the dunes and gives the
general colour of the landscape. Considerable parts of the
Kalahari, chiefly in the west and north, are however covered
with dense scrub and there are occasional patches of forest.
Next to the lack of water the chief characteristics of the desert
are the tuberous and herbaceous plants and the large numbers
of big game found in it. Of the plants the most remarkable is
the water-melon, of which both the bitter and sweet variety are
found, and which supplies both man and beast with water. The
game includes the lion, leopard, hippopotamus, rhinoceros,
buffalo, zebra, quagga, many kinds of antelope (among them
the kudu and gnu), baboon and ostrich. The elephant, giraffe
and eland are also found. The hunting of these three last-named
animals is prohibited, and for all game there is a close time from
the beginning of September to the end of February.
The dimate is hot, dry and healthy, save in the neighbourhood
of the large marshes in the north, where malarial fever is preva-
lent. In this region the drainage is N.E. to the great Makarikari
marsh and the Botletle, the river connecting the marsh with the
Ngami system. In the south the drainage is towards the Orange.
The Molopo and the Kuruman, which in their upper course in
KALAMATA— KALAT
w lose their water
_^^w« m tw **y westward through
.«*«<«* a« J2S^my i*P°*** ri w °° the M P'
,* *****»». The Jt**P* • ^ J L^I_ - .| « inf. II floM not
l^Se*. The ananal rainfall does not
the summer months, September to
The country is suffering
^■P w « , ^r*7^;^i far beneath the surface. In the
•bundant suppW water ** ^^ Uving m ^ ^ of
J* ^^cultivation by artificial irrigation yield excellent
SS^rtSfcSJSXt «* chief commercial products of the
j~~. .r* the skins of animals.
, who live
irrows. of
>. who are
en of the
ts. appear
no longer
ted to be
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any negro
lahari are
attle until
igration of
id in spite
igriculture
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ilso clever
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ie animals
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tain water
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the reed is
ust under-
An ostrich
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cks up the
j adjacent
straw, the
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erve their
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5 in a Ba-
rn friendly
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l78-i87Qa
i from the
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i, perished
i all some
I Passarge
•pography,
ind biblio-
Ka lahari.
:a, &c, by
KALAMATA (officially KaXdjuu, from an ancient town near
the MltK chief town of the modern Greek nomarchy of Messenia
m th\* Morea. situated on the left bank of the Nedon, about
i at. from the sea. Pop. (1007), 13.123* There is a suburb on
tte f tfti hank of the stream. On a hill behind the town are the
t*u& ol a medieval castle, but no ancient Greek remains have
fccv* Uncovered, although some travellers have identified the
wi< *uh that of the classical Pharae or Pherae. It is the scat
. A v>wr i ^4 justice and of an archbishop. During the middle
^(xh a was lor a time a fief of the Villehardouins. In 1685
^ ( ulMU *«* captured by the Venetians, in 1770, and again
a * i . t vt «*» the revolutionary headquarters in the Morea. In
.^" ;mA% av kcd by Ibrahim Pasha. Kalaraata is situated in
Vi% % r^i«l district, of which it is the emporium. The harbour,
JlL^ u»j»lfr improved, offers little shelter to shipping.
Vessels load and discharge by means of lighters, the outer
harbour having a depth at entrance of 24 ft. and inside of 14 ft.
The inner harbour has a depth of 15 ft. and is sheltered by a
breakwater 1640 ft. in length; in the winter months the fishing
craft take shelter in the haven of Armyro. The silk industry,
formerly important, still employs about 300 women and girls
in four spinning establishments. Olive oil and silk axe the chief
exports.
KALAMAZOO, a city and the county-seat of Kalamazoo
county, Michigan, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kalamazoo
River, about 49 m. S. of Grand Rapids and 144 m. W. of Detroit.
Pop. (1900) 24,404, of whom 4710 were foreign-born; (iqio
census) 30,437- It is served by the Michigan Central, the Lake
Shore & Michigan Southern, the Grand Rapids & Indiana, the
Kalamazoo, Lake Shore & Chicago, and the Chicago, Kalamaxco
& Saginaw railways, and by inter urban electric lines. The city
has a public library, and is the seat of Kalamazoo college
(Baptist), which grew out of the Kalamazoo literary institute
(1833) * nd was chartered under its present name in 1855; the
Michigan female seminary (Presbyterian), established in 1866;
the Western State normal school (1004); Nazareth Academy
(1897), for girls; Barbour Hall (1899), a school for boys; two
private schools for the feeble-minded, and the Michigan asylum
for the insane, opened in 1859. The surrounding country is
famous for its celery, and the city is an important manufacturing
centre, ranking third among the cities of the state in the value
of its factory products in 1904. The value of the factory pro-
duct in 1004 was $13,141,767, an increase of 829% since 1900.
The waterworks and electric-lighting plant are owned and
operated by the municipality. Kalamazoo was settled in 1820,
was known as Bronson (in honour of Titus Bronson, an early
settler) until 1836, was incorporated as the village of Kalamazoo
in 1838, and in 1884 became a city under a charter granted in
the preceding year.
KALAPUYA. or Callapooya, a tribe and stock of North-
American Indians, whose former range was the valley of the
Willamette River, Oregon. They now number little more than
a hundred, on a reservation on Grande Ronde reservation,
Oregon.
KALAT, the capital of Baluchistan, situated in 29° 3' N. and
66° 35' E., about 6780 ft. above sea-level, 88 m. from Quetta.
The town gives its name also to a native state with an area, in-
cluding Makran and Kharan, of 71,593 m. and a population (1901)
of 470,336. The word Kalat is derived from kola—* fortress;
and Kalat is the most picturesque fortress in the Baluch high-
lands. It crowns a low hill, round the base of which clusters
the closely built mass of flat-roofed mud houses which form the
insignificant town. A miVi or citadel, having an imposing ap-
pearance, dominates the town, and contains within its walls the
palace of the khan. It was in an upper room of this residence
that Mchrab Khan, ruler of Baluchistan, was killed during the
storming of the town and citadel by the British troops at the
close of the first Afghan War in 1839. In xooi it had a popu-
lation of only 2000. The valleys immediately surrounding the
fortress are well cultivated and thickly inhabited, in spite of
their elevation and the extremes of temperature to which they
are exposed. Recent surveys of Baluchistan have determined
the position of Hozdar or Kbozdar (27° 48' N., 66° 38' £.) to
be about $o m. S. of Kalat. Khozdar was the former capital
of Baluchistan, and is as directly connected with the southern
branches of the Mulla Pass as Kalat is with the northern, the
Mulla being the ancient trade route to Gandava (Kandabe) and
Sind. In spite of the rugged and barren nature of the mountain
districts of the Kalat highlands, the main routes through them
(concentrating on Khozdar rather than on Kalat) are compara-
tively easy. The old " Pathan vat," the trade highway between
Kalat and Karachi by the Hab valley, passes through Khozdar.
From Khozdar another route strikes a little west of south to
Wad, and then passes easily into Las Bela. This is the " Kohan
vat " A third route runs to Nal, and leads to the head of the
Kolwa valley (meeting with no great physical obstruction),
and then strikes into the open high road to Persia. Some of tha
KALAT-I-GHILZAI— KALEIDOSCOPE
639
valleys about Kalat (Mastang, tor instance) arc wide and fertile,
full of thriving villages and strikingly picturesque; and in spite of
the great preponderance of mountain wilderness (a wilderness
which is, however, in many parts well adapted for the pasturage
of sheep) easting in the Sarawan lowlands almost equally with
the Jala wan highlands, it is not difficult to understand the import*
ance which the province of Kalat, anciently called Turan (or
Tubaran), maintained in the eyes of medieval Arab geographers
(see Baluchistan). New light has been thrown on the history of
Kalat by the translation of an unpublished manuscript obtained
at Tatta by Mr Tate, of the Indian Survey Department, who has
added thereto notes from the Tufhat-ul*Kiram, for the use of
which he was indebted to Khan Sahib Rasul Baksh, mukbtiardar
of Tatta. According-to these authorities, the family of the khans
of Kalat is of Arabic origin, and not, as is usually stated, of
Brahuic extraction. They belong to the Ahmadzai branch of the
Mirwari clan, which originally emigrated from Oman to the
Kolwa valley of Mekran The khan of Kalat. Mir Mahmud Khan,
who succeeded his father in 1893, is the leading chieftain in the
Baluch Confederacy The revenue of the khan is estimated at
nearly £60.000, including subsidies from the British government;
and an accrued surplus of £240,000 has been invested in Indian
securities.
See C P. Tate. KahU (Calcutta, 1896), Baluchistan District
Gasetteer, vol. vi. (Bombay. 1907) (T. H. H. *)
KALAT-I-GHILZAI. a Jort in Afghanistan. It is situated on
an isolated rocky eminence 5543 ft above sea-level and 200 ft.
above the plain, on the right bank of the river Tarnak, on the
load between Kabul and Kandahar, 87 m. from Kandahar and
929 m. from KabuL It is celebrated for its gallant defence by
Captain Craigie and a sepoy garrison against the Afghans in the
first Afghan War of 1842. In memory of this feat of arms, the
12th Pioneers still bear the name of " The Kalat-i-Ghilzai
Regiment," and carry a special colour with the motto "Invicta."
KALB, JOHANN (" BarOn DE Kalb ") (1721-1780), German
soldier in the American War of Independence, was born in
HQttendoTf, near Bayreuth, on the 29th of June 1721. He was of
peasant parentage, and left home when he was sixteen to become
a butler; in 1743 he was a lieutenant in a German regiment
in the French service, calling himself at this time Jean de Kalb.
He served with the French in the War of the Austrian Succes-
sion, becoming captain in 1747 and major in 1756, in the Seven
Years' War he was in the corps of the comte de Broglie, render-
ing great assistance to the French after Rossbach (November
1757) and showing great bravery at Bergen (April i7Sv). and in
1765 he resigned his commission. As secret agent, appointed by
Choiseul, he visited America in 1 768-1 769 to inquire into the feel-
ing of the colonists toward Great Britain. From his retirement at
Milon la Chapelle, Kalb went to Met* for garrison duty under
de Broglie in 1775. Soon afterwards he received permission to
volunteer in the army of the American colonies, in which the
rank of major-general was promised to him by Silas Deane.
After many delays he sailed with eleven other officers on the ship
fitted out by Lafayette and arrived at Philadelphia in July 1777.
His commission from Deane was disallowed, but the Continental
Congress granted him the rank of major-general (dating from the
15th of September 1777), and in October he joined the army,
where his growing admiration for Washington soon led him to
view with disfavour de Brogue's scheme for putting a European
officer in chief command Early in 1 778, as second in command
to Lafayette for the proposed expedition against Canada, he
accompanied Lafayette to Albany; but no adequate preparations
bad been made, and the expedition was abandoned. In April
1780, he was sent from Morristown, New Jersey, with his division
of Maryland men, his Delaware regiment and the 1st artillery, to
relieve Charleston, but on arriving at Petersburg, Virginia, be
learned that Charleston had already fallen. In his camp at
Buffalo Ford and Deep River, General Horatio Gates joined him
on the 35th of July; and next day Gates led the army by the short
and desolate road directly towards Camden. On the nth-i3th
of August, when Kalb advised an immediate attack on Rawdon,
Gates hesitated and then marched to a position on the Salisbury-
Charlotte road which be had previously refused to take. On the
14th Cornwallis had occupied Camden, and a battle took place
there on the 16th when, the other American troops having broken
and fled, Kalb, unhorsed and fighting fiercely at the head oi his
right wing, was wounded eleven times. He was taken prisoner
and died on the 19th of August 1780 in Camden. Here in 1825
Lafayette laid the corner-stone of a monument to him. In 1887
a statue of him by Ephraim Keyser was dedicated in Annapolis*
Maryland.
See Friedrfch Kapp, Leben des amerikaniscken Generals Johann
Kalb (Stuttgart, 1862; English version, privately printed, New
York, 1870), which is summarized in George W. Greene's The
German Element in the War of American Independence (New York,
1876).
KALCKRBUTH (or Kalxxeuth), FRIBDRICH ADOLF*
Count von (1737*1818), Prussian soldier, entered the regiment
of Gardes du Corps in 1751, and in 1758 was adjutant or aide de
camp to Frederick the Great's brother, Prince Henry, with whom
he served throughout the later stages of the Seven Years' War.
He won special distinction at the battle of Freiberg (Sept. 29,
1762), for which Frederick promoted him major. Personal
differences with Prince Henry severed their connexion in 1766,
and for many years Kalckreuth lived in comparative retirement.
But he made the campaign of the War of the Bavarian Succession
as a colonel, and on the accession of Frederick William II was
restored to favour He greatly distinguished himself as a major-
general in the invasion of Holland in 1787, and by 1702 had be-
come count and lieutenant-general. Under Brunswick be took
a conspicuous part in the campaign of Valmy in 1792, the siege
and capture of Mainz in 1793, and the battle of Kaiserslautern in
1704. In the campaigns against Napoleon in 1806 he played a
marked part for good or evil, both at Aucrstadt and in the miser-
able retreat of the beaten Prussians. In 1 807 he defended Danzig
for 78 days against the French under Marshal Lcfebvre, with far
greater skill and energy than he had shown in the previous year.
He was promoted field marshal soon afterwards, and conducted
many of the negotiations at Tilsit. He died as governor of Berlin
in 1818.
The Duties du Fddmarichal Kalckreuth were published by his son
(Paris. 1844).
KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD, Count von (1855- ), German
painter, a direct descendant of the famous field-marshal (see
above), was born at Dusscldorf, received his first training at
Weimar from his father, the landscape painter Count Stanislaus
von Kalckreuth (1820- 1894), and subsequently studied at the
academies of Weimar and Munich. Although he painted some
portraits remarkable for their power of expression, he devoted
himself principally to depicting with relentless realism the
monotonous life of the fishing folk on the sea-coast, and of the
peasants in the fields. His palette is joyless, and almost melan-
choly, and in his technique he is strongly influenced by the im-
pressionists. He was one of the founders of the secessionist
movement. From 1885 to 1890 Count von Kalckreuth was
professor at the Weimar art school. In 1 800 he resigned his pro-
fessorship and retired to his estate of Hdckricht in Silesia, where
he occupied himself in painting subjects drawn from the Dfe of
the country-folk. In 1895 he became a professor at the art
school at Karlsruhe. The Munich Pinakothck has his "Rain-
bow " and the Dresden Gallery his " Old Age." Among his
chief works are the " Funeral at Dachau," " Homewards,"
"Wedding Procession in the Carpathian Mountains," "The
Gleaners," "Old Age," " Before the Fish Auction," "Summer,"
and " Going to School."
See A. Ph. W v. Kalckreuth. Gesch. der Herren, Freiherren und
Grafen von Kalckreuth (Potsdam, 1904).
KALEIDOSCOPE (from Gr. raXot, beautiful, ttiot, form, and
<tkovhv, to view). The article Reflection explains the sym-
metrical arrangement of images formed by two mirrors inclined at
an angle which is a sub-multiple of four right angles. This Is
the principle of the kaleidoscope, an optical toy which received
its present form at the hands of Sir David Brewster about the
640
KALERGIS— KALGOORLIE
year 1815, and which at once became exceedingly popular owing*
to the beauty and variety of the images and the sudden and
unexpected changes from one graceful form to another. A
hundred years earlier R. Bradley had employed a similar arrange-
ment which seems to have passed into oblivion {New Improvements
of Planting and Gardening, 1710). The instrument has been
extensively used by designers. In its simplest form it consists
of a tube about twelve inches long containing two glass plates,
extending along its whole length and inclined at an angle of 6o*.
The eye-end of the tube is closed by a metal plate having a small
hole at its centre near the intersection of the glass plates. The
other end is closed by a plate of muffed glass at the distance of
distinct vision, and parallel to this is fixed a plate of clear glass.
In the intervening space (the object-box) are contained a number
of fragments of brilliantly coloured glass, and as the tube is
turned round its axis these' fragments alter their positions and
give rise to the various patterns. A third reflecting plate is
sometimes employed, the cross-section of the three forming an
equilateral triangle. Sir David Brewster modified his apparatus
by moving the object-box and dosing the end of the tube by a
lens of short focus which forms images of distant objects at the
distance of distinct vision. These images take the place of the
coloured fragments of glass, and they are symmetrically multi-
plied by the mirrors. In the polyangular kaleidoscope the angle
between the mirrors can be altered at pleasure. Such instruments
are occasionally found in old collections of philosophical appara-
tus and they have been used in order to explain to students the
formation of multiple images. (C.J.J.)
KALERGIS, DIMITRI (Demetwos) (1803-1867), Greek
statesman, was a Cretan by birth, studied medicine at Paris and
on the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence went to the
Morca and joined the insurgents. He fought under Karaiskakis,
was taken prisoner by the Turks before Athens and mulcted of
an ear; later he acted as aide de camp to the French philhcllene
Colonel Fabvier and to Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece.
In 183 j he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. In 2843, as com-
mander of a cavalry division, he was the prime mover in the
insurrection which forced King Otto to dismiss his Bavarian
ministers. He was appointed military commandant of Athens
and aide de camp to the king, but after the fall of the Mavro-
cordato ministry in 1845 was forced to go into exile, and spent
several years in London, where he became an intimate of Prince
Louis Napoleoi. In 1848 he made an abortive descent on the
Greek coast, in the hope of revolutionizing the kingdom. He
was captured, but soon released and, after a stay in the island
of Zante, went to Paris (1853). At the instance of the Western
Powers he was recalled on the outbreak of the Crimean War and
appointed minister of war in the reconstituted Mavrocordato
cabinet (1854). He was, however, disliked by King Otto and
his consort, and in October 1855 was forced to resign. In 1861
he was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Paris, in which
capacity he took an important part in the negotiations which
followed the fall of the Bavarian dynasty and led to the accession
Of Prince George of Denmark to the Greek throne.
KALEWALA, or Kalevala, the name of the Finnish national
epos. It takes its name from the three sons of Kalewa (or
Finland), viz. the ancient WainamOinen, the inventor of the
sacred harp Kantele; the cunning art-smith, Ilmarinen; and the
gallant Lcmminkainen, who is a sort of Arctic Don Juan. The
adventures of these three heroes are wound about a plot for
securing in marriage the hand of the daughter of Louhi, a hero
from Pohjola, a land of the cold north. Ilmarinen is set to
construct a magic mill, the Sanpo, which grinds out meal, salt
and gold, and as this has fallen into the hands of the folk of
l*objola, it is needful to recover it The poem actually opens,
however, with a very poetical theory of the origin of the world.
The virgin daughter of the atmosphere, Luonnotar, wanders for
•even' hundred years in space* until she bethinks her to invoke
Vkko, the northern Zeus, who sends his eagle to her; this bird
Makes its nest on the knees of Luonnotar and lays in it seven
e*JB*. Out of the substance of these eggs the visible world is
«i*4*. But it is empty and sterile until Wainimoinen descends
upon it and woos the exquisite Aino. She disappears into space,
and it is to recover from his loss and to find another bride that
WainimOinen makes his series of epical adventures in the dismal
country of Pohjola. Various episodes of great strangeness and
beauty accompany the lengthy recital of the struggle to acquire
the magical Sanpo, which gives prosperity to whoever possesses
it. In the midst of a battle the Sanpo is broken and falls into
the sea, but one fragment floats on the waves, and, being stranded
on the shores of Finland, secures eternal feKtity for that country.
At the very dose of the poem a virgin, Mariatta, brings forth a
king who drives Wainambinen out of the country, and tins is
understood to refer to the ultimate conquest of Paganism by
Christianity.
The Kalaoala was probably composed at various times and by
various bards, but always in sympathy with the latent traditions
of the Finnish race, and with a mixture of symbolism and realism
exactly accordant with the instincts of that race. While in the
other antique epics of the world bloodshed takes a predominant
place, the Kalewala is characteristically gentle, lyrical and even
domestic, dwelling at great length on situations of moral beauty
and romantic pathos. It is entirely concerned with the folk-lore
and the traditions of the primeval Finnish race. The poem is
written in eight-syllabled trochaic verse, and an idea of its style
may be obtained from Longfellow's Hiawatha, which is a pretty
true imitation of the Finnish epic
Until the 19th century the Kalrvoola existed only in fragments in
the memories and on the lips of the peasants. A collection of a few
of these scattered songs was published in 1822 by Dr Zacharius
Topelius, but it was not until 1835 that anything like a complete
and systematically arranged collection was given to the world by
Dr Ellas Lonnrot. For years Dr L&nnrot wandered from place to
place in the most remote districts, living with the peasantry, and
taking down from their lips all that they knew of their popular soon*.
Some of the most valuable were discovered in the governments of
Archangel and Olonetz. After unwearied diligence Lonnrot was
successful in collecting 12,000 lines. These he arranged as methodi-
cally as he could into thirty-two runes or cantos, which he published
exactly as he heard them sung or chanted. Continuing his re-
searches, Dr Lonnrot published in 1840 a new edition of 22,703
verses in fifty runes. A still more complete text was published by
A. V. Forsman in 1887. The importance of this indugenous epK
was at once recognized in Europe, and translations were made into
Swedish, German and French. Several translations into English
exist, the fullest bcinc that by J. M. Crawford in 1688. The best
foreign editions are those of Castren in Swedish (1844), Lcoazoo le
Due in French (1845 and 1868), Schiefner in German (1852). (E. G.)
KALOAN (Chang-Chia K'ow), a city of China, in the pro-
vince of Chih-li, with a population estimated at from 70,000 to
100,000. It lies in the line of the Great Wall, 1 22 m. by rail N.W.
of Peking, commanding an important pass between China and
Mongolia. Its position is stated as in 40* 50' N. and 1 14 54' E.,
and its height above the sea as 2810 ft. The valley amid the
mountains in which it is situated is under excellent cultivation,
and thickly studded with villages. Kalgan consists of a walled
town or fortress and suburbs 3 m. long. The streets are wide,
and excellent shops are abundant; but the ordinary houses have
an unusual appearance, from the fact that they are mostly roofed
with earth and become covered with green-sward. Large
quantities of soda are manufactured; and the town is the seat
of a very extensive transit trade. In October 1900 it was con-
nected by railway with Peking. In early autumn long lines of
camels come in from all quarters for the conveyance of the tea-
chests from Kalgan to Kiakhta; and each caravan usually makes
three journeys in the winter. Some Russian merchants have
permanent residences and warehouses just outside the gale. Ob
the way to Peking the road passes over a beautiful bridge of seven
arches, ornamented with marble figures of animals. The name
Kalgan is Mongolian, and means a barrier or " gate-beam."
KALGOORLIE, a mining town of Western Australia, 34 m.
by rail E.N.E. of Coolgardie* Pop. (1001), 6653. I lis a thriving
town with an electric tramway service, and is the junction of foor
lines of railway. The gold-field, discovered in 1803, is very
rich, supporting about 15.000 miners. The town is supplied
with water, like Coolgardte, from a source near Perth 360 as.
distant*
KALI— KALIDASA
64k
R1LI (black), or Kali Ha (the Black Mother)* in Hindu
mythology, the goddess of destruction and death, the wife
of Siva. According to one theory, Calcutta owes its name to
her, being originally Kalighat, " Kali's landing-place." Siva's
consort has many names (e.g. Durga, Bhawani, Parvati, &c).
Her idol is black, with four arms, and red palms to the hands.
Her eyes are red, and her face and breasts are besmeared with
blood. Her hair is matted, and she has projecting fang-like teeth,
between which protrudes a tongue dripping with blood. She
wears a necklace of skulls, her earrings are dead bodies, and she
is girded with serpents. She stands on the body of Siva, to
account for which attitude there is an elaborate legend. She is
more worshipped in Gondwana and the forest tracts to the east
and south of it than in any other part of India. Formerly
human sacrifice was the essential of her ritual The victim,
always a male, was taken to her temple after sunset and im-
prisoned there. When morning came he was dead: the priests
told the people that Kali had sucked his blood in the night. At
Dantewara in Bastar there is a famous shrine of Kali under the
name of DanteswarL Here many a human head has been
presented on her altar. About 1830 it is said that upwards of
twenty-five full-grown men were immolated at once by the raja.
Cutting their flesh and burning portions of their body were
among the acts of devotion of her worshippers. Kali is~goddess
of small-pox and cholera. The Thugs murdered their victims
in her honour, and to her the sacred pickaxe, wherewith their
graves were dug, was consecrated.
The Hook-swinging Festival (Churruk or Chvruck Puja),
one of the most notable celebrations in honour of the
goddess Kali, has now been prohibited in British territory.
Those who had vowed themselves to self-torture submitted to
be swung in the air supported only by hooks passed through the
muscles over, the blade -bones. These hooks were hung from a
long crossbeam, which see-sawed upon a huge upright pole.
Hoisted into the air by men pulling down the other end of the
see-saw beam, the victim was then whirled round in a circle.
The torture usually lasted fifteen or twenty minutes.
See A. A. Macdonell, Vedic Mythology (Sirassburg, 1897).
KALIDASA, the most illustrious name among the writers of
the second epoch of Sanskrit literature, which, as contrasted
with the age of the Vedic hymns, may be characterized as the
period of arti ficial poetry. Owing to the absence of the historical
sense in the Hindu race, it is impossible to fix with chronological
exactness the lifetime of either Kalic&sa or any other Sanskrit
author. Native tradition places him in the rst century B.C.;
but the evidence on which this belief rests is worthless. The
works of the poet contain no allusions by which their date can
be directly determined; yet the extremely corrupt form of the
Prtkrit or popular dialects spoken by the women and the sub-
ordinate characters in his plays, as compared with the Prakrit
in inscriptions of ascertained age, led such authorities as Weber
and Lassen to agree in fixing on the 3rd century a.d. as the
approximate period to whkh the writings of K&lidasa should
be referred.
He was one of the " nine gems " at the court of King Vikra-
maditya or Vikrama, at Ujjain, and the tendency is now to
regard the latter as having flourished about ad. 375; others,
however, place, him as late as the 6th century. The richness of
his creative fancy, his delicacy of sentiment, and his keen appre-
ciation of the beauties of nature, combined with remarkable
powers of description, place Kalidasa in the first rank of Oriental
poets. The effect, however, of his productions as a whole is
greatly marred by extreme artificiality of diction, which, though
to a less extent than in other Hindu poets, not unfrequently
takes the form of puerile conceits and plays on words. In this
respect his writings contrast very unfavourably with the more
genuine poetry of the Vedas. Though a true poet, he is wanting
in that artistic sense of proportion so characteristic of the Greek
mind, which exactly adjusts the parts to the whole, and combines
form and matter into an inseparable poetic unity. Kalidasa's
fame rests chiefly on his dramas, but he is also distinguished as
an epic and a lyric poet
He wrote three plays, the plots of which all bear a general resem-
blance, inasmuch as they consist of love intrigues, which, after
numerous and seemingly insurmountable impediments of a similar
nature, are ultimately brought to a successful conclusion.
Of these, SakunUM is that which has always justly enjoyed the
greatest fame and popularity. The unqualified praise bestowed
642
KALIMPONG— KALKBRENNER
KAUMPOHO, « village or British India, in the DarjeeBng
district of Bengal, 4000 ft. above sea-level, pop. (tooi), 1069.
It is a frontier market for the purchase of wool and mules from
Tibet, and an important agricultural fair is held in November.
In 1900 Kalimpong was chosen by the Church of Scotland as the
site of cottage homes, known as St Andrew's Colonial Homes,
for the education and training of poor European and Eurasian
children.
KALINGA, or Calinca, one of the nine kingdoms of southern
India in ancient times. Its exact limits varied, but included
the eastern Madras coast from Pulicat to Chicacolc, running
inland from the Bay of Bengal to the Eastern Ghats. The name
at one time had a wider and vaguer meaning, comprehending
Orissa, and possibly extending to the Ganges valley. The Kalinga
of Pliny certainly included Orissa, but latterly it seems to have
been confined to the Tclugu-spcaking country; and in the
time of Hsuan Tsang (630 a.d.) it was distinguished on the south
and west from Andhra, and on the north from Odra or Orissa.
Taranatha, the Tibetan historian, speaks of Kalinga as one
division of the country of Tclinga. Hsiian Tsang speaks of
Kalinga (" Kie-ling-kia ") having its capital at what has been
identified with the site cither of Rajahmundry or Coringa.
Both these towns, as well as Singapur, Calingapatam and Chica-
colc, share the honour of having been the chief cities of Kalinga
at different periods; but inscriptions recently deciphered seem
to prove that the capital of the Ganga dynasty of Kalinga was
at Mukhalingam in the Ganjam district.
KALINJAR, a town and hill fort of British India in the Banda
district of the United Provinces. Pop. (1901), 301s. The fort
stands on an isolated rock, the termination of the Vindhya
range, at an elevation of 1203 ft., overlooking the plains of
Bundelkhand. Kalinjar is the most characteristic specimen of
the hill-fprtresses, originally hill-shrines, of central India. Its
antiquity is proved by its mention in the Malta" bhdrata. It was
besieged by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1023, and here the Afghan
emperor Sher Shah met his death in 1545, and Kalinjar played
a prominent part in history down to the time of the Mutiny in
1857, when it was held by a small British garrison. Both the
fort and the town, which stands at the foot of the hill, are of
interest to the antiquary on account of their remains of temples,
sculptures, inscriptions and caves.
KAUR (QAUR], ELEAZER, Hebrew liturgical poet, whose
hymns (piyyutim) are found in profusion in the festival prayers
of the German synagogal rite. The age in which he lived is
unknown. Some (basing the view on Saadiah's Sefer ha-galuy)
place him as early as the 6th century, others regard him as
belonging to the 10th century. Kalir's style is powerful but
involved; he may be described as a Hebrew Browning.
Some beautiful renderings of Kalir's poems may be found In the
volumes of Davis & Adlcr's edition of the German Festival Prayers
entitled Service of the Synagogue.
KALISCH, ISIDOR (1816-1886), Jewish divine, was born at
Krotoschin in Prussia on the 15th of November 1816, and was
educated at Berlin, Breslau and Prague. In 184S he came to
London, but passed on in 1849 to America, where he ministered
as rabbi in Cleveland, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, Detroit and Newark,
New Jersey. At Newark from 187s he gave himself entirely
to literary work, and exercised a strong influence as leadef of
the radical and reforming Jewish party.
Among his works are Wegweisen fur ralioneUe Forschungen in den
biUischen SchnjUn (1853); and translations of Nathan der Weiss
(1869); Sepher Jctirah (1877); and Munz'a History of Philosophy
among the Jews (1881). He also wrote a good deal of German and
Hebrew verse.
KALISCH, MARCUS (or Maurice)(i828-:88s), Jewish scholar,
was bom in Pomerania in 1828, and died in England 1885.
He was one of the pioneers of the critical study of the Old
Testament in England. At one time he was secretary to the
Chief Rabbi; in 1853 he became tutor in the Rothschild family
and enjoyed leisure to produce his commentaries and other
works. The first instalment of his commentary on the Penta-
teuch was Exodus (1855); thb was followed by Genesis (1858) and
Leviticus in two parts (1867-1879). Kaliscti wrote before the
publication of Weilhausen's works, and anticipated him in some
important points. Besides these works, Kalisch published in
1877-1878 two volumes of Bible studies (on Balaam and Jonah).
He was also author of a once popular Hebrew grammar in two
volumes (1862-1863). In 1880 he published Path and God, a
brilliant discussion of human destiny. His commentaries are
of permanent value, not only because of the author's originality,
but also because of his erudition. No other works in English
contain such full citations of earlier literature. (LA.)
KALISPEL, or Pend d'Oreille, a tribe of North-Americas
Indians of Salishan stock. They formerly ranged the country
around Pend d'Oreille Lake, Washington. They number some
600, and are settled on a reservation in Montana.
KAUSZ, a government of Russian Poland, having Prussia o*
the W., and the governments of Warsaw and PiotrV6w on the E.
Its area is 4300 sq. m. Its surface is a lowland, sloping towards
the west, and is drained by the Prosna and the Warta and their
tributaries, and also by the Bzura* It was formerly covered
with countless small lakes and thick forests; the latter are won.
mostly destroyed, but many lakes and marshes exist stiH.
Pop. (1897), 844,358 of whom 427,078 were women, and 113,609
lived in towns; estimated pop, (1006), 083,200. They are chiefly
Poles. Roman Catholics numrjer $$%; Jews and Protestants
each amount to 7%. Agriculture is carried to perfection on
a number of estates, as also livestock breeding. The crops
principally raised are rye, wheat, oats, barley and potatoes.
Various domestic trades, including the weaving of linen and wool,
are carried on In the villages. There are some factories, pro-
ducing chiefly cloth and cottons. The government is divided
into eight districts, the chief towns of which, with their popula-
tions in 1897, are: Kalisz (21,680), Kolo (0400), Koma (8530),
Leczyca (8863), Slupec (3758), Sieradz (7019)* Turek (8141)
and Wielun (7442).
KAUSZ, the chief town of the above government, situated in
51 46' N. and 18 E., 147 m. by rail W.S.W. of Warsaw, on the
banks of the Prosna, which there forms the boundary of Prussia.
Pop. (1871), 18,088; (1807), 21,680, of whom 37% were Jews.
It is one of the oldest and finest cities of Poland, is the seat of a
Roman Catholic bishop, and possesses a castle, a teachers' insti-
tute and a large public park. The industrial establishments
comprise a brewery, and factories for ribbons, doth and sugar,
and tanneries.
Kalisz is identified with the Calisia of Ptolemy, and its antiquity
is indicated by the abundance of coins and other objects of ancient
art which have been discovered on the site, as well as by the numerous
burial mounds existing in the vicinity. It was the scene of (he
decisive victory of Augustus the Strong of Poland over the Swedes
on the 20th of October 1706, of several minor conflicts in 1813, and
of the friendly meeting of the Russian and Prussian troops in 1835.
in memory of which an iron obelisk was erected in the town by
Nicholas I. in 1841. The treaty of 1813 between Russia and Prussia
was signed here.
KALK, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right
bank of the Rhine, 2 m. E. of Cologne. Pop. (1003), 25^78.
Kalk is an important junction of railway lines connecting Cologne
with places on the right bank of the river. It has various iron
and chemical industries, brickworks and breweries, and an
electric tramway joins it with Cologne.
KALKAS, or Khalkas, a Mongoloid people mainly concen-
trated in the northern steppes of Mongolia near their kinsmen,
the Buriats. According to Sir H, Howorth they derive their
name from the river Kalka, which runs into the Buir lake. Of
all Mongolians they physically differ most from the true Mongol
type (see Mongols). Their colour is a brown rather than a
yellow, and their eyes are open and not oblique. They have,
however, the broad flat face, high cheekbones and lank black
hair of their race. They number some 250,000, and their terri-
tory is divided into the four khanates of Tushetu (Tushiyetu),
Tscticn (Sctzcn), Sai'noi'm (Sain Noyan) and Jcsaktu (Jassoklu).
KALKBRENNER. FRIEDR1CH WILHELM (1784-1840),
German pianist and composer, son of Christian Kalkbrenner
1 O755-1S06), a Jewish musician of Cassel, was educated at toe
KALLAY— KALNOKY
$+3
Paris Conservatoire, and soon began to play in public. From
1814 10 1823 he was well known as a brilliant performer and a
successful teacher in London, and then settled in Paris, dying at
Enghien, near there, in 1849. He became a member of the Paris
piano-manufacturing firm of Pleyel & Co., and made a fortune
by his business and his art combined. His numerous compo-
sitions are less remembered now than his instruction-book, with
"< studies," which have had considerable vogue among pianists.
KAUAY, BENJAMIN VON (1830-1005), Auatro-Hungariau
statesman, was born at Budapest on the 22nd of December 1839.
His family derived their name from their estates at Nagy Kallo,
in Szabolcs, and claimed descent from the Balogh Serajen
tribe, which colonized the counties of Borsod, Szabolcs, and
Szatmar, at the close of the oth century, when the Magyars
conquered Hungary. They played a prominent part in Hun-
garian history as early as the reign of Koloman (1095-11 14);
and from King Matthias Corvinus (1458-1490) they received
their estates at Mezo Tur, near Kecskemet, granted to Michael
Kallay for his heroic defence of Jajce in Bosnia, and still held by
his descendants. The father of Benjamin von Kallay, a superior
official of the Hungarian Government, died in 1845, and his
widow, who survived until 1903, devoted herself to the education
of her son. At an early age Kallay manifested a deep interest
in politics, and especially in the Eastern Question. He travelled
in Russia, European Turkey and Asia Minor, gaining a thorough
knowledge of Greek, Turkish and several Slavonic languages.
He became as proficient in Servian as in his native tongue. In
1867 he entered the Hungarian Diet as Conservative deputy for
Muhlbach (Szisy-Szebes); in 1869 he was appointed consul-
general at Belgrade; and in 1872 he visited Bosnia for the first
time. His views on Balkan questions strongly influenced
Count Andrassy, the Austro-Hungarian minister for foreign
affairs. Leaving Belgrade in 1875, he resumed his seat in the
Diet, and shortly afterwards founded the journal KiUt Nepe, or
Eastern Folk, in which he defended the vigorous policy of
Andrassy. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1^78 bo went to
Philippopolis as Austro-Hungarian envoy extraordinary on the
International Eastern Rumelian Commission. In 1 879 he became
second, and soon afterwards first, departmental chief at the
foreign office in Vienna. On the 4th of June 1882 he was
appointed Imperial minister of finance and administrator of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the distinction with which he
filled this office, for a period of 21 years, is his chief title of fame
(see Bosnia and Herzegovina). Kallay was an honorary
member of the Budapest and Vienna academies of science, and
attained some eminence as a writer. He translated J. S. Mill's
Liberty into Hungarian, adding an introductory critique; while
his version of Galatea, a play by the Greek dramatist S. N.
Basiliades (1843-1874), proved successful on the Hungarian
stage. His monographs on Servian history (CeschichU der
Serben) and on the Oriental ambition of Russia {Die Orientpditik
Russlands) were translated into German by J. H. Schwicker,
and published at Leipzig in 1878. But, in his own opinion, his
masterpiece was an academic oration on the political and geo-
graphical position of Hungary as a link between East and West.
In 1873 Kallay married the countess Vilma Bethkn,.who bore
him two daughters and a son. His popularity in Bosnia was
partly due to the tact and personal charm of his wife. He died
on the 13th of July 1903.
KALMAR (Calmar), a seaport of Sweden on the Baltic coast,
chief town of the district (lUn) of Kalmar, 250 m. S.S.W. of
Stockholm by rail. Pop. (1900), 12,715- It lies opposite the
island of Oland, mainly on two small islands, but partly on the
mainland, where there is a pleasant park. The streets are
regular, and most of the houses are of wood. The principal
public edifices, however, are constructed of limestone from
Oland, including the cathedral, built by Nicodemus Tessin and
his son Nicodemus in the second half of the 17th century.
Kalmar, a town of great antiquity, was formerly strongly forti-
fied, and there remains the island-fortress of Kalmarnahus,
dating partly from the 12th century, but mainly from the 16th
and 1 7th. It contains the beautiful chamber of King Eric XIV.
(4- 1 577). an historical museum, and in the courtyard a fine ornate
well-cover. This stronghold stood several sieges in the 14th,-
15th and 16th centuries, and the town gives name to the treaty
(Kalmar Union) by which Sweden, Norway and Denmark were
united into one kingdom in 1397. Kalmar has an artificial
harbour admitting vessels drawing 19 ft. There are a school of
navigation, and tobacco and match factories, the produce of
which, together with timber and oats, is exported. Ship*,
building is carried on.
KALMUCK, or Kalmyk Steppe, a territory or reservation
belonging to the Kalmuck or Kalmyk Tatars, in the Russian
government of Astrakhan, bounded by the Volga on the N.E.,
the Manych on the S.W., the Caspian Sea on the E., and the
territory of the Don Cossacks on the NJW. Its area is 36,900
sq. m., to which has to be added a second reservation of 3045
sq. m. on the left bank of the lower Volga. According to I. V.
Mushketov, the Kalmuck Steppe must be divided into two parts,
western and eastern. The former, occupied by the Ergeni hills,
is deeply trenched by ravines and rises 300 and occasionally
630 ft. above the sea. It is built up of Tertiary deposits,
belonging to the Sarmatian division of the Miocene period and
covered with loess and black earth, and its escarpments repre-
sent the old shore-line of the Caspian. No Caspian deposits,
are found on or within the Ergeni hills. These hills exhibit the
usual black earth flora, and they have a settled population. The
eastern part of the steppe is a plain, lying for the most part
30 to 40 ft. below the level of the sea, and sloping gently towards
the Volga. PostnPKoccne " Aral-Caspian deposits," containing
the usual fossils (Hydrobia, Neritina, eight species of Cardium,
two of Dreissena, three of Adacna and Lithoglypkus caspius),
attain thicknesses varying from 105 ft. to 7 or 10 ft., and dis-
appear in places. Lacustrine and fluviatile deposits occur
intermingled with the above. Large areas of moving sands
exist near Enotayevsk, where high dunes or barkhans have been
formed. A narrow tract of land along the coast of the Caspian,
known as the " hillocks of Baer," is covered with hillocks
elongated from west to east, perpendicularly to the coast-line,
the spaces between them being filled with water or overgrown
with thickets of reed, Salix, Ulmus campeslris, almond trees,
&c. An archipelago of little islands is thus formed close to the
shore by these mounds, which are backed on the N. and N.W.
by strings of salt lakes, partly desiccated. Small streams
originate in the Ergenis, but are lost as soon as they reach the
lowlands, where water can only be obtained from wells. The
scanty vegetation is a mixture of the flora of south-east Russia
and that of the deserts of central Asia. The steppe has an
estimated population of 130,000 persons, living in over 27,700
kiintkas, or felt tents. There are over 60 Buddhist monasteries.
Part of the Kalmucks are settled (chiefly in the hilly parts), the
remainder being nomads. They breed horses, cattle and sheep,
but suffer heavy losses from murrain. Some attempts at
agriculture and tree-planting are being made. The breeding of
livestock, fishing, and some domestic trades, chiefly carried on
by the women, are the principal sources of maintenance.
See I. V. Mushketov, Ceol. Researches in the Kalmyk Steppe in
1884- 1 88s (St Petersburg, 1894, in Russian); Kostenkov's works
(1868-1870); and other works quoted in Semenov's Georr. Dick
and Russ, EncycL Did. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KALN6KY, GUSTAV SIBOMUKD, Count (1832-1898), Austro-
Hungarian statesman, was born at Lettowitz, in Moravia, on
the 29th of December 1832, of an old Transylvanian family
which had held country rank in Hungary from the 17th century.
After spending some years in a hussar regiment, in 1854 be entered
the diplomatic service without giving up his connexion with the
army, in which he reached the rank of general in 1879. He was
for the ten years i860 to 1870 secretary of embassy at London,
and then, after serving at Rome and Copenhagen*, was in 1880
appointed ambassador at St Petersburg. His success in Russia
procured for him, on the death of Baron v. Haymerle in 1881, the
appointment. of minister of foreign affairs for Austria-Hungary,
a post which he held for fourteen years. Essentially a diplomatist,
644
KALOCSA— KALYAN
he took little or no part in the vexed internal affairs of the
Dual Monarchy, and he came little before the public except at
the annual statement on foreign affairs before the Delegations.
His management of the affairs of his department was, however,
very successful; he confirmed and maintained the alliance with
Germany, which had been formed by his predecessors, and co-
operated with Bismarck in the arrangements by which Italy
joined the alliance. Kalnoky's special influence was seen in the
improvement of Austrian relations with Russia, following on
the meeting of the three emperors in September 1884 at Skier-
ncvice, at which he was present His Russophile policy caused
some adverse criticism in Hungary. His friendliness for Russia
did not, however, prevent him from strengthening the position
of Austria as against Russia in the Balkan Peninsula by the
establishment of a closer political and commercial understanding
with Servia and Rumania. In 1885 be interfered after the
battle of Slivnitza to arrest the advance of the Bulgarians on
Belgrade, but he lost influence in Servia after the abdication of
King Milan. Though be kept aloof from the Clerical party,
Kalnoky was a strong Catholic; and his sympathy for the
difficulties of the Church caused adverse comment in Italy,
when, in 1891, he stated in a speech before the Delegations that
the question of the position of the pope was still unsettled.
He subsequently explained that by this he did not refer to the
Roman question, which was permanently settled, but to the
possibility of the pope leaving Rome. The jealousy felt in
Hungary against the Ultramontanes led to his fall. In 1805 a
case of clerical interference in the internal affairs of Hungary by
the nuncio Agliardi aroused a strong protest in the Hungarian
parliament, and consequent differences between Banffy, the
Hungarian minister, and the minister for foreign affairs led to
Kalnoky's resignation. He died on the 13th of February 1898
at PrtkUitz in Moravia.
KALOCSA, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-Pilis-
SoU-Kis-Kun, BS m. S. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1000),
11,372. It is situated in a marshy but highly productive dis-
trict, near the left bank of the Danube, and was once of far
greater importance than at present. Kalocsa is the see of one
* of the four Roman Catholic archbishops in Hungary. Amongst
its buildings are a fine cathedral, the archicpiscopal palace, an
astronomical observatory, a seminary for priests, and colleges
for training of male and female teachers. The inhabitants of
Kalocsa and its wide-spreading communal lands are chiefly
employed in the cultivation of the vine, fruit, flax, hemp and
cereals, in the capture of water-fowl and in fishing. Kalocsa
is one of the oldest towns in Hungary. The present arch-
bishopric, founded about 1135, is a development of a bishopric
said to have been founded in the year 1000 by King Stephen the
Saint. It suffered much during the 16th century from the
hordes of Ottomans who then ravaged the country. A large
part of the town was destroyed by a fire in 1875.
KALPI, or Calpee, a town of British India, in the Jalaun
district of the United Provinces, on the right bank of the Jumna,
45 m. S.W. of Cawnpore. Pop. (iooi), 10,139. It was founded,
according to tradition, by Vasudeva, at the end of the 4th century
AD. In 1 106 it fell to Kutab-ud-din, the viceroy of Mahommed
Ghori, and during the subsequent Mahommedan period it played
a large part in the annals of this part of India. About the
middle of the 18th century it passed into the hands of the Mah-
rattas. It was captured by the British in 1803, and since 1806
has remained in British possession. In May 1858 Sir Hugh
Rose (Lord Strath nairn) defeated here a force of about 10,000
rebels under the rani of Jhansi. Kalpi had a mint for copper
coinage in the reign of Akbar; and the East India Company made
it one of their principal stations for providing the " commercial
investment." The old town, which is beside the river, has ruins
of a fort, and several temples of interest, while in the neighbour-
hood are many ancient tombs. There is a lofty modern tower
ornamented with representations of the battles of the Ramayana.
The new town lies away from the river to the south-east. Kalpi
is still a centre of local trade (principally in grain, $ki and cotton),
with a station on the Indian Midland rajjwav from lhansi to
Cawnpore, which here crosses the Jumna. There are manufac-
tures of sugar and paper.
KALUGA, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by
those of Moscow, Smolensk, Orel and Tula, with an area of
11,942 sq. m. Its surface is an undulating plain, reaching 800
to 900 ft. in its highest parts, which lie in the S.W., and deeply
trenched by watercourses, especially in the N.E. The Oka, a
main tributary of the Volga, and its confluents (the Zhizdra and
Ugra) drain all but a strip of country in the west, which is
traversed by the Bolva, an affluent of the Dnieper. The govern-
ment is built up mainly of carboniferous deposits (coal-bearing),
with patches of the soft Jurassic days and limestones which
formerly covered them. Cretaceous deposits occur in the S. W.,
and Devonian limestones and shales crop out in the S.E. The
government is covered with a thick layer of boulder clay in the
north, with vast ridges and fields of boulders brought during the
Glacial Period from Finland and the government of Olonets; large
areas in the middle are strewn with flint boulders and patches
of loess arc seen farther south. The mean annual temperature is
41° F. Iron ores are the chief mineral wealth, nearly 40,000
persons being engaged in mining. Beds of coal occur in several
places, and some of them are worked. Fireclay, china-clay,
chalk, grindstone, pure quartz sand, phosphorite and copper are
also extracted. Forests cover 20% of the surface, and occur
chiefly in the south. The soil is not very suitable for agriculture,
and owing to a rather dense population, considerable numbers of
the inhabitants find occupation in industry, or as carriers and
carpenters for one-half of the year at the Black Sea ports.
The population (1,025,70s in i860) was 1,176,353 in 1897,
nearly all Great Russians. There were 116 women to xoo men,
and out of the total population 04,853 lived in towns. The
estimated population in 1006 was 1,287,300. Of the total area
over 4,000,000 acres are owned by the peasant communities,
nearly 3,000,000 acres by private owners and some 250,000 by
the Crown. The principal crops are rye, oats, barley, buckwheat,
and potatoes. Hemp is grown for local use and export. Bees
are kept. The chief non-agricultural industries are distilleries,
iron-works, factories for cloth, cottons, paper, matches, leather
and china, flour-mills and oil works. Large quantities of wooden
wares are fabricated in the villages of the south. A considerable
trade is carried on in hemp, hempsecd and hempseed oil, com
and hides; and iron, machinery, leather, glass, chemicals and
linen arc exported. The government is divided into 11
districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in
1897, are: Kaluga (49,728), Borovsk (8407), Kozelsk (5908),
Likhvin (1776), Maloyaroslavets (2500), Mcdyfl (4392),
Meshchovsk (3667), Mosalsk (2652), Pcrcmysh! (3956), Tarusa
(1989) and Zhizdra (5996). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KALUGA, the chief town of the above government, situated
on the left bank of the Oka, 117 m. S.W. of Moscow by rail,
in 54 31' N. and 36* 6' E. Pop. (1870), 36,880; (1897) 49.728-
It-is the see of a Greek Orthodox bishop. The public buildings
include the cathedral of the Trinity (rebuilt in the 19th century
in place of an older edifice dating from 1687), two monastic
establishments, an ecclesiastical seminary, and a lunatic asylum.
The principal articles of industnal production are leather, oil,
bast mats, wax candles, starch and Kaluga cakes. The first
historical mention of Kaluga occurs in 1389; its incorporation
with the principality of Moscow tobk place in 1518. In 1607
it was held by the second false Demetrius and vainly besieged
for four months by the forces of Shuisky, who had ascended the
Russian throne as Basil IV. on the death of the first false
Demetrius. In 1619 Kaluga fell into the hands of the hetman
or chief of the Zaporoahian Cossacks. Later two-thirds of its
inhabitants were carried off by a plague; and in 1622 the whole
place was laid waste by a conflagration. It recovered, however,
in spite of several other conflagrations (especially in 174 a and
1754). On several occasions Kaluga was the residence of politi-
cal prisoners; among others Sharayl, the Lesghian chief, spent
his exile there (1859-1870).
KALYAN, a town of British India, in the Thana district of
Bombay, situated 33 m. N.E. of Bombay city, where the two
KAMA— KAME
*>+s
i lines of the Great Indian Peninsula, railway diverge. Pop.
({ooi), 10,749. There is a considerable industry of rice-husking.
Kalyan is known to have been the capital of a kingdom and a
centre of sea-borne commerce in the early centuries of the
Christian era. The oldest remains now existing are of Mahom-
medan times.
KAMA, or Kamadeva, in Hindu mythology, the god of love.
He is variously stated to have been the child of Brahma or
Dbarma (virtue). In the Rig Veda, Kama (desire) is described
as the first movement that arose in the One after it had come
into life through the power of fervour, or abstraction. In the
Atharva-Veda Kama does not mean sexual desire, but rather the
yearning after the good of all created things. Later Kama is
simply the Hindu Cupid. While attempting to lure Siva to
sin, he was destroyed by a fiery glance of the goddess' third eye.
Thus in Hindu poetry Kama is known as Ananga, the " bodiless
god." Kama's wife Rati (voluptuousness) mourned him so
greatly that Siva relented, and he was reborn as the child of
Krishna and Rukmini. The babe was called Pradyumna
(Cupid). He is represented armed with a bow of sugar-cane;
it is strung with bees, and its five arrows are tipped with flowers
which overcome the five senses. A fish adorns his flag, and he
rides a parrot or sparrow, emblematic of lubricity.
KAMALA, a red powder formerly used in medicine as an
anthelmintic and employed. in India as a yellow dye. It is
obtained from Matiotus pkilippinensis, MtilL, a small euphor-
biaceous tree from 20 to 45 ft. in height, distributed from southern
Arabia in the west to north Australia and the Philippines in the
east. In India kamala has several ancient Sanskrit names, one
of which, kapila, signifies dusky or tawny red. Under the name
of wars, kanbil, or qinbil, kamala appears to have been known to
the Arabian physicians as a remedy for tapeworm and skin
diseases as early as the 10th century, and indeed is mentioned
by Paulus /Egincta still earlier. The drug was formerly in the
British Pharmacopoeia, but is inferior to many other anthel-
mintics and is not now employed.
KAMCHATKA, a peninsula of N.-E. Siberia, stretching from
the land of the Chukchis S.S.W. for 750 m., with a width of from
80 to 300 m. (si 8 to 62 N., and 156 to 163 E.), between the Sea
of Okhotsk and Bering Sea. It forms part of the Russian
Maritime Province. Area, 104,260 sq. m.
The isthmus which connects the peninsula with the mainland
is a flat tundra, sloping gently both ways. The mountain chain,
which Ditmar calls central, seems to be interrupted under 57°
N*. by a deep indentation corresponding to the vaHcy of the
TighU. There too the hydrographical network, as well as the
south-west to north-east strike of the clay-slates and met amor-
phic schists on Ditmar's map, seem to indicate the existence
of two chains running south-west to north-cast, parallel to the
volcanic chain of S.-E. Kamchatka. Glaciers were not known
till the year 1899, when they were discovered on the Byelaya
and Ushkinskaya (15,400 ft.) mountains. Thick Tertiary
deposits, probably Miocene, overlie the middle portions of the
west coast. The southern parts of the central range are com-
posed of granites, syenites, porphyries and crystalline slates,
while in the north of Ichlnskaya volcano, which is the highest
summit of the peninsula (16,920 ft.), the mountains consist
chiefly of Tertiary sandstones and old volcanic rocks. Coal-
bearing clays containing fresh-water molluscs and dicotyledo-
nous plants, as also conglomerates, alternate with the sandstones
in these Tertiary deposits. Amber is found in them. Very
extensive layers of melaphyre and andesite, as also of con-
glomerates and volcanic tuffs, cover the middle portions of the
peninsula. The south-eastern portion is occupied by a chain
of volcanoes, running along the indented coast, from Cape
Lopatka to Cape Kronotskiy (54° 25' N.), and separated from
the rest of the peninsula by the valleys of the Bystraya (an
affluent of the Bolslraya, on the west coast) and Kamchatka
rivers. Another chain of volcanoes runs from Ichinskaya
(which burst into activity several times in the 18th and 10th
centuries) to Shiveluch, seemingly parallel to the above but
farther north. The two chains contain twelve active and twenty-
six extinct volcanoes, from 7000 to more than 15,000 ft. high.
The highest volcanoes are grouped under 56° N., and the highest
of them, Kluchevskaya (16,990 ft.), is in a state of almost in-
cessant activity (notable outbreaks in 1729, 1737, 1841, 1853-1854,
and 1896-1897), a flow of its lava having reached to Kamchatka
river in 1853. The active Shiveluch (9900 ft.) is the last volcano
of this chain. Several lakes and probably Avacha Bay are old
craters. Copper, mercury, and iron ores, as also pure copper,
ochre and sulphur, are found in the peninsula. The principal
river is the Kamchatka (325 m. long), which flows first north-
eastwards in a fertile longitudinal valley, and then, bending
suddenly to the east, pierces the above-mentioned volcanic
chain. The other rivers are the Tighil (135 m.) and the Bolslraya
(1 20 m.), both flowing into the Sea of Okhotsk; and the Avacha,
flowing into the Pacific.
The floating ice which accumulates in the northern parts of
the Sea of Okhotsk and the cold current whjch flows along the
east coast of the peninsula render its summers chilly, but the
winter is relatively warm, and temperatures below -40° F. are
experienced only in the highlands of the interior and on' the
Okhotsk littoral The average temperatures at Petropavlovsk
(53° N.) are: year 37° F., January 17*, July 58°; while in the
valley of the Kamchatka the average temperature of the winter is
1 6°, and of the summer as high as 58° and 64°. Rain and snow
are copious, and dense fogs enshroud the coast in summer; conse-
quently the mountains are well clothed with timber and the
meadows with grass, except in the tundras of the north. The
natives eat extensively the bulbs of the Martagon lily, and weave
cloth out of the fibres of the Kamchatka nettle. Ddphinoplcrus
leucus, the sea-lion (Otaria Stclleri), and walrus abound off the
coasts. The sea-otter (Enkydris marina) has been destroyed.
The population (5846 in 1870). was 7270 in xooo. The
southern part of the peninsula is occupied by Kamchadales, who
exhibit many attributes of the Mongolian race, but are more
similar to the aborigines of N.E. Asia and N.W. America.
Fishing (quantities of salmon enter the rivers) and hunting are
their chief occupations. Dog-sledges are principally used as
means of communication. The efforts of the government to
introduce cattle-breeding have failed. The Kamchadale lan-
guage cannot be assigned to any known group; its vocabulary is
extremely poor. The purity of the tongue is best preserved
by the people of the Penzhinsk district on the W. coast. North
of 57° N. the peninsula is peopled with Koryaks, settled and
nomad, and Lamuts (Tunguses), who came from the W. coast of
the Sea of Okhotsk. The principal Russian settlements ate:
Petropavlovsk, on the E. coast, on Avacha Bay, with an ex-
cellent roadstead; Verkhne-Kamchatsk and Nizhne-Kamchatsk
in the valley of the Kamchatka river; Bolsheryetsk, on the
Bolshaya; and Tighil, on the W. coast. .
The Russians made their first settlements in Kamchatka
in the end of the 17th century; in 1696 Atlasov founded
Verkhne-Kamchatsk, and in 1704 Robelev founded Bolsheryetsk.
In 1720 a survey of the peninsula was undertaken; in 1725-1730
it was visftcd by Bering's expedition; and in I733-J745 it was
the scene of the labours of the Krasheninnikov and Steller
expedition.
Di
18
in
M
Ea
Gi
G.
Oil
KAME (a form of Scandinavian comb, hill), in physical
geography, a short ridge or bunched mound of gravel or sand,
11 tumult uously stratified," occurring in connexion with glacial
deposits, having been formed at the mouths of tnnnels under the
ice. When the ice-sheet melts, these features, formerly con-
cealed by the glacier, are revealed. They are common m the
glaciated portions of the lower Scottish valleys. By some
authorities the term "kame," or specifically "serpentine
«*♦
KAMENETS— KAMPEN
hrst as srawraous wfth ■ ester," which however is
th* » V ireGed to the long mound deposited within the
fc-c-iT^r'. 5c« » lie beached mound at Us mouth.
KJUBBBB NMLUOY. or Pooouan Kamenets (Polish
JCh— ■ m 1 a ?*«? «f S-W. Russia, chief town of the govern-
ment a r>w*j. ft stands in 48* 40' N. and 26 30' E., on a
fc;rr* ^t? j*tf erf the river SeMtrich, a left hand tributary of
t*e r^.«c«t a»d Dear the Austrian frontier. Pop. (1863),
»a?w :we 4 jtoiitj. of whom 50% were Jews and 30%
rVxr*. fcr_Tv! tie to«n Kes a duster of suburban villages,
fc\t.s& FS^rt, Russian Fofwark, Zinkovtsui, Karvasarui, &c;
a--.* ,-e ; v vxpoosiie side of the river, accessible by a wooden
K v?r vi-v3 :W castle «hkh long frowned defiance across the
I> ^<c ** KK.-<.a ia Bessarabia. Kamcnels is the see of a
R--ii Ca
a-d a Greek Orthodox bishop. The Roman
Ci.xxV cxz^dril of S* Peter and St Paul, built in 136 1, is dis-
t. \r*->>v^ i-T a ss-aaret. recalling the time when it was used as a
«**<■-* ^ ;i* Tterts (1672-1699). The Creek cathedral of John
»VR.\s; dates inm the 16th century, but up to 1798 belonged
** . W >xss jta ssocustery. Other buildings are the Orthodox
f>ee*. s*vvi*$iecy of the Trinity, and the Catholic Armenian
c*^\A .^s ievl ia t^oS * . pfrrer^'ng a 1 4th-century missal and a n
*-tu#* *e : ** \ jtpn Mary that saw the Mongol invasion of 1239-
t £4 £. TSe iMn contains Orthodox Greek and Roman Catholic
^"•* tor**. Irtish cc&ges, and an archaeological museum for
cfc,;va i=:;iut:.<s* founded in 1800. Karaenets was hid waste
** *Ve iKxv^cJ leader Eatu in 1240- In »434 it was made the
*-W »n of the province of Podolia. In the 15th and 16th
ore^trw* it stored frequently from the invasions of Tatars,
ats\tia\uas and Turks; and in 1672 the hetman of the Cossacks,
focu*a*«k«x ass^icd by Sultan Mahommcd IV. of Turkey, made
iitsw^ aax^er of the place. Restored to Poland by the peace
*i kariowm u&oA ft passed with Podolia to Russia in 1 795-
Here tW IWis were defeated by the Poles in 1633, and here
imrotv wars bter peace was concluded between the same
aatajt<?A.$r*. The fortifications were demolished in 1813.
■ AM^ rf a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the Black
f^ttr »t bl \* t- of Dresden, on a branch line of railway
I. w K^ Kn x* v .vU. Pop- ( 1000), 97 26. It nas four Evangcli-
v* n^,*:\ N^ an;x>B|: them a Wcndish one, and a handsome new
*** * iuM wkh a Ubrary. The hospital is dedicated to the
MOfcMt g( les^iriit, *ho was born here. A colossal bust of the
•wet wa» KiKoi'ofpttiie the* Wcndish church in 1863, and a
•«j»4-K*c w** ravs<d to him on a neighbouring hill in 1864.
■ v *M^trv* ♦* k*m*a» include wool-spinning, and the manu-
1*. ..* *t cVtfh. «**ss» crockery and stoneware. Built about
v>\ kissena. *** keow« by the name Dreikretcham until the
.n v vv*ur« UU ($i( passed to the mark of Brandenburg;
' lkS*-a, and in 1635, after suffering much in the
V ^ iNity Years* wars, it came into the possession of
* v ^* |^ x *^' igd 184a it was almost entirely consumed
* "*" fc s -^ t ^ M ne of a village in Prussia, not far from
v " v v " TV|» tt famous on account of its Cistercian
T^:.r^a-«o<* OUhehou*.whkhwa» dosed in
. « v , UU*r> remain.
. -^ c tfttfct HOst* L * (»696-i782), Scottish lawyer
^^^ ^Twa *t 0««tc Home of Karnes, in Berwickshire,
. «^^>-*.v^^ ^ ^^ ^j tcr rccc j v i n g a somewhat
x * ,ev ^ . v« a private tutor, he was in 1 7 1 2 inden-
* * V sir 1 ** w Edinburgh, but an accidental
N Vj* Wrymplci then president of the court
N w S» to aspire to the position of advocate.
v--B<.t to studying various branches of
^ * 1 ^ • -i>«cs and moral philosophy. He was
* *l»*fcry UU. and* M hc Iackcd those
" ^* \ 4*v»«tJa« command immediate success,
" *' " ^ V wmpilation of Remarkable Deci-
^\ZJm**m*7i*to '7^("7a». Thb
. ^ai^^ h'»s P° WCT f f »n8 cnious
* " . , j^*dually gained him a leading
- - " ^ . ' xl ^ ,4s appointed a judge in the
court of session under the title of Lord Karnes, and in 1763 he was
made one of the lords of justiciary. In 1741 he married Agatha
Drummond, through whom in 1 761 he succeeded to the estate
of Blair Drummond, Perthshire. He continued to discharge his
judicial duties till within a few days of his death at Edinburgh
on the 27th of December 2782.
Lord Karnes took a special interest in agricultural and commercial
affairs. I n 1 755 he was appointed a member of the board of trustees
for encouragement of the fisheries, arts and manufactures of Scotland,
and about the same time he was named one of the cororaisskmcra
for the management of the forfeited estates annexed to the Crown.
On the subject of agriculture he wrote The Gentleman Farmer (1776).
In 1765 he published a small pamphlet On the Flex Husbandry of
Scotland; and, besides availing himself of his. extensive acquaintance
with the proprietors of Scotland to recommend the introduction of
manufactures, he took a prominent part in furthering the project
of the Forth and Clyde Canal. He was also one of the founders of
the Physical and Literary Society, afterwards the Royal Society of
Edinburgh. It i», however, as a writer on philosophy that Lord
Karnes is best known. In 1751 he published his Essays en Ik*
Principles of Morality and Natural Religion (Ger. trans., Leipzig,
1772), in which he endeavoured to maintain the doctrine of innate
ideas, but conceded to man an apparent but only apparent f r eedom
of the will. His statement of the latter doctrine so aroused the
alarm of certain clergymen of the Church of Scotland that he found
it necessary to withdraw what was regarded as a serious error, and
to attribute man's delusive sense of freedom, not to an innate
conviction implanted by Cod, but to the influence of the passions.
His other philosophical works are An Introduction to the Art of
Tkinkint (1761). .Elements of Criticism (1762), Sketches of the
History of Man ( 1 774).
See Ltfe of Lord Karnes, by A. F. Tytlcr, Lord Woodhouscke
(2 vols., 1807).
KAMMIN, or Caumin, a town in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, 2} m. from the Baltic, on the Kamminsche Bodden,
a lake connected with the sea by the Dieyenow. Pop. (1005),
5923. Among its four Evangelical churches, the cathedral
and the church of St Mary are noteworthy. Iron-founding and
brewing are carried on in the town, which has also some fishing
and shipping. There is steamer communication with Stettin,
about 40 m. S.S.W. Kammin is of Wendish origin, and obtained
municipal privileges in 1274. From about 1200 till 1628 it was
the seat of a bishopric, which at the latter date became a secular
principality, being in 1648 incorporated with Brandenburg.
See Kuchcn, Ceschkhle der Sladt Kammin (Kammin, 1885).
KAMPEN, a town in the province of Overyscl, Holland, on
the left bank of the Yscl, 3} m. above its mouth, and a terminal
railway station 8 m. N.VV. of Zwolle. It has regular steamboat
communication with Zwolle, De venter, Amsterdam, and Enk-
huizen. Pop. (1000), 19,664. Kampen is surrounded by beauti-
ful gardens and promenades in the place of the old city walls,
and has a fine river front. The four turret ed gateways furnish
excellent examples of 16th and 17th century architecture. Of
the churches the Bovenkcrk (" upper church ")» or church of St
Nicholas, ranks with the cathedral of Utrecht and the Janskerk
at 's Hertogenbosch as one of the three great medieval churches
in Holland. It was begun in 1369, and has double aisles, ambula-
tory and radiating chapels, and contains some finely carved
woodwork. The Roman Catholic Builcnkerk (" outer church "}
is also a fine building of the 14th century, with good modern
panelling. There are many other, though slighter, remains of
the ancient churches and monasteries of Kampen; but the most
remarkable building is the old town-hall, which is unsurpassed in
Holland. It dates from the 14th century, but was partly restored
after a fire in 1543. The exterior is adorned with niched statues
and beautiful iron trellis work round the windows. The old
council-chamber is wainscoted in black oak, and contains a
remarkable sculptured chimney-piece (1545) and fine wood
carving. The town-hall contains the municipal library, collec-
tions of tapestry, portraits and antiquities, and valuable archives
relating to' the town and province. Kampen is the seat of a
Christian Reformed theological school, a gymnasium, a higher
bargher school, a municipal school of design, and a large orphan-
age. There are few or no local taxes, the municipal chest being
filled by the revenues derived from the fertile delta-land, the
Kampenciland, which is always being built up at the mouth of
KAMPTEE— KANARIS
6+7
the Ysel. There is a considerable trade in dairy produce; and
there are shipyards, rope-walks, a tool factory, cigar factories,
paper mills, &c
KAMPTEE, or Kamthx, a town of British India, in the Nagpur
district of the Central Provinces, just below the confluence of the
Kanhan with the rivers Pench and Kolar; 10 m. N.E. of Nagpur
by rail. Pop. (1901), 38,688, showing a continuous decrease since
1 88 1. Kamptee was founded in 1821, as a military can tonmest
in the neighbourhood of the native capital of Nagpur, and became
an important centre of trade. Since the opening of the railway,
trade has largely been diverted to Nagpur, and the garrison has
recently been reduced. The town is well laid out with wide
roads, gardens and tanks.
KAMRUP, a district of British India, in the Brahmaputra
▼alley division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. The headquarters
are at Gauhati. Area, 3858 sq. m.; pop. (ioox), 589,187,
showing a decrease of 7% in the decade. In the immediate
neighbourhood of the Brahmaputra the land is low, and exposed
to annual inundation. In this marshy tract reeds and canes
flourish luxuriantly, and the only cultivation is that of rice. At
a comparatively short distance from the river banks the ground
begins to rise in undulating knolls towards the mountains of
Bhutan on the north, and towards the Khasi hills on the south.
The hills south of the Brahmaputra in some parts reach the
height Of 800 ft. The Brahmaputra, which divides the district
into two nearly equal portions, is navigable by river steamers
throughout the year, and receives several tributaries navigable
by large native boats in the rainy season. The chief of these are
the Manas, Chaul Khoya and Barnadi on the north, and the
Kulsi and Dibru on the south bank. There is a government
forest preserve in the district and also a plantation where
seedlings of teak, sdl, sissu, s&m, and nahor arc reared, and
experiments are being made with the caoutchouc tree. The
population is entirely rural, the only town with upwards of 5000
inhabitants being Gauhati (11,661). The temples of Hajo and
Kamakhya attract many pilgrims from all quarters. The staple
crop of the district is rice, of which there are three crops. The
indigenous manufactures arc confined to the weaving of silk and
cotton cloths for home use, and to the making of brass cups and
plates. The cultivation and manufacture of tea by European
capital is not very prosperous. The chief exports are rice, oil-
seeds, timber and cotton; the imports are fine rice, salt, piece
goods, sugar, betel-nuts, coco-nuts and hardware. A section of
the Assam-Bengal railway starts from Gauhati, and a branch
of the Eastern Bengal railway has recently been opened to the
opposite bank of the river. A metalled road runs due south from
Gauhati to ShiHong.
KAMYSHIN, a town of Russia, in the government of Saratov,
145 m. by river S.S.W. of the city of Saratov, on the right bank of
the Volga. Pop. (1861), 8644 -,(1807), 15,934. Being the terminus
of the railway to Tambov, Moscow and the Baltic ports, it is an
important port for the export of cereals and salt from the Volga,
and it imports timber and wooden wares. It is famous for its
water-melons. Peter the Great built here a fort, which was
known at first as Draitrievsk, but acquired its present name
fn 178a
KANAKA, a Polynesian word meaning " man," used by Poly-
nesians to describe themselves. Its ethnical value, never great,
has been entirely destroyed by its indiscriminate use by the
French to describe all South Sea islanders, whether black or
brown. The corrupt French form canaque has been used by
some English writers. The term came into prominence in 1884-
1885 in connexion with the scandals arising over the kidnap-
ping of South Sea islanders for enforced labour on the sugar
plantations of north Queensland.
KANAKA, or Canara, the name of two adjoining districts of
British India: North Kanara in the presidency of Bombay,
South Kanara in that of Madras. Both are on the western
coast.
North Kanaka District forms part of the southern division
of Bombay. The administrative headquarters are at Karwar,
which if also the chief seaport. Area, 3045 sq. m.; pop .(iooi)>
454,490, showing an increase of a% in the decade. The traded
the interior, which used to pass down to the seaports, has been
largely diverted by the opening of the Southern Mahratta rail-
way. Along the coast rice is the chief crop, and coco-nut palms
are also important. In the upland there are valuable gardens of
areca palms, cardamoms and pepper. Rice and timber are
exported, and sandalwood-carving and salt manufacture are
carried on. The main feature in the physical geography of the
district is the range of the Western Ghats, which, running from
north to south, divides it into two parts, a lowland or coast strip
(Payangbat), and an upland plateau (Balaghat). The coast-line
is only broken by the Karwar headland in the north, and by the
estuaries of four rivers and the mouths of many smaller streams,
through which the salt water finds an entrance into numerous
lagoons winding several miles inland. The breadth of the low-
lands varies from 5 to 15 miles. From this narrow belt rise a few
smooth, flat-topped hills, from 200 to 300 ft. high; and at places
it fa crossed by lofty, rugged, densely wooded spurs, which, start-
ing from the main range, maintain almost to the coast a height of
not less than 1000 ft. Among these hills lie well-tilled valleys of
garden and rice land. The plateau of the Balaghat is irregular,
varying from 1500 to 2000 ft. in height. In some parts the
country rises into well-wooded knolls, in others it is studded by
small, isolated, steep hills. Except on the banks of streams and
in the more open glades, the whole is one broad waste of wood-
land and forest. The open spaces are dotted with hamlets or
parcelled out into rice clearings. Of the rivers flowing eastward
from the watershed of the Sahyadri hills the only one of impor-
tance is the Wardha or Varada, a tributary of the Tungabhadra.
Of those that flow westwards, the four principal ones, proceeding
from north to south, are the Kali, Gungawali, Tadri and Shara-
vati. The last of these forms the famous Gersoppa Falls. Exten-
sive forests clothe the hills, and are conserved under the rules
of the forest department
Sooth Kanara District has its headquarters at Mangalore.
Area, 4021 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 1,134,713, showing an increase
of 7% in the decade. The district is intersected by rivers, none
of which exceeds too miles in length. Tliey all take their rise
in the Western Ghats, and many are navigable during the fair
weather for from 15 to 25 miles from the coast. The chief of
these streams are the Netravati, Gurpur and Chendragiri.
Numerous groves of coco-nut palms extend along the coast,
and green rice-fields are seen in every valley. The Western Ghats,
rising to a height of 3000 to 6000 ft., fringe the eastern boundary.
Forest land of great extent and value exists, but most of it is
private property. Jungle products (besides timber) consist of
bamboo, cardamoms, wild arrowroot, gall-nuts, gamboge, catechu,
fibrous bark, dnnamon, gums, resin, dyes, honey and beeswax.
The forests formerly abounded in game, which, however, is
rapidly decreasing under incessant shooting. The staple crop
is rice. The chief articles of import are piece goods, cotton yarn,
oils and salt. Tiles are manufactured in several places out of a
fine potter's clay. The Azbikal- Mangalore line of the Madras
railway serves the district.
See South Canara District Manual (2 vols., Madras, 1894-1895).
KANARESE, a language of the Dravidian family, spoken by
about ten millions of people in southern India, chiefly in Mysore,
Hyderabad, and the adjoining districts of Madras and Bombay.
It has an ancient literature, written in an alphabet closely
resembling that employed for Telugu. Since the 12th century
the Kanarese-speaking people have largely adopted the Lingayat
form of faith, which may be described as an anti-Brahmanical
sect of Siva worshippers (see Hinduism). Most of them are
agriculturists, but they also engage actively in trade.
KANARIS (or Canaris), OONSTANTINB (1 700-1877), Greek
patriot, belonged to the class of coasting sailors who produced
if not the most honest, at least the bravest, and the most success-
ful of the combatants in the cause of Greek independence. He
belonged by birth to the little island of Psara, to the north-west
of Chio. He first became prominent as the effective leader of
the signal vengeance taken by the Greeks for the massac-" —
648
KANAUJ— KANDAHAR
CM© in April 18*2 by the Turkish Capitan Pasha. The com-
mander of the force of fifty small vessels and eight fireships sent
to assail the Turkish fleet was the navarch Miaoulis, but it was
Kanaris who executed the attack with the fireships on the flag-
ship of the Capitan Pasha on the night of the 18th of June 1822.
The Turks were celebrating the feast of Bahrain at the end of the
Ramadan fast. Kanaris had two small brigs fitted as fireships,
v 1? ^ y * rix mcn# He wa9 a,lowed t0 come close t0 lhe
Turkish flagship, and succeeded in attaching his fireships to
her, setting them on fire, and escaping with his party. The
fire reached the powder and the flagship blew up, sending the
Capitan Pasha and aooo Turks into the air. Kanaris was
undoubtedly aided by the almost incredible sloth and folly of
ju* opponents, but he chose his time well, and the service of the
fireships was always considered peculiarly dangerous. That
Kjnarts could carry out the venture with a volunteer party not
k^ 1 * 8 IO * re * ula rly disciplined service, not only proved him
to be a clever partisan fighter, but showed that he was a leader
of men. He repeated the feat at Tenedos in November of 182a,
and was then considered to have disposed of nearly 4000 Turks
^-!it lW0 vcnturcs - When his ro 11 ^ island, Psara, was occu-
pied by the Turks he continued to serve under the command
of Miaoulis. He was no less distinguished in other attacks with
fireships at Samos and Mytilene in 1824, which finally established
an utter panic in the Turkish navy. His efforts to destroy the
ships of Mehemct Ali at Alexandria in 182s were defeated by
contrary winds. When the Greeks tried to organize a regular
navy he was appointed captain of the frigate " Hellas " in 1826.
In politics he was a follower of Capo d'Istria. He helped to upset
the government of King Otho and to establish his successor,
was prime minister in 1864-1865, came back from retirement to
preside over the ministry formed during the crisis of the Russo-
Turkish war, and died in office on the 15th of September 1877-
Kanaris is described as of small stature, simple in appearance,
somewhat shy and melancholy. He is justly remembered as the
most blameless of the popular heroes of the War of Independence.
He was almost the Only one among them whom Dundonald, with
whom he served in a successful attack on an Egyptian war-ship
near Alexandria, exempts from the sweeping charges of cowardice
he brings against the Greeks. (D. H.)
KANAUJ, an ancient city of British India, in Farukhabad
district, United Provinces, near the left bank of the Ganges.
Pop. (1001), 18,552. Kanauj in early times formed the capital of
a great Hindu kingdom. Its prosperity dates from a prehistoric
period, and seems to have culminated about the 6th century
under Harsha. In 1019 it fell before Mahmud of Ghazni, and
again in 1104 before Mahommed Ghori. The existing ruins
extend over the lands of five villages, occupying a semicircle
fully 4 m. in diameter. No Hindu buildings remain intact; but
the great mosque, constructed by Ibrahim Shah of Jaunpur in
1406 out of Hindu temples, is still called by Hindus " Sita's
Kitchen." Kanauj, which is. traditionally said to be derived
from Kauyakubja ("the crooked maiden), has given its name
to an important division of B rah mans in northern India. Hindu-
ism in Lower Bengal also dates its origin from a Brahman migra-
tion southwards from this city, about 800 or 000. Kanauj is
now noted for the distilling of scents.
KANDAHAR, the largest city in Afghanistan, situated in
ji° 37' N. 1st. and 6s° 43' E. long., 3400 ft. above the sea. It is
370 m. distant from Herat on the N.W., by Girisbk and
Farah — Girisbk being 75 m., and Farah 225 m. from Kandahar.
From Kabul, on the N.E., it is distant 315 m., by Kalat-i-
GhiUai and Ghaxni—Kalat-i-Ghilzai being 85 m., and Ghazni
■15 m. from Kandahar. To the Peshin valley the distance is
about 1 10 m., and from Peshin to India the three principal routes
measure approximately as follows: by the Zhob valley to Dera
Ismail Khan, 300 ra.; by the Bori valley to Dera Ghazi Khan,
>7S «.; by Quetta and the Bolin to Dadar, 125 m.; and by
Chappar and Narl to Sibi, 120 m. The Indian railway system
extend* to New C ha man, within some 80 m. of Kandahar. Im-
mediately round the city is a plain, highly cultivated and well
populated to the south and w«-- u * --*»-- north-west barren,
and bounded by a double line of hills, rising to about rooo ft.
above its general level, and breaking its dull monotony with
irregular lines of scarped precipices, crowned with fantastic
pinnacles and peaks. To the north-west these hills form the
watershed between the valleys of the Arghandab and the Tarnak,
until they are lost in the mountain masses of the Hazarajat— a
wild region inhabited by tribes of Tatar origin, which effectually
shuts off Kandahar from communication with the north. On the
south-west they lose themselves in the sandy desert of Registan,
which wraps itself round the plain of Kandahar, and forms
another impassable barrier. But there is a break in these hills — a
gate, as it were, to the great high road between Herat and India;
and it is this gate which the fortress of Kandahar so effectually
guards, and to which it owes its strategic importance. Other
routes there arc, open to trade, between Herat and northern
India, either following the banks of the Hari Rud, or, mot*
drcuitously, through the valley of the Helmund to Kabul; or the
line of hills between the Arghandab and the Tarnak may be
crossed dose to Kalat-i-Ghilzai; but of the two former it may
be said that they are not ways open to the passage of Afghan
armies owing to the hereditary hostility existing between the
Aeimak and Hazara tribes and the Afghans generally, while the
latter is not beyond striking distance from Kandahar. The one
great high road from Herat and the Persian frontier to India is
that which passes by Farah and crosses the Helmund at Girishk.
Between Kandahar and India the road is comparatively open,
and would be available- for railway communication but for the
jealous exclusiveness of the Afghans.
To the north-west, and paraUd to the long ridges of the Tarnak
watershed, stretches the great road to Kabul, traversed by Nott
in 1842, and by Stewart and subsequently by Roberts in 188a.
Between this and the direct route to Peshin is a road which leads
through Maruf to the Kundar river and the Guleri pass into the
plains of Hindustan at Dera Ismail Khan. This is the most
direct route to northern India, but it involves the passage of
some rough country, across the great watershed between the
basins of the Helmund and the Indus. But the best known road
from Kandahar to India is that which stretches across the series
of open stony plains interspersed with rocky hills of irregular
formation leading to the foot of the Kwaja Amran (Khojak)
range, on the far side of which from Kandahar lies the valley of
Peshin. The passage of the Kwaja Amran involves a rise and
fall of some 2300 ft., but the range has been tunnelled and a
railway now connects the frontier post of New Chaman with
Quetta. Two lines of railway now connect Quetta with Sind,
the one known as the Harnai loop, the other as the Bolan or
Mashkaf line. They meet at Sibi (see Baluchistan). Several
roads to India have been developed through Baluchistan, but
they are all dominated from Kandahar. Thus Kandahar be-
comes a sort of focus of all the direct routes converging from the
wide-stretching western frontier of India towards Herat and
Persia, and the fortress of Kandahar gives protection on the one
hand to trade between Hindustan and Herat, and on the othex
it lends to Kabul security from invasion by way of Herat.
Kandahar is approximately a square-built dty, surrounded
by a wall of about 3} m. circuit, and from 25 to 30 ft. high, with.
an average breadth of 15 ft. Outside the wall is a ditch to ft.
deep. The dty and its defences are entirely mud-built. There
are four main streets crossing each other nearly at right *?igl**,
the central " chouk " being covered with a dome. These streets
are wide and bordered with trees, and are flanked by shops with
open fronts and verandas. There are no buildings of any great
pretension in Kandahar, a few of the more wealthy Hindus
occupying the best houses. The tomb of Ahmad Shah is the
only attempt at monumental architecture. This, with its rather
handsome cupola, and the twelve minor tombs of Ahmad Shah's
children grouped around, contains a few good specimens of
fretwork and of inlaid inscriptions. The four streets of the city
divide it into convenient quarters for the accommodation of its
mixed population of Du ranis. Ghikais, Parsiwans and KaJkars,
numbering in all some 30,000 souls. Of these the greater
proportion are the Parsiwans (chiefly Ruilbashcs),
KANDI— KANDY 6+9
It h rec koned that there are 1600 shops 1
the dty. The mullah* of these mosques ai
considerable power. The walls of the city
four principal gates of " Kabul," " Shikarp
the " Idgah," opposite the four main street
gates, called the Top Rbana and the Bardui
the western half of the city. The Idgah g
the citadel, which is a square-built enclosure
260 yds. in length. The flank defences of
insufficient; indeed there is no pretence at
about any part of the defences; but the sit«
chosen for defence, and the water supply (dr
the Arghandab or derived from wells) is gocx
About 4 m. west of the present city, stretche
a rocky ridge, and extending into the plains at i
of the old city of Kandahar sacked and plund
in 1758. From the top of the ridge a smalt c
half-buried ruins. On the north-east face of
cut out of solid limestone, lead upward to a
recess, which contains some interesting Pcrsiai
relief on the rock, recording particulars of the 1
and defining the vast extent of the kingdom of
Popular belief ascribes the foundation of the c
the Great.
Although Kandahar has long ceased to be
merit, it is nevertheless by far the most irapoi
Afghanistan, and the revenues of the Kand<
largely in supporting the chief power at Ka
manufactures or industries of any importance p
but the long lines of bazaars display goods fit
Hindustan, Persia and Turkestan, embracing 4
probably as that of any city in Asia. The cus
together amount to a sura equal to the land rev*
province, which is of considerable extent, strctc
10 m. south of Kalat-i-Ghilzai on the Kabul si
on the west, and to the Hazara country on tl
Farah has been governed from Kandahar sine
are not reckoned as a part of those of the |
revenue proper is assessed in grain, the sala
officials, pay of soldiers, &c, being disbursed by
for grain at rates fixed by government, usual!;
the city market prices. The greater part of tti
at Herat are imported by Karachi and Kane
testifies to the great insecurity of trade bctwecr
Some of the Hems included as town dues are cui
the tariff on animals exposed for sale includes
valorem on slave girls, besides a charge of I ni|
kidney fat of all sheep and the skins of all goal
public yard arc perquisites of government, the f
the manufacture of soap, which, with snuff, is i
Kly. The imports consist chiefly of English
ots, leather, sugar, salt, iron and copper, froi
shawls, carpets, barak " (native woollen cl
made of skins), shoes, silks, opium and carpets
and Turkestan. The exports are wool, eotto
seed, asafoetida, fruit, silk and horses. The 1
also curious: 105 English rupees are melted <
extracted, leaving 100 rupees' worth of silver
rupees are then melted, and the molten metal
rupees silver; and out of this 808 Kandahari ru
the Kandahari rupee is worth about 8 annas (hi
the government thus realizes a profit of 1 %. C
are Kept in " Kham " rupees, the " Kham "
five-sixths of a Kandahari rupee; in other wo
the franc, or the Persian " kran."
Immediately to the south and west of Kam
well-irrigated and highly cultivated country, fa
Arghandab is the most fertile in the district, ant
abundance of its orchards and vineyards, offc
scenes of landscape beauty. The pomegranate
feature in the valley — the pomegranates of
" sirdar " melons and grapes, being uncquallei
in the East. The vines are grown on artificial
want of the necessary wood to trellis them — the
exported in a semi-dried state. Fruit, indeed,
exported, forms the chief staple of the food supp
throughout Afghanistan. The art of irrigation
that the water supply is at times exhausted, 1
allowed to run to waste. The plains about V
watered by canals drawn from the Arghandab
conducted through the same gap in the hills whi
road. The amount of irrigation and the numb
form a considerable impediment to the mover
only immediately about Kandahar, but in all
main rivers and streams are bordered by green
Irrigation by " karez " ia also largely resorted
650
KANE— KANGAROO
sfcvattd towards the heart of the bland, 1718 ft. above the sea.
It i.« round the margin of an artificial lake constructed by the
bu< king of Kandy in 1806, and is beautifully surrounded by
huh* Hie most striking objects are the temples (of which twelve
are Buddhist and four Brahman), the tombs of the Kandian
kl.\C&» and the various buildings of the royal residence, partly
avowed to fall into disrepair, partly utilized by the government.
04 the temples the Dalada Malagawa is worthy of particular
mention; it claims, as the name indicates, to be in possession of a
Buddha tooth.
Randy was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century and
by the Dutch in 1763; but in both instances the native kings
succeeded in shaking off the foreign yoke. The British got
possession of the place in 1803, but the garrison afterwards
capitulated and were massacred, and it was not till 1814-15
that the king was defeated and dethroned. The British autho-
rity was formally established by the convention of March a, 1815.
In 1848, owing to an attempt at rebellion, the town was for a
time under martial law. It has been greatly improved of recent
years. Sir William Gregory when governor did much to restore
the ancient Kandy decorations, while the Victoria Jubilee
Commemoration Building, including " Ferguson Memorial Hall/'
and two fine hotels, add to the improvements. The Royal
Botanic Gardens are situated at Peradeniya, 3 m. distant.
Randy is a uniquely beautiful, highland, tropical town, full of
interesting historical and Buddhistic associations. A water
supply and electric lighting have been introduced. Roman
Catholic missions are active in the work of education, for which
a Urge block of buildings has been erected. Church of England,
Wesleyan and Baptist missions are also at work. The population
of the town in 1000 was 26,386; of the district, 377,591. Average
annual rainfall, 81 } in.; average temperature, 75-3. There is a
branch railway from Kandy, north to Matale, 17 m.
. KANE, BUSHA KENT (1820-1857), American scientist and
eiplorer, was born in Philadelphia on the 20th of February 1820,
the son of the jurist John Kinuing Kane (1795-1858), a friend
and supporter of Andrew Jackson, attorney-general of Pennsyl-
vania in 1845-1846, U.S. judge of the Eastern District of Pennsyl-
vania after 1846, and president of the American Philosophical
Society in 1856-1858. Young Kane entered the university of
Virginia and obtained the degree of M.D. in 1842, and in the
following year entered the U.S. navy as surgeon. He had
already acquired a considerable reputation in physiological
research. The ship to which he was appointed was ordered to
China, and he found opportunities during the voyage for indulg-
ing his passion for exploration, making a journey from Rio
de Janeiro to the base of the Andes, and another from Bombay
through India to Ceylon. On the arrival of the ship at its des-
tination he provided a substitute for his post and crossed over
to the island of Luzon, which he explored. In 1844 he left
China, and, returning by India, Persia, Syria, Egypt, Greece,
Austria, Germany and Switzerland, reached America in 1846.
In that year he was ordered to the west coast of Africa, where he
vWlfd Dahomey, and contracted fever, which told severely on
It* constitution. On his return in 1847, he exchanged the naval
l»t the military service, and was sent to join the U.S. army in
Mttko, where he had some extraordinary adventures, and where
I* va* again stricken with fever.
V% the fitting out of the first Grinnell expedition, in 1850,
t* *4Kfc for Sir John Franklin, Kane was appointed surgeon
4.4J *aW«H»t under Lieut, de Haven, who commanded the
Oi.l* * Advance " and " Rescue." The expedition, after an
i,V;<k* <*t slitecn months, during nine of which the ships were
iu Vvud, returned without having found any trace of the miss-
ib* st^-bL K*ne was in feeble health, but worked on at his
ujm*i'\* *4 the expedition, which was published in 1854, under
i{k "it* vl t»e t/.S. Grinnell Expedition in Search of Sir John
v„*i»i*. Hf was determined not to give up the search for
r-i !**■»»» *** ** *P*te of W-nealth travelled through the States
tUA W vbuin funds, and gave up his pay for twenty
■« ^iuT W length Henry Grinnell fitted out an expedition,
tiT ±k UuVt tmg " Advance," of which Kane was given the
command. She sailed in June 1853, and passing tip Smith
Sound at the head of Baffin Bay advanced into the enclosed
sea which now bears the name of Kane Basin, thus establishing
the Polar route of many future Arctic expeditions. Here, off
the coast of Greenland, the expedition passed two winters,
accomplishing much useful geographical, as well as scientific,
work, including the attainment of what was to remain for sixteen
years the highest northern latitude, 8o° 35* N. (June 1854).
From this point a large area of open water was seen which was
believed to be an " open Polar Sea," a chimera which played an
important and delusive role in subsequent explorations. After
enduring the greatest hardships it was resolved to abandon the
ship, Upernivik being reached on the 5th of August 1855,
whence a relief expedition brought the explorers home. Medals
were authorized by Congress, and in the following year Dr Kane
received the founder's medal of the Royal Geographical Society,
and, two years later, a gold medal from the Paris Geographical
Society. He published The Second CrinneU Expedition in 1856.
Dr Kane died at Havana on the 16th of February 1857, at the
age of thirty-seven. Between his first and second arctic voyages
he made the acquaintance of the Fox family, the spiritualists.
With one of the daughters, Margaret, he carried on a long corre-
spondence, which was afterwards published by the lady, who
declared that they were privately married.
See Biography of E. K. Kane, by William Elder (1858): Life of
E. K. Kane and other American Explorers, by S. M . Sm ticker (f 8$8) ;
The Love-Life of Dr Kane, containing the Correspondence and a History
of the Engagement and Secret Uamate between E. K. Kane o*d
Margaret Fox (New York, 1866); " Discoveries of Dr Kane," in
/our. of the Roy, Geog Soc. t vol. xxviii. (reprinted in R. G. S. Arctic
Papers of 1875).
KAHB, a borough of McKean county, Pennsylvania, U.S^A^
about 00 m. E.S.E. of Erie. Pop. (1890), 2044; (i9°°)» 5206,
(971 foreign-born); (1910) 6626. It is served by the Pennsyi-
vania, the Baltimore & Ohio, the Kane & Elk, and (he Big Level
& Kinzua railways. It is situated about 2015 ft. above the
sea in a region producing natural gas, oil, lumber and silica., and
has some reputation as a summer resort. The borough has
manufactories of window glass, plate glass and bottles, and
repair shops of the Pennsylvania raOroad. Kane was settled
in 1859, arid was incorporated as a borough in 1887. It was
named in honour of its founder Gen. Thomas L. Kane (1822—
1883), brother of Llbha Kent Kane.
KANGAROO, ihe universally accepted, though not apparently
the native, designation of the more typical representatives of the
marsupial family Macropodidoe (see Marsupialxa). Although
intimately connected with the cuscuscs and phalangers by
means of the musk-kangaroo, the kangaroos and wallabies,
together with the rat-kangaroos, arc easily distinguishable from
other diprotodont marsupials by their general conformation, and
by peculiarities in the structure of their limbs, teeth and other
organs. They vary in size from that of a sheep to a small rabbit.
The head, especially in the larger species, is small, compared with
the rest of the body, and tapers forward to the muzzle. The
shoulders and fore-limbs are feebly developed, and the hind-limb*
of disproportionate strength and magnitude, which give the
animals a peculiarly awkward appearance when moving about on
all-fours, as they occasionally do when feeding. Rapid progres-
sion is, however, performed only by the powerful hind-limbs, the
animate covering the ground by a series of immense bounds,
during which the fore part of the body is inclined forwards, and
balanced by the long, strong and tapering tail, which is carried
horizontally backwards. When not moving, they often assume
a perfectly upright position, the tail aiding the two hind-legs to
form a tripod, and the front-limbs dangling by the side of the
chest. This position gives full scope for the senses of sight,
hearing and smell to warn of the approach of enemies. The
fore-paws have five digits, each armed with a strong, curved
claw. The hind-foot is extremely long, narrow and (except in
the musk-kangaroo) without the first toe. It consists mainly
of one very large and strong toe, corresponding to the fourth of
the human foot, ending in a strong curved and pointed claw
KANGAROO
6 S i
(fig. a). Close to the outer side of this lies a smaller fifth digit,
and to the inner side two excessively slender toes (the second and
third), bound together almost to the extremity in a common
Fie. i.— The Great Grey Kangaroo (Macropus giganieus).
integument. The two little claws of these toes, projecting to-
gether from the skin, may be of use in scratching and cleaning
the fur of the animal, but the toes must have quite lost all con-
nexion with the functions of support or progression. This type
of foot-structure is termed syndactylous.
The dental formula, when completely de-
veloped, is incisors ?, canines \ % premolars f ,
molars f on each side, giving a total of 34
teeth. The three incisors of the upper jaw
are arranged in a continuous arched series,
and have crowns with broad cutting edges;
the first or middle incisor is often larger than
the others. Corresponding to these in the
lower jaw is but one tooth on each side, which
is of great size, directed horizontally forwards,
narrow, lanceolate and pointed with sharp
edges. Owing to the slight union of the two
halves of the lower jaw in front in many
species the two lower incisors work together
like the blades of a pair of scissors. The
canines are absent or rudimentary in the
lower, and often deciduous at an early age
in the upper jaw. The first two premolars
are compressed, with cutting longitudinal
edges, the anterior one is deciduous, being
lost about the time the second one replaces
the milk-molar, so that three premolars are
never found in place and use in the same indi-
vidual. The last premolar and the molars
have quadrate crowns, provided with two
strong transverse ridges, or with four obtuse
cusps. In Macropus gigantcus and its imme-
diate allies, the premolars and sometimes the
first molar are shed, so that in old examples
only the two posterior molars and the incisors
F»c- ^.-Skeleton a^ found in place. The milk-dentition, as
foot "of Kan- in olhcr marsupials, is confined to a single
garoo. * tooth on each side of each jaw, the other
molars and incisors being never changed. The
dentition of the kangaroos, functionally considered, thus consists
of sharp-edged incisors, most developed near the median line of
the mouth, for the purpose of cropping herbage, and ridged or
tuberculated molars for crashing.
"The number of vertebrae is— in the cervical region 7, dorsal
1 j, lumbar 6, sacral 2, caudal varying according to the length of
the tail, but generally from 3 1 to 25. In the fore-limb the clavicle
and the radius and ulna are well developed, allowing of con-
siderable freedom of motion of the fore-paw. The pelvis has large
epipubic or " marsupial " bones. The femur is short, and the
tibia and fibula of great length, as is the foot, the whole of
which is applied to the ground when the animal is at rest in the
upright position.
The stomach is large and very complex, its walls being puc-
kered by longitudinal muscular bands into a number of folds.
The alimentary canal is long, and the caecum well developed.
The young (which, as in other marsupials, leave the uterus in an
extremely small and imperfect condition) are placed in the pouch
as soon as they are born; and to this they resort temporarily
for shelter for some time after they are able to run, jump and
feed upon the herbage which forms the nourishment of the parent.
During the early period of their sojourn in the pouch, the blind,
naked, helpless young creatures (which in the great kangaroo
scarcely exceed an inch in length) are attached by their mouths
to the nipple of the mother, and are fed by milk injected into
their stomach by the contraction of the muscle covering the
mammary gland. In this stage of existence the elongated upper
part of the larynx projects into the posterior nares, and so main-
tains a free communication between the lungs and the external
surface, independently of the mouth and gullet, thus averting
danger of suffocation while the milk is passing down the gullet.
Kangaroos are vegetable-feeders, browsing on grass and
various kinds of herbage, but the smaller species also eat
Fie. 3.— Skull and teeth of Bennett's Wallaby {Macropus ruficoUis
benncttii)'. 1 1 , i*. t*. first, second and third upper incisors; pm,
second premolar (the first having been already shed); m\ m*. m'. m\
last premolar and three molars. The last, not fully developed, is
nearly concealed by the ascending part of the lower jaw.
roots. They are naturally timid and inoffensive, but the larger
kinds when hard pressed will turn and defend themselves,
sometimes killing a dog by grasping it in their fore-paws, and
inflicting terrible wounds with the sharp claws of their powerful
hind-legs, supporting themselves meanwhile upon the tail.
The majority are inhabitants of Australia and Tasmania,
forming one of the most prominent and characteristic features
of the fauna of these lands, and performing the part of the deer,
and antelopes of other parts of the world. They were important
sources of food-supply to the natives, and are hunted by the
colonists, both for sport and on account of the damage they do
in consuming grass required for cattle and sheep. A few species
arc found in New Guinea, and the adjacent islands, which belong,
in the zoological sense, to the Australian province, beyond the
bounds of which none occurs.
The more typical representatives of the group constitute the sub-
family Macropodinae, in which the cutting-edges of the upper
incisors are nearly level, or the first pair but slightly longer than the
others (fig. 3). The canines are rudimentary and often wanting.
The motors are usually not longer (from before backwards) than the
anterior premolars, and less compressed than in the next section.
The crowns of the molars have two prominent transverse ridges.
The fore-limbs are small with subequal toes, armed with strong,
moderately long, curved claws. Hind-limbs very long and strongly
made. Head small, with more orjess elongated. muzzle. Ears
generally rather long and ovate.
652
KANGAROO-RAT— KANGRA
The typical genus Macropus, in which the muzzle is generally
naked, the ears large, the fur on the nape of the neck usually directed
backwards, the claw of the fourth hind-toe very large, and the tail
stout and tapering, includes a large number of species. Among
these, the great grey kangaroo (M. gtganlcus, fig. 1) deserves special
mention on account of having been discovered during Captain
Cook's first voyage in 1770. The great red kangaroo (M. rujus) is
about the same size, while other large species are M. anttlofnnus and
M. robmtus. The larger wallabies, or brush-kangaroos, such as the
red-necked wallaby (M. rufuollts) constitute a group of smaller-
sized species; while the smaller wallabies, such as the ft lander {q.v.)
(M. muelleri) and M. thettdts, constitute yet another section. The
genus ranges from the eastern Austro-Mafay islands to New Guinea.
Nearly allied are the rock-wallabies of Australia and Tasmania,
constituting the genus PetrogaU, chiefly distinguished by the thinner
tail being more densely haired and terminating in a tuff. Well-
known species are P. pcnxcillata, P. xanlhopus and P. lateralis. The
few species of nail-tailed wallabies, Onychogale, which are confined to
the Australian mainland, take their name from the presence of a
horny spur at the end of the tail, and are further distinguished by
the hairy muzzle.. O. unguifer, O. jraenatus and O. tunatus repre-
sent the group. The hare-wallabies, such as Lagorchestes Uporotdcs,
L. hirsuius and L. conseptcxllatus, constitute a genus with the same
distribution as the last, and likewise with a hairy muzzle, but with
a rather short, evenly furred tail, devoid of a spur. They are great
tapers and swift runners, mostly frequenting open stony plains.
More distinct is the Papuan genus Dorcopsts. as typified by D.
muelUri, although it is to some extent connected with Macropus
by D. macleyi. The muzzle is naked, the fur on the nape of the neck
directed more or less completely forward, and the hind-limbs are
less disproportionately elongated. Perhaps, however, the most
Fig. 4. -Skull and teeth of Lcsucuir's Rat-Kangaroo {Bettongia
lesueutn). c, upper canine. Other letters as in fig. 3. The anterior
premolar has been shed.
distinctive feature of the genus is the great fore-and-aft length of
the penultimate premolar in both jaws. Other species are D.
rufolateralis and D. auranltacus. In the tree-kangaroos, which
include the Papuan Dcndrolagus tnustus, D. ur sinus, D. donanus, D.
btnettanus and D. maximus. and the North Queensland D. turn-
koltzt, the reduction in the length of the hind-limbs is carried to a
still further degree, so that the proportions of the fore and hind
hmbs are almost normal. The genus agrees with Dorcopsts in the
direction of the hair on the neck, but the muzzle is only partially
hairy, and the elongation of the penultimate premolar is less.
These kangaroos arc largely arboreal in their habits, but they descend
to the ground to feed. Lastly, we have the banded wallaby. Lago-
Urophus fascial us, of Western Australia, a small species character-
ized by its naked muzzle, the presence of long bristles on the hind-
feet which conceal the claws, and also of dark transverse bands
on the lower part of the back. The skull has a remarkably narrow
and pointed muzzte and much inflated auditory bullae: while the
two halves of the lower jaw are firmly welded together at their
junction, thus effectually preventing the scissor-like action of the
lower incisors distinctive of Macropus and its immediate allies.
As regards the teeth, canines are wanting, and the penultimate
upper premolar is short, from before backwards, with a distinct
ledge on the inner side.
In the rat-kangaroos, or kangaroo-rats, as they are called in
Australia, constituting the sub-family PoUnoinae, the first upper
incisor is narrow, curved, and much exceeds the others in length;
the upper canines are persistent, flattened, blunt and slightly curved,
and the first two premolars of both jaws have large, simple, com-
pressed crowns, with a nearly straight or slightly concave free cut-
ting-edge, and both outer and inner surfaces usually marked by a
series of parallel, vertical groovesand ridges. Molars with quadrate
crowns and a blunt conical cusp at each corner, the last notably
•mailer than the rest, sometimes rudimentary or absent. Fore-
feet narrow; the three middle toes considerably exceeding the first
and fifth in length and their daws long, compressed and but
■lightly curved. Hind-feet as in Macropus. Tail long, and some-
times part*- ■» when it- is used for carrying bundles of
grass with which these animals build their nests. The group k
confined to Australia and Tasmania, and all the species are rela-
tively small.
In the members of the typical genus Potorous (formerly known as
Hypsiprymnus) the head is long and slender, with the auditory
bullae somewhat swollen*, while the ridges on the first two premolars
are few and perpendicular, and there are large vacuities on the
palate. The tarsus is short and the muzzle naked. The genus
includes P. tridactytus, P. gtlbertt and P plaiyops. In Bcttongia, on
the other hsnd, the head is shorter and wider, with smaller and more
rounded ears, and more swollen auditory bullae. The ridges on the
first two premolars are also more numerous and somewhat oblique
(fig- 4). the tarsus is long and the tail is prehensile. The species
include B. Usueuiri, B. gatmardt and B. cuniculus. The South
Australian Caloprymnus campestrts represents a genus near akin
to the last, but with the edge of the hairy border of the bare muzzle
less emarginate in the middle line, still more swollen auditory bullae. ■
very large and postcrially expanded nasals and longer vacuities on
the palate. The list is completed by Aepyprymnus rujescens, which
differs from all the others by the hairy muzzle, and the absence
of inflation in the auditory bullae and of vacuities in the palate.
Perhaps, however, the most interesting member of the whole
group is the tiny musk-kangaroo (Hypsiprymnodou moscJuUus)
of north-east Australia, which alone represents the sub-family
Hypsiprymnodonixnae. characterized by the presence of an opposable
first toe on the hind-foot and the outward inclination of the penulti-
mate upper premolar, as well by the small and feeble claws. In
all these features the musk-kangaroo connects the Macropodtdat
with the Phalangtrtdat. The outer teeth are like those of the rat-
kangaroos. (W. H. F.; R. L. # )
KANGAROO-RAT, a name applied in different parts of the
world to two widely different groups of mammals. In Australia
it is used to denote the small kangaroo-like marsupials techni-
cally known as Potoroinae, which zoologists prefer to call rat-
kangaroos (see Marsupiaua and Kangaroo). In North
America it is employed for certain small jumping rat-like rodents
nearly allied to the pocket-gophers and belonging to the family
Geomyidae. Kangaroo-rats in this latter series are represented
by three North American genera, of which Dxpodomys pMlipti,
Cricrtodipus agilis and Microdipodops megacephaltis may respec-
tively be taken as examples. Resembling pocket-gophers in
the possession of cheek-pouches, kangaroo-rats, together with
pocket-mice, are distinguished by their elongated hind-limbs
and tails, large eyes, well-developed ears and general jerboa-like
appearance and habits. The upper incisor teeth are also rela-
tively narrower, and there are important differences in the skull.
The cheek-teeth are rootless in kangaroo-rats, but they develop
roots in the pocket-mice. The former inhabit open, sandy
districts, where they burrow beneath rocks or stones, and hop
about like jerboas; their food consisting of grasses and other
plants.
KAJiGAVAR, a small district of Persia, situated between
Hamadan and Kerreanshah, and, being held in fief by the family
of a deceased court official, forming a separate government.
The district is very fertile and contains 30 villages. Its revenues
amount to about £500 per annum, and its chief place is the large
village of Kangavar, which has a population of about 2500 and
is 47 m. from Hamadan on the high road to Ker mans hah.
KANGRA. a town and district of British India, in the Jullundur
division of the Punjab. The town, sometimes called Nagarkot,
is situated 2409 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1001). 4746. The
Katoch rajas had a stronghold here, with a fort and rich temples.
Mahmud of Ghaxni took the fort in 1009 and from one of the
temples carried off a vast treasure. In 1360 Kangra was again
plundered, by Ferox Shah. The temple of Devi Bajreshri was
one of the oldest and wealthiest in northern India. It was de-
stroyed, together with the fort and the town, by an earthquake
on the 4th of April 1005, when 1339 lives were lost in this place
alone, and about ao.ooo elsewhere. In 1855 the headquarters of
the district were removed to the sanitarium of Dharmsala.
The district of Kangra extends from the Jullundur Doab far
into the southern ranges of the Himalaya. Besides some Rajput
states, annexed after the Sikh wars, it includes Lahul, Spiti and
Kulu, which are essentially Tibetan. The Beas Is the only
important river. Area, 9978 sq. m., of which Kangra proper has
only 17*5. Pop. (1901). 768,124; average density 77 persons per
sq. m., but .with oalx, ona person per aq. m. in Spiti. Tea
KANISHKA— KANO
653
cultivation tu introduced into Kangra about 1850. The
Palampur fair, established by government with a view to foster-
ing commerce with central Asia, attracts a small concourse of
Yarkandi merchants. The Lahulis carry on an enterprising
trade with Ladakh and countries beyond the frontier, by means
of pack sheep and goats. Rice, tea, potatoes, opium, spices;
wool and honey are the chief exports.
See Kangra District Gazetteer (Lahore, 1906).
KANISHKA, king of Kabul, Kashmir, and north-western
India in the and century a.d., was a Tatar of the Kushan tribe,
one of the five into which the Yue-cbi Tatars were divided.
His dominions extended as far down into India as Madura, and
probably as far to the north-west as Bokhara. Private inscrip-
tions found in the Punjab and Sind, in the Yusufzai district and
at Madura, and referred by European scholars to his reign, are
dated in the years five to twenty-eight of an unknown era. It is
the references by Chinese historians to the Yue-chi tribes before
their incursion into India, together with conclusions drawn from
the history of art and literature in his reign, that render the date
given the most probable. Kanishka's predecessors on the throne
were Pagans; but shortly after his accession he professed himself,
probably from political reasons, a Buddhist. He spent vast sums
in the construction of Buddhist monuments; and under his
auspices the fourth Buddhist council, the council of Jalandbara
(Jullunder) was convened under the presidency of Vasumitra. At
this council three treatises, commentaries on the Canon, one on
each of the three baskets into which it is divided, were composed.
King Kanishka had these treatises, when completed and revised
by Asvaghosha, written out on copper plates, and enclosed the
latter in stone boxes, which he placed in a memorial mound.
For some centuries afterwards these works survived in India;
but they exist now only in Chinese translations or adaptations.
We are not told in what language they were written. It was
probably Sanskrit (not Pali, the language of the Canon) — just
as in Europe we have works of cxegetical commentary composed,
in Latin, on the basis of the Testament and Septuagint in Greek.
This change of the language used as a medium of literary inter-
course was partly the cause, partly the effect, of a complete re-
vulsion in the intellectual life of India. The reign of Kanishka
was certainly the turning-point in this remarkable change. It
has been suggested with great plausibility, that the wide extent
of his domain:, facilitated the incursion into India of Western
modes of thought; and thus led in the first place to the corruption
and gradual decline of Buddhism, and secondly to the gradual
rise of Hinduism. Only the publication of the books written
at the time will enable us to say whether this hypothesis — for at
present it is nothing more — is really a sufficient explanation of
the very important results of his reign. In any case it was a
migration of nomad hordes in Central Asia that led, in Europe,
to the downfall of the Roman civilization; and then, through the
conversion of the invaders, to medieval conditions of life and
thought. It was the very same migration of nomad hordes that
led, in India, jto the downfall of the Buddhist civilization; and
subsequently," after the conversion of the Saka and Tatar
invaders, to medieval Hinduism. As India was nearer to the
starting-point of the migration, its results were felt there some-
what sooner.
Authorities. — Vincent A. Smith, The Early History of India
(Oxford, 1008) ; " The Kushan Period of Indian History," in J.R.A.S.
(1903); M. Boyer, " L'Epoque de Kaniska," in Journal AsiaHoue
(1900} ; T. Watt ere. On Yuan Ckwang (London, 1904, 1905) ; J. Taka-
kusu, " The Sarvastivadin Abhidharma Books,' in Jour, of the Pali
Text Soc. (1905), esp. pp. 118-130; Rhys Davids, Buddhist India
(London, 1903), ch. xvi., " Kanishka." (T. W. R. D.)
KANKAKEE, a city and the county-seat of Kankakee county,
Illinois, U.S. A., in the N.E. part of the state, on the Kankakee
river, 56 m S. of Chicago. Pop. (1000), 13,595, of whom
3346 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 13,086. Kankakee is
served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, the
Illinois Central, and the Chicago, Indiana & Southern (con-
trolled by the New York Central) railways. It is the seat of the
Eastern Hospital for the Insane (1879) a state institution;
St Joseph's Seminary (Roman Catholic) and a Conservatory
of Music. At Bourbonnais Grove, 3 m. N. of Kankakee is St
Viateur's College (founded x868), a well-known Roman Catholic
divinity school, and Notre Dame Academy, another Catholic
institution. The city has a public library and four large parks;
in Court House Square there is a monument erected by popular
subscription in honour of the soldiers from Kankakee county
who diepl in the Civil War. There are rock quarries here, and
the city manufactures sewing machines, musical instruments,
especially pianos, foundry and machine shop products, agri-
cultural implements and furniture. The total value of the
factory product in 1905 was $1,089,143, an increase of 22a %
since 1900. Kankakee is also a shipping point for agricultural
products, It was first settled UV1S32; was platted as the town
of Bourbonnais in 1853, when Kankakee county was first
organized; was chartered as the city of Kankakee in 1855, and
was re-chartered in 1892.
KANKER, a feudatory state of India, within the Central
Provinces; area, 1429 sq. m.; pop, (1001), 103,536; estimated
revenue, £10,000. It is a hilly tract, containing the headwaters
of the Mahanadi. The extensive forests have recently been made
profitable by the opening of a branch railway* The residence
of the raja, who is of an old Rajput family though ruling over
Gonds, is at Kanker (pop. 3006).
KANO, one of the most important provinces of the British
protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It includes the ancient
emirates of Kano, Katsena, Daura and Kazaure, and covers an
area of about 31,000 sq. m* The sub-province of Katagum was
incorporated with Kano in 1005, and is included within this area.
The population of the double province is estimated at about
2,250,000.
Kano was one of the original seven Hausa states. Written
annals carry the record of its kings back to about a.d. 90a
Legendary history goes back much further. It was conquered
by the Songhoi (Songhay) in the early part of the 16th century,
and more than once appears to have made at least partial sub-
mission to Bornu. Mahommedanism was introduced at a period
which, according to the system adopted for the dating of the
annals, must be placed either in the 1 2th or the 14th century. The
Hausa system of government and taxation was adopted by the
Fula when in the early part of the 19th century that Mahommedan
people overran the Hausa states. It has been erroneously stated
that the Fula imposed Mahommedanism on the Hausa states.
The fact that they adopted the existing system of government
and taxation, which arc based upon Koranic law, would in itself
be sufficient proof that this was not the case. But the annals of
Kano distinctly record the introduction and describe the develop-
ment of Mahommedanism at an early period of local history.
The capital is the city of Kano, situated in 1 2 N. and 8° 20' E n
220 m. S.S.E. of Sokoto and 500 N.E. of Lagos. It is built on an
open plain, and is encompassed by a wall 11 m. in perimeter and
pierced by thirteen gates. The wall is from 30 to 50 ft. high and
about 40 ft. thick at the base. -Round the wall is a deep double
ditch, a dwarf wall running along its centre. The gates are
simply cow-hide, but are set in massive entrance towers. Only
about a third of the area (7} sq. m.) enclosed by the walls is
inhabited nor was the whole space ever occupied by buildings,
the intention of theffounders of the city being to wall in ground
sufficient to grow food for the inhabitants during a siege. The
arable land within the city is mainly on the west and north; only
to the south-east do the houses come right to the walls. Within
the walls are two steep hills, one, Dala, about 120 ft. high being
the most ancient quarter of the town. Dala lies north-west. To
its east is a great pond, the Jakara, 1} m. long, and by its north-
east shore is the market of the Arab merchants. Here also was the
slave market. The palace of the emir, in front of which is a large
open space, is in the Fula quarter in the south-east of the city.
The palace consists of a number of buildings covering 33 acres and
surrounded by a wall 20 to 30 ft. high. The architecture of the
city is not without merit. The houses are built of day with
(generally) flat roofs impervious to fire. Traces of Moorish
influence are evident and the horseshoe arch is common. The
«54-
KANSAS
audience hall of the emir's palace — 35 ft sq. and 18 ft. high — is
decorated with designs in black, white, green and yellow, the
yellow designs (formed of micaceous sand) glistening like gold.
The dome-shaped roof is supported by twenty arches.
The city is divided into fourteen quarters, each presided over
by a headman, and inhabited by separate sections of the com-
munity. It is probably the greatest commercial city in the
central Sudan. Other towns, like Zaria, may do as much trade,
but Kano is pre-eminent as a manufacturing centre. The chief
industry is the weaving of cloth from native grown cotton.
Leather goods of all kinds are also manufactured, and from Kano
come most of the " morocco leather " goods on the European
markets. Dyeing is another large trade, as is the preparation of
indigo. Of traders there are* four distinct classes. They are:
(1) Arabs from Tripoli, who export ostrich feathers, skins and
ivory, and bring in burnouses, scents, sweets, tea, sugar, &c;
(2) Salaga merchants who import kola nuts from the hinterland
of the Guinea Coast, taking in exchange cloth and live stock and
leather and other goods; (3) the Asbenawa traders, who come
from the oases of Asben or Air with camels laden with salt and
" potash " (i.e. sodium carbonates), and with herds of cattle and
sheep, receiving in return cotton and hardware and kolas;
(4) the Hausa merchants. This last class trades with the other
three and despatches caravans to Illorin and other places, where
the Kano goods, the " potash " and other merchandise are ex-
changed for kolas and European goods. The " potash " finds
a ready sale among the Yorubas, being largely used for cooking
purposes. In Kano itself is a great market for livestock: camels,
horses, oxen, asses and goats being on sale.
Besides Hausa, who represent the indigenous population,
there are large colonies of Kanuri (from Bornu) and Nupians
in Kano. The Fula form the aristocratic class. The population
is said to amount to 100,000. About a mile and a half east of
Kano is Nassarawa, formerly the emir's suburban residence, but
since 1902 the British Residency and barracks.
The city of Kano appears on the map of the Arab geographer,
Idrisi, a.d. 114$, and the hill of Dala is mentioned in the earliest
records as the ongi nal site of Kano. Bart h, however, concluded that
the present town does not date earlier than the second half of the
16th century, and that before the rise of the Fula power (c. 1800)
scarcely any great Arab merchant ever visited Kano. The present
town may be the successor of an older town occupying a position of
similar pst-etninence. Kano submitted to the Fula without much
resistance, and under them in the first half of the 19th century
flourished greatly. It was visited by Hugh Ctapperton, an English
officer, in 1834, and in it Barth lived some time in 1851 and again
in 1854. Barth's descriptions of the wealth and importance of the
city attracted great attention in Europe, and Kano was subsequently
visited by several travellers, missionaries, and students of Hausa,
but none was permitted to live permanently in the city. In the
closing years ot the century, Kano became the centre of resistance
to British influence, and the emir, Alicu, was the most inveterate of
Fula slave raiders. In February 1903 the city was captured by a
British force under Colonel T. L. N. Morland, and a new emir,
Abbas, a brother of Alicu, installed.
After the occupation by the British in 1903 the province was
organized for administration on the same system as that adopted
throughout northern Nigeria. The emir on his inst- n - #: ~- •-»—*
an oath of allegiance to the British Crown, and accept 1
of a chief of the first class under British rule. A rcsi I
at his court, and assistant residents have their headq i
administrative districts of the province. British coi i
are established side by side with the native courts tl i
province. Taxation is assessed under British supervi I
into the native treasury. A fixed portion is paid by t >
British government. The emir is not allowed to maint \
army, and thecity of Kano is the headquarters of the Br
The conditions of appointment of the emir* are fu 1
in the terms accepted at Sokoto on the close of the >
campaign of 1903. Since the introduction of Briti .'
has been no serious trouble in the province. The emir Abbas worked
loyally with the British and proved himself a ruler of remarkable
ability and intelligence. He was indefatigable in dispensing justice,
and himself presided over a native court in which he disposed of
from fifty to a hundred cases a month. He also took an active in-
terest in the reform and reorganization of the system of taxation,
and in the opening of the country to trade. He further showed him-
self helpful in arranging difficulties which at times arose in connexion
with the lesser chiefs of his province.
The province of Kano is generally fertile. For a radius of 30 m.
round the capital the country is closely cultivated and densely
Kpulated, with some 40 waited towns and with villages and hamlets
rdly half a mile apart. Kano district proper contains 170 walled
towns and about 450 villages. There are many streams, but water
is chiefly obtained from wells 15 to 40 ft. deep. The principal
crops are African grains, wheat, onions, cotton, tobacco, indigo, with
sugar-cane, cassava, &c. The population is chiefly agricultural, bat
also commercial and industrial. The chief industries are weaving*
leather-making, dyeing and working in iron and pottery. Cattle
are abundant. (See Nigeria : History; and Sokoto.)
Consult the Travels of Heinrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890):
Hausaland, by C. H. Robinson (London, 1896): Northern Nigeria,
by Sir F. D. Lugard, in vol. xxii. Geographical Journal (London,
1904) ; A Tropital Dependency, by Lady Lugard (London, I905) ; the
Colonial Office Reports on Northern Nigeria from 190a onward, and
other works cited under Nigeria. (F. L. L.)
KANSAS (known as the "Sunflower State"), the central
commonwealth of the United States of America, lying between
37° and 40 N. lat. and between 94 38' and 102 1' 34" W. long.
(i.e. 2 5 W. long, from Washington). It is bounded on the N.
by Nebraska, on the E. by Missouri, on the S. by Oklahoma, and
on the W. by Colorado. The state is nearly rectangular in shape,
with a breadth of about a 10 m. from N. to S. and a length of
about 410 m. from E. to W. It contains an area of 82,1 58 sq. m.
(including 384 sq. m. of water surface).
Physiography.— Three physiographic regions may be distin-
guished within the state — the first, a small portion of the Oxark
uplift in the extreme south-east corner; the second, the Prairie
Plains, covering approximately the east third of the state; the
third, the Great Plains, covering the remaining area. Between
the latter two there is only the most gradual transition. The
entire state is indeed practically an undulating plain, gently
sloping from west to east at an average of about 7 ft. per mile.
There is also an inclination in the eastern half from north to
south, as indicated by the course of the rivers, most of which
flow south-easterly (the Kansas, with its general easterly course,
is the principal exception), the north-west corner being the
highest portion of the slate. The lowest point in the stale in its
south-east part, in Montgomery county, is 725 ft. above sea IcvcL
The average elevation of the cast boundary is about 850 ft., while
contour lines of 3500-3900 ft. run near the west border. Some-
what more than half the total area is below 2000 ft. The
gently rolling prairie surface is diversified by an endless suc-
cession of broad plains, isolated hills and ridges, and moderate
valleys. In places there are terraced uplands, and in others the
undulating plain is cut by erosion into low escarpments. The
bluffs on the Missouri are in places 200 ft. high, and the valley of
the Cimarron, in the south-west, has deep cuts, almost gorges.
The west central portion has considerable irregularities of
contour, and the north-west is distinctively hilly. In the south-
west, below the Arkansas river, is an area of sandhills, and the
Ozark Plateau region, as above stated, extends into the south-
east corner, though nol there much elevated. The great central
valley is traversed by the Kansas (or Kaw) river, which, inclusive
of the Smoky Hill Branch, extends the entire length of the state,
with lateral valleys on the north. Another broad valley is formed
in the south half of the state by the Arkansas river, with lateral
valleys on the north and south. The south-east portion contains
the important Neosho and smaller valleys. In the extreme south*
west is the valley of the Cimarron, and along the south boundary
is a network of the south tributaries of the Arkansas. Numerous
small affluents of the Missouri enrich and diversify the north-cast
quarter. The streams of Kansas are usually fed by perennial
springs, and, as a rule, the east and middle portions of the state
are well watered. Most of the streams maintain a good flow of
water in the driest seasons, and in case of heavy rains many of
them " underflow " the adjacent bottom lands, saturating the
permeable substratum of the country with the surplus water,
which in time drains out and feeds the subsiding streams. This
feature is particularly true of the Saline, Solomon and Smoky Hill
rivers. The west part is more elevated and water is less abundant.
Climate.— The climate of Kansas is exceptionally salubrious.
Extremes of heat and cold occur, but as a rule the winters are dry
and mild, while the summer heats are tempered by the perpetual
prairie breezes, and the summer nights are usually cool and refresh-
ing. The average annual temperature of the state for seventeen years
preceding 1905 was 54-3* F., the warmest mean being 56-0 , the
KANSAS
655
coldest 52*6*. The extreme variation of yearly means throughout
the cast, west and middle sections during the same period was
very slight, 51*6° to 566*, and the greatest variation tor any one
section was 37 •. The absolute extremes were 1 16* and - 34*. The
dryness of the air tempers exceedingly to the senses the cold of
winter and the heat of summer. The temperature over the state
is much more uniform than is the precipitation, which diminishes
somewhat regularly westward. In the above period of seventeen
years the yearly means in the west section varied from n '93 to
2921 in. (av. 1921). in the middle from 18*58 to 34*30 (av. 26 68),
in the cast fronr "' '— ~* ~ ov * u ' — u — ite
ranging from ac he
west is not sufli< xs,
since agricultun ict
that has been a he
state. The line re)
approximately I is
very largely in t >ril
ana October is its
at times work hi nd
the latter i860, >nt
infliction, least c nd
1892 were made sre
are 150 to 175 '* ng
and autumn, as all
of them without (in
the winter often
Fauna and Fh ich
are characterist ns
is a part. The nd
partly in the at ral
life-zone; ioo*M en
these areas. Ti at
variety of birds as
Visitants from 1 in.
northern and sot of
335 species, of 1 he
wild turkey, or* nd
prairie chickens in
number. The j sts
C" grasshoppers je,
notably in 1854, wo
cases their ravages extended over a great portion of the state.
Kansas has no forests. Along the streams there is commonly a
fringe of timber, which in the east is fairly heavy. There is an in-
creasing scarcity westward. With the advancing settlement of the
state thin wind-break rows become a feature of the prairies. The
lessened ravages of prairie Ares have facilitated artificial afforesting,
and many cities, in particular, are abundantly and beautifully
•haded. Oaks, elms, hickory, honey-locusts, white ash, sycamore
and willows, the rapid growing but miserable box-elder ana cotton-
wood, are the most common trees. Black walnut was common in
the river valleys in Territorial days. The planting of tree reserves
by the United States government in the and counties of this state
promises great success. A National Forest of 302,387 acres in
Kinney, Kearney. Hamilton and Grant counties was set aside in
May 1008. Buffalo and bunch, and other short native prairie
grasses, very nutritious ranging food but unavailable as hay, once
covered the plains and pastured immense herds of buffalo and other
animals, but with increasing settlement they have given way gener-
ally to exotic bladed species, valuable alike for pasture and for hay,
except in the western regions. The hardy and ubiquitous sunflower
has been chosen as the state flower or floral emblem. Cactus and
yucca occur in the west.
The soil of the upland prairies is generally a deep rich clay loam
Of a dark colour. The bottom lands near the streams are a black
sandy loam: and the intermediate lands, or "second bottoms,"
•how a rich and deep black loam, containing very little sand. These
•oils are all easily cultivated, free from stones, and exceedingly
productive. There are exceptional spots on the upland prairies
composed of stiff clay, not as easily cultivated, but very productive
when properly managed and enriched. The south-west section is
distinctively sandy
A trkuitmre.— The United States Census of 1900 shows that of the
farming area of the state in 1900 (41.662,970 acres, 796 % of the
total area), 6o*i % was " improved." The value of all farm
property was •864,100,286— ot which land and improvements
(including buildings), livestock and implements and machinery
represented respectively 745. 22*1 and 34 % Almost nine-tenths
of all farms derived their principal income from livestock or hay
and grain, these two sources being about equally important. Of the
totafvalue of farm products in 1899 (8209,895.542), crops represented
53-7. animal products 45 o and forest products only 04 %. In
1899 the wheat crop was 38.778.450 bushels, being less than that of
Minnesota. North Dakota. Ohio or South Dakota According to
1 For the thirty years 1877-1906 the mean rainfall for ten-year
periods was: at Dodge, 22*8 in., 184 in. and 227 in.; and at Law-
rence. 35 I in., 39*2 in. and 367 in. for the first, second and third
periods respectively.
the Fear &»* of the United States Department of Agriculture, the
crop in 1906 was 81.830,611 bushels, almost one-ninth of the crop
of the entire country for that year, and much more than the crop of
any other state. In 1900 it was 87,203,000 bushels (leasthan the crops
of either Minnesota or North Dakota). Winter wheat constitutes
almost the entire output. The hard varieties rank in the flour market
with the finest Minnesota wheat. The wheat belt crosses the state
from north to south in its central third. Greater even than wheat in
absolute output, though not relatively to the output of other states,
is Indian corn. In 1906 the crop was 195,075,000 bushels, and in
1009 it was 154,225,000. The crop is very variable, according to
seasons and prospective markets; ranging «.;. in the decade 1892-
1901 from 42 6 (1901) to 225*1 (1899) million bushels. The Indian
corn belt is mainly in the eastern third of the state. In the five years
1896-1900 the combined value of the crops of Indian corn and wheat
exceeded the value of the same crops in any other state of the
Union (Illinois being a close second). In the western third irrigation
has been tried, in the earlier years unsuccessfully; in all Kansas, in
1899. there were 23,620 acres irrigated, of which 8939 were in
Finney and 7071 in Kearney county. In this western third the
rainfall is insufficient for Indian corn; but Kafir corn. in exceptional
drought-resisting cereal, has made extraordinary progress in this
region, and indeed generally over the state, since 1893, its acreage
increasing 416*1 % in the decade 1895-1904. With the saccharine
variety of sorghum, which increased greatly in the same period, this
grain is replacing Indian corn. Oats are the third great cereal crop,
the yield being 24.780,000 bushels in 1906 and 27,185,000 in 1900.
Alfalfa showed an increased acreage in 1895-1904 of 3108 %; it «s
valuable in the west for the same qualities as the Kafir com. The
hay crop in 1909 was 2,652,000 tons. Alfalfa, the Japanese soy bean
and the wheat fields — which furnish the finest of pasture in the early
spring and ordinarily well into the winter season — are the props of a
p r ~~>r™.. dairy industry. In the early 'eighties the organization
of ies and cheese factories began in the county-seats; they
d« upon gathered cream. Aboat 1889 separators and the
wl : system were introduced, and about the same time began
th : of refrigerator cars on the railways; the hand separator
bt nmon about 1901. Western Kansas is the dairy country.
It ranges, whose insufficient rainfall makes impossible the
ce d therefore the profitable, cultivation of cereals, or other
se icuhure, lend themselves with profit to stock and dairy
fa „ Dairy products increased 60*6 % in value from 1895 to
1004, amounting in the latter year to 816420,095. This value was
almost equalled by that of eggs and poultry ($14,050,727), which
increased 79*7 % in the same decade. The livestock interest is
stimulated by the enormous demand for beef-cattle at Kansas City.
Sugar-beet culture was tried in the years following 1890 with
indifferent saccess until the introduction of bounties in 1901. It
has extended along the Arkansas valley from the Colorado beet
district and into the north-western counties. There is a large beet-
sugar factory at Garden City, Finney county. Experiments have
been made unsuccessfully in sugar cane (1885) and silk culture
(1885 seq.). The bright climate and pure atmosphere are admirably
adapted to the growth of the apple, pear, peach, plum, grape and
cherry. The smaller fruits also, with scarce an exception, nourish
finely. The fruit product of Kansas (82431,773 in 1899) is not.
however, as yet particularly notable when compared with that of
various other states.
According to the estimates of the state department of agriculture,
of the total value of all agricultural products in the twenty years
1885-1904 (83.078.999.855), Indian corn and wheat together
represented more than two-fifths (821*3 «nd 5 18*1 million dollars
respectively), and livestock products nearly one-third (1024*9
millions). The aggregate value of all agricultural products in 1903-
1904 was 8754.954^oS.
Minerals.— \n the east portion of the state are immense beds of
bituminous coal, often at shallow depths or cropping out on the
surface. In 1907 more than 05 % of the coal came from Crawford,
Cherokee, Leavenworth and Osage counties, and about 91 •> % from
the first two. The total value of the production of coal in 190*4
(6423,979 tons) was 89.350.547. and in 1908 (6,245,508 tons)
89,292,222. In the central portion, which belongs to the Triassic
formation, magnesian limestone, ferruginous sandstone and gypsum
are representative rocks. Gypsum (in beautiful crystalline form) is
found in an almost continuous bed across the state running north-
east and south-west with three principal areas, the northern in
Marshal] county, the central in Dickinson and Saline counties, and
the southern (the heaviest, being 3 to 40 ft. thick) in Barber and
Comanche counties. The product in 1908 was valued at 8281,339.
Magnesian limestone, or dolomite, is especially plentiful along the
Blue. Republican and Neosho rivers and their tributaries. This
beautiful stone, resembling white, grey and cream-coloured marble,
is exceedingly useful for building purposes. It crops out in the
bluffs in endless quantities, and is easily worked. The stone
resources of the state are largely, -but by no means exclusively,
confined to the central part. There are marbles in Osage and
other counties, shell marble in Montgomery county, white limestone
in Chase county, a valuable bandera flagstone and hydraulic cement
rock near Fort Scott, &c. The limestones produced in 1908 were
valued at 8403,176 and the sandstones at 867,950. In the central
€>«
KANSAS
quantities, within a great north to
The beds, which are exploited by the
at Ellsworth (Ellsworth county), at
_ .. > aad at Sterling (Rice county), lie from
Ofc. s sinAi mad, aad are in places aa much ~
t 35©
t Ly<
% pwe. At Kaaapotis in Ellsworth county, at Lyons
aad at Kaawjaaa, Kiafsaaa county, the salt U mined
w lk. ta tat south-west salt is found in beds and
isri BSM, in t^ir*— « fmm a lew inches to 2 ft. The
i«fe~t*99 waa valued at $5,538,855; the product
foorth among the states producing
at fiteyaftt. The development has been mainly
■ill— inn aad cine* about 1890 in the rock-salt
s ~ tk west awnioa of the state, which belongs to the
-' — laciasw casJks aad a species of native quicklime arc
ia twe rrwrr bluffs. The white and cream-coloured
_ sard for buMiag purposes, but the blue is usually
^jg- «ncware to the weather. The quicklime as quarried
- «tf* stakes perfectly, and with sand makes a fairly good
toes* GakwMckm or other previous preparation. The
■ear the Colorado line makes a valuable domestic
_ oft. siac and lead have been discovered in south-east
kave gi\Y» that section an extraordinary growth and
ladkattom ol gas were found about the time of the
*«*w^T vi 0>Kft** ^anofsctuhxw plants throughout a large region. The
P*m o* *»*^ ■^nf*> *° 95°**. below the surface; some wells have been
a«5a^ %»• |fc Ji ft. deep. The value of the natural gas produced in
(fgw** * ^— ni» S>5^73 » *W». ** J61..836 in 1905 and $7.691 .587 in
ff tf, ^ f TL s-here were 1917 producing wells, and Kansas ranked
ug]pw/t» e |L gtates of the United Sates in the value of the natural
*v°^f» o& x rr being surpassed by Pennsylvania, West Virginia and
w^ r v2^^*^ r ile1Imwas discovered about 1865 in Miami and" Bourbon
-on county. There was
900. Tne production
4^50,779"* »9<H: in
been the most active
d here in the 'nineties,
a immense deposit of
imits of Galena. Rich
ng the by products of
true Mature there was
ntury a notable boom
ralue of the output of
d $26,000,000; but at
aclter than as a miner
wlter produced in the
u In 1908 the mines'
92.61a and 8628 tons
xhre and brick clays
tern part of the state,
s. In 1908 the total
ly reported) of Kansas
« characteristic of the
in 1000 was sixteenth
x. The value of the
> the Twelfth United
le of 56-2% over the
representing establish-
,oo8,544,» and in 1905
44,992, an increase of
enworth and Atchison
1 whose gross product
each ; their joint pro-
Kansas City alone was
ate. The most impor-
d in 1905, was slaugh-
ity is the second centre
valued at $77.4". **3
ese years the value of
' that of Illinois. The
h a product valued at
amount, $42,034,019.
ip was handled by the
rests arc railway shop
c smelting and refining
eoi cheese, butter and
I. and of foundry and
_ jsavsst fef manufactures in
5 - ^_. — » ucury system " onlv.
ComwKKtVtfifwu.— Kansas b excellently provided with railways,
with an aggregate length in January 1909 of 891477 m. (ia 1970,
1880, 1890 respectively, 1,501, 3.244 and 8,710 m.). The most
important systems are the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Ft, the
Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union
Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, and the St Louis & San Francisco systems. The first train
entered Kansas on the Union Pacific in i860. During the foUovint
decade the lines of the Missouri Pacific, the Missouri. Kansas &
Texas and the Santa Fe were well under construction. These roads
K've excellent connexions with Chicago, the Gulf and the Pacific
ansas has an eastern river front of 150 m. on the Missouri, which is
navigable for steamboats of good sue. The internal rivers of the
state arc not utilized for commercial purposes.
PopuUliim.— In population Kansas ranked in 1900 and 1910
(1,600,949) twenty-second in the Union. The decennial in-
creases of population from i860 to 1000 were 239-9, 173*4, 433
and 3-0%, the population in 1900 being 1,470,495, or 18 to the
sq. m.* Of this number 22*5% lived in cities of 2500 or more
inhabitants. Nine cities numbered more than 10,000 inhabi-
tants: Kansas City (51,418), Topeka— the state capital (33,608),
Wichita (24,671), Leavenworth (20,735), Atchison (15,722),
Lawrence— the seat of the state university (10,862), Fort Scott
(10,322), Galena (10,155) and Pittsburg (10,112). The life of
all of these save the last two goes back to Territorial days; but
the importance of Fort Scott, like that of Galena and Pittsburg,
is due to the development of the mineral counties in the south-
east. Other cities of above 5000 inhabitants were Hutchinson
(9379), Emporia (8223), Parsons (7682), Ottawa (6934), Newton
(6208), Arkansas City (6140), Salina (6074), Argentine (5878)
and lola (5791). The number of negroes (35%) is somewhat
large for a northern and western state. This is largely owing 10
an exodus of coloured people from the South in 1878-1880, at a
time when their condition was an unusually hard one: an exodus
turned mainly toward Kansas. The population is very largely
American-born (91*4% in 1900; 47- 1 % being natives of Kansas).
Germans, British, Scandinavians and Russians constitute the
bulk of the foreign-born. The west third of the state is compara-
tively scantily populated, owing to its aridity. In the 'seventies,
after a succession of wet seasons, and again in the 'eighties,
settlement was pushed far westward, beyond the limits of safe
agriculture, but hundreds of settlers— and indeed many entire
communities— were literally starved out by the recurrence of
droughts. Irrigation has made a surer future for limited areas,
however, and the introduction of drought-resisting crops and the
substitution of dairy and livestock interests in the place of
agriculture have brightened the outlook in the western counties,
whose population increased rapidly after 1900. The early
'eighties were made notable by a tremendous " boom " in real
estate, rural and urban, throughout the commonwealth. As
regards the distribution of religious sects, in 1906 there were
458,190 communicants of all denominations, and of this number
121,208 were Methodists (108,097 being Methodist Episcopalians
of the Northern Church), 93,195 were Roman Catholics, 46,399
were Baptists (34,975 being members of the Northern Baptist
Convention and 10,011 of tbc National (Colored) Baptist Con-
vention), 40,765 were Presbyterians (33,465 being members ol
the Northern Church) and 40,356 were Disciples of Christ. The
German-Russian Mennonites, whose immigration became notable
about 1874, furnished at first many examples of communal
economy, but these were later abandoned. In 1906 the total
number of Mennonites was 7445, of whom 3581 were members
of the General Conference of Mennonites of North America. 182 s
belonged to the Schellenberger Bruder-gemeinde, and the others
were distributed among seven other sects.
• According to the state census Kansas had in 1905 a total
population ot 1,544,968. nearly 28% lived in cities of 2500 or more
inhabitants; 13 cities had more than 10,000 inhabitants': Kansas
City (67.614). Topeka (37,641). Wichita (31,110), Leav enw orth
i 20.934), Atchison (18.159), Pittsburg (15,012), Coffeyville (13.106),
: ort Scott (12.248), Parsons (l l ,720) .Lawrence (1 1,708), MutchinsoA
(11,215). Independence (11,206), and lola (10,287). Other cities of
above 5000 inhabitants each were. Chanutc (9704), Emporia C8Q74).
Winncld (7845). Salina (7829), Ottawa (7727). Arkansas City C7^34^>-
*wton (6601), Galena (6449), Argentine (6053), J unction City CS^cxa)
' Chcrryvalc (5089).
KANSAS
657
Go9crn*unt.—Tht constitution is that adopted at Wyandotte
on the 29th of July 1859 and ratified by the people on the 4th
of October 1859; it came into operation on the 29th of January
1861, and was amended in iftor, 1804, 1867, 1873, 1875, 1876,
1880, 1888, 1900, 1902, 1004 and 1906. An amendment may
be proposed by either branch of the legislature, and, if approved
by two-thirds of the members elected to each house as well
as by a majority of the electors voting- on it at a general
election, it is adopted. A constitutional convention to revise or
amend the constitution may be called in the same manner.
Universal manhood suffrage is the rule, but women may vote in
school and municipal elections, Kansas being the first state to
grant women municipal suffrage as well as the right to hold
municipal offices (1887). General elections to state, county and
township offices are biennial, in even-numbered years, and take
place on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November.
The state executive officers are a governor, lieutenant-governor,
secretary of state, auditor, treasurer, attorney-general and super-
intendent of public instruction, all elected for a term of two
years. The governor appoints, with the approval of the Senate,
a board of public works and some other administrative boards,
and he may veto any bill from the legislature, which cannot
thereafter become a law unless again approved by two-thirds of
the members elected to each house.
The legislature, consisting of a Senate and a House of Repre-
sentatives, meets in regular session at Topcka, the capital, on the
secpnd Tuesday of January in odd-numbered years. The
membership of the senate is limited to 40, and that of the house
of representatives to 125- Senators are elected for four years
and representatives for two years. In regular sessions not ex-
ceeding fifty days and in special sessions not exceeding thirty
days the members of both houses arc paid three dollars a day
besides an allowance for travelling expenses, but they receive no
compensation for the extra time of longer sessions. In 1008 a
direct primary law was passed applicable to all nominations
except for presidential electors, school district officers and officers
in cities of less than 5000 inhabitants; like public elections the
primaries are made a public charge; nomination is by petition
signed by a certain percentage (for state office, at least 1 %; for
district office, at least 2%; for sub-district or county office, at
least 3%) of the party vote; the direct nominating system
applies to the candidates for the United States Senate, the
nominee chosen by the direct primaries of each party being the
nominee of the party.
The judicial power is vested in one supreme court, thirty-eight
district courts, one probate court for each county, and two or more
justices of the peace for each township. All justices are elected:
those of the supreme court, seven in number, for six years, two or
three every two years; those of the district courts for four years; and
those of the probate courts and the justices of the peace for two
years. The more important affairs of each county arc managed by
a board of commissioners, who arc elected by districts for four years,
but each county elects also a clerk, a treasurer, a probate judge, a
register of deeds, a sheriff, a coroner, an attorney, a cleric of the
district court, and a surveyor, and the district court for the county
appoints a county auditor. The township officers, all elected for
two years, are a trustee, a clerk, a treasurer, two or more justices of
the peace, two constables and one road overseer for each road
district. Cities are governed under a general law, but by this law
they are divided into three classes according to size, and the govern-
ment is different for each class. Those having a population of more
than 15,000 constitute the first class, thqse having a population of
more than 2000 but not more than 15,000 constitute the second class,
and those having a population not exceeding 2000 constitute the
third class. Municipal elections are far removed from those of the
state, being held in odd-numbered years in April In cities of the
first class the state law requires the election of a mayor, city clerk.
city treasurer, police judge and council men; in those of the second
class it requires the election of a mayor, police judge, city treasurer,
councilmen, board of education, justices of the peace and constables;
and in those of the third class it requires the election of a mayor,
police judge and councilmen. Several other offices provided for
in each class arc filled by the appointment of the mayor.
The principal grounds for a divorce in Kansas are adultery,
extreme cruelty, habitual drunkenness, abandonment for one year,
gross neglect of duty, and imprisonment in the penitentiary as a
felon subsequent to marriage, but the applicant for a divorce must
have resided in the state the entire year preceding the presentment
XV II*
of the petition. A married woman has the same rights to her
property after marriage as before marriage, except that she is not
permitted to bequeath away from her husband more than one-half
of it without his written consent, and no will made by the husband
can affect the right of the wife, if she survive him, to one- half of
the property of which he died seized. Whenever a husband dies
intestate, leaving a farm or a house and lot in a town or city which
was the residence of the family at his death, his widow, widow and
children, or children alone if there be no widow, may hold the same
as a homestead to the extent of 160 acres if it be a farm, or one acre
if it be a town or city lot. A homestead of this size is exempt from
levy for the debts of the intestate except in case of an incumbrance
given by consent of both husband and wife, or of obligations for
purchase money, or of Kens for making improvements, and the
homestead of a family cannot be alienated without the joint consent
of husband and wife. The homestead status ceases, however,
whenever the widow marries again or when all the children arrive
at the age of majority. An eight -hour labour law was passed in
1 891 and was upheld by the state supreme court. In 1909 a law was
passed for state regulation of fire insurance rates (excv.pt in the case
of farmers' mutuals insuring farm property only) and forbidding
local discrimination of rates within the state. In the same year a
law was passed requiring that any corporation acting as a common
carrier in the state must receive the permission of the state board
of railway commissioners for the issue of stocks, bonds or other
evidences of indebtedness*
The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors except for
medical, scientific and mechanical purposes were prohibited by a
constitutional amendment adopted in 1880; The Murray liquor
law of 1881, providing for the enforcement of the amendment, was
declared constitutional by the state supreme court in 1883. At
many sessions of the legislature its enemies vainly attempted its
repeal It was more seriously threatened in 1890 by the " Original
Package Decision," of the United States Supreme Court, the
decision, namely, that the state law could not apply to liquor
introduced into Kansas from another state and sold from the
original package, such inter-state commerce being within the exclu-
sive jurisdiction of Congress. That body thereupon gave Kansas
the power needed, and its action was upheld by the Federal Supreme
Court. The enforcement of the law has varied, however, enormously
according to the locality. In 1906- 1907 a fresh crusade to enforce
the law was begun by the attorney-general, who brought ouster
suits against the mayors of Wichita, Junction City, Pittsburg and
Leavenworth for not enforcing the law and for replacing it with
the " fine " system, which was merely an irregular licence. In 1907
the attorney-general's office turned its attention to outside brewing
companies doing business in the state and secured injunctions against
such breweries doing business in the state and the appointment of
receivers of their property. The provision of the law permitting
the sale of whisky for medicinal, scientific or mechanical purposes
was repealed by a law of 1909 prohibiting the sate, manufacture or
barter of spirituous, malt, vinous or any other intoxicating liquors
within the state. The severity of this law was ascribed to efforts
of .the liquor interests to render it objectionable.
The constitution forbids the contraction of a state debt exceeding
$1,000,000. The actual debt on the 30th of June 1908 was $605,000,
which was a permanent school fund. Taxation is on the general-
property system. The entire system has been — as in other states
where it prevails — extremely irregular and arbitrary as regards local
assessments, and very imperfect ; and the figures of total valuation (in
1880 $160,570,761, in 1890 $347,717,218, in 1906 $408,329,749, and
in 1908, when it was supposed to be the actual valuation of all taxable
property, $2,453,691,859), though significant of taxation methods,
are not significant of the general condition or progress of the
st-*~
e supports
tr ral college
at nment); a
iu le same at
H Pittsburg,
w ?ka indus-
tr le plan of
T venrity of
K ngineering
dt nt in 1870
(a irtmcnt of
la , r r , » 1891 the
preparatory department was abolished and the university was re*
organised with " schools " in place of the former " departments.'*
In 1899 a school of medicine was established, in connexion with
which the Eleanor Taylor Bell memorial hospital was erected in
1905. In 1907-1908 the university had a faculty of ail, an enrol*
ment of 2063 (1361 men and 702 women) ; the university library
contained 60.000 volumes and 37.000 pamphlets. An efficient com-
pulsory education law was passed in 1903. Kansas ranks very high
among the states in its small percentage of illiteracy (inability to
write) — in 1900 only 2*9% of persons at least ten years of age; the
figures for native whites, foreign whites and negroes being respectively
i*t, 8*5, 22*3. In addition to the state schools, various flourishing
private or denominational institutions are maintained. The' large?"
658
KANSAS
administer outdoor relief, and 6ome care for
cost of the state.
nd
patients at the
History.— The territory now included in Kansas was first
visited by Europeans in 1 541 , when Francisco de Coronado led his
Spaniards from New Mexico across the buffalo plains in search
of the wealth of " Quivira," a region located by Bandelier and
other authorities in Kansas north-east of the Great Bend of the
Arkansas. Thereafter, save for a brief French occupation, 1710-
2725, and possibly slight explorations equally inconsequential,
JCansas remained in undisturbed possession of the Indians until in
j8o3 it passed to the United States (all save the part west of 100
|ong. and south of the Arkansas river) as part of the Louisiana
furchasc The explorations for the United States of Z. M. Pike
£ 1807) and S. H. Long (1819) tended to confirm old ideas of sandy
pastes west of the Mississippi. But with the establishment of
prairie commerce to Santa F6 (New Mexico), the waves of
^nigratkra to the Mormon land and to California, the growth of
traffic to Salt Lake, and the explorations for a transcontinental
_jfrray, Kansas became well known, and was taken out of that
to
ethical " Great American Desert/' m which, thanks especially
pike and to Washington Irving, it had been supposed to lie.
;«-£e trade with Santa F6 began about 1804, although regular
^ravans were begun only about 1825. This trade is one of the
2ost picturesque chapters in border history, and picturesque in
•^^jgpect, too, is the army of emigrants crossing the continent
~ prairie schooners " to California or Utah, of whom almost
*t «*ot through Kansas.
***$*l **« move 0161 * of hunters, trappers, traders, Mormons,
-<cs a»d homeseckers left nothing to show of settlement in
**"* ^^ for which, therefore, the succession of Territorial govern-
^TT~* Mfaniaed for the northern portion of the Louisiana
**" 7 _^ BS t bad no real significance. Before 1854 Kansas was an
?* ^ n^, although on its Indian reservations (created in its
- " "^, jar eastern tribes removed thither after 1830) some few
-^- ~ ^jpjnV missionaries, blacksmiths, agents, farmers
•• - "**• ^ teach the Indians agriculture, and land " squatters/'
«- lXV "^ N $30 a aH. Fort Leavenworth was established in
-' — *'^ rl *§ N Ct in 1841. Fort Riley in 1853. There were
J" «$cv?\ Baptist, Quaker, Catholic and Presbyterian
~»<e>« i$5?. Importunities to Congress to institute
began in 1852. This was realized by
V-fcasaaBiHof 1854.
(wakfc from 1854 to x86i included a large
for almost a decade, the storm centre of
aad her history of prime significance
.^ to^k c* the Civil War. Despite the Mis-
|M ^ P %«.c\^fti prohibited slavery in the Louisiana
t x: V k*L (exeept in Missouri), slaves were
— _— y^ <jfci « Ww . among Indians and whites,
^mcrgsty " principle of the Kansas-
^• Vt u. snaggle for the new Territory.
«k^ a Kansas was a question of the
a* Iiniu^kn were not fr* "
they had all to lose if they should carry their blacks into Kansas
and should nevertheless fail to make it a slave-state. Thus the
South had to establish slavery by other than actual slaveholders,-
unless Missouri should act for her to establish it. But Missouri
did not move her slaves; while her vicinity encouraged border
partisans to seek such establishment even without residence —
by intimidation, election frauds and outrage. This determined
at once the nature of the Kansas struggle and its outcome;
and after the South had played and lost in Kansas, " the war
for the Union caught up and nationalized the verdict of the
Territorial broil."
In the summer of 1854 Missouri " squatters " began to post
claims to border lands and warn away intending anti-slavery
settlers. The immigration of these from the North was fostered
in every way, notably through the New England Emigrant Aid
Company (see Lawrence, A. A.), whose example was widely imi-
tated. Little organized effort was made in the SoutL to settle the
Territory; Lawrence (Wakarusa) and Topeka, free-state centres,
and Leavenworth, Lecompton and Atchison, pro-slavery towns,
were among those settled in 1854.
At the first election (Nov. 1854), held for a delegate to Con-
gress, some 1700 armed Missourians invaded Kansas and stuffed
the ballot boxes; and this intimidation and fraud was practised
on a much larger scale in the election of a Territorial legislature
in March 1855. The resultant legislature (at Pawnee, later at
Shawnee Mission) adopted the laws of Missouri almost cm bloc,
made it a felony to utter a word against slavery, made extreme
pro-slavery views a qualification for office, declared death the
penalty for aiding a slave to escape, and in general repudiated
liberty for its opponents. The radical free-state men thereupon
began the importation of rifles. All criticism of this is incon-
sequent;" fighting gear " was notoriously the only effective asset
of Missourians in Kansas, every Southern band in Kansas was
militarily organized and armed, and the free-state men armed
only under necessity. Furthermore, a free-state " government "
was set up, the " bogus " legislature at Shawnee being " repu-
diated." Perfecting their organization in a series of popular
conventions, they adopted (Dec 1855) the Topeka Constitution
— which declared the exclusion of negroes from Kansas — elected
state officials, and sent a contestant delegate to Congress.
The Topeka " government " was simply a craftily impressive
organization, a standing protest. It met now and then, and
directed sentiment, being twice dispersed by United States
troops; but it passed no laws, and did nothing that conflicted
with the Territorial government countenanced by Congress.
On the other hand, the laws of the " bogus " legislature were
generally ignored by the free-state partisans, except in cases
(e.g. the service of a writ) where that was impossible without
apparent actual rebellion against the authority of the legisla-
ture, and therefore of Congress.
Meanwhile the " border war " began. During the (almost
bloodless) " Wakarusa War " Lawrence was threatened by an
armed force from Missouri, but was saved by the intervention
of Governor Shannon. Up to this time the initiative and the
bulk of outrages lay assuredly heavily on the pro-slavery side;
hereafter they became increasingly common and more evenly
divided. In May 1856 another Missouri force entered Lawrence
without resistance, destroyed its printing offices, wrecked build-
ings and pillaged generally. This was the day before the assault
on Charles Sumner (q.v.) in the Senate of the United States.
These two outrages fired Northern passion and determination.
In Kansas they were a stimulus to the most radical elements.
Immediately after the sack of Lawrence, John Brown and a small
band murdered and mutilated five pro-slavery men, on Potta-
watomie Creek; a horrible deed, showing a new spirit on the free-
state side, and of ghastly consequence— for it contributed power-
fully to widen further the licence of highway robbery, pillage and
arson, the ruin of homes, the driving off of settlers, marauding
expeditions, attacks on towns, outrages in short of every kind,
that made the following months a welter of lawlessness and
crime, until Governor Geary — by putting himself above all
"Uanship, repudiating Missouri, and using Federal troops—
KANSAS'
659
pat an end to them late in 1856. (In the Isolated south-eastern
counties they continued through 1856-1858, mainly to the
advantage of the " jay-hawkers " of free-state Kansas and to
the terror of Missouri.)
The struggle now passed into another phase, in which questions
of state predominate. But something may be remarked in
passing of the leaders in the period of turbulence. John Brown
wished to deal a blow against slavery, but did nothing to aid any
conservative political organization to that end. James H.
Lane was another radical, and always favoured force. He was
a political adventurer, an enthusiastic, energetic, ambitious, ill-
balanced man, shrewd and magnetic. He assuredly did much
for the free-state cause; meek politics were not alone sufficient
in those years in Kansas. The leader of the conservative frce-
soilers was Charles Robinson (18 18- 1804). He was born in
Massachusetts, studied medicine at the Berkshire Medical
School, and had had political experience in California, whither
he had gone in 1849, and where In 1850-1852 he was a member of
the legislature and a successful anti-slavery leader. In 1854 he
had come to Kansas as an agent of the Emigrant Aid Company.
He was the author of the Topeka government idea, or at least
was its moving spirit, serving throughout as the "governor"
under it; though averse to force, he would use it if necessary,
and was first in command in the " Wakarusa War." His par*
tisans say that be saved Kansas, and regard Lane as a fomenter
of trouble who accomplished nothing. Andrew H. Reeder
(1807- 1 864), who showed himself a pro-slavery sympathizer
as first Territorial governor, was removed from office for favour-
ing the free-state party; he became a leader in the free-state
cause. Every governor who followed him was forced by the
logic of events and truth tacitly to acknowledge that right lay
with the free-state party. Reeder and Shannon fled the Terri-
tory in fear of assassination by the pro-slavery party, with which
at first they had had most sympathy. Among the pro-slavery
leaders David Rice Atchison (1 807-1 886), United States Senator
in 1 843- 1 855, accompanied both expeditions against Lawrence;
but he urged moderation, as always, at the end of what was a
legitimate result of his radical agitation.
In June 1857 delegates were elected to a constitutional con-
vention. The election Act did not provide for any popular vote
upon the constitution they should form, and was passed over
Governor John W. Geary's veto. A census, miserably deficient
(largely owing to free-state abstention and obstruction), was
the basis of apportionment of delegates. The free-state party
demanded a popular vote on the constitution. On the justice of
this Governor Robert J. Walker and President Buchanan were at
first unequivocally agreed, and the governor promised fairplay.
Nevertheless only pro-slavery men voted, and the convention
was thus pro-slavery. The document it framed is known as the
Lecompton Constitution. Before the convention met, the free-
State party, abandoning its policy of political inaction, captured
the Territorial legislature. On the constitutional convention
rested, then, all hope of saving Kansas for slavery; and that
would be impossible if they should submit their handiwork to
the people. The convention declared slave property to be
** before and higher than any constitutional sanction " and for-
bade amendments affecting it; but it provided for a popular
vote on the alternatives, the " constitution with slavery " or
the " constitution with no slavery." If the latter should be
adopted, slavery should cease " except " that the right to pro-
perty in slaves in the Territory should not be interfered with.
The free-state men regarded this as including the right to
property in offspring of slaves, and therefore as pure fraud.
Governor Walker stood firmly against this iniquitous scheme;
he saw that slavery was, otherwise, doomed, but he thought
Kansas could be saved to the Democratic party though lost to
slavery. But President Buchanan, under Southern influence,
repudiated his former assurances. There is reason to believe
that the whole scheme was originated at Washington, and though
Buchanan was not privy to it before the event, yet he adopted
it. He abandoned Walker, who left Kansas; and he dismissed
Acting-Governor Frederick P. Stanton for convoking the (now
f ree^stste) legislature. This body promptly ordered a vote on
the third alternative, " Against the Constitution."
The free-state men ignored the alternatives set by the Lecomp-
ton Convention; but they participated nevertheless in the pro-
visional election for officers under the Lecompton government,
capturing mil offices, and then, the same day, voted overwhelm-
ingly against the constitution (Jan. 4, 1858).
Nevertheless, Buchanan, against the urgent counsel of Gover-
nor Denver, urged on Congress (Feb. a) the admission of
Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution. He was opposed by
Senator Stephen A. Douglas, the leader of the Northern Demo*
cracy. The Senate upheld the President; the House of Repre-
sentatives voteddown his policy; and finally both houses accepted
the English Bill, by which Kansas was virtually offered some
millions of acres of public lands if she should accept the Lecomp-
ton Constitution. 1 On the aist of August 1858, by a vote of
t t ,300 to 1 788, Kansas resisted this temptation. The plan of the
Administration thus effectually miscarried, and its final result
was a profound split in the Democratic party.
The free-state men framed an excellent anti-slavery consti-
tution at Leavenworth in March-April 1858, but the origins
of the convention were illegal and their work was still-born.
On the 3oth of July 1859 stul another constitution was therefore
framed at Wyandotte, and on the 4th of October k was ratified
by the people. Meanwhile the Topeka "government" dis-
appeared, and also, with its single purpose equally served, the
free-state party, most of it (once largely Democratic) passing
into the Republican party, now first organized in the Territory.
On the agth of January 1861 Kansas was admitted to the Union
under the Wyandotte Constitution. The United States Census
of i860 gave her a population of 107,204 inhabitants. The
struggle in Kansas, the first physical national struggle over
slavery, was of paramount Importance in the breaking up of the
Whig party, the firm establishment of an uncompromisingly
anti-slavery party, the rationalization of the Democracy, and
the general preparation of the country for the Civil War.
Drought and famine came in i860, and then upon the impover-
ished state came the strain of the Civil War. Nevertheless Kansas
furnished proportionally a very large quota of men to the Union
armies. Military operations within her own borders were largely
confined to a guerrilla warfare, carrying on the bitter neighbour-
hood strife between Kansas and Missouri. The Confederate
officers began by repressing predatory plundering from Missouri;
but after James H. Lane, with an undisciplined brigade, had
crossed the border, sacking, burning and killing in his progress,
M issouri " bushrangers " retaliated in kind. Freebooters trained
in Territorial licence had a free hand on both sides. Kansas bands
were long the more successful. But William C. Quantrell, after
sacking various small Kansas towns along the Missouri river
(1862-63), in August 1863 took Lawrence (?.«.) and put it
mercilessly to fire and sword — the most ghastly episode in border
history. In the autumn of 1864 the Confederate general,
Sterling Price, aiming to enter Kansas from Missouri but de-
feated by General Pleasanton's cavalry, retreated southward, zig-
zagging on both sides of the Missouri-Kansas line. This ended
for Kansas the border raids and the war. Lane was probably
the first United States officer to enlist negroes as soldiers. Many
of them (and Indians too) fought bravely for the state. Indian
raids and wars troubled the state from 1864 to 1878. The tribes
domiciled in Kansas were rapidly moved to Indian Territory
after 1868.
1 The English Bill was not a bribe to the degree that It has usually
bee** considered to be, inasmuch as it " reduced the grant of land
demanded by the Lecompton Ordinance from 23.500,000 acres to
3.5004)00 acres, and offered only the normal cession to new states. '
But this grant of 3 <wx>,ooo acres was conditioned on the acceptance
of the Lecompton Constitution, and Congress made no promise of
any grant if that Constitution were not adopted. The bill was
introduced by William Hayden English (1822-1896). a Democratic
representative in Congress in 1853-1861 (see Frank H. Hoddcr,
" Some Aspects of the English Bill for the Admission of Kansas,"
in Annual Report of Ike American Historical Association for the
Year 1906. 1 201-210).
66o
KANSAS CITY
After the Civil War the Republicans held uninterrupted
supremacy in national elections, and almost as complete control
in the state government, until 1892. From about 1870 onward,
however, elements of reform and of discontent were embodied
in a succession of radical parties of protest. Prohibition arose
thus, was accepted by the Republicans, and passed into the con-
stitution. Woman suffrage became a vital political issue. Much
legislation has been passed to control the railways. General
control of the media of commerce, economic co-operation, tax
reform, banking reforms, legislation against monopolies, disposal
of state lands, legislation in aid of the farmer and labourer, have
been issues of one party or another. The movement of the
Patrons of Industry (1874), growing into the Grange, Farmers'
Alliance, and finally into the People's (Populist) party (see
Farmers' Movement), was perhaps of greatest importance. In
conjunction with the Democrats the Populists controlled the
state government in 1892-1894 and 1896-1898. These two
parties decidedly outnumbered the Republicans at the polls from
1890-1898, but they could win only by fusion. In 1892-1893,
when the Populists elected the governor and the Senate, and
the Republicans (as the courts eventually determined) the House
of Representatives, political passion was so high as to threaten
armed conflicts in the capital. The Australian ballot was
introduced in 1893. In the decade following 1880, struggles in
the western counties for the location of county seats (the bitter-
est local political fights known in western states) repeatedly led
to bloodshed and the interference of state militia.
Andrew H. Recdcr
Wilson Shannon
John W. Geary
Robert I. Walker
James W. Denver
Samuel Medary
Daniel Woodson 5 times
Frederick P. Stanton 2 „
James W. Denver 1 „
Hugh S. Walsh 4(5?),,
George M. Beebe 2 „
Territorial Governors »
July 7. 1854-Aug. 16. «
Sept. 7, 1855-Aug. 18, '56
Sept. 9, 1856-Mar. 12, *57
May 27, 1857-Nov. 16, '57
May 12, 1858-Oct. 10, '58
Dec. 18, 1858- Dec 17, '60
Acting Governors*
Aggregate
164 days) Apr. 17, 1855-Apr. 16, '57
78 „ ) Apr. 1 6, 1857- Dec. 21, '57
23 „ ) Dec. 21, 1857-May 12, '58
177 t. } July 3. 1858-June 16, *6o
[131 „ ) Sept. 11, 1860-Feb. 9, '61
State Governors
Republican
ncy)
Democrat
Republican
Populist
Republican
Democrat-Populist
Republican
1 861-1 863
1863-1865
1865-1869
1869 (3 months)
1869-1873
1873-1877
1877-1879
1879-1883
1883-1885
1885-1889
1880-1893
1893-1895
1895-1897
1897-1899
1899-1903
1903-1905
•t 1905-1909
1909-
Authoritibs.— Consult for physiographic descriptions general
works on the United States, exploration, surveys, &c, also paper by
George I. Adams in American Geographical Society, Bulletin 34
(1902), op* 89-104. Onclimate sec U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Kansas Climate and Crop Stroke (monthly, since 1887). On soil and
agriculture, see Biennial Reports (Topeka, 1877 seq.) of the State
Board of Agriculture; Experiment Station Bulletin of the Kansas
Agricultural College (Manhattan) ; and statistics in the United States
Statistical Abstract (annual, Washington), and Federal Census
reports. On manufactures see Federal Census reports; Kansas
Bureau of Labor and Industry, Annual Report (1885 acq.); Kansas
Inspector of Coal Mines, Annual Report (1887 seq.). On administra-
tion consult the State of Kansas Blue Book (Topeka, periodical), and
1 Terms of actual service in Kansas, not period of commissions.
The appointment was for four years. Reeder was removed, all the
others resigned. _ . . . .
•Secretaries of the Territory who served as governors in the
interims of gubernatorial terms or when the governor was absent
from the Territory. I n the case of H. 5. Walsh several dates cannot
be fixed with exactness.
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KANSAS CITY, a city and the county-seat of Wyandotte
county, Kansas, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Missouri River, at
the mouth of the Kansas, altitude about 800 ft. It is separated
from its greater neighbour, Kansas City, Missouri, only by the
state line, and is the largest city in the state. Pop. (1800),
38,315; (1900), 51,418, of whom 6,377 were foreign-born and
6509 were negroes; (1910 census) 82,331. It is served by the
Union Pacific, the Missouri Pacific, the Chicago, Rock Island
& Pacific, and the Chicago Great Western railways, and by
electric lines connecting with Leavenworth and with Kansas
City, Missouri. There are several bridges across the Kansas
river. The city covers the low, level bottom-land at the junction
of the two rivers, and spreads over the surrounding highlands to
the W., the principal residential district. Its plan is regular.
The first effective steps toward a city park and boulevard system
were taken in 1907, when a board of park commissioners, consist-
ing of three members, was appointed by the mayor. The city
has been divided into the South Park District and the North
Park District, and at the close of 1908 there were 10 m. of
boulevards and parks aggregating 160 acres. A massive steel and-
concrete toll viaduct, about 1 j m. in length, extends from the
bluffs of Kansas City, Kan., across the Kansas valley to the bluffs,
of Kansas City, Mo., and is used by pedestrians, vehicles and
street cars. There is a fine public library building given by
Andrew Carnegie. The charities of the city are co-ordinated
through the associated charities. Among charitable state-aided
institutions are the St Margaret's hospital (Roman Catholic),
Bethany hospital (Methodist), a children's home (1893), and,
for negroes, the Douglass hospital training school for nurses
(1898) — the last the largest private charity of the state. The
medical department of the Kansas state university, the other
departments of which arc in Lawrence, is in Kansas City; and
among the other educational institutions of the city are the
Western university and industrial school (a co-educational school
for negroes), the Kansas City Baptist theological seminary
(1902), and the Kansas City university (MetKodist Protestant.
1806), which had 454 students in 1 908-1 909 and comprises Mather
college (for liberal arts), Wilson high school (preparatory), a.
school of elocution and oratory (in Kansas City, Mo.), a Normal
School, Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College (in Kansas
City, Mo.), and a school of theology. The city is the seat of the
Kansas (State) school for the blind. Kansas City is one of the
largest cities in the country without a drinking saloon. Indus-
trially the city is important for its stockyards and its meat-packing
interests. With the exception of Chicago, it is the largest live-
stock market in the United States. The product-value of the
city's factories in 1905 was $06,473,050; 93-5% consisting of
the product of the wholesale slaughtering and meat-packing
houses. Especially in the South-west markets Kansas City
has an ad vantage. over Chicago, St Louis, and other large pack-
ing centres (except St Joseph), not only in freights, but in its
situation among the "corn and beef "states; it shares also the
KANSAS CITY
66 1
extraordinary railway facilities of Kansas City, Missouri. There
are various important manufactures, such as soap and candles,
subsidiary to the packing industry, and the city has large flour
mills, railway and machine shops, and foundries. A large
cotton-mill, producing coarse fabrics, was opened in 1007.
Natural gas derived from the Kansas fields became available for
lighting and heating, and crude oil for fuel, in 1906.
Kansas City was founded in 1886 by the consolidation of " old "
Kansas City, Armourdale and Wyandotte (in which Armstrong
and Riverview were then included). Of these municipalities
Wyandotte, the oldest, was originally settled by the Wyandotte
Indians in 1843; it was platted and settled by whites in 1857;
and was incorporated as a town in 1858, and as a city in 1859. At
Wyandotte were made the first moves for the Territorial organi-
zation of Kansas and Nebraska. During the Kansas struggle
Wyandotte was .a pro-slavery town, while Quindaro (1856),
a few miles up the Missouri, was a free-state settlement and
Wyandotte's commercial rival until after the Civil War. The
convention that framed the constitution, the Wyandotte Con-
stitution, under which Kansas was admitted to the Union,
met here in July 1859. " Old " Kansas City was surveyed in
1869 and was incorporated as a city in 1872 Armourdale was
laid out in 1880 and incorporated in 1882. The packing
interest was first established in 1867; the first large packing
plant was that of Armour & Co., which was removed to what is
now Kansas City in 187 1. Kansas City adopted government by
commission in 1009.
KANSAS CITY, a city and port of entry of Jackson county,
Missouri, U.S.A., the second in size and importance in the state,
situated at the confluence of the Missouri and Kansas rivers,
adjoining Kansas City, Kansas, and 235 m. W. by N. of St
Louis. Pop. (1890), 132,716; (1900), 163,752, of whom 18,410
were foreign born (German, 4816; Irish, 3507; Swedish, 1869;
English, 1863; English-Canadian, 1369; Italian, 1034), and
17.567 were negroes; (1910 census) 248,381. Kansas City, the
gateway to the South-west, is one of the leading railway centres
of the United States. It is served by the Union Pacific, the
Missouri Pacific, the 'Frisco System, the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy, the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe\ the Chicago Great
Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, the Chicago &
Alton, the Wabash, the Kansas City Southern, the Chicago,
Rock Island k Pacific, the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, the Leaven-
worth, Kansas & Western, the Kansas City, Mexico & Orient,
the St Louis, Kansas City & Colorado, the Quincy, Omaha &
Kansas City, and the St Joseph & Grand Island railways, and
by steamboat lines to numerous river ports.
The present retail, office, and wholesale sections were once high
bluffs and deep ravines, but through and across these well graded
streets were constructed. South and west of this highland,
along the Kansas river, is a low, level tract occupied chiefly by
railway yards, stock yards, wholesale houses and manufacturing
establishments; north and east of the highland is a flat section,
the Missouri River bottoms, occupied largely by manufactories,
railway yards, grain elevators and homes of employes. Much
high and dry " made " land has been reclaimed from the river
flood-plain. Two great railway bridges across the Missouri,
many smaller bridges across the Kansas, and a great inter-
state toll viaduct extending from bluff to bluff across the valley
of the latter river, lie within the metropolitan area of the two
cities. The streets of the Missouri city are generally wide
and excellently paved. The city-hall (1890-1893), the court-
house (1888-1892), and the Federal Building (1892-1900) are
the most imposing of the public buildings. A convention
hall, 314 ft. long and 108 ft. wide, with a seating capacity of
about 15,000, is covered by a steel-frame roof without a column
for its support; the exterior of the walls is cut stone and brick.
The building was erected within three months, to replace one
destroyed by fire, for the National Democratic Convention
which met here on the 4th of July 1900. The Public Library
with walls of white limestone and Texas granite, contained (1908)
95,000 volumes. The Congregational, the Calvary Baptist, the
Second Presbyterian, the Independence Avenue Christian, the
Independence Avenue Methodist, and the Second Christian
Science churches are the finest church buildings. The board
of trade building, the building of the Star newspaper, and several
large office buildings (including the Scarritt, Long, and New
York Life Insurance buildings) are worthy of mention.
Kansas City has over 2000 acres in public parks; but Swope
Park, containing 1354 acres, lies south of the city limits. The
others are distributed with a design to give each section a recrea-
tion ground within easy walking distance, and all (including
Swope) are connected by parkways, boulevards and street-car
lines. The Paseo Parkway, 250 ft. wide, extends from N. to S.
through the centre of the city for a distance of 2! m., and adjoin-
ing it near its middle is the Parade, or principal playground.
The city has eight cemeteries, the largest of which are Union,
Elmwood, Mt Washington, St Mary's and Forest Hill. The
charitable institutions and professional schools included in 1908
about thirty hospitals, several children's homes and homes for
the aged, an industrial home, the Kansas City school of law,
the University medical college, and the Scarritt training school.
The city has an excellent public school system. A Methodist
Episcopal institutional church, admirably equipped, was opened
in 1906. The city has a juvenile court, and maintains a free
employment bureau.
Kansas City is primarily a commercial centre, and its trade in
livestock, grain and agricultural implements is especially large.
The annual pure-bred livestock show is of national importance.
The city's factory product increased from $23,588,653 in 1000
to $35,573,049 in 1005, or 50*8 %. Natural gas and crude
petroleum from Kansas fields became of industrial importance
about 1006. Natural gas is used to light the residence streets
and to heat many of the residences.
Kansas City is one of the few cities in the United Stales em-
powered to frame its own charter. The first was adopted in
1875 and the second in 1889. In 1905 a new charter, drawn on
the lines of the model " municipal program " advocated by the
National Municipal League, was submitted to popular vote, but
was defeated by the influence of the saloons and other special
interests. The charter of 1908 is a revision of this proposed
charter of 1905 with the objectionable features eliminated; it
was adopted by a large majority vote. Under the provisions
of the charter of 1008 the people elect a mayor, city treasurer,
city comptroller, and judges of the municipal court, each for a
term of two years. The legislative body is the common council
composed of two houses, each having as many members as there
are wards in the city— 14 in 1908. The members of the lower
house are elected, one by each ward, in the spring of each even
numbered year. The upper house members arc elected by the city
at large and serve four years. A board of public works, board
of park commissioners, board of fire and water commissioners,
a board of civil service, a city counsellor, a city auditor, a city
assessor, a purchasing agent, and subordinate officers, are ap-
pointed by the mayor, without confirmation by the common
council. A non-partisan board composed of citizens who must
not be physicians has general control of the city's hospitals and
health department. A new hospital at a cost of half a million
dollars was completed in 1908. The charter provides for a
referendum vote on franchises, which may be ordered by the
council or by petition of the people, the signatures of 20% of the
registered voters being sufficient to force such election. Public
work may be prevented by remonstrance of interested property
owners except in certain instances, when the city, by vote of the
people, may overrule all remonstrances. A civic league attempts
to give a non-partisan estimate of all municipal candidates.
The juvenile court, the arts and tenement commissions, the
municipal employment bureau, and a park board are provided
for by the charter. All the members of the city board of
election commissioners and a majority of the police board are
appointed by the governor of the state; and the police control
the grant of liquor licences. The city is supplied with water
drawn from the Missouri river above the mouth of the Kansas
or Kaw (which is used as a sewer by Kansas City, Kan.);
the main pumping station and settling basins being v
66a
KANSK— KANT
Quindaro, several miles up the river in Kansas; whence the water
is carried beneath the Kansas, through a tunnel, to a high-pres-
sure distributing station in the west bottoms. The waterworks
(direct pressure system) were acquired by the city in 1805. All
other public services are in private hands. The street-railway
service is based on a universal 5 -cent transfer throughout the
metropolitan area. Some of the first overhead electric trolleys
used in the United States were used here in 1885.
The first permanent settlement within the present limits of
Kansas City, which took its name from Kansas river, 1 was
established by French fur traders about 1821. West port, a
little inland town— platted 1833, a city 1857, merged in
Kansas City in 1800— now a fashionable residence district
of Kansas City — was a rival of Independence in the Santa Fe*
trade which she gained almost in toio in 1844 when the great
Missouri flood (the greatest the river has known) destroyed
the river bnding utilized by Independence. Meanwhile, what
is now Kansas City, and was then West port Landing, being on
the river where a swift current wore a rocky shore, steadily
increased in importance and overshadowed West port. But in
1838 lots were surveyed and the name changed to the Town of
Kansas. It was officially organized in part in 1847, formally
incorporated as a town in 1850, chartered under its present name
in 1853, rechartered in 1875, in 1889 and in 1008. Before 1850
it was practically the exclusive eastern terminus on the river for
the Santa F6 trade, 1 and a great outfitting point for Californian
emigrants. The history of this border trade is full of picturesque
colour. During the Civil War both Independence and Westport
were the scene of battles, Kansas City escaped, but her trade
went to Leavenworth, where it had the protection of an army
post and a quiet frontier. After the war the railways came,
taking away the traffic to Santa Fe\ and other cities farther up
the Missouri river took over the trade to its upper valley. In
1866 Kansas City was entered by the first railway from St Louis;
1867 saw the beginning of the packing industry, in 1869a railway
bridge across the Missouri assured it predominance over Leaven-
worth and St Joseph; and since that lime — save for a depression
shortly after 1800, following a real-estate boom — the material
progress of the city has been remarkable; the population in-
creased from 4418 in i860 to 32,260 in 1870, 55,785 in 1880, and
132,716 in 1890.
See T. S. Case (cd.). History of Kansas City. Missouri (Syracuse,
1888): William Griffith. History of Kansas City (Kansas City. 1900);
for industrial history, the Greater Kansas City Yearbook (1907 scq );
for all features of municipal interest, the Kansas City Annual
(Kansas City, 1907 seq.), prepared for the Business Men's League.
KANSK, a town of eastern Siberia, in the government of
Yeniseisk, 151 m. by rail £. of Krasnoyarsk, on the Kan River,
a tributary of the Yenisei, and on the Siberian highway. Pop.
(1897), 7504. It is the chief town of a district in which gold
is found, but lies on low ground subject to inundation by the
river.
KAN-SUH, a north-western province of China, bounded N. by
Mongolia, £. by Shen-si, S. by Szech'uen, W. by Tibet and N.W.
by Turkestan. The boundary on the N. remains undefined, but
the province may be said to occupy the territory lying between
32° 30' and 40° N., and 108 and 98 20' E., and to contain about
260,000sq.m. The population is estimated at 9,800,000. Western
Kan-suh is mountainous, and largely a wilderness of sand and
snow, but east of the Hwang -ho the country is cultivated. The
principal river is the Hwang-ho, and in the mountains to the
south of Lan-chow Fu rises the Wci-ho, which traverses Shen-si
and flows into the Hwang. ho at Tung-kwan. The chief products
» " Kansas " — in archaic variants of spelling and pronunciation,
•' Kansaw,"' and still called, locally and colloquially, the " Kaw."
* Before Kansas City, first Old Franklin (opposite Boonville), then
Ft. Osage, Liberty, Sibley, Lexington, Independence and Westport
had successively been abandoned as terminals, as the transfer-
point from boat to prairie caravan was moved steadily up the
Missouri. Whisky, groceries, prints and notions were staple* sent
to Santa F6; wool, buffalo robes and dried buffalo meat, Mexican
silver coin, gold and silver dust and ore came in return. In i860
the trade employed 3000 wagons and 7000 men, and amounted to
millions of dollars in value..
of Kan-suh are doth, horse hides, a kind of cord Hke butter wmfcfc
is known by the Mongols under the name of vmia, musk, plums,
onions, dates, sweet melons and medicines. (See China.)
KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804), German philosopher, was
born at Kbnigsberg on the 22nd of April 1724. His grandfather
was an emigrant from Scotland, and the name Cant is not un-
common in the north of Scotland, whence the family is said to
have come. His father was a saddler in Kdnigsberg, then a
stronghold of Pietism, to the strong influence of which Kant was
subjected in his early years. In his tenth year he was entered
at the Collegium Fredencianum with the definite view of studying
theology. His inclination at this time was towards classics, and
he was recognized, with bis school-fellow, David Ruhnken, as
among the most promising classical scholars of the college. His
taste for the greater Latin authors, particularly Lucretius, was
never lost, and he acquired at school an unusual facility in Latin
composition. With Greek authors he does not appear to have
been equally familiar. During his university course, which
began in 1740, Kant was principally attracted towards mathe-
matics and physics. The lectures on classics do not seem to have
satisfied him, and, though he attended courses on theology, and
even preached on one or two occasions, be appears finally to have
given up the intention of entering the Church. The last years
of his university studies were much disturbed by poverty. His
father died in 1746, and for nine years he was compelled to
earn his own living as a private tutor. Although be disliked
the life and was not specially qualified for it— as he used to say
regarding the excellent precepts of his P&dagogik, he was never
able to apply them — yet he added to his other accomplishment*
a grace and polish which he displayed ever afterwards to a
degree somewhat unusual in a philosopher by profession.
In 1755 Kant became tutor in the family of Count KayserGng.
By the kindness of a friend named Richter, he was enabled to
resume his university career, and in the autumn of that year he
graduated as doctor and qualified as privaidocenL For fifteen
years he continued to labour in this position, his fame as writer
and lecturer steadily increasing. Though twice he failed to
obtain a professorship at Kdnigsberg, he steadily refused ap-
pointments elsewhere. The only academic preferment received
by him during the lengthy probation was the post of under-
librarian (1766). His lectures, at first mainly upon physics,
gradually expanded until nearly all descriptions of philosophy
were included under them.
In 1770 he obtained the chair of logic and metaphysics at
Kdnigsberg, and delivered as his inaugural address the disserta-
tion De mundi sensibilts et inteUigibilis forma ct princtpiiy.
Eleven years later appeared the Kritik of Pure Reason, the work
towards which he bad been steadily advancing, and of which all
his later writings are developments. In 1783 he published the
Prolegomena, intended as an introduction to the Krittk, which
had been found to stand in need of some explanatory comment.
A second edition of the Kritik, with some modifications, appeared
in 1787, after which it remained unaltered.
In spite of its frequent obscurity, its novel terminology, and
its declared opposition to prevailing systems, the Kantian philo-
sophy made rapid progress in Germany. In the course of ten
or twelve years from the publication of the Kritik of Pure Reasem,
it was expounded in all the leading universities, and it even
penetrated into the schools of the Church of Rome. Such men
as J. Schulz in Kdnigsberg, J. G. Kiesewetter in Berlin, Jakob
in Halle, Born and A. L. Heydenreich in Leipzig, K. L. Reinhoid
and E. Schmid in Jena, Buhle in Gdtlingen, Tennemann in
Marburg, and Snell in Giessen,- with many others, made it the
basis of their philosophical teaching, while theologians like
Tief trunk, Staudlin, and Ammon eagerly applied it to Christian
doctrine and morality. Young men flocked to Kdnigsberg as to
a shrine of philosophy. The Prussian Government even under-
took the expense of their support. Kant was bailed by some
as a second Messiah. He was consulted as an oracle on all
questions of casuistry — as, for example, on the lawfulness of
inoculation for the small-pox. This universal homage for a Ions
time left Kant unaffected; it was only in bis later years that he
KANT
663
spoke of his system as (fie Ifmlt of philosophy, and resented all
further progress. He still pursued his quiot round of lecturing
aud authorship, and contributed from time to time papers to
the literary journals. Of these, among the most remarkable was
his review of Herder's Philosophy of. History, which greatly
exasperated that author, and led to a violent act of retaliation
some years after in his Metahritik of Pure Reason. SchHler at
this period in vain sought to engage Kant upon his Horen. He
remained true to the Beriin Journal, in which most of his
criticisms appeared.
In 1792 Kant, in the full height of his reputation, was involved
in a collision with the Government on the question of his religious
doctrines. Naturally his philosophy had excited the declared
opposition of all adherents of historical Christianity, since its
plain tendency was towards a moral rationalism, and it could not
be reconciled to the literal doctrines of the Lutheran Church.
It would have been much better to permit his exposition of the
philosophy of religion to enjoy the same literary rights as his
earlier works, since Kant could not be interdicted without first
silencing a multitude of theologians who were at least equally
separated from positive Christianity. The Government, how-
ever, judged otherwise; and after the first part of his book, On
Religion within the Limits of Reason alone, had appeared in the
Berlin Journal, the publication of the remainder, which treats
in a more rationalizing style of the peculiarities of Christianity,
was forbidden. Kant, thus shut out from Berlin, availed himself
of his local privilege, and, with the sanction of the theological
faculty of his own university, published the full work in Kdnigs-
berg. The Government, probably influenced as much by hatred
and fear of the French Revolution, of which Kant was supposed
to be a partisan, as by love of orthodoxy, resented the act; and
a secret cabinet order was received by him intimating the dis-
pleasure of the king, Frederick William II , and exacting a pledge
not to lecture or write at all on religious subjects in future. With
this mandate Kant, after a struggle, complied, and kept his
engagement till 1707, when the death of the king, according to
his construct ion of his promise, set him free. This incident, how-
ever, produced a very unfavourable effect on his spirits. He
withdrew in 1794 from society; next year he gave up all his classes
but one public lecture on logic or metaphysics; and in 1 797, before
the removal of the interdict on his theological teaching, he ceased
altogether his public labours, after an academic course of forty-
two years. He previously, in the same year, finished his treatises
on the Metaphysics of Ethics, which, with his Anthropology, com-
pleted in 179S, were the last considerable works that he revised
with his own hand. His Lectures on Logic, on Physical Geography,
on Paedagogics, were edited during his lifetime by his friends and
pupils. By way of asserting his right to resume theological
disquisition, he. also issued in 1798 his Strife of the Faculties, in
which all the strongest points of his work on religion were urged
afresh, and the correspondence that had passed between himself
and his censors was given to the world.
From the date of his retirement from the chair Kant declined
in strength, and gave tokens of intellectual decay. His memory
began to fail, and a large work at which he wrought night and
day. on the connexion between physics and metaphysics, was
found to be only a repetition of his already published doctrines.
After 1802, finding himself attacked with a weakness in the limbs
attended with frequent fits of falling, he mitigated 1 he Spartan
severity of his life, and consented to receive medical advice. A
constant restlessness oppressed him; his sight gave way; his
conversation became an extraordinary mixture of metaphors,
and it was only at intervals that gleams of his former power
broke out, especially when some old chord of association was
struck in natural science or physical geography. A few days
before his decease, with a great effort he thanked his medical
attendant for his visits in the words, " I have not yet lost my
feeling for humanity." On the 12th of February 1804 he died,
having almost completed his eightieth year. His stature was
small, and bis appearance feeble. He was little more than five
feet high; bis breast was almost concave, and, like Schleier-
macher, he was deformed in the right shoulder. His senses were
quick and delicate; and, though of weak constitution, he escaped
by strict regimen all serious illness."
His life was arranged with mechanical regularity; and, as he
never married, he kept the habits of his studious youth to old
age. His man-servant, who awoke him summer and winter at
five o'clock, testified that he had not once failed in thirty years
to respond to the call. After rising he studied for two hours,
then lectured other two, and spent the rest of the forenoon, till
one, at his desk. He then dined at a restaurant, which be fre-
quently changed, to avoid the influx of strangers, who crowded
to see and hear him. This was his only regular meal; and he
often prolonged the conversation till late in the afternoon. He
then walked out for at least an hour in all weathers, and spent
the evening in lighter reading, except an hour or two devoted
to the preparation of his next day's lectures, after which he
retired between nine and ten to rest. In his earlier years he often
spent his evenings in general society, where his knowledge and
conversational talents made him the life of every party. He was
especially intimate with the families of two English merchants
of the name of Green and Mot her by, where he found many
opportunities of meeting ship-captains, and other travelled
persons, and thus gratifying his passion for physical geography.
This social circle included also the celebrated J. G. Hamann, the
friend of Herder and Jacobi, who was thus a mediator between
Kant and these philosophical adversaries.
Kant's reading was of the most extensive and miscellaneous
kind. He cared comparatively little for the history of specula-
tion, but his acquaintance with books of science, general history,
travels and belles lettres was boundless. He was well versed in
English literature, chiefly of the age of Queen Anne, and had read
English philosophy from Locke to Hume, and the Scottish school.
He was at home in Voltaire and Rousseau, but had little or no
acquaintance with the French sensational philosophy. He was
familiar with all German literature up to the date of his Kritih,
but ceased to follow it in its great development by Goethe and
Schiller. It was his habit to obtain books in sheets from his
publishers Kanter and Nicolovius; and he read over for many
years all the new works in their catalogue, in order to keep abreast
of universal knowledge. He was fond of newspapers and works
on politics; and this was the only kind of reading that could
interrupt his studies in philosophy.
As a lecturer, Kant avoided altogether that rigid style in which
his books. were written. He sat behind a low desk, with a few
jottings on slips of paper, or textbooks marked on the margin,
before him, and delivered an extemporaneous address, opening
up the subject by partial glimpses, and with many anecdotes or
familiar illustrations, till a complete idea of it was presented.'
His voice was extremely weak, but sometimes rose into eloquence,
and always commanded perfect silence. Though kind to his
students, he refused to remit their fees, as this, he thought, would
discourage independence. It was another principle that his
chief exertions should be bestowed on the intermediate class of
talent, as the geniuses would help themselves, and the dunces
were beyond remedy.
Simple, honourable, truthful, kind-hearted and high-minded
as Kant was in all moral respects, he was somewhat deficient in
theregion of sentiment. He had little enthusiasm for the beauties
of nature, and indeed never sailed out into the Baltic, or travelled
more than 40 miles from Kbnigsberg. Music he disregarded, and
all poetry that was more than sententious prose. His ethics have
been reproached with some justice as setting up too low an ideal
for the female sex. Though faithful in a high degree to the duties
of friendship, he could not bear to visit his friends in sickness,
and after their death he repressed all allusion to their memory.
His engrossing intellectual labours no doubt tended somewhat
to harden his character; and in his zeal for rectitude of purpose
he forgot the part which affection and sentiment roust ever play
in the human constitution.
On the 1 2th of February 1004, the hundredth anniversary
of Kant's death, a Kantian society {KanlgcseUschaft) was formed
at Halle under the leadership of Professor H. Vaihinger to
promote Kantian studies. In 1909 it had an annual membership
66+
KANT
of lot; ft supports the periodica] KoMtstmdien (rounded 1896 t't
see Bcbuockaphy, oi ink.). od
a
The Writings of Kant led
No other duiker of modern times has been throughout his wor] b.
so penetrated with the fundamental conceptions of physical science j,
no other has been able to hold with such firmness the balano fa
between empirical and speculative ideas. Beyond all question mucl -jo
of the influence which the critical philosophy has exercised an< ^
continues to exercise must be ascribed to this characteristic featun ^
in the training of its great author.
The early writings of Kant are almost without exception 01 n
questions of physical science. It was only by degrees that philo be
sophkal problems begun to engage his attention, and that the mail ^
portion of his literary activity was turned towards them. Th< ^
tallowing are the most important of the works which bear direct)}
on physical science. M
1. Gedanken *om der wahrm Schdtxung der lebendigen Krdfk (1747)
an essay dealing with the famous dispute between the Cartesian tai
and Leionittians regarding the expression for the amount of a force
According to the Cartesians, this quantity was directly proportional 5.
to velocity; according to their opponents, it varied with the square |^
of the velocity. The dispute has now lost its interest, for physicist* wm
have learned to distinguish accurately the two quantities which an
vaguely included under the expression amount of force, and conse- eg
quently have been able to show in what each party was correct and m .
in what it was in error. Kant's essay, with some fallacious explana-
tions and divisions, criticizes acutely the arguments of the Leib- fes
nitaians, and concludes with an attempt to show that both modes 0,
of expression are correct when correctly limited and interpreted.
2. Whether the Earth in its Revolution has experienced some Change i—
since the Earliest Times (1754: cd. and trans., W. Hastie, 1900,
Kant's Cosmogony; cf. Lord Kelvin in The Age of the Earth, 1897, g,.
p 7). In this brief essay Kant throws out a notion which has since of
been carried out, in ignorance of Kant's priority, by Delaunay(i86s)
and Adams. He points out that the action of the moon in raising fa
the waters of the earth must have a secondary effect in the slight h)
retardation of the earth's motion, and refers to a similar cause the ;♦»
fact that the moon turns always the same face to the earth.
3. AUgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels, published ~_
anonymously in 1755 (4th ed. 1808; republished H. Ebcrt, 1890).
In this remarkable work Kant, proceeding from the Newtonian —1
conception of the solar system, extends his consideration to the ,_
entire sidereal system, points out how the whole may be mechanically
regarded, and throws out the important speculation which has since
received the title of the nebular hypothesis. In some details, such --
«.f. as the regarding of the motion of the entire solar system as yy.
portion of the general cosmical mechanism, he had predecessors, n"
among others Thomas Wright of Durham, but the work as a whole
contains a wonderfully acute anticipation of much that was after- -j.
wards carried out by Herschel and Laplace. The hypothesis of the Bre
original nebular condition of the system, with the consequent -_
explanation of the great phenomena of planetary formations and aT!
- - — -* •»-» ■»t«»llit«i* »nH rin»* is unquestionably to be Sr
discussion in W. Hastie 's
her
ccincta delineatio (1755): «,-
i beyond the notion that
r medium of a uniformly of
which is the underlying a—
nd light are regarded as
Description of the Earlh-
tnu Recently Experienced
der
if the Winds (1756). In
ignorance of the explana-
>w the varying velocity of ^_l
i'a surface furnishes a key ^^
hcory is in almost entire
the parallel statements ^^
influence of the rotation m0im
(1835). given in Zdlincr's TZ
7-482.
5); Determination of the ler "
ral Beginning of Human -^
me points of interest as "£~
s doctrine of teleology. ~J*
notice of the Krilik of tCMg
w» . * A ItWn ( 1 7*5^ On the Influence of the Moon *&'
NV# * \v *\tM*i cT these contains a remarkable
v ./.-v.* brt«**« the centre of the moon's figure and •
, x y \ni tV difference between these Kant is *•
v*» . V , .'.*n»w venditions of the side of the moon ^
- V* >V i, St unlike those of the face presented w"
* . .v \v . n^ »vd bv Hansen.
. „ .».<-*.. »4» , i$2*) : published from notes of
* "» V r».v*j «£ the author. iimy/wgtn »» yru^ m ut u tM e r jn\njtcmt.
KANT
Historians are ace
speculation into epoch
single philosophic cone
in no case is the char
in that of the critical p
cfosed the lines of spec
of the 1 8th century h;
and more comprehens
of thought, a method
speculation in the pre
fold aspect. It take
previous efforts of mc
the fundamental notio
of the problems to wh
up a new series of q
reflection has been d
which it is possible th;
of this kind isesscntiall
In any complete a<
necessary that there i
to the peculiar charac
and, on the other han
to more modern tho
Kantian system itself
the former reference,
slow growth. In the
with great definiteness
from the notions of tl
prehensive method w
work. Scarcely any |
matured so slowly,
the current philoaophj
applied in various din
of their truth and a
difficulties or contrac
imperfection of the pi
growth of the new coni
system, to take the pl<
Kantian work it is in
in the mind of itsauth
Of the two preced
second, that of Loci
practically the course
movement as a whole I
and his own philosop
with the systematic
tcristic of the Cartes
philosophic reflection
had assumed in the h
of Leibnitz and the L<
from the Cartesian mo
had doubtless been na
full bearings of the plb
the comparatively lin
The tendency toward*
a tendency which diffc
of speculation, is expi
peculiar fashion. Ho
they are at one in a cei
the whole course of the
out individualist, i.e.
concrete, thinking sub
as an individual const
which he forms part,
evidently two lines ale
be asked how the ind
system of things with
of his experience are
attaches to his subjec
the individualist poin
psychological, and the
by Locke, in the fashj
scious experience in tl
asked, bow is the inc
things apparently disc
the precise significant
himself and to the ob
relation between hims
as a whole ? This st
bearing, and the kind
one hand, by Berkelc
mined beforehand b>
dualist method with «
as we make clear to <
we are able to discerr
'Sec further I peal
relation to subscquenl
665
note with
outset of
Jkological
aption of
ndividual
reference
upon the
ndividual
insisting
om pared,
which the
ad matter
notion of
ter notion
e nature,
ins is not
r;ay arise
) slightest
lifficulties
cat meats,
only the
cpericnce.
i external
as in the
alongside
: of mind
us experi*
ience and
ty. It is
evolution
lowledge;
» find the
t is not a
: sceptical
blc result
tusness of
on of the
id objects
istinguish
wive real
drilling to
hematics!
respect to
1 himself,
d objects
ict neces*
difficulty
1 distinct
ny other
ded as so
tern other
be really
>uld have
c t "there
1 it in my
eruptions
any real
ns cither
I perceive
nculty in
« Carried
»gnition.
ience has
xperience
ty of the
me result
theory of
he meta-
universe
lexion or
lifficulties
ut a con-
able fact,
1 monad,
ded as so
1 Sense
f notions,
tc. The
itity and
1 proposi-
any com-
sssors the
t work of
sis might
e was an
[fact was
KANT
N
If.
re*
Ke.
Jul
8.
on t
disci
its c«
ledic
turne
to us.
Kam'*
fcttia-gdtigf sad iaa series
n=, =e «^»ji Hi taraaalysts
'f -a-.. ^*l dphfloaphy
t "- £, - =: rxx as in the empirical
. .:*e3 siac of the abstract
• raae aaeer-— Is of coascious
r i ^-ae J tike ^..aWrirt ifl the
- - -■-■■? . as* js uaaag the bis-
- ..— =» «r irr acae to decern the
__ . — w=s is 5e .'jcad tie chimate
wc^zr i^psrrat -a considering the
v "~x s_~=rsso« essays which
- - > .-£ «T t K~i precncjcal work
- - • .1 >cs=r=-ss ji the doctrines
-i ix tTr'-'f"^ 1 ** of the
„ -. aiai eih^tt with
-_- , .Sr-t«a c£ a received
- - at . *«, Tbeiecanbe
-.. a t*j £*--=.* arc to be
. .a -k <« i*t Aestketik
« a i-^c; the Kritik,
_ .. vats Jt t*e Zhutrtation
+ > vH^k iafio the more
_ * -v «s»«t t» the first of
- * - *v ?A?-cSit Cashion, the
\ - > t* ;**«*. What is
,, ... • . ^ . .n%x i- *n* by analysis
v> -£ wems never to
„ ^ • i* a Vv*cal axioms
- ^.-. "v . a** oc the False
.-. ■ ■••-.-1 s- * *w of thought
* ^- ^s.-v * i ;V significant
■-scv.V' V.ska) axioms
^ , *u»»» V*ical ground
.-. ..n^ i.Mr ^.nents, it is
-*. *...*-. *» Nant presently
^ .>. -x. <.i ^ncal existence.
^ " - v ., * :W*r nature and
*" ^ . v ,c^ '>c«tts should not
v v,- «*!*«»* years 1763-
v »v*. utal opposition
" .^ *? ,v »' »*y on Negative
. v > j amotion in kind
. , •«.•■<* s>l notions, which
, " , v vm of thought) and
k* . on is found in the
», N \x *» such explanation
. N ^ 4*v totally distinct.
"\ \ r, , * How a consequence
.^ N . « ,< Kkmity,, since it is
v *v .u contained in it. . . .
n- ' <* *«d not according to
* * \ *v -^io clear to me. . . .
* » * ■ * ^ K something else
" "* fc . si exigences, and, as
" K * * ^ V sw , » thviught. " I have,"
v ,s«» liwwlcdgc In relation
„ v .„ *<*) I intend to expound
C , »** from them that the
., ■ * v * ~ * \ * .Vtvby posited or denied
t >- , * , s *» t»> means of a notion,
\ N J tv» \et simpler notions
^ *■'<*'■ .. * v ,'\ , ,vntwl resort of all our
, * * * * " (-k , 4 ktmplc and irreducible
^ -^ "" *1 - ■ v ""'' »a*.h to their consequents
;\ ~ - ** * H v. •*> ♦«t ww • ,on • fn . th . is ? ,s ?y
x -^ "' ^ x^ v -* x ^ovrt his analysis of the
' - V" . .»■** *^v m* «*w* at thl8 P^ * 1 of
. --^ * * v k> v ^ , . ,j v under the influence
* ^* w ' \-*" x ' 1 , «u,in of the whole passage
..* ■ x \ * ■ x ^isc** of this supposition.
■ - * * v . w **■" -u ,| was one arising inevi-
.^'\\ v »v-* »i4thmrv of knowledge, and
' % • " * ^ w -^ ^ VIU | that theory. It is a
— -- V v ,n *a^ J" k „ UM ,.*|hle had the purport
. V ^w ^" *j;, M „, K an t's mind. HV is
^ *\x» »*« mnny years, accepting
k *,*\a\ notions as required for
N , (v is still that of complete
.*- \\ " \ » ^i <•' thc f« rtner question,
.* ^* v*h*t right do we apply them
\
- . .- ■■ .^ V* v w hU »lg»t 00 wcappiy ineni
* x i"***^.**** 1 \^v »Ui«l influence from Hume
» v * « * ^ * * *v/ j StiHHtl Tkeoloty and Morals
* \**«»* A \* mml TJ*** „p|K»sltlon-though in a
r' ^^* l • '^ V a* sl'l"'*" definitely the dis-
K C^^ • ^ m J*" L **"* U ,h * faction b
found the reason for the superior certaiaty and clearness of mathe*
matics as opposed to philosophy. Mathematics, Kant thinks,
proceeds synthetically, for in it the notions are constructed. Meta-
physics, on the other hand, is analytical in method; in it the notioas
are given, and by analysis they are cleared up. It is to be observed
that the description of mathematics as synthetic is not an anticipa-
tion of the critical doctrine on the same subject. Kant docs oot,
in this place, raise the question as to the reason for assuming that
the arbitrary syntheses of mathematical construction have any
reference to reality. The deeper significance of synthesis has not
yet become apparent.
In the Only Possible Ground of Proof for Ike Existence of Cod, the
argument, though largely Leibnitaian, advances one step farther
towards the ultimate inquiry. For there Kant states as precisely
as in the critique of speculative theology his fundamental doctrine
that real existence is not a predicate to be added in thought to the
conception of a possible subject. So far as subjective thought is con-
cerned, possibility, not real existence, is contained in any judgment.
The year 1765 was marked by the publication of Leibnitz s port-
humous Nouveaux Essais, in which his theory of knowledge is more
fully stated than in any of his previous tracts. In all probability
Kant gave some attention to this work, though no special reference
to it occurs in his writings, and it may have assisted to give addi-
tional precision to his doctrine. In the curious essay. Dreams of &
Clairvoyant, published 1766, he emphasizes his previously reached
conclusion that connexions of real fact are mediated in our thought
by ultimate notions, but adds that the significance and warrant for
such notions can be furnished only by experience. He is inclined,
therefore, to regard as the function of metaphysics the complete
statement of these ultimate, indemonstrable notions, and therefore
the determination of the limits to knowledge by their means. Even
at this point, where he approximates more closely to Hume than to
any other thinker, the difficulty raised by Hume does not seen
to occur to him. He still appears to think that experience does
warrant the employment of such notions, and when there is takes
into account his correspondence with Lambert during the next fev
Sars, one would be inclined to say that the Arekitektontk of the
tter represents most completely Kant's idea of philosophy.
On another side Kant had been shaking himself free from the
principles of the Leibnitzian philosophy. According to Leibnitz,
space, the order of coexisting things, resulted from the rctatiom of
monads to one another. But Kant began to see that such a con-
ception did not accord with the manner in which we determine
directions or positions in space. In the curious little essay, On the
Ground of distinguishing Particular Divisions in State, he pointed
out that the idea of space as a whole is not dcducible from the
experience of particular spaces, or particular relations of objects m
space, that we only cognize relations in space by reference to space
as a whole, and finally that definite positions involve reference to
space as a given whole.
The whole development of Kant's thought up to this point is
intelligible when regarded from the Leibnitzian point of view, with
which he started. There appears no reason to conclude chat Hume
at this time exercised any direct influence. One may go stiQ
further, and add that even in the Dissertation of 1770. generally
regarded as more than foreshadowing the Kritik, the realty critical
question is not involved. A brief notice of the contents of tan
tract will suffice to show how far removed Kant vet was from the
methods and principles of the critical or transcendental philosophy.
Sense and understanding, according to the Dissertation, are the two
sources of knowledge. The objects of the one are things of sense
or phenomena; the objects of the other are noumena. These are
absolutely distinct, and are not to be regarded as differing only ia
degree. In phenomena we distinguish matter, which is given by
sense, and form, which is the law of the order of sensations. Such
form b twofold — the order of space and time. Sensations formed
by space and time compose the world of appearance, and this
treated by the understanding, according to logical rules, is «_,
ence. But the logical use of the understanding is not its only ^
Much more important is the real use, by which are produced the
pure notions whereby we think things as they are. These pore
notions are the laws of the operation of the intellect; they are
leges inkllectus.
Apart, then, from the expanded treatment of space and time as
subjective forms, we find in the Dissertation little more than the
very precise and definite formulation of the slowly growing opposi-
tion to the Leibnitzian doctrines. That the pure intellectual
notions should be defended as springing from the nature of intellect
is not out of harmony with the statement of the Tr&um* eimes
Geistersehers, for there the pure notions were allowed to exist, but
were not held to have validity for actual things except on grounds
of experience. Here they are supposed to exist, dissevered from
experience, and are allowed validity as determinations of thing* is
themselves.
The stage which Kant had now reached In his philosopHlcsJ
development was one of great significance. The doctrine of kzsow-
ledge expressed in the Dissertation was the final form which the
Wolffian rationalism could assume for him, and, though many of
the elements of the Kritik are contained therein, it was not nealry
in advance of the Wolffian theory. The doctrine of space and Unas)
KANT
667
as forms of sense-perception, the reference of both space and time
and the pore intellectual notions to the laws of the activity of mind
itself, the distinction between sense and understanding as one of
kind, not of degree, with the correlative distinction between pheno-
mena and noumena.— all of these reappear, though changed and
modi bed, in the Kritik. But. despite this resemblance, h seems clear
that, so far as the Dissertation is concerned, the way had only been
prepared for the true critical inquiry, and that the real import of
Hume's sceptical problem had not yet dawned upon Kant. From
the manner, however, in which the doctrine of knowledge had been
stated in the Dissertation, the further inquiry had been rendered
inevitable. It had become quite impossible for Kant to remain
longer satisfied with the ambiguous position assigned to a funda-
mental element of his doctrine of knowledge, the so-called pure
intellectual notions. Those notions, according to the Dissertation,
had no function save in relation to things-in-themselves, i.e.to
objects which are not directly or immediately brought into relation
to our faculty of cognition. They did not serve as the connecting
links of formed experience; on the contrary, they were supposed
to be absolutely dissevered from all experience which was possible
for intelligence like ours. In his previous essays. Kant, while like-
wise maintaining that such pure, irreducible notions existed, had
asserted in general terms that they applied to experience, and that
their applicability or justification rested on experience itself, but
had not raised the question as to the ground of such justification.
Now. from another side, the supreme difficulty was presented — how
could such notions have application to any objects whatsoever?
For some time the correlative difficulty, how objects of sense-
perception were possible, does not seem to have suggested itself
to Kant. In the Dissertation sense-perception had been taken as
receptivity of representations of objects, and experience as the
product of the treatment of such representations by the logical or
analytical processes of understanding. Some traces of this confused
fashion of regarding sense-perceptions are left even in the Kritik,
specially perhaps in the Aestkettk, and they give rise to much of
the ambiguity which unfortunately attaches to the more developed
theory of cognition. So soon, however, as the critical question was
put, On what rests the reference of representations in us to the object
or thing? in other words, How do we come to have knowledge of
objects at all? it became apparent that the problem was one of
perfect generality, and applied, not only to cognition through the
pure notions, but to sense-perceptions likewise. It is in the state-
ment of this general problem that we find the new and characteristic
feature of Kant's work.
There is thus no reason to doubt the substantial accuracy of Kant's
reference to the particular occasion or cause of the critical inquiry.
Up to the stage indicated by the Dissertation he had been attempting,
in various ways, to unite two radically divergent modes of explaining
cognition — that which would account for the content of experience
by reference to affection from things without us, and that which
viewed the intellect itself as somehow furnished with the means of
pure, rational cognition. He now discovered that Hume's sceptical
analysis of the notion of cause was* really the treatment of one
typical or crucial instance of the much more general problem. If
experience, says Hume, consists solely of states of mind somehow
given to us, each of which exists as an effect, and therefore as dis-
tinct from others, with what right do we make the common assump-
tion that parts of experience are necessarily connected ? The only
possible answer, drawn from the premises laid down, must be that
there is no warrant for such an assumption. Necessity for thought,
as Kant had been willing to admit and as Hume also held, involves
or implies something more than is given in experience — for that
which is given is contingent — and rests upon an a priori or pure
notion. But a priori notions, did they exist, could nave no claim
to regulate experience. Hume, therefore, for his part, rejected
entirely the notion of cause as being fictitious and delusive, and
professed to a "count for the habit of regarding experience as neces-
sarily connected by reference to arbitrarily formed custom of
thinking. Experience, as given, contingent material, had a certain
uniformity, and recurring uniformities generated in us the habit of
regarding things as necessarily connected. That such a resort to
experience for explanation could lead to no valid conclusion has
been already noted as evident to Hume himself.
The dogmatic or individualist conception of experience had thus
proved itself inadequate to the solution of Hume's difficulty regarding
the notion of cause, — a difficulty which Kant, erroneously, had
thought to be the only case contemplated by his predecessor. The
perception of its inadequacy in this respect, and the consequent
generalization of Hume's problem, are the essential features of the
new critical method. For Kant was now prepared to formulate
his general inquiry in a definite fashion. His long-continued
reflection on the Wolffian doctrine of knowledge had made dear to
him that synthetic connexion, the essence of real cognition, was
not contained in the products of thinking as a formal activity of
mind operating on material otherwise supplied. On the other hand,
Hume's analysis enabled him to see that synthetic connexion was
not contained in experience regarded as given material. Thus
neither the formal nor the material aspect of conscious experience,
when regarded from the individualist point of view, supplied any
foundation for real knowledge, whether a priori or empirical. An
absolutely new conceptio n of expe ri e nce was necessary, if the fact
of cognition was to be explained at all, and the various modes in
which Kant expresses the business of his critical philosophy went
merely different fashions of stating the one ultimate problem, differ-
ing according to the particular aspect of knowledge which he
happened to have in view. To inquire how synthetic a priori
judgments are possible, or how far cognition extends, or what
worth attaches to metaphysical propositions, is simply to ask, in
a specific form, what elements are necessarily involved In experience
of which the subject is conscious. How is it possible for the indivi-
dual thinking subject to connect together the parts of his experience
in the mode we call cognition?
The problem of the critical philosophy is, therefore, the complete
analysis of experience from the point of view of the conditions under
which such experience is possible for the conscious subject. The
central ideas are thus self-consciousness, as the supreme condition
under which experience is subjectively possible, and the manifold
details of experience as a varied and complex whole. The solution
of the problem demanded the utmost care in keeping the due
balance between these ideas* and it can hardly be paid that Kant
was perfectly successful. He is frequently untrue to the more
comprehensive conception which dominates his work as a whole.
The influence of his previous philosophical training, nay, even the
unconscious influence of terminology, frequently induces in his
statements a certain laxity and want of clearness. He selects
definitely for his starting point neither the idea of self-consciousness
nor the details of experience, but in his actual procedure passes from
one to the other, rarely, if ever, taking into full consideration the
weighty question of their relation to one another. Above all, he is
continuously under the influence of the individualist notion which
he had done so much to explode. The conception Of conscious
experience, which is the net result of the Kritik, is indefinitely pro-
founder and richer than that which had ruled the 18th century
philosophizing, but for Kant such experience still appears as some-
how the arbitrary product of the relation between the individual
conscious subject and the realm of real facts. When he is actually
analysing the conditions of knowledge, the influence of the indivi-
dualist conception is not prominent; the conditions are stated as
quite general, as conditions of knowledge." But so soon as the deeper,
metaphysical problems present themselves, the shadow of the old
doctrine reappears. Knowledge is regarded as a mechanical product,
part furnished by the subject, part given to the subject, and is thus
viewed as mechanically divisible into a priori and a posteriori, into
pure and empirical, necessary and contingent. The individual as
an agent, conscious of universal moral law, is yet regarded as in a
measure opposed to experience, and the Kantian ethical code remains
purely formal. The ultimate relation between intelligence and
natural fact, expressed in the notion of end, is thought as problem-
atic or contingent. The difficulties or obscurities of the Kantian
system, of which the above are merely the more prominent, may all
be traced to the one source, the false or at least inadequate idea of
the individual. The more thorough explanation of the relation
between experience as critically conceived and the individual subject
was the problem left by Kant for his successors.
In any detailed exposition of the critical system it would be
requisite in the first place to state with some fullness the precise
nature of the problems immediately before Kant, and in the second
place to follow with some closeness the successive stages of the
system as presented in the three main works, the Kritik of Pure
Reason, the Kritik of Practical Reason and the Kritik of Judgment,
with the more important of the minor works, the Metapkysic of
Nature and the Metapkysic of Ethics. It would be necessary, also,
in any such expanded treatment, to bring out clearly the Kantian
classification of the philosophical sciences, and to indicate the
relation between the critical or transcendental investigation of the
several faculties and the more developed sciences to which that
investigation serves as introduction. As any detailed statement of
the critical system, however compressed, would be beyond the limits
of the present article, it is proposed here to select only the more
salient doctrines, and to point out in connexion with them what
advance had been effected by Kant, and what remained for sub-
sequent efforts at complete solution of the problems raised by him.
Much that is of interest and value must necessarily be omitted in
any sketch of so elaborate a system, and for all points of special
interpretation reference must needs be made to the many elaborate
dissertations on or about the Kantian philosophy.
The doctrine from which Kant starts in his critical or transcen-
dental investigation of knowledge is that to which the slow develop-
ment of his thought had led Trim. The essence of cognition or
knowledge was a synthetic act, an act of combining in thought
the detached elements of experience. Now synthesis was explicable
neither by reference to pure thought, the logical or elaborative
faculty, which in Kant's view remained analytic in function, nor
by reference to the effects of external real things upon our faculties
of cognition. For, on the one hand, analysis or logical treatment
applied only to objects of knowledge as already given in synthetic
forms, and, on the other hand, real things could yield only isolated
effects and not the combination of these effects in the forms of
cognitive experience. If experience is to be matter of knowledge
for the conscious subject, it must be regarded as the conjoint product
668
KANT
separate facts, but only as factors in the complex organic whole, it
might have been possible to avoid the error of supposing that each
subjective process furnished a distinct, separately cognizable portion
of a mechanical whole. But the use of separate terms, such as
sense and understanding, almost unavoidably led to phraseology
only interprctable as signifying that each furnished a specific kind
of lcnowledge s and all Hants previous training contributed to
strengthen this erroneous view. Especially noteworthy is this in
the case of the categories. Kant insists upon treating these as
Begpffc, notions, and assigns to thero certain characteristics of
notions. But it is readily seen, and in the Login Kant shows him-
self fully aware of the fact, that these pure connective links of
experience, general aspects of objects of intelligible experience, do
not resemble concepts formed by the so-called logical or elaborative
E recesses from representations of completed objects. Nothing but
arm can follow from any attempt to identify two products which
differ so entirely. So, again, the Aesiheiik is rendered extremely
obscure and difficult by the prevalence o£ the view, already noted
as obtaining in the Dissertation, that sense is a faculty receiving
representations of objects. Kant was anxious to avoid the error of
Leibnitz, who had taken sense and understanding to differ in degree
only, not in kind ; but in avoiding the one error he fell into another
of no less importance.
The consideration of the several elements which in combination
make up the fact of cognition, or perception, as it may be called,
contains little or nothing bearing on the origin and nature of the
given data of sense, inner or outer. The manifold of sense, which
plays so important a part in the critical theory of knowledge, is left
in an obscure and perplexed position. So much is clear, however,
that according to Kant sense is not to be regarded as receptive of
representations of objects. The data of sense are mere stimuli, not
partial or confused representations. The sense-manifold is not to
be conceived as having, per st, any of the qualities of objects as
actually cognized; its parts are not cognizable per se, nor can it
with propriety be said to be received successively or simultaneously.
When we apply predicates to the sense-manifold regarded in isola-
tion, we make that which is only a factor in the experience of objects
into a separate, independent object, and use our predicates trans-
ccndently. Kant is not always in his language faithful to his view of
the sense-manifold, but the theory as a whole, together with his own
express definitions, is unmistakable. On the origin of the data of
sense, Kant's remarks are few and little satisfactory. He very
commonly employs the term affection of the faculty of sense as
expressing the mode of origin, but offers no further explanation of
a term which has significance only when interpreted after a somewhat
mechanical fashion. Unquestionably certain of his remarks indicate
the view that the origin is to be sought in things-in-themselves, but
against hasty misinterpretations of such remarks there are certain
cautions to be borne in mind. The relation between phenomena
and noumena in the Kantian system does not in the least resemble
that which plays so important a part in modern psychology —
between the subjective results of sense affection and the character
of the objective conditions of such affection. Kant has pointedly
declared that it would be a gross absurdity to suppose that in hn
view separate, distinct things-in-themselves existed corresponding
to the several objects of perception. And, finally, it is not at afl
difficult to understand why Kant should say that the affection of
sense originated in the action of things-in-themselves, when we
consider what was the thing-in-itsetf to which he was referring.
The thing-in-itself to which the empirical order and relations of
sense-experience are referred is the divine order, which b not matter
of knowledge, but involved in our practical or moral beliefs. Critics
who limit their view to the Kritii of Pure Reason, and there, in all
probability, to the first or constructive portion of the work, must
necessarily fail to interpret the doctrines of the Kantian system,
which do not become clear or definite till the system has been
developed. Reason was, for Kant, an organic whole; the speculative
and moral aspects are never severed ; and the solution of problems
which appear at first sight to belong solely to the region of speculative
thought may be found ultimately to depend upon certain charac-
teristics of our nature as practical.
Data of sense-affection do not contain in themselves synthetic
combination. The first conditions of such combination are found
by Kant in the universal forms under which alone sense-phenomena
manifest themselves in experience. These universal forms of per*
ception, space and time, are necessary, a priori, and in character-
istic features resembling intuitions, not notions. They occupy,
therefore, a peculiar position, and one section of the Afi/ta, the
Aesihetik, is entirely devoted to the consideration of them. It is
important to observe that it is only through the a priori character
of these perceptive forms that rational science of nature is at al
possible. Kant is here able to resume, with fresh insight, his pre-
vious discussions regarding the synthetic character of mathematical
propositions. In his early essays he had rightly drawn the distinc-
tion between mathematical demonstration and philosophic proof,
referring the certainty of the first to the fact that the const ructions
were synthetic in character and entirety determined by the act too
of constructive imagination. It had not then occurred to him to
ask, With what right do we assume that the conclusions arrived at
from arbitrary constructions in mathematical matter have applica-
bility to objects of experience? M ight not mathematics be a purely
imaginary science? To this question he is now enabled to return an
answer. Space and time, the two essential conditions of scnae
perception, are not data given by things, but universal forms of
intellect into which all data of sense must be received. Hence.
whatever is true of space and time regarded by imagination as
objects, i.e. quantitative constructions, must be true of the objects
making up our sense-experience. The same forms and the same
constructive activity of Imagination are involved in mathenintsGaJ
KANT
669
ayntheais and in the constitution of object* of se n se <xp c rien oe. The
foundation for pure or rational mathematics, there being included
under this the pure science of movement, is thus laid in the critical
doctrine of space and time.
The Atsthetik isolates sense-perception, and considers its forms as
though it were an independent, complete faculty. A certain con-
fusion, arising from this, is noticeable in the Analytik when the
necessity for justifying the position of the categories is under dis-
cussion, but the real difficulty in which Kant was involved by his
doctrine of space and time has its roots even deeper than the
erroneous isolation of sensibility. He has not in any way "de-
duced " space and time, but, proceeding from the ordinary current
view of sense-experience, has found these remaining as residuum
after analysts. The relation in which they stand to the categories
or pure notions is ambiguous; and, when Kant has to consider the
fashion in which category and data of sense are to be brought
together, he merely places side by side as a priori elements the pure
connective notions and the pure forms of perception, and finds it,
apparently, only a matter of contingent convenience that they
should harmonize with one another and so render cognition possible.
To this point also Fichte was the first to call attention.
Affection of sense, even when received into the pure forms of
perception, is not matter of knowledge. For cognition there is
requisite synthetic combination, ana the intellectual function
through which such combination takes place. The forms of in-
tellectual function Kant proceeds to enumerate with the aid of the
commonly received logical doctrines. For this reference to logic
be has been severely blamed, but the precise nature of the debt due
to the commonly accepted logical classification is very generally
misconceived. Synthetic combination, Kant points out, is formally
expressed in a judgment, which is the act of uniting representations.
At the foundation of the judgments which express the types of
synthetic combination, through which knowledge is possible, lie
the pure general notions, the abstract aspect of the conditions under
which objects are cognizable in experience. General logic has also
to deal with the union of representations, though its unity is analytic
merely, not synthetic. But the same intellectual function which
serves to give unity in the analytic judgments of formal logic serves
to give unity to the synthetic combinations of real perception. It
appeared evident, then, to Kant that in the forms of judgment, as
they are stated in the common logic, there must be found the
analogues of the types of judgment which are involved in transcen-
dental logic, or in the theory of real cognition. His view of the
ordinary logic was wide and comprehensive, though in his restriction
of the science to pure form one can trace the influence of his earlier
training, and it is no small part of the value of the critical philosophy
that it has revived the study of logic and prepared the way for a
more thorough consideration of logical doctrines. The position
assigned to logic by Kant is not, in all probability, one which can
be defended ; indeed, it is hard to see how Kant himself, in consis-
tency with the critical doctrine of knowledge, could have retained
many of the older logical theorems, but the precision with which
the position was stated, and the sharpness with which logic was
marked off from cognate philosophic disciplines, prepared the way
for the more thoughtful treatment of the whole question.
Formal logic thus yields to Kant the list of the general notions,
pure intellectual predicates, or. categories, through which alone
experience is possible for a conscious subject. It has already been
noted how serious was the error involved in the description of
these as notions, without further attempt to clear up their precise
significance. Kant, indeed, was mainly influenced by his strong
opposition to the Leibnitzian rationalism, and therefore assigns the
categories to understanding, the logical faculty, without considera-
tion of the question, — which might have been suggested by the
previous statements of the Dissertation, — what relation these cate-
gories held to the empirical notions formed by comparison, abstrac-
tion and generalization when directed upon representations of
objects. But when the categories are described as notions, i.e.
formed products of thought, there rises of necessity the problem
which had presented itself to Kant at every stage of his pre-critical
thinking, — with what right can we assume that these notions apply
to objects of experience? The answer which he proceeds to give
altogether explodes the definition of the categories as formed pro-
ducts of thought, and enables us to sec more clearly the nature of
the new conception of experience which lies in the background of
all the critical work.
The unity of the ego, which has been already noted as an element
entering into the synthesis of cognition, is a unity of a quite distinct
and peculiar kind. That the ego to which different parts of experi-
ence are presented must be the same ego, if there is to be cognition
at all, is analytically evident; but the peculiarity is that the ego
must be conscious of its own unity and identity, and this unity of
self-consciousness is only possible in relation to difference not
contained in the ego but given to it. The unity of apperception,
then, as Kant calls it, is only possible in relation to synthetic unity
of experience itself, and the forms of this synthetic unity, the cate-
gories, are, therefore, on the one hand, necessary as forms in which
•elf-consciousness is realized, and, on the other hand, restricted in
their application and validity to the data of given sense, or the
particular element of experience. Thus experience presents itself
as the organic combination of the particular of sense with the
individual unity of the ego through the universal forms of the
categories. Reference of representations to the unity of the object,
synthetic unity of apperception, and subsumptlon of data of sense
under the categories, are thus three sides or aspects of the one
fundamental fact.
In this deduction of the categories, as Kant calls it, there appears
for the first time an endeavour to connect together into one organic
whole the several elements entering into experience. It is evident,
however, that much was wanting before this essential task could be
regarded as complete. Kant has certainly brought together self-
consciousness, the system of the categories and data of sense. He
has shown that the conditions of self-consciousness are the conditions
of possible experience. But be has not shown, nor did he attempt
to show, how it was that the conditions of self-consciousness are
the very categories arrived at by consideration of the system of
logical judgments. He does endeavour to show, but with small
success, how the junction of category and data of sense is brought
about, for according to his scheme these stood, to a certain extent
at least, apart from and independent of one another. The failure
to effect an organic combination of the several elements was the
natural consequence of the false start which had been made.
The mode in which Kant endeavours to show how the several
portions of cognition are subjectively realized brings into the clearest
light the inconsistencies and imperfections of his doctrine. Sense
had been assumed as furnishing the particular of knowledge, under-
standing as furnishing the universal; and it had been expressly
declared that the particular was cognizable only in and through the
universal. Still, each was conceived as somehow in itself complete
and finished. Sense and understanding had distinct functions, and
there was wanting some common term, some intermediary which
should bring them into conjunction. Data of sense as purely
particular could have nothing in common with the categories as
purely universal. But data of sense had at least one universal
aspect, — their aspect as the particular of the general forms, space
and time. Categories were in themselves abstract and valueless,
serviceable only when restricted to possible objects of experience.
There was thus a common ground on which category and intuition
were united in one, and an intermediate process whereby the univer-
sal of the category might be so far individualized as to comprehend
the particular of sense. This intermediate process — which is really
the junction of understanding and sense — Kant calls productive
imagination, and it is only through productive imagination that
knowledge or experience is actually realized in our subjective
consciousness. The specific forms of productive imagination are
called schemata, and upon the nature of the schema Kant gives much
that has proved of extreme value for subsequent thought.
Productive imagination is thus the concrete element of knowledge,
and its general modes are the abstract expression of the a priori
laws of all possible experience. The categories are restricted in
their applicability to the schema, i.e. to the pure forms of conjunction
of the manifold in time, and in the modes of combination of schemata
and categories we have the foundation for the rational sciences of
mathematics and physics. Perception or real cognition is thus
conceived as a complex fact, involving data of sense and pure
perceptive forms, determined by the category and realised through
productive imagination in the schema. The system of principles
which may be deduced from the consideration 01 the mode in which
understanding and sense are united by productive imagination is
the positive result of the critical theory of knowledge, and some of
its features are remarkable enough to deserve attention. According
to his usual plan, Kant arranges these principles in conformity with
the table of the categories, dividing the four classes, however, into
two main groups, the mathematical and the dynamical. The
mathematical principles are the abstract expression of the necessary
mode in which data of sense are determined by the category in the
form of intuitions or representations of objects; the dynamical are
the abstract expression of the* modes in which the existence of
objects of intuition is determined. The mathematical principles are
constitutive, ix. express determinations of the objects themselves;
the dynamical are regulative, »>. express the conditions under which
objects can form parts of real experience. Under the mathematical
pnnciples come the general rules which furnish the ground for the
application of quantitative reasoning to real facts of experience. For
as data of sense are only possible objects when received in the forms
of space and time, and as space and time are only cognized when
determined in definite fashion by the understanding through the
schema of number (quantity) or degree (quality), all intuitions are
extensive quantities and contain a real element, that of sense, which
has degree. Under the dynamical principles, the general modes in
which the existence of objects are determined, fall the analogies
of experience, or general rules according to which the existence of
objects in relation to one another can be determined, and the
postulates of experience, the general rules according to which the
existence of objects for us or our own subjective existence can be
determined. The analogies of experience rest upon the order of
perceptions in time, U. their permanence, succession or coexistence,
and the principles are respectively those of substance, causality and
reciprocity. It is to be observed that Kant in the expression of
these analogies reaches the final solution of the difficulty which had
670
KANT
involve a transcendent use of the categories of .
> the bouI, for no intuition
- — _- _- experience. Tt
profits not to apply such categories to the soul, for no intuition
corresponding to them is or can be given. The idea of the son!
roust be regarded as transcendent, bo too when we endeavour,
with the help of the categories of quantity, quality, relation and
modality, to determine the nature and relation of parts of the world,
we find that reason is landed in a peculiar difficulty. Any solution
that can be given is too narrow for the demands of reason and too
wide for the restrictions of understanding. The transcendent
employment of the categories leads to antinomy, or equally balanced
statements of apparently contradictory results. Due attention to
the relation between understanding and reason enables us to solve
the antinomies and to discover their precise origin and significance.
Finally, the endeavour to find in the conception of God, as the
supreme reality, the explanation of experience, is seen to lead to
no valid conclusion. There is not any intuition given whereby we
might show the reality of our idea of a Supreme Being. So far as
knowledge is concerned, God remains a transcendental ideal.
The criticism of the transcendental 'ideas, which is also the
examination of the claims of meta physic to rank as a science, yields
a definite and intelligible result. These ideas, the expression of the
various modes in which unity of reason may be sought, have no
objects correspondine to them in the sphere of cognition. They
have not, therefore, like the categories, any constitutive value, and an
attempts at metaphysical construction with the notions or categories
of science must be resigned as of necessity hopeless. But the ideas
are not, on that account, destitute of all value. They arc supremely
significant, as indicating the very essence of the function ot reason.
The limits of scientific cognition become intelligible, only when the
sphere of understanding is subjected to critical reflexion and com-
pared with the possible sphere of reason, that is, the sphere of
rationally complete cognition. The ideas, therefore, in relation to
knowledge strictly so called, have regulative value, for they furnish
the general precepts for extension and completion of knowledge,
and, at the same time, since they spring from reason itself, they
have a real value in relation to reason as the very inmost nature
of intelligence. Self-consciousness cannot be regarded as merely
a mechanically determined result. Free reflection upon the whole
system of knowledge is sufficient to indicate that the sphere of
intuition, with its rational principles, docs not exhaust conscious
experience. There still remains, over and above the realm of nature,
the realm of free, self-conscious spirit; and, within this sphere, it
may be anticipated that the ideas will acquire a significance richer
and deeper than the merely regulative import which they prawn
in reference to cognition.
Where, then, are we to look for this realm of free self-conscious-
ness? Not in the sphere of cognition, where objects are mechani-
cally determined, but in that of will or of reason aspractical. That
reason is practical or prescribes ends for itself is sufficiently manifest
from the mere fact of the existence of the conception of morality or
duty, a conception which can have no corresponding object within
the sphere of intuition, and which is theoretically, or in accordance
with the categories of understanding, incognizable. The presence
of this conception is the datum upon which may be founded a special
investigation of the conditions of reason as practical, a Krttik of
pure practical reason, and the analysis of it yields the statement of
the formal prescripts of morality.
The realization of duty is impossible for any being which b not
thought as free, i.e. capable of self-determination. Freedom, it is
true, is theoretically not an object of cognition, but its impossibility
is not thereby demonstrated. The theoretical proof rather serves
as useful aid towards the more exact determination of the nature
and province of self-determination, and of its relation to the whole
concrete nature of humanity. For in man self-de*ermination and
mechanical determination by empirical motives coexist, and only to
so far as he belongs and is conscious of belonging both to the sphere
of sense and to the sphere of reason does moral obligation become
possible for him. The supreme end prescribed by reason in its
practical aspect, namely, the complete subordination of the empirical
side of nature to the prescripts of morality, demands, as conditions
of its possible realization, the permanence of ethical progress in the
moral agent, the certainty of freedom in self-determination, and the
necessary harmonizing of the spheres of sense and reason through
the intelligent author or ground of both. These conditions, the
postulates of practical reason, are the concrete expressions of the
three transcendental ideas, and in them we have the full significance
of the ideas for reason. Immortality of the soul, positive freedom
of will, and the existence of an intelligent ground of things are-
speculative ideas practically warranted, though theoretically neither
demonstrable nor comprehensible.
Thus reason as self-determining supplies notions of freedom;
reason as determined supplies categories of understanding. Union
between the two spheres, which seem at first sight disparate, is
found in the necessary postulate that reason shall be realized, for its
realization is only possible in the sphere of sense. But such a union*
when regarded fit obttracto. rests upon, or involves, a notion of quite
a new order, that of the adaptation of nature to reason, or. as it
may be expressed, that of end in nature. Understanding and
reason thus coalesce in the faculty of judgment, which mediate*
between, or brings together, the universal and particular »»»i»Tntsj
KANT
671
in conscious exoenence. Judgment Is here merely rtfUcltve-, that
Is to say, the particular element is given, so determined as to be
possible materuil of knowledge, white the universal, not necessary
lor cognition, is supplied by reason itself. The empirical details of
nature, which are not determined by the categories of understanding,
are judged as being arranged or ordered by intelligence, for in no
other fashion could nature, in its particular, contingent aspect, be
thought as forming a complete, consistent, intelligible whole.
The investigation of the conditions under which adaptation of
nature to intelligence is conceivable and possible makes up the
subject of the third great Kritik, the Kriixk of Judgment, a work
presenting unusual difficulties to the interpreter of the Kantian
system. The general principle of the adaptation of nature to our
faculties of cognition has two specific applications, with the second
of which it is more closely connected than with the first. In the
first place, the adaptation may be merely subjective, when the
empirical condition for the exercise of judgment is furnished by the
feeling of pleasure or pain; such adaptation is aesthetic. In the
second place, the adaptation may be objective or logical, when
empirical facts are given of such a kind that their possibility can
be conceived only through the notion of the end realized in them:
such adaptation is ideological, and the empirical facts in question
are organisms.
Aesthetics, or the scientific consideration of the judgments resting
on the feelings of pleasure and pain arising from the harmony or
want of harmony between the particular of experience and the laws
of understanding, is the special subject of the Krilik of Judgment,
but the doctrine of teleology there unfolded is the more important
for the complete view of the critical system. For the analysis of
the teleotogical judgment and of the consequences flowing from it
leads to the final statement of the nature of experience as conceived
by Kant. The phenomena of organic production furnish data for a
special kind of judgment, which, however, involves or rests upon
a quite general principle, that of the contingency of the particular
element in nature and its subjectively necessary adaptation to our
faculty of cognition. The notion of contingency arises, according
to Kant, from the fact that understanding and sense are distinct,
that understanding docs not determine the particular of sense, and,
consequently, that the principle of the adaptation of the particular
to our understanding is merely supplied by reason on account of the
peculiarity or limited character of understanding. End in nature,
therefore, is a subjective or problematic conception, implying the
limits of understanding, and consequently resting upon the idea of
•n understanding constituted unlike ours — of an intuitive under-
standing in which particular and universal should be given together.
The idea of such an understanding is, for cognition, transcendent,
for no corresponding fact of intuition is furnished, but it is realised
with practical certainty in relation to reason as practical. For we
are, from practical grounds, compelled with at least practical
necessity to ascribe a certain aim or end to this supreme understa nd-
ing. The moral law, or reason as practical, prescribes toe realiza-
tion of the highest good, and such realization implies a higher order
than that ol nature. We must, therefore, regard the supreme
cause as a moral cause, and nature as so ordered that realization of
the moral end is in it possible. The final conception of the Kantian
philosophy is, therefore, that of ethical teleology. As Kant expresses
it in a remarkable passage of the Krilik, " The systematic unity of
ends in this world of intelligences, which, although as mere mture
it is to be called only the world of sense, can yet as a system of
freedom be called an intelligible, i.e. moral world (regnum gratia*),
leads inevitably to the ideological unity of all things which consti-
tute this great whole according to universal natural laws, just as
the unity of the former is according to universal and necessary moral
laws, and unites the practical with the speculative reason. The
world must be represented as having originated from an idea, if it
is to harmonize with that use of reason without which we should
hold ourselves unworthy of reason — viz. the moral use, which
rests entirely on the idea of the supreme good. Hence all natural
research tends towards the form of a system of ends, and in its
highest development would be a physico- theology. But this, since
it arises from the moral order as a unity grounded in the very
essence of freedom and not accidentally instituted by external
commands, establishes the teleology of nature on grounds which
a priori must be inseparably connected with the inner possibility of
things. The teleology of nature is thus made to rest on a transcen-
dental theology, which takes the ideal of supreme ontological per-
fection as a principle of systematic unity, a principle which connects
all things according to universal and necessary natural laws, since
they all have their origin in the absolute necessity of a single primal
being " (p 538).
Bibliogra phy. — Editions and works of reference are exceedingly
numerous. Since 1806 an indispensable guide is the periodical
review Kantstudien (Hamburg and Berlin, thrice yearly), edited by
Hans Vaihinger and Bruno Bauch. which contains admirable
original articles and notices of all important books on Kant and
Kantianism. It has reproduced a number of striking portraits of
Kant. For books up to 1887 see Erich Adickes in Philosophical
Review (Boston, 1892 foil); for 1890-1894 R. Rcicke's Kant
Bibliographic (1 895). See also in general the latest edition of
Ueberwcg's Crundnss der CeschichU der Philosophic.
Pk\iosopky^f )tan^Bx^iMd (1 908). "ita* and Ins ' ingltsk Cnsic's
KANURI— KARACHI
V XV
V \\v ^ ^
***^ N.*^
V
v* A*; X,)
"~ *V» >v - ^,->vN<KNi a*d coarse-
v " vS *^ ^% * *4* »*«* r \x« them by the
i s
.^V ^,
-. »i — ^
-V. < k>« aW a* «t&*<lay, since it
vxv> x *• V -k» »^k«s\«0t ^ china, or porce-
xv » *»^»*k vs.^..\ * ^^ fe v some authors
v v X a vvs « ... s x\» s Vf OV»»v*e Kathling, meaning
v *% . x nS % \ ,i xSA ^ ^ Kiug*te-chen, whence
*** n> Europe were obtained
\a ,k*uil missionary in China
«>s His specimens, examined
►*\>l that true porcelain, the
>*»*ly been known in Europe,
>**, which came to be known
fvtly— as kaolin and petuntse,
r china-clay and china-stone.
he paste and secures retention
I to the heat of the kiln, whilst
y so characteristic of porcelain.
of kaolin in Europe were at
Mid at St Yrieix, near Limoges
discovered in Cornwall about
worthy, of Plymouth; and in
iking porcelain from moorstone
>wan clay (kaolin), the latter
ibility " to the china. These
Trcgonning Hill, near Breage,
in Brannel, near St Austell,
nufacture of hard paste, or true
iquently at Bristol.
m silicate, having the formula
t in common clay this silicate
Certain clays contain pearly
microscopic, referable to the
the chemical composition of
ncc was termed kaolinilc by
n 1867, and it is now regarded
aolinite of Amlwch in Anglesey
The origin of kaolin may be
aluminous silicates like feldspar,
all large deposits of china-day
Idspar, generally in granite, but
, &c. The turbidity of many
" kaolinization," or alteration
s of Cornwall and Devon are
has become kaolinized. These
rardazite, a name proposed by
ality, the Cardaze mine, near
upposed that the alteration of
mainly by meteoric agencies,
tosed the alkaline silicate of the
ilicate assumes a hyd rated con-
my cases, however, it seems
Feet ed by subterranean agencies,
v aobably by heated vapours carrying fluorine and boron, since
Minerals containing these elements, like tourmaline, often occur
*•» *^ociatibn with the china-clay. According to F. H. Butler
^ kftolinization of the west of England granite may have been
y i,vtfd by a solution of carbonic acid at a high temperature,
, N «>i»H from below.
V h« 1 hina-slone, or petuntse, is a granitic rock which still
„»*»«% much of the unaltered feldspar, on which its fusibility
^,>«*vU In order to prepare kaolin for the market, the china-
v<\\ twk it broken up, and the clay washed out by means of
watee* Toe liquid contafnlng the clay in mechanical suspension
is tw Into channels called " drags " where the coarser ira-
p*mtes subside, and whence it passes to another set of channels
known as " micas," where the finer materials settle down.
Thus purified, the day-water is led into a series of pits or tanks,
in which the finely divided clay is slowly deposited; and, after
acquiring sufficient consistency, it is transferred to the drying-
house, or " dry," healed by flues, where the moisture is expelled,
and the kaolin obtained as a soft white earthy substance. The
day has extensive application in the arts, being used not only
in ceramic manufacture but in paper- making, bleaching and
various chemical industries.
Under the species " kaolinile " may be induded several
minerals which have received distinctive names, such as the
Saxon mineral called from its pearly lustre nacrile, a name
originally given by A. Brongniart to a nacreous mica; pholerite
found chiefly in cracks of ironstone and named by J. Guillemin
from the Greek <tv\ls, a scale; and lithomarge, the old
German Stcinnork, a compact day-like body of white, yellow
or red colour. Dr C. Hintze has pointed out that the word
pholerite should properly be written pholidite (cVoXis, $o\£oc).
Gosely related to kaolinite is the mineral called halloysile, a
name given to it by P. Berthier after his unde Omaiius
d'Halloy, the Belgian geologist. (F. W. R.*)
KAPUNDA, a municipal town of Light county, South Aus-
tralia, 48 m. by rail N.N.E. of Adelaide. Pop. (1901), 1S05.
It is the centre of a large wheat-growing district. The celebrated
copper mines discovered in 1843 were closed in 1879. There are
quarries near the town, in which is found fine marble of every
colour from dark blue to white. This marble was largdy used
in the Houses of Parliament at Adelaide.
KAPURTHALA, a native state of India, within the Punjab.
Area, 65a sq. m., pop. (1001), 314,341, showing an increase of
5% in the decade; estimated gross revenue, £178,000; tribute,
£8700. The Kapurthala family is descended from Jassa Singh,
a contemporary of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah, who by his
intelligence and bravery made himself the leading Sikh of his
day. At one time it held possessions on both sides of the Sullej,
and also in the Bari Doab. The cis-Sutlej estates and scattered
tracts in the Bari Doab were forfeited owing to the hostility
of the chief in the first Sikh war; but the latter were afterwards
restored in recognition of the loyalty of Raja Rahdhir Singh
during the mutiny of 1857, when he led a contingent to Oudh
which did good service. He also received a grant of land in
Oudh, 700 sq. m. in extent, yielding a gross rental of £80,000,
In Oudh, however, he exercises no sovereign powers, occupying
only the status of a large landholder, with the title of Raja-i-
Rajagan. Raja Sir Jagatjit Singh, K. C.S.I. , was born in 187s,
succeeded his father in 1877, and attained his majority in 1800.
During the Tirah expedition of 1897-98 the Kapurthala imperial
service infantry took a prominent part. The territory is crossed
by the railway from Jullundur to Amritsar. The state has a
large export trade in wheat, sugar, tobacco and cotton. The
hand-painted cloths and metal-work of Phagwara are weS
known. The town of Kapurthala is zi miles from Jullundur,
pop. (1901), 18,519.
KARACHI, or Kurrachee, a seaport and district of British
India, in the Sind province of Bombay. The dty is situated at
the extreme western end of the Indus delta, 500 m. by sea from
Bombay and 820 m. by rail from Lahore, being the maritime
terminus of the North- Western railway, and the main gateway
for the trade of the Punjab and part of central Asia. It is also
the capital of the province of Sind. Pop. (1881), 73,500;
(1891), 105,199; (1901), 115,407. Before 1725 no town appears
to have existed here; but about that time some little trade began
to centre upon the convenient harbour, and the silting up cf
Shahbandar, the ancient port of Sind, shortly afterwards drove
much of its former trade and population to the rising village.
Under the Kalhora princes, the khan of Kalat obtained a grant
of the town, but in 1795 it was captured by the Talpur Mrrs, who
built the fort at Manora, at the entrance to the harbour. They
also made considerable efforts to increase the trade of the port
KARAGEORGE
673
and at the time of the British acquisition of tht province the tow*
and suburbs contained a population of 14,000. This was in 1843,
from which time the importance of the place practically dates.
The harbour of Karachi has an extreme length and breadth
of about 5 m. It is protected by the promontory of Manor*
Head; and the entrance is partially closed by rocks and by the
peninsula (formerly an island) of Kiamari On Manora Head,
which is fortified, are the buildings of the port establishment, a
cantonment, &c Kiamari is the landing-place Jor passengers
and goods, and has three piers and railway connexions. The
harbour improvements were begun in 1854 with the building of
the Napier Mole or causeway connecting Kiamari with the main-
land. The entrance has a minimum depth of 25 ft.; and a large
number of improvements and extensions have been carried out
by the harbour board, which was created in i88o,and transformed
in 1886 into the port trust.
The great extension of the canal colonies in the Punjab,
entirely devoted to the cultivation of wheat, has immensely
increased the export trade of Karachi It now ranks as the
third port of India, being surpassed only by Calcutta and
Bombay. The principal articles of export, besides wheat, are
oilseeds, cotton, wool, hides and bones. The annual value of
exports, including specie, amounts to about nine millions
sterling. There are iron works and manufactures of cotton
doth, silk scarves and carpets. The fisheries and oyster beds
are important.
Among the principal public buildings are government house,
the Frere municipal hall, and the Napier barracks. The military
cantonments, stretching north-east of the city, form the head-
quarters of a brigade in the 4th division of the southern army.
An excellent water supply is provided by an underground
aqueduct 18 m. in length. The chief educational institutions
are the Dayaram Jethmal Arts College, with a law class; five
high schools, of which two are for Europeans and one for
Mahommedans; a convent school for gids; and an engineer-
ing class. The average rainfall for the year is about 5 in.
The rainy months are July and August, but one or two heavy
showers usually fall about Christmas. The end of May, begin-
ning of June, and first fortnight in October are hot. November,
December, January, February and March are delightfully cool
and dry; the remaining months are damp with a constant cool
Seabreeze.
The District or Karachi has an area of 1 1,970 sq. m. Pop.
(1001), 607,430, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. It
consists of an immense tract of land stretching from the mouth
of the Indus to the Baluch boundary. It differs in general
appearance from the rest of Sind, having a rugged, mountainous
region along its western border. The country gradually slopes
away to the south-east, till in the extreme south the Indus delta
presents a broad expanse of low, flat and unpicturesque alluvium.
Besides the Indus and its mouths, the only river in the district
is the Hab, forming the boundary between Sind and Baluchistan.
The Manchhar lake in Sehwan sub-division forms the only con-
siderable sheet of water in Sind. The hot springs at Fir Mangho
are 6 m. N. of Karachi town. The principal crops are rice,
millets, oil-seeds and wheat. In addition to Karachi, there are
seaports at Sirgonda and Keti Bandar, which conduct a con-
siderable coasting trade. Tatta was the old capital of Sind.
Kotri is an important railway station on the Indus. The main
line of the North-Western railway runs through the district.
From Kotri downwards the line has been doubled to Karachi,
and at Kotri a bridge has been constructed across the Indus
opposite Hyderabad, to connect with the Rajputana railway
system.
See A. F. Bafllie, Kurrachu: Past, Prtstnt and Future (1890).
KARAGEORGE (in Servian, Karadyordye) (c. 1766-1817), the
leader of the Servians during their first revolution against the
Turks (1804-13). and founder of the Servian dynasty Kara-
georgevich. His Christian name was George (Dyordye), but
being not only of dark complexion but of gloomy, taciturn and
easily excitable temper, he was nicknamed by the Servians
" Tsmi Dyordye " and by the Turks " Karageorge," both mean*
ing "Black George," the Turkish name becoming soon the
generally adopted one. He was born in 1 766 (according to some
in 1768), the son of an extremely poor Servian peasant, Petroniye
Petrovich. When quite a young man, he entered the service
of a renowned Turkish brigand, Fazli-Bey by name, and
accompanied his master on his adventurous expeditions. When
twenty he married and started a small farm. But having killed
a Turk, he left Servia for Syrmia, in Croatia-Slavonia, where
the monks of the monastery Krushedol engaged him as one
of their forest guards. He remained in the service of the monks
nearly two years, then enlisted into an Austrian regiment, and
as sergeant took part in the Austrian war against Turkey
(1788-01). He deserted his regiment, returned to Servia, and
settled in the village of Topola, living sometimes as a peaceful
farmer and sometimes again as the leader of a small band of
" hayduks "--men who attacked, robbed and in most cases
killed the travelling Turks in revenge for the oppression of their
country.
The circumstances in which the Servians rose against the
janissaries of the pashalik of Belgrade are related in the
article on Servia. The leaders of the insurgents' bands and
other men of influence met about the middle of February 1804
at the village of Orashatz, and there elected Karageorge as the
supreme leader (Vrhovni Vozd) of the nation. Under his
command the Servians speedily cleared their country not only
of the janissaries disloyal to the Sultan, but of all other Turks,
who withdrew from the open country to the fortified places.
Karageorge and his armed Servians demanded from the Sultan
the privileges of self-government. The Forte, confronted by
the chances of a war with Russia, decided in the autumn of
1806 to grant to the Servians a fairly large measure of autonomy.
Unfortunately Karageorge was comparatively poor in political
gifts and diplomatic tact. While the hatiisherij granting the
rights demanded by the Servians was on the way to Servia,
Karageorge attacked the Turks in Belgrade and Shabals,
captured the towns first and then also the citadels, and allowed
the Turkish population of Belgrade to be massacred. At the
same time the Russian headquarters in Bucharest informed
Karageorge that Russia was at war with Turkey and that the
Tsar counted on the co-operation of the Servians. Karageorge
and his Servians then definitely rejected all the concessions
which the Porte bad granted them, and joined Russia, hoping
thereby to secure the complete independence of Servia. The
co-operation of the Servians with the Russians was of no great
importance, and probably disappointing to both parties. But
as the principal theatre of war was far away from Servia on the
lower Danube, Karageorge was able to give more attention to
the internal organization of Servia. The national assembly
proclaimed Karageorge the hereditary chief and gospodar of
the Servians (Dec. 20, 1808), he on his part promising under
oath to govern the country "through and by the national
council " (senate).
Karageorge 's hasty and uncompromising temper and imperious
habits, as well as his want of political tact, soon made him many
enemies amongst the more prominent Servians (voyvodes and
senators). His difficulties were considerably increased by the
intrigues of the Russian political agent to Servia, Rodophinikin.
A crisis came during the summer months of the year 1813. The
treaty of peace, concluded by the Russians somewhat hurriedly
in Bucharest in 181 2, did not secure efficiently the safety of the
Servians. The Turks demanded from Karageorge, as a pre-
liminary condition for peace, that the Servians should lay down
their arms, and Karageorge refused to comply. Thereupon the
entire Turkish army which fought against the Russians on the
Danube, being disengaged, invaded Servia. After a few
inefficient attempts to stem the invasion, Karageorge gave up
the struggle, and with most of the voyvodes and chiefs of the
nation left the country, and crossed to Hungary as a refugee
(Sept. 20, 1813). From Hungary be went to Russia and settled
in Khotin (Bessarabia), enjoying a pension from the Tsar's
government. But in the summer of 1817 he suddenly »—■
KARA-HISSAR— KARAJICH
674-
•eerrtly left Russia and reappeared quite alone in Servia in I
th* neighbourhood of Semendria (Smederevo) oa the Danube.
-The motives and the object of his return are not dear, Some
w e ||evc that he was scot by the Hetaerists to raise op Servia to
* new war with Turkey and thereby f acilitate the rising of the
C)rfC k people. It b generally assumed, however, that, having
kc^irti that Servia, under the guidance of Milosh Obrenovich,
fc*<I obtained a certain measure of self-government, be desired
to put himself again at the head of the nation. This impression
^eerrts to have been that of Milosh himself, who at once reported
to t *»e Pasha of Belgrade the arrival of Karageorge. The pasha
^m-Jtmkd that Karageorge, ahre or dead, should be delivered to
It; a* immediately, and nude Milosh personally responsible for
IV esecutkm of that order. Karageorge*s removal could not
V n tortuaatery he separated from the personal interest of Milosh;
m » : vady ackrow lodged as chief of the nation, Milosh did not like
tv> ».< d^pUocd by his old chief, who in a critical moment had
fe.tt the country. Karageorge was killed (July *?, O.S., 1817)
m v * - he was as>ep. aad Ms head was sent to the pasha for trans*
v - ?•<*** to Ctvtsta? t inople. It b impossible to exonerate Milosh
0^*»> vSc " frNS1 responsibility for the murder, which became
tSe startup point for a series of tragedies in the modem history
Ka: *$**•?• we* one of the most remarkable Servians of the
i?:h cc^:- >, Ko other man could have led the bands of
% .j.v :xd and h*dt\>armed Servian peasants to such decisive
-,-vtor.i «jTt'3at the lurks. Ah bough he never assumed the
t.;,e *s p**^r» he practically was the first chief and master
u -. ha.'."* oi the people of Servia. He succeeded, however, not
**>*«*? he was liked hut because be was feared. His gloomy
^ vT-xX- "s > e*<* * a?\>u5<d anger, his habit of punishing without
fcv^;itv« *y* *I$Mc*t transgressions by death, spread terror
m ^v^< tSe pcvfCe. He is believed to have killed bis own father
w > n w ar$ec «hen the old man refused to follow him in his
* <M t* Hwgary at the beginning of his career. In another
»« v* f*r* at (he report that his brother Marinko had assaulted
a * x\. he vvdeml his men to seize his brother and to hang him
tV«f **»vl then in his presence, and he forbade his mother to go
i . *» hsx»- !".<|K>» him. Even by his admirers he is admitted to
a>*\* t„;<d b\ his own hand no fewer than 125 men who pro-
<*vU\l aw anger. But in battles he is acknowledged to have
tnv » ,*!* *>* *d miracle, displaying marvellous energy and valour,
» si **\ »n* proofs of a real military genius. The Servians con-
» x, ^w w of their greatest men. In grateful remembrance
c . *.* *ti\ toes to the national cause they elected his younger son,
.\ vender* in 1841, to be the reigning prince of Servia, and
*x « rt »* tooj they chose his grandson, Peter Karageorgevich
t^>, *l AW\*nder) to be the king of Servia.
^v^i>u; also Ranke, Die serbiuJu Resolution; Stoyan Nova-
av, ■, V » ^ili srpske drxhavc (Belgrade, 1904); M. C. Milityevich,
A^«*^w (Belgrade, 1904). (C. Mi.)
RA*A«HtSUR (" Black CasUe "). (1) Apium Kara-
|Ii<*mi l*» K (a) Ichjb, or Ischa Kara-Hissar (anc Doci-
«m«*\ a small village about 14 m. N.E. of No. 1. Docimium
«a» a M*c*xWman colony established op an older site. It was
a kU c*vvtuing municipality, striking its own coins, and stood
v** th* A)VAnHNk-$ynnada-Pessinus road, by which the cele-
t*«t*xl fcuiUt called Synnadic, Docimian and Phrygian was
v >*\x>*d U» the coast. The quarries are 2 J m. from the village,
*«x! t>w nutbW was carried thence direct to Synnada (Chifut
KavuKaV S»me of the marble has the rich purple veins in
thtvh p»cu saw the blood of Atys.
S« V\\ M Ramw, Wist Geof, of A si* Minor (London, 1890);
Mmt*t, lilt, a* As* Minor (1893).
KARA4IISUR SJU1KI [i.e. "eastern Kara-Hissar"],
abo cauVd Shahia Kara«Hissar from the ahim mines in its vicin-
ity, the chief town of a aanjak of the same name in the Sivas
vilayet of Asia Minor. Pop. about 13,000/ two-thirds Mussul-
man. It is the Roman Colonia, which gradually superseded
Pompeya foundation, Nicofoiis, whose ruins lie at Purkh,
about it a. W. (hence Kara-Hissar is called Nikopoli by the
Armenians). In later Byzantine times it was an trnporram
frontier station, and did not pass into Ottoman hands tiB
twelve years after the capture of Constantinople. The town,
altitude 4860 ft., is built round the foot of a lofty rock, upon
which stand the ruins of the Byzantine castle, Mattroeastrom,
the Kara Hissar Daula of early Moslem chroniclers. It is
connected with its port, Kerasund, and with Sivas, Erzingan
and Erzerum, by carriage roads.
KARAISKAKIfi, GEORGES (1782-1827), leader in the War
of Creek Independence, was born at Agrapha in 1782. During
the earlier stages of the war be served in the Morea, and had a
somewhat discreditable share in the intrigues which divided the
Creek leaders. But he showed a sense of the necessity for
providing the country with a government, and was a steady
supporter of Capo d'Istria. His most honourable services were
performed in the middle and later stages of the war. He helped
to raise the first siege of Missolonghi in 1623, and did his best to
save the town in the second siege in 1826. In that year be
commanded the patriot forces in Rumelia, and though he failed
to co-operate effectually with other chiefs, or with the foreign
sympathizers fighting for the Greeks, be gained some successes
against the Turks which were very welcome amid the disasters
of the time. He took a share in the unsuccessful attempts to
raise the siege of Athens in 1827, and made an effort to prevent
the disastrous massacre of the Turkish garrison of fort S
Spiridion. He was shot in action on the 4th of May 1827.
Finlay speaks of him as a capable partisan leader who had great
influence over his men, and describes him as of " middle size,
thin, dark-complexioned, with a bright expressive animal eye
which indicated gipsy blood."
See G. Finlay, History of tiu Creek Revolution (London, 1861).
KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH (1787-1864), the father of
modern Servian literature, was born on the 6th of November
1787 in the Servian village of Trshkh, on the border between
Bosnia and Servia. Having learnt to read and write in the oM
monastery Tronosba (near his native village), he was engaged
as writer and reader of letters to the commander of the insurgents
of his district at the beginning of the first Servian rising against
the Turks in 1804. Mostly in the position of a scribe to different
voyvodes, sometimes as school-teacher, he served his country
during the first revolution (1804-1813), at the collapse of which
he left Servia, but instead of following Karageorge and other
voyvodes to Russia he went to Vienna. There he was introduced
to the great Slavonic scholar Ycrncy Kopitar, who, having heard
him recite some Servian national ballads, encouraged him to
collect the poems and popular songs, write a grammar of the
Servian language, and, if possible, a dictionary. This programme
of literary work was adhered to by Karajich, who all ms life
acknowledged gratefully what he owed to his learned teacher.
In the second half of the 18th and in the beginning of the igth
century all Servian literary efforts were written in a language
which was not the Servian vernacular, but an artificial language,
of which the foundation was the Old Slavonic in use in the
churches, but somewhat Russianized, and mixed with Servian
words forced into Russian forms. That language, called by its
writers "the Slavonic-Servian," was neither Slavonic nor
Servian. It was written in Old Cyrillic letters, many of which
had no meaning in the Servian language, while there were several
sounds in that language which had no corresponding signs or
letters in the Old Slavonic alphabet. The Servian philosopher
Dositey Obradovich (who at the end of the 18th century spent
some time in London teaching Greek) was the first Servian
author to proclaim the principle that the books for the Servian
people ought to be written in the language of the people. But
the great majority of his contemporaries were of opinion tkat
the language of Servian literature ought to be evolved out of
the dead Old Slavonic of the church books. The church natur-
ally decidedly supported this view. Karajich was the great
reformer who changed afl this. Encouraged by Kopitar, he
published in 1814 (and ed., 181 5) in Vienna his first book, Mt&m
Prostonarodna Sloteno-Serbska Pyesmaritsa (*' A small collection
of Slavonic-Servian songs of the common people "), containing a
KARA-KALPAKS— KARA-KUM
675
hundred lyric songs, song by die peasant women of Servia, and
six poems about heroes, or as the Servians call them Yunackke
pesme, which are generally recited by the blind bards or by
peasants. From that time Karajich's literary activity moved
on two parallel lines: to give scientific justification and founda-
tion to the adoption of the vernacular Servian as the literary
language; and, by collecting and publishing national songs,
folk-lore, proverbs, &c, to show the richness of the Servian
people's poetical and intellectual gifts, and the wealth and
beauty of the Servian language. By has reform of the Servian
alphabet and orthography, his Servian grammar and his
Servian dictionary, be established the fact that the Servian
language contains thirty distinct sounds, for six of which the
Old Slavonic alphabet had no special letters. He introduced
new letters for those special sounds, at the same time throwing
out of the Old Slavonic alphabet eighteen letters for which
the Servian language had no use. This reform was stren-
uously opposed by the church and many conservative authors,
who went so far as to induce the Servian government to
prohibit the printing of books in new letters, a prohibition
removed in 1859. Karajich's alphabet facilitated his reform of
orthography, his principle being: write as you speak, and read as
it is written J Hardly any other language in the civilized world
has such a simple, logical, scientific spelling system and ortho-
graphy as the Servian has in Karajich's system. His first gram-
matfcal essay was published in Vienna in 18x4, Pismenilsa
Serbskoga yaika po govoru prostoga naroda (" The grammar of
the Servian language as spoken by the common people").
An improved edition appeared in Vienna in 181 8, together with
bis great work Srpski Ryechnik (Lexicon Serbico-Gcrmanico-
Latinum). This dictionary — containing 26,270 words — was
full of important contributions to folk-lore, as Karajich never
missed an opportunity to add to the meaning of the word the
description of the national customs or popular beliefs connected
with it. A new edition of his dictionary, containing 46,270
words, was published at Vienna in 1852. Meanwhile he gave
himself earnestly to the work of collecting the "creations of the
mind of the Servian common people." He travelled through
Servian countries (Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro,
Dalmatfa, Syrmia, Croatia), and the result was shown in a
largely augmented edition of his Srpske Narodne Pytsmc, of
which the first three volumes appeared at Leipzig in 1823 and
1824, the fourth volume appearing at Vienna fn 1833. Papular
Stories and Enigmas was published in 1821, and Servian National
Proverbs in 1836. From 1826 to 1834 he was the editor of an
annual, called Danitsa (The Morning Star), which he filled with
important contributions concerning the ethnography and modern
history of the Servian people. In 18*8 he published a historical
monograph, MUosk Obrenovich, Prince of Servia; in 1837, in
German, Montenegro and Montenegrins; in 1867, The Servian
Governing Council of Slate. He supplied Leopold Ranke with
the materials for his History of the Servian Revolution. He also
translated the New Testament into Servian, for the British and
Foreign Bible Society (Vienna, 1847). Karajich died in Vienna
on the 6th of February 1864; and his remains were transferred
to Belgrade in 1807 with great solemnity and at the expense of
the government of Servia. (C. Mi.)
KARA-KALPAKS (" Black Caps "), a Mongolo-Tatar people,
originally dominant along the east coast of the Aral Sea, where
they still number some thousands. They thus form geographi-
cally the transition between the northern Kirghiz and the
southern Turkomans. Once a powerful nation, they are
scattered for the most part in Astrakhan, Perm, Orenburg, in
the Caucasian province of Kuban, and in Tobolsk, Siberia,
numbering in all about 50,000. These emigrants have crossed
much with the alien populations among whom they have settled',
but the pure type on the Aral Sea are a tall powerful people,
with broad flat faces, large eyes, short noses and heavy chins.
Their women are the most beautiful m Turkestan. The name
of " Black Caps" is given them in allusion to their high sheep-
skin hats. They are a peaceful agricultural folk, who have
suffered much from their fierce nomad neighbours.
KARAKORUM (Turkish, " black atone debris "), the name of
two cities in Mongolia. One of these, according to G. Potanin,
waa the capital of the Uighur kingdom in the 8th century, and the
other was in the 13th century a capital of the steppe monarchy
of Mongolia. The same name seems also to have been applied to
the Khangai range at the headwaters of the Orkhon. (1) The
Uighur Karakoxum, also named Mubalik (" bad town "), was
situated on the left bank of the Orkhon, in the Talal-khain-dala
steppe, to the south-east of Ughei-nor. It was deserted after
the fall of the Uighur kingdom, and in the 10th century Abaki,
the founder of the -Khitan kingdom, planted on its ruins a
stone bearing a description of his victories. (2) The Mongolian
Karakoruu was founded at the birth of the Mongolian monarchy
established by Jenghiz Khan. A palace for the khan was built
in it by Chinese architects in 1234, and its walls were erected in
2235. Piano Carpini visited it in 1246, Rubruquis in 1253, and
Marco Polo in 1275. Later, the fourth Mongolian king, Kublai,
left Karakorum, in order to reside at Kai-pin-fu, near Peking.
When the khan Arik-bog declared himself and Karakorum inde-
pendent of Kublai-Khan, the latter besieged Karakorum, took
it by famine, and probably laid it waste so thoroughly that the
town was afterwards forgotten.
The exact sites of the two Mongolian capitals were only estab-
lished in 1880-1891. Sir H. Yule ( The Book of Marco Polo, 187 x)
was the first to distinguish two cities of this name. The Russian
traveller Paderin in 1871 visited the Uighur capital (see Tusks),
named now by the Mongols Kara Balghasun (" black city ") or
Khara-kherem (" black wall "), of which only the wall and a
tower are in existence, while the streets and ruins outside the
wall are seen at a distance of if m. Paderin's belief that this
was the old Mongol capital has been shown to be incorrect As to
the Mongolian Karakorum, it is identified by several authorities
with a site on which towards the close of the 16th century the
Buddhist monastery of Erdcni Tsu was buik. This monastery
lies about 25 m. south by east of the Uighur capital. North
and north-east of the monastery are ruins of ancient buildings.
Professor D. Pozdneev, who visited Erdeni Tsu for a second time
in 1 80 3, stated that the earthen wall surrounding the monastery
might well be part of the wall of the old city. The proper posi-
tion of the two Karakorums was determined by the expedition
of N. Yadrintsev in 1889, and the two expeditions of the Helsing-
fors Ugro- Finnish society (1800) and the Russian academy of
science, under Dr W. Radlov (1891), which were sent out to
study Yadrfntsev's discovery.
See Works ( Trudy) of ike Orkhon Expedition (St Petersburg, 1 802) ;
Yule's Mateo Polo, edition revised by Henri Cordicr (of Paris), vol. i.
Ceog. Joum. vol. xx. (1903), with map. Campbell's report was
printed as a parliamentary paper (China No. 7, 1904).
KARA-KUL, the name of two lakes (" Great " and " Lhtle ")
of Russian Turkestan, in the province of Ferghana, and on
the Pamir plateau. Great Kara-kul, 12 m. long and 10 m.
wide (formerly much larger), Is under 39 N., to the south of the
Trans-Alai range, and lies at an altitude of 13,200 ft.; it is sur-
rounded by high mountains, and is reached from the north over
the Kyzyl-art pass (14.01$ ft.). A peninsula projecting from
the south shore and an island off the north shore divide it into
two basins, a smaller eastern one which is shallow, 42 to 63 ft.,
and a larger western one, which has depths of 726 to 756 ft.
It has no drainage outlet. Little Kara-kul lies in the north-
east Pamir, or Sarikol, north-west of the Mustagh-ata peak
(25,850 ft.), at an altitude of 12,700 ft. It varies in depth from
79 ft. in the south to 50 to 70 ft. in the middle, and 1000 ft. or
more in the north. It is a moraine lake; and a stream of the
same name flows through it, but is named Ghez in its farther
course towards Kashgar in East Turkestan.
KARA-KUM (" Black Sands"), a flat desert in Russian Central
Asia. It extends to nearly 110,000 sq. m., and is bounded on
the N.W. by the Ust-urt plateau, between the Sea of Aral and
the Caspian Sea, on the N.E. by the Amu-darya, on the S. by
the Turkoman oases, and on the W. it nearly reaches the Caspian
676
KARAMAN— KARAMZIN
St*. Only part of this snface is covered with sand. There
arc broad r*p *™-« (tz*ws) of day soil upon which water accu-
mulates m the spring; ia the wraimrr these are muddy, but later
c/_te *ry. and ssereiy a few Solanarrar and bushes grow on
t^ -s. IVcsc s aha saw. sunuar to the above but encrusted with
».'- Li-i gyasnnn, and reneved only by Solanaceae along their
hewers. iW irrm ; 7Mlrr is occupied with sand, which, accord-
ttCtrY. MasMnr, assumes five different forms. (1) Bar khans,
cr* f s the east, which are mounds of loose sand, 15 to 35 ft.
*t*x. *mt uhipfri. having their gently sloping convex sides
timed towards the prevailing winds, and a concave side, 30 to
ao* steep, oa the opposite slope. They are disposed in groups
•r chains* and the winds drive them at an average rate of 20 ft.
annually towards the south and south-east. Some grass (Slipa
pennata) and bushes of saksaul (Haloxylon ammodendron) and
other steppe bushes (e.g. Calligonium, Halimoiendron and Atra-
Pkaxis) grow on them. (2) Mounds of sand, of about the same
size, but irregular in.shape and of a slightly firmer consistence,
mostly bearing the same bushes, and also Artemisia and Tamarix;
they are chiefly met with in the east and south. (3) A sandy
desert, slightly undulating, and covered in spring with grass and
icwers (e.g. tulips, Rkeum, various UmbeUiferae), which arc soon
Pureed by the sun; they cover very large spaces in the south-
u*c* (4) Sands disposed in waves from 50 to 70 ft., and occa-
wuuJor up to 100 ft. high, at a distance of from 200 to 400 ft.
t*mr each other; they cover the central portion, and their vege-
eA.viT » practically the same as in the preceding division. (5)
• -j'v* #t ":he shores of the Caspian, composed of moving sands,
: « 3c : v eh and devoid of vegetation.
\ ; ;nu^ t^ture of the Kara-kum is the number of " old
• * t *. • ix * » bch may have been either channels of tributaries
k ul una x?4 other rivers or depressions which contained
9* i«.x-« ^i.l *i*es. Water is only found in wells, 10 to 20 m.
■*. -w.-.v" ases as much as 100 m. — which are dug in the
* ■» -. .• *« sol-ae water, occasionally unfit to drink, and in
-., . -..*.*i*<t retained in the lower parts of the takyrs.
. «*. . .va a :be Kara-kum, consisting of nomad Kirghiz
- . .miin * »«rv small. The region in the north of the
. ^ -- ~^jj between Lake Aral and Lake Chalkar-
^ . • ^ v&ra4«JB. (P. A K. i J. T. Bb.)
tatam* x .- •*•£», a name still used by the Christian
- - " t • *c Konia vilayet of Asia Minor, situated
" . jt V.**at Taurus. Pop. 8000. It has few
- J* ; ^ St: the medieval walls, well preserved
._ -:«- ««X the old Seliuk medresse,
cd with
1 of the
f except
d after-
xrupied
ured by
1
p:>
W>'
a s
on
brat
conv
and
Kas!
whic
Se
lAxxr
Ki
also
ity, '
vilay
man.
pom
abou
fince in
)n of an
of Ala
granted
5. The
►owcrful
convert
eSeljuk
unded a
parts of
.super-
k kings
&nd the
iggle for
in i47»»
TbeOs-
outh, of
mi. The
lo Ichili
mod-
f imes, it has stood for the whole province of Konia. Before the
present provincial division was made (1864), Karamania was
the eyalet of which Konia was the capital, and it did not extend
to the sea, the whole littoral from Adalia eastward being under
the pasha of Adana. Nevertheless, in Levantine popular usage
at the present day, " Karamania " signifies the coast from
Adalia to Messina. (D. G. H.)
KARAM NASA, a river of northern India, tributary to the
Ganges on its right bank, forming the boundary between Bengal
and the United Provinces. The name means " destroyer of
religious merit," which is explained by more than one legend.
To this day all high-caste Hindus have to be carried over without
being defiled by the touch of its waters.
KARA MUSTAFA (d. 1683), Turkish vizier, surnamed " Mer-
zifunli," was a son of Uruj Bey, a notable Sipahi of Merzifan
(Marsovan), and brother-in-law to Ahmed Kuprili, whom he
succeeded as grand vizier in 1676, after having for some years
held the office of Kaimmakam or locum tenens. His greed and
ostentation were equalled by his incapacity, and he behaved
with characteristic insolence to the foreign ambassadors, from
whom he extorted large bribes. After conducting a ^™p «%«
in Poland which terminated unfortunately, he gave a ready
response to the appeal for aid made by the Hungarians under
Imre Thdkiily (q.v.) when they rose against Austria, his hope
being to form out of the Habsburg dominions a Mussulman em-
pire of the West, of which he should be the sultan. The plan
was foiled in part by his own lack of military skill, but chiefly
through the heroic resistance of Vienna and its timely relief by
John Sobieski, king of Poland. Kara Mustafa paid for ins
defeat with his life; he was beheaded at Belgrade in 1683 and
his head was brought to the sultan on a silver dish.
Another Kara Mustafa Pasha (d. 1643), who figures in
Turkish history, was by birth a Hungarian, who was enrolled
in the Janissaries, rose to be Kapudan Pasha under Murad IV.,
and after the capture of Bagdad was made grand vizier. He
was severe, but just and impartial, and strove to effect necessary
reforms by reducing the numbers of the Janissaries, improving
the coinage, and checking the state expenditure. But the dis-
content of the Janissaries led to his dismissal and death in 1643.
KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH (1 765-1826), Rus-
sian historian, critic, novelist and poet, was born at the village of
Mikhailovka, in the government of Orenburg, and not at Sim-
birsk as many of his English and German biographers incorrectly
state, on the 1st of December (old style) 1 765. His father was aa
officer in the Russian army, of Tatar extraction. He was sent
to Moscow to study under Professor Schaden, whence he after-
wards removed to St Petersburg, where he made the acquaint-
ance of D mi trie v, a Russian poet of some merit, and occupied
himself with translating essays by foreign writers into his native
language. After residing some time at St Petersburg, he went
to Simbirsk, where he lived in retirement till induced to revisit
Moscow. There, finding himself in the midst of the society of
learned men, he again betook himself to literary work. In x 780
he resolved to travel, and visited Germany, France, Switzerland
and England. On his return he published his Letters of a Xhssuxm
Traveller, which met with great success. These letters were first
printed in the Moscow Journal, which he edited, but were after-
wards collected and issued in six volumes (1797-1801). In the
same periodical Karamzin also published translations of some of
the tales of Marreontel, and some original stories, among which
may be mentioned Poor Lisa and Natalia the B oyer's Daughter.
In 1794 and 1795 Karamzin abandoned his literary journal, and
published a miscellany in two volumes, end tied Aglaia, in which
appeared, among other things, " The Island of Bornholm " and
" Ilia Mourometz," a story based upon the adventures of the well-
known hero of many a Russian legend. In 1797-1709 he issued
another miscellany or poetical almanac, The Aonidcs, in con-
junction, with Derzhavin and Dmitriev. In 1798 he compiled
The Pantheon, a collection of pieces from the works of the most
celebrated authors ancient and modern, translated into Russian.
•*• lighter productions were subsequently printed by
-.milled My Trifles. In 180a and 1803 Karamzin
•»* _r t.;«
KARA SEA— KAREN
677
edited the journal the Ru**pm* Mtsaenger. It was not
until after the publication of this work that he realized where
his strength lay, and commenced his History of Ik* Russia*
Empire. In order to accomplish the task, he secluded himself
for two years; and, on the cause of his retirement becoming
known to the emperor Alexander, Karamzin was invited to
Tver, where he read to the emperor the first eight volumes
of his history. In 1 816 he removed to St Petersburg, where he
spent the happiest days of his life, enjoying the favour of
Alexander, and submitting to him the sheets of his great work,
which the emperor read over with him in the gardens of the
palace of Tzarskoe Sek>. He did not, however, live to carry
bis work further than the eleventh volume, terminating it at
the accession of Michael Romanov in 1613. He died on the
und of May (old style) 1826, in the Taurida palace. A
monument was erected to his memory at Simbirsk in 1845.
As an historian Karamzin has deservedly a very high reputation.
Till the appearance of hi* work little had been done in this direction
in Russia. The preceding attempt of Tatistchev was merely a rough
sketch, inelegant in style, and without the true spirit of criticism.
Karamzin was most industrious in accumulating materials, and the
notes to his volumes are mines of curious information. The style
of his history is elegant and flowing, modelled rather upon the
easy sentences of the French prose writers than the long periodical
paragraphs of the old Slavonic school. Perhaps Karamzin may
justly be censured for the false gloss and romantic air thrown over
the early Russian annals, concealing the coarseness and cruelty of
the native manners; in this respect he reminds us of Sir Walter
Scott, whose writings were at this time creating a great sensation
throughout Europe, and probably had their influence upon him.
Karamzin appears openly as the panegyrist of the autocracy ; indeed,
his work has been styled the " Epic of Despotism." He does not
hesitate to avow his admiration 01 Ivan the Terrible, and considers
him and his grandfather Ivan III. as the builders up of Russian
is, a glory which in his earlier writings, perhaps at that time
more under the influence of Western ideas, he had assigned to Peter
greatness, a f
the Great. In the battle-pieces («.g. the description of the held of
Koulikovo, the taking of Kazan, &c.) we find considerable powers
of description; and the characters of many of the chief personages
in the Russian annals are drawn in firm and bold lines. As a cntic
1 Karamzin was of great service to his country; in fact he may be
regarded as the founder of the review and essay (in the Western
style) among the Russians.
, KARA SEA, a portion of the Arctic Ocean demarcated, and
except on the north-west completelyenclosed, by Novaya Zcmlya,
. Vaygach Island and the Siberian coast. It is approached
from the west by three straits— Matochkin, between the two
' islands of Novaya Zemlya, and Kara and Yugor to the north
and south of Vaygach Island respectively. On the south-
east Kara Bay penetrates deeply into the mainland, and to the
' west of this the short Kara river enters the sea. The sea is all
1 shallow, the deepest parts lying off Vaygach Island and the
1 northern part of Novaya Zcmlya. It had long the reputation
' of being almost constantly ice-bound, but after the Norwegian
1 captain Johannesen had demonstrated its accessibility in 1S69,
f and Nordenskidld had crossed it to the mouth of the Yenisei in
' 1875, it was considered by many to ofTcr a possible trade route
between European Russia and the north of Siberia. But the
open season is in any case very short, and the western straits
1 are sometimes icebound during the entire year.
1 KARASU-BAZAR, a town of Russia, in the Crimea and govern-
: ment of Taurida, in 45° 3' N. and 34 26' E., 25 «• E.N.E. of
Simferopol. Pop. (1897), 12,061, consisting of Tatars, Arme-
1 nians, Greeks, Qaraite Jews, and about 300 so-called Krym-
' cbaki, i.e. Jews who have adopted the Tatar language and
1 dress, and who live chiefly by making morocco leather goods,
1 knives, embroidery and so forth. The site is low, but the town
is surrounded by hills, which afford protection from the north
\ wind. The dirty streets full of petty traders, the gloomy bazaar
with its multitude of tiny shops, the market squares, the blind
' alleys, the little gates in the dead courtyard wails, all give the
1 place the stamp of a Tatar or Turkish town. Placed on the
'. high road between Simferopol and Kerch, and in the midst of a
1 country rich hi corn land, vineyards and gardens, Karasu-Bazar
1 used to be a chief seat of commercial activity in the Crimea; but
1 it is gradually declining in importance, though still a considerable
1 centre for the export of fruit.
The caves of Akkaya dose brgive evidence of cady occupation
of the spot. When in 1736 Khan Feta Ghirai was driven by
the Russians from Bakhchi-sarai he settled at Karasu-Bazar,
but next year the town was captured, plundered and burned by
the Russians.
KARATIGHIN, a country of Central Asia, subject to Bokhara,
and consisting of a highland district bounded on the N. by
Samarkand and Ferghana (Khokand), on the E. by Ferghana, on
the S. by Darvaz, and on the W. by Hissar and other Bokharian
provinces. The plateau is traversed by the Surkhab or Vakbsh, a
right-hand tributary of the Amu-darya(Oxus). On the N. border
run the Hissar and Zarafshan mountains, and on the S. border
the Peter I. (Periokhtan) range (24,900 ft.). The area is 8000
sq. m. and the population about 60,000-five-sixths Tajiks, the
rest Kara~kirghiz. With the neighbouring lands Karateghin has
no communication except during summer, that is, from May to
September. The winter climate is extremely severe ; snow begins
to fall in October and it is May before it disappears. During the
warmer months, however, the mountain sides are richly clothed
with the foliage of maple, mountain ash, apple, pear and walnut
trees; the orchards furnish, not only apples and pears, but
peaches, cherries, mulberries and apricots; and the farmers grow
sufficient corn to export. Both cattle and horses are of a small
and hardy breed. Rough woollen doth and mohair are woven by
the natives, who also make excellent fire-arms and other weapons.
Gold is found in various places and there are salt-pits in the moun-
tains. The chief town, Harm or Garm, is a place of some 2000
inhabitants, situated on a hill on the right bank of the Surkhab.
The native princes, who claimed to be descended from Alex-
ander the Great, were till 1868 practically independent, though
their allegiance was claimed in an ineffective way by Khokand,
but eventually Bokhara took advantage of their intestine feuds
to secure their real submission in 1877.
KARATJU, or Kekgwles, a native state of India, fa the
Rajputana agency. Area, 124a aq. m.; pop. (root), 156,786;
estimated revenue about £330,000. Almost the entire territory
is composed of hills and broken ground, but there are no lofty
peaks, the highest having an elevation of less than 1400 ft. above
sea-level. The Chamba I river flows along the south-east boundary
of the state. Iron ore and building stone comprise the mineral
resources. The prevailing agricultural products are millets,
which form the staple food of the people. The only manufactures
consist of a little weaving, dyeing, wood-turning and stone*
cutting. The principal imports are piece goods, salt, sugar,
cotton, buffaloes and bullocks; the exports rice and goats. The
feudal aristocracy of the state consists of Jadu Rajputs connected
with the ruling bouse. They pay a tribute in lieu of constant
military service, but in case of emergency or on occasions of state
display they are bound to attend on the chief with their retainers.
The maharaja is the head of the clan, which claims descent from
Krishna. Maharaja Bhanwar Pal Deo, who was bora in 186a
and succeeded in 1866, was appointed G.C.I.E. in 1897, on the
occasion of Queen Victoria's diamond jubilee.
The town of Karauu had a population in ioox of 23,48a. It
dates from 1348, and is well situated in a position naturally
defended by ravines on the north and east, while it is further
protected by a great wall The palace of the maharaja is s
handsome block of buildings dating mainly from the middle
of the 18th century.
KAREN, one of the chief hill races of Burma. The Karens
Inhabit the central Pegu Yoma range, forming the watershed
between the Sittang and Irrawaddy rivers, the Paunglaung
range between the Sittang and the Salween, and the eastern
slopes of the Arakan Yoma mountains to the west of the Irra-
waddy delta. They are supposed to be the descendants of
Chinese tribes driven southwards by the pressure of the Shan
races, before they were again made to retire into the hills by the
expansion of the M6n power. Their own traditions ascribe their
original home to the west of the sandy desert of Gobi stretching
between China and Tibet. According to the census of 1001 they
numbered in all 727,235 persons within British India, divided
into the Sgaw, 86,434, the Pwo, 174*070. and the Bghai, 4936,
678
KAREN-NI— KARU
wWk 457,355 are returned as " unspecified." The Sgaw and
Pwo are collectively known as the ** White Karens," and chiefly
inhabit British territory. They take their name from the colour
of their dot be*. The Bgfaai, or " Red Karens/' who are supposed
by some to be an entirely distinct race, chiefly inhabit the
independent hill state of Karen-ni (<?.».). The Karen is of a
squarer build than the Burman, his skin is fairer, and he has more
of the Mongolian obliquity of the eyes. In character also the
people difier from the Burmese. They are singularly devoid of
bcamr, they are stofid and cautious, and lack altogether the
fcci* gaiety and tasanation of the Burmese. They are noted for
tr^kr^^ca aad chastity, but arc dirty and addicted to drink.
The 1* ^j» Karens furnish perhaps the most notable instance
«t cv*T*<r**i to Christianity of any native race in the British
AnnrtL cV r, uu *d by prophecies current among them, and by
<n,n«ft *.t» "^ ' **■* of a biblical flavour, in addition to their an-
UtfwtKs* ** ;be dominant Burmese, they embraced with fervour
;K »ev -cwoi brought to them by the missionaries, so that out
« ;hr 1 4" £*$ Christians in Burma according to the census of
>jv*a «r-**rvJs of a hundred thousand were Karens. The Red
V*> n» c:£cr considerably from the White Karens. They are
,-fcr m-jJre* and most lawlessof the so-called Karen tribes. Every
n*k Tl»4i#vprc to the clan used to have the rising sun tattooed
n- N^t wrwibononhisback. The men are small and wizened,
^«x A,XVr<r % and have broad reddish-brown faces. Their dress
two** of a short pair of breeches, usually of a reddish colour,
wn i biick and white stripes interwoven perpendicularly or like
4 i*tt*a. and a handkerchief is tied round the head. The Karen
fej*t**|>e is tonal, and belongs to the Siamese-Chinese branch of
tic l*i^Chinese family.
SwllM. Stneaton. The Loyal Karens of Burma (1887) ; J. Nisbet,
£fe-w mmdtr British Rule (1901): M. and B. Ferrars, Burma (tooo);
**u OVonnor Scott, The Silken East (1904). 0- O. Sc.)
KAJtDt-N!. the country of the Red Karens, a collection of
small states, formerly independent, but now feudatory to Burma.
U is situated approximately between 18 50' and 19° 55' N. and
between 07* 10' and 07° 50' E. The tract is bounded on the N.
by the Shan states of Mdng Pai, Hsatung and Mawkmai; on the
K. by Siam; on the S. by the Papun district of Lower Burma;
aod on the W. a stretch of mountainous country, inhabited by
the Brc and various other small tribes, formerly in a state of
independence, divides it from the districts of Toungoo and
\*methin. It is divided in a general way into eastern and
western Karen-ni; the former consisting of one state, Gantara-
wadi. with an approximate area of 2500 sq. m.; the latter of
the four small states of Kyebogyi, area about 350 sq. m.; Baw-
atke. *oo sq. m.; Nammekon, 50 sq. m.; and Naungpale, about
30 sq m. The small states of western Karen-ni were formerly
at) subject to Bawlake, but the subordination has now ceased.
Karen-ni consists of two widely differing tracts of country, which
roughly mark now, and formerly actually did mark, the division
into east and west. Gantarawadi has, however, encroached
westwards beyond the boundaries which nature would assign to
it. The first of these two divisions is the southern portion of the
valley of the Hpilu, or Balu stream, an open, fairly level plain,
well watered and in some parts swampy. The second division
is a series of chains of hills, intersected by deep valleys, through
which run the two main rivers, the Salween and the Pawn, and
their feeder streams. Many of the latter are dried up in the hot
season and only flow freely during the rains. The whole country
being hilly, the most conspicuous ridge is that lying between the
Pawn and the Salween, which has an average attitude of 5000 ft.
It is crossed by several tracks, passable for pack-animals, the
moat in use being the road between Sawlon, the capital of Gantara-
wadi and Man Mall. The principal peak east of the Salween is
•a the Loi Lan ridge, 7100 ft. above mean sea-levd. Parts of
this ridge form the boundary between eastern Karen-ni and
Mawkmai on the west and Siam on the east. It falls away
rapidly to the south, and at Pang Salang is crossed at a height
of t joo ft. by the road from Hsataw to Mehawnghsawn. West of
the Balu valley the continuation of the eastern rim of the Myelat
plateau rises in Loi Naagpa to about $000 ft. The Nam Pawn
it a large river, with an average breadth of 100 yds., tat b
uanavigable owing to its rocky bed. Even timber cannot be
floated down it without the assistance of elephants. The Salween
throughout Karen-ni is navigated by large native craft. Its
tributary, the Me Pai, on the eastern bank, is navigable as far as
Mehawnghsawn in Siamese territory. The Balu stream flows
out of the Inle lake, and is navigable from that point to dose on
LawpKa, where it sinks into the ground in a marsh or succession
of funnel holes. Its breadth averages 50 yds., and its depth is
15 ft. in some places.
The chief tribes are the Red Karens (24,043), Bres (3500), and
Padanngs (1867). Total revenue, Rs. 37,000. An agent of the
British government, with a guard of military police, is posted at
the village of Loikaw. Little of the history of the Red Karens
is known; but it appears to be generally admitted that Bawtake
was originally the chief state of the whole country, fast and west,
but eastern Karen-ni under Papaw-gyi early became the most
powerful. Slaving raids far into the Shan states brought 00
invasions from Burma, which, however, were not very successful.
Eastern Karen-ni was never reduced until Sawlapaw, having
defied the British government, was overcome and deposed by
General Collett in the beginning of 1889. Sawlawi was then
appointed myoza, and received a sanad, or patent of appoint-
ment, on the same terms as the chiefs of the Shan states. The
independence of the Western Karen-ni states had been
guaranteed by the British government in a treaty with King
Mindon in 1875. They were, however, formally recognized as
feudatories in 1802 and were presented with sen ads on the 23rd
of January of that year. Gantarawadi pays a regular tribute of
Rs. 5000 yearly, whereas these chieflets pay an annua! kad<rm,
or nuzzur, of about Rs. 100. They are forbidden to carry out
a sentence of death passed on a criminal without the sanction of
the superintendent of the southern Shan states, but otherwise
retain nearly all their customary law.
Tin. or what is called tin, is worked in Bawlake. It appear**
however, to be very impure. It is worked intermittently by White
Karens on the upper waters of the Hkemapyu stream. Rubies*
spinels and other stones are found in the upper Tu valley and in the
west of Nammekon state, but they are of inferior quality. The
trade in teak is the chief or only source of wealth in Karen- nL
The largest and most important forests are those on the left bank
of the Salween. Others lie on both banks of the Nam Pawn, and
in western Karen-ni on the Nam Tu. The yearly out-tarn ia
estimated at over 20,000 logs, and forest officers have estimated
that an annual out-turn of 9000 logs might be kept up without
injury to the forests. Some quantity of cutch is exported, as also
stick-lac, which the Red Karens graft so as to foster the production.
Other valuable forest produce exists, but is not exported. Rice,
areca-nuts, and betel-vine leaf are the chief agricultural products.
The Red Karen women weave their own and their husbands'
clothing. A characteristic manufacture is the toa-si or Karen metal
drum, which is made at Ngwedaung. These drums are from 2\ to
3 ft. across the boss, wit h sides of about the same depth. The aowad
is out of proportion to the metal used, and ia inferior to that of the
Shan ana Burmese gongs. It is thought that the population of
Karcn-ni is steadily decreasing. The birth-rate of the people is
considered to exceed the death-rate by very little, and the Red
Karen habit of life is most unwholesome. Numbers have enlisted
in the Burma police, but there are various opinions as to their
value. (J- G. Sc4
KARIKAL, a French settlement in India, situated on the
south-east coast, within the limits of Tanjore district, with an
area of 53 sq. m., and a population (1001) of 56,59s. The site
was promised to the French by the Tanjore raja in 173S, in
return for services rendered, but was only obtained by them by
force in 1739. It was captured by the British in 1760, restored
in 1765, again taken in 1768, and finally restored in 1817. The
town is neatly built on one of the mouths of the Cauvery, and
carries on a brisk trade with Ceylon, exporting rice and importing
chiefly European articles and timber. A chef de radmi*istr*Hsm^
subordinate to the government at Pondlchcrry, is in charge of
the settlement, and there is a tribunal of first instance.
KARLI. a village of British India, in the Poona district of the
Bombay presidency, famous for its rock caves. Pop. (tooi),
003. The great cave of Karli is said by Fergusson to be without
exception the largest and finest chaitya cave ia India; it waft
KARLOWITZ— KARMA
679
excavated at a time when the style was In its greatest .purity,
and b splendidly preserved. The great dudtya hall b 126 ft.
long, 45 ft. 7 in. wide, and about 46 ft. high. A row of ornamental
columns rises on either side to the ribbed teak roof, and at the
far end of the nave is a massive dagoba. Dating from the begin-
ning of the Christian era or earlier, this cave has a wooden roof,
whkh repeats the pattern of the walls, and which Fetgussom
considers to be part of the original design. Since wood rapidly
deteriorates in India owing to the climate and the ravages of
whke ants, the state of preservation of this roof is remarkable.
KABLOWITZ, or Carlowttz (Hungarian, KarUaa; Croatian,
Kathni), a dty of Croatia-Slavonia, In the county of Syrmia;
on the right bank of the Danube, and on the railway from Peter-
wardein, 6 m. N.W. to Belgrade. Pop. (1000), 5643. Kar-
lowita is the seat of an Orthodox metropolitan, and has several
churches and schools, and a hospital. The fruit-farms and
vineyards of the Fruska Gora, a range of hills to the south, yield
excellent plum brandy and red wine. An obelisk at Stankamen,
13 m. E. by S., commemorates the defeat of the Turks by Louis
of Baden, in 1691. The treaty of Karlowitz, between Austria>
Turkey, Poland and Venice, was concluded in 1690; »n 1848-
1840 the city was the headquarters of Servian opposition to
Hungary. It was included, until 1881, in the Military Frontier.
KARL5KR0MA (Carlsckona,) a seaport of Sweden, on tht
Baltic coast, chief town of the district {l(in) of Blekinge, and head-
quarters of the Swedish navy. Pop. (too©), 73,93$. * l k
pleasantly situated upon islands and the mainland, 300 m. S.S.W*
of Stockholm by rail. The harbour is capacious and secure,
with a sufficient depth of water for the largest vessels. It has
three entrances; the principal, and the only one practicable for
large vessels, is to the south of the town, and is defended by two
strong forts, at DrottningskSr on the island of Aspd, and on the
islet of Kungsholm. The dry docks, of great extent, are cut out
of the solid granite. There is slip-accommodation for large
vessels. Karlskrona is the seat of the Royal Naval Society, and
has a navy-arsenal and hospital, and naval and other schools.
Charles XL, the founder of the town as naval headquarters
(1680), is commemorated by a bronze statue (1897). There are
factories for naval equipments, galvanized metal goods, felt hats,
canvas, leather and rice, and breweries and granite quarries.
Exports are granite and timber; imports, coal, flour, provisions,
hides and machinery.
KARLSRUHE, or Cakls*uh£, a cfty of Germany, capital of
the grand-duchy of Baden, z^ m - S.W. of Heidelberg, on the
railway Frankfort-on-Main-Basel, and 39 m. N. W. of Stuttgart.
Pop. (1895). 84,030; (1005), 111,200. It stands on an elevated
plain, 5 m. E. of the Rhine and on the fringe of the Hardtwald
forest. Karlsruhe takes its name from Karl Wilhelm, margrave
of Baden, who, owing to disputes with the citizens of Durlach,
erected here in 1715 a hunting seat, around which the town has
been built. The city is surrounded by beautiful parks and
gardens. The palace (Schloss), built in 1751-1776 on the site
of the previous erection of 171 5, is a plain building in the old
French style, composed of a centre and two wings, presenting
nothing remarkable except the octagon tower (Bleiturm), from
the summit of which a splendid view of tbe city and surrounding
country is obtained, and the marble saloon, in which the meridian
of Cassini was fixed or drawn. In front of the palace is the
Great Circle, a semicircular line of buildings, containing the
government offices. From the palace the principal streets,
fourteen in number, radiate in the form of an expanded fan, in a
S.E., S. and S.W. direction, and are again intersected by parallel
streets. This fan-like plan of the older city has, however, been
abandoned in the more modem extensions. Karlsruhe has
several fine public squares, the principal of which are the
Schlossplatz, with Schwanthaler's statue of the grand duke
Karl Fried rich in the centre, and market square (Markt-
platz), with a fountain and a statue of Louis, grand duke of
Baden. In the centre of the RondelpTatz is an obelisk in honour
of the grand duke Karl Wilhelm. The finest street is the Kaiser-
strasse, running from east to West and having a length of a mile
and a half and a uniform breadth of 72 ft. In it are several of
the chief public building notably the technical high school,
tbe arsenal and the post office. Among* other notable building!
are. tbe town hall; the theatre; the hall of representatives; the
mint; the joint museum of the grand-ducal and national collec-
tions (natural history, archaeology, ethnology, art and a horary
of over 1 50,000 volumes); the palace of tbe heir-apparent, a late
Renaissance building of 1891*1896; the imperial bank (1893) ; th *
national industrial hall, with an exhibition of machinery; the new
law courts; and tbe hall of fine arts, which shelters a good picture
gallery. The dty has six Evangelical and four Roman Catholic
Churches* The most noteworthy of these are the Evangelical
town churchy tbe burial-place of the margraves of Baden; the
Christuskirche, and the Bcrnharduskirche. Karlsruhe possesses
further the Zihringen museum of curiosities, whkh is in the left
wing of the Schloss; an architectural school (1891); industrial art
school and museum; cadet school (1892); botanical and electro*
technical institutes; and horticultural and agricultural schools.
Of its recent public monuments may be mentioned one to Joseph
Victor von Scheflel (1826-1886); a bronze equestrian statue of
the emperor William I. (1896); and a memorial of the 1870-71
war. Karlsruhe is the headquarters of the XIV. German army
corps. Since 1870 the industry of tbe city has grown rapidly;
as well as the dty itself. There are large railway workshops;
and the principal branches of Industry are the making of loco-
motives, carriages, tools and machinery, jewelry, furniture,
gloves, cement, carpets, perfumery, tobacco and beer. There
is an important arms factory. Maxau, on the Rhine, serves as
the river port of Karlsruhe and is connected with it by a canal
finished in 1901.
See Fecht, Geschkhte der Haupt- und Restdcnzstudl Karlsruhe
(Karlsruhe. 1 887); F. von Weech. Karlsruhe, Gesehichie der Sladt
wtd ikrer Verwaltung (Karlsruhe, 1893-1902) ; Naeher, Die Umjebunt
der Reside** Karlsruhe (Karlsruhe, 188$); and the annual Ckromtk
der Uaupl- und Residentstadt Karlsruhe.
KARLSTAD [Caklstad], a town of Sweden, the capital of the
district (Idn) of Vcrmland, on the island of Tingvalla under the
northern shore of Lake Vener, 205 m. W. of Stockholm by the
Christiania railway. Pop. (1900), 11,869. The fine Klar River
here enters the lake, descending from the mountains of the fron-
tier. To the north-west lies the Fryksdal or valley of the Nora
River, containing three beautiful lakes and fancifully named the
" Swedish Switzerland." In this and other parts of the district
are numerous iron- works. Karlstad was founded in 1584. It
is the seat of a bishop and has a cathedral. Trade is carried on
by way of the lake and tbe G6ta canal. There are mechanical
works, match factories and stockinet factories, and a mineral
spring rich in iron, the water of which is bottled for export.
Under the constitution of united Sweden and Norway, in the
event of the necessity of electing a Regent and the disagreement
of the parliaments of the two countries, Karlstad was
indicated as the meeting-place of a delegacy for the purpose.
Here, on the 31st of August 1905 the conference met to decide
upon the severance of the union between Sweden and Norway,
the delegates concluding their work on tbe 23rd of September.
KARLSTADT or Caklstaot (Hungarian, Kirolyvdros; Croa-
tian, Karlnac), a royal free city, municipality and garrison town
in the county of Agram, Croatia-Slavonia; standing on hilly
ground beside the river Kulpa, which here receives the Korana
and the Pobra. Pop. (1900), 7396. Karlstadt is on the railway
from Agram to Fiume. It consists of the fortress, now obsolete,
the inner town and tbe suburbs. Besides the Roman Catholic
and Orthodox churches, its chief buildings are the Franciscan
monastery, law-courts and several large schools, including ooe
for military cadets. Karlstadt has a considerable transit trade
in grain, wine, spirits and honey, and manufactures the liqueur
called rosoglio.
KARMA, sometimes written Kakmak, a Sanskrit noon (from
the root kri, to do), meaning deed or action. In addition to this
simple meaning it has also, both in the philosophical and the
colloquial speech of India a technical meaning, denoting " a
person's deeds as determining Ms future lot." This is not
merely in the vague sense that on the whole good will be rewarde4
68o
KARMAN— KARNAK
and ev3 punished, bat that every single act must work out to
the uttermost its inevitable consequence*, and receive its retribu-
tion, ho we w cr many ages the process may require. Every part
of tbe material universe — man, woman, insect, tree, stone, or
whatever it be—is the dwelling of an eternal spirit that is working
out its destiny, and while receiving reward and punishment for
the past is laying up reward and punishment for tbe future.
This view of existence as an endless and concomitant sowing and
reaping is accepted by learned and unlearned alike as accounting
for those inequalities In human life which might otherwise lead
men to doubt the justice of God. Every act of every person has
not only a moral value producing merit or demerit, but also an
inherent power which works out its fitting reward or punishment.
To the Hindu this does no* make heaven and hell unnecessary.
These two exist in many forms more or less grotesque, and after
death the soul passes to one of them and there receives its due;
but that existence too is marked by desire and action, and is
therefor* productive of merit or demerit, and as the soul is thus
still entangled in the meshes of karma it must again assume an
earthly gnrb and continue tbe strife. Salvation is to the Hindu
simply deliverance from the power of karma, and each of the
philosophic systems has its own method of obtaining it.* The
mst book of tbe Laws of Manu deals with karma phalam, " the
fruit of karma," and gives many curious details of the way in
which sin b punished and merit rewarded. The origin of the
doctrine cannot be traced with certainty, but there is little doubt
that it b post-vedic, and that it was readily accepted by Buddha
in the 6th century B.C. As he did not believe in the existence of
soul he had to modify the doctrine (see Buddhism).
- K ARM aN, j6zSBF (1760-1795), Hungarian author, was
born at Losoncz on the 14th of March 1769, the son of a Cal-
vinbt pastor. He was educated at Losoncz and Pest, whence be
migrated to Vienna. There he made the acquaintance of the
beautiful and eccentric Countess Markovics, who was for a time
hb mistress, but she was not, as has often been supposed, the
heroine of hb famous novel Fanni Hagyomdnai (Fanny's testa-
ment ). Subsequently be settled in Pest as a lawyer. His sensi-
bility, social charm, liberal ideas (be was one of the earliest of
the Magyar freemasons) and personal beauty, opened tbe doors
of the best bouses to him. He was generally known as tbe
rest Akibiades, and was especially at home in the salons of the
Protestant magnates. In 179a, together with Count R&day, he
founded the first theatrical society at Buda. He maintained that
Pest, not Pressburg, should be tbe literary centre of Hungary,
and in 1794 founded the first Hungarian quarterly, Urania,
but it met with little support and ceased to exist in 1795, after
three volumes had appeared. Karman, who had long been
suffering from an incurable disease, died in the same year.
The most important contribution to Urania was hb sentimental
novel, Fanni Hagyomdnai, much in the style of La nouvcile
//Wtrfj« and Watkcr, the most exquisite product of Hungarian
prose in the 18th century and one of the finest psychological
romances in the literature. Karman also wrote two satires and
fragments of an historical novel, while hb literary programme b
set forth in hb dissertation Attemul ennosoddsa,
tttrmtn's collected works were publbhed in Abafi'a Nenueti
JC4io«i*> (Pest. 1878), &c, preceded by a life of Karman. See
F. lUrith. Joseph Kdrmdn (Hung., Vas. Ujs, 1874); Ztoll Bcdthy,
artkle on Karman in Ktpes IrodalomWrtenct (Budapest. 1894).
(R. N. B.)
KARNAK. a village in Upper Egypt (pop. 1007, 12,585)1
which has given its name to the northern half, of the ruins of
Thebes on the cast bank of the Nile, the southern being known
as Luxor (ft.). The Karnak ruins comprise three great enclo-
sures built of crude brick. The northernmost and smallest of
these contained a temple of the god Mont, built by Amenophb
III., and restored by Rameses II. and the Ptolemies. Except
a well-preserved gateway dating from the reign of Ptolemy Euer-
getes I., Uttle more than the plan of the foundations is traceable.
Its axia, the line of which b continued beyond the enclosure wall
by an avenue of sphinxes, pointed down-stream (N.E.). The
southern enclosure contained a temple of the goddess Mat, also
built by Amenophb IIL, and almost as ruinous at tbe last, bat
on a much larger scale. At the back b the sacred lake in the
shape of a horse-shoe. Tbe axb of the temple runs approxi-
mately northward, and b continued by a great avenue of rams
to the southern pylons of tbe central enclosu r e. Thb last is of
vast dimensions, forming approximately a square of 1 500 ft., and
it contains the greatest of all known temples, the Karnak temple
of Amman (see Architecture, sect. " Egyptian," with plan).
Inside and outside each of these enclosures there were a number
of subsidiary temples and shrines, mostly erected by individual
kings to special deities. The triad of Thebes was formed by
Amnion, his wife Mat and their son Khans. The large temple
of Khonsbin the enclosure of the Amnion temple, and the temple
of Mat, as already stated, b connected with the latter by the
avenue of rams. The Mont temple, on the other hand, b hoiatrri
from the others and turned away from them; it b smaller than
that of Kbons. Mont, however, may perhaps be considered a
special god of Thebes; he certainly was a great god from very
ancient times in the immediate neighbourhood, his seats being
about 4 m. N.E. at Medamot, the ancient Madu, and about xo m.
S.W. on the west bank at Hermonthb.
It b probable that a temple of Amman existed at Karnak
under the Old Kingdom, if not in the prehistoric age; but it
was unimportant, and no trace of it has been di s co v ere d . Slight
remains of a considerable temple of the Middle Kingdom survive
behind the shrine of the great temple, and numbers of fine
statues of the twelfth and later dynasties have been found; two
of these were placed against tbe later seventh pylon, while a
large number were buried in a great pit, in tbe area behind that
pylon, which has yielded an enormous number of valuable and
interesting monuments reaching to the age of the Ptolemies.
The axb of the early temple lay from E. to W., and was followed
by the main line of the later growth; but at the beginning of the
eighteenth dynasty, Amenophb I. built a temple south of the
west front of the eld one, and at right angles to it, and thus
started a new axis which was later developed in the series of
pylons VII.-X., and the avenue to the temple of Mat. The
VHIlh pylon in particular was built by Hatshepsut, probably
as an approach to thb temple of Amenophis, but eventually
Tethmosis HI. cleared the latter away entirely. Thebes was
then the royal residence, and Ammon of Karnak was tbe great
god of the state. Tethmosis I. built a court round the temple
of tbe Middle Kingdom, entered through a pylon (No, V.), and
later added the pylon No. IV. with obelisks in front of it. Hat-
shepsut placed two splendid obelisks between the Pylons IV.
and V., and built a shrine in the court of Tethmosis I., in front
of the old temple. Tethmosis III., greatest of the Pharaohs,
remodelled the buildings about the obelisks of hb unloved sister
with the deliberate intention of hiding them from view, and
largely reconstructed the surroundings of the court. At a later
date, after his wars were over, he altered Hatshepsut's sanctuary,
engraving on the walls about it a record of his campaigns; to
thb time also b to be attributed the erection of a great festival
hall at the back of the temple. The small innermost pylon
(No. VI.) b likewise the work of Tethmosis III. Amenophb
III., though so great a builder at Thebes, seems to have contented
himself with erecting a great pylon (No. III.) at the west end.
Tbe closely crowded succession of broad pylons here suggests
a want of space for westward expansion, and this is perhaps
explained by a trace of a quay found by Legrain in 1905 near the
southern line of pylons; a branch of the Nfle or a large canal
may have limited the growth. As has been stated, Tethmosb
III. continued on the southern axb; he destroyed the temple of
Amenophb I. and erected a larger pylon (No. VII.) to the north
of Hatshepsut's No. VIII. To these Haremheb added two
great pylons and the long avenue of ram-figures, changing the
axis slightly so as to lead direct to the temple of Mat built by
Amenophis III. All of these southern pylons are well spaced.
In the angle between these pylons and the main temple was
the great rectangular sacred lake. By thb time the temple of
Karnak had attained to little more than half of its ultimate
length from east to west.
KAKNAL—KAROLYI
68r
With the XDCtfaf Dynasty there is a notable change perhaps
due to the filling of the hypothetical canal No more was added
on the southern line of building, bat westward Rameses L
erected pylon No. LL at an ample distance from that of
Amenophis ill., and Seti L and Rameses IL utilised the space
between for their immense HaU of Columns, one of the most
celebrat e d achievement* el Egyptian architecture. The mate*
rials of which the pylon k composed bear witness to a temple
having stood near by of the heretic and unacknowledged kings
of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Haremheb's pylon No. IX. was like-
wise constructed out of the ruins of a temple dedicated by
Amenophts XV. (Akhenateu) to the sun-god Harmakhis.
Rameses III. built a fine temple, still well preserved, to Amnion
at right angles to the axis westward of pylon No. II. ; Sheshonk I.
(Dynasty XXII.) commenced a great colonnaded court in front
of the pylon, enclosing part of this temple and a smaller triple
shrine built by Seti II. In the centre of the court Tirhaka
(Tirhaka, Dynasty XXV.) set up huge columns 64 ft high,
rivalling those of the central aisle in the Hall of Columns, for
some building now destroyed. A vast unfinished pylon at the
west end (No. I.), 370 ft. wide and 142} ft. high, is of later date
than the court, and is usuaMy attributed to the Ptolemaic age.
It will be observed that the successive pylons diminish in sue
from the outside inwards. Portions of the solid crude-brick
scaffolding are still seen banked against this pylon. About 100
metres west of it is a stone quay, on the platform of which stood
a pair of obelisks of Seti II.; numerous graffiti recording the
height of the Nile from the XXIst to the XXVIth Dynasties
are engraved on the quay.
Besides the kings named above, numbers of others contributed
in greater or less measure to the building or decoration of the
colossal temple- Alexander the Great restored a chamber in the
festival hall of Tetbmosis III., and Ptolemy Soter built the central
shrine of granite in the name of Philip Arrhidaeus. The walls
throughout, as usually in Egyptian temples, are covered with
scenesand inscriptions, many of these, such as those which record
the annals of Tetbmosis III., the campaign of Seti L in Syria, the
exploit of Rameses LL at the battle of Kadesh and his treaty with
the Hittites, and the dedication of Sheshonk 's victories to Amnion,
are of great historical importance. Several large stelae with
interesting inscriptions have been found in the ruins, and statues
oi many ages of workmanship. In December 1003 M. Legrain,
who has been engaged for several years in clearing the temple
area systematically, first tapped an immense deposit of colossal
Statues, stelae and other votive objects large and small in the
space between pylon No. VII* and the great hypostyle hall.
After three seasons' work, much of it in deep water, 750 large
monuments nave been extracted, while the small figures, &&
in bronse and other materials amount to nearly 30,000. The
value of the find, both from the artistic and historical stand-
points, is immense. The purpose of the deposit is still in
doubt; many of the objects are of the finest materials and
finest workmanship, and in perfect preservation: even precious
metals are not absent. Multitudes of objects in wood, ivory,
&c, have decayed beyond recovery. That all were waste pieces
seems incredible. They are found lying in the utmost confusion;
in date they range from the Xllth Dynasty to the Ptolemaic
period.
The inundation annually reaches the floor of the temple, and
the saltpetre produced from the organic matter about the ruins,
annually melting and crystallizing, has disintegrated the soft
sandstone in the lower courses of the walls and the lower drums
and bases of the columns. There is moreover no solid foundation
in any part of the temple. Slight falls of masonry have taken
place from time to time, and the accumulation of rubbish was
the only thing that prevented a great disaster. Repairs, often
on a large scale, have therefore gone on side by side with the
clearance, especially since the fall of many columns in the great
hall in 1800. All the columns which fell in that year were re-
erected by 1008.
The temple of Khons, in the S.W. corner of the great enclosure,
is approached by an avenue of rams, and entered through a fine
pylon erected by Buergetes L It was built by Rameses III.
and his successors of the XXth Dynasty, with Hrihor of
Dynasty XXI. Excavations in the opposite S.E. comer have
revealed flint mapms and other sepulchral remains of the
earliest periods, proving that the history of Thebes goes back
to a remote antiquity.
See Baedeker's Bandbeoftfor Egfpt; also Description de rtrypte..
Atiex.AntimtHisltaa* iii.) ; A.Manette, Kartuk, Etmde topograph^**
HvtMeiopqnei L. Borckaidt, Zur Bcugfischuhle des AmmonlempeU
von Karnak: G. Legrain in Eecueil des travamx rilatijs d Varck, £gypU
vol. xxvti. &c; and reports in Annates du service des anliqutUs de
fMtypte, (F.LL.G.)
KARNAL, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi
division of the Punjab. The town a 7 m. from the right bank
of the Jumna, with a railway station 76 m. N. of Delhi Pop.
(1001), 23,559. There are manufactures of cotton doth and
boots, besides considerable local trade and an annual horse
fair.
The DnrrucT car Karnal stretches along the right bank of
the Jumna, north oi Delhi. It is entirely an alluvial plain,
but is crossed by the low uplift of the watershed between the
Indian Ooean and the Bay of Bengal Area, 3153 sq. m.; pop.
(1001), 883,245, showing an increase of nearly 3 % in the decade.
The principal crops are millets, wheat, pulse, rice, cotton and
sugar-cane. There are several factories for ginning and pressing
cotton. The district is traversed by the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka
railway, and also by the Western Jumna canaL It suffered from
famine in 1896-1807, and again to some extent in 1800-1000.
No district of India can boast of a more ancient history than
Karnal, as almost every town or stream is connected with the}
legends of the Atdtabkarato* The town of Karnal itself is said
to owe its foundation to Raja Kama, the mythical champion of
the Kauravas in the great war which forms the theme of the
national epic Panipat, in the south of the district, is said to
have been one of the pledges demanded from Duryodhana by
Yudisthira as the price of peace in that famous conflict* In
historical times the plains of Panipat have three times proved
the theatre of battles which decided the fate of Upper India. It
was here that Ibrahim Lodi and his vast host were defeated in,
1526 by the veteran army of Baber; in 1556 Akbar reasserted the
claims of bis family on Uje same battlefield against the Hindu
general of the house of Adil Shah, which had driven the heirs
of Baber from the throne for a brief interval; and at Panipat
too, on the 7th of January 1761, the Mahratta confederation
was defeated by Ahmad Shah Durani. During the troublous
period whkh then ensued the Sikhs managed to Introduce them-
selves, and in 1767 one of their chieftains, Desu Singh, appror
priated the fort of Kaithal, whkh had been built during the
reign of Akbar. His descendants, the bhais of Kaithal, were
reckoned amongst the most important Cis-Sulkj princes*
Different portions of this district have lapsed from time to time
into the hands of the British.
KArOLYI, ALOYS, Couwr (1825-1889), Austro-Hungarian
diplomatist, was born in Vienna on the 8lh of August 1825. The
greatness of the Hungarian family of Karolyi dates from the
lime of Alexander Karolyi (1668-1743), one of the generals of
Francis Rakocsy II., who in 171 1 negotiated the peace of
Szatmar between the insurgent Hungarians and the new king,
the emperor Charles VI., was made a count of the Empire in
171a, and subsequently became a field marshal in the imperial
army. Aloys Karolyi entered the Austrian diplomatic service,
and was attached successively to embassies at various European
capitals. In 1858 be was sent to St Petersburg on a special
mission to seek the support of Russia against Napoleon I1L
He was ambassador at Berlin in 1866 at the time of the rupture
between Prussia and Austria, and after the Seven Weeks' Wat
was charged with the negotiation of the preliminaries of peace
at Nikolsburg. He was again sent to Berlin in 1871, acted
as second plenipotentiary at the Berlin congress of 1878, and
was sent in the same year to London, where he represented
Austria for ten years. He died on the and of December 1889
atT6tmegyer.
682
KAROSS-^KARS
KAROSS, a cloak made of sheepskin, or the hide of other
animals, with the hair left on. It is properly confined to the
coat of skin without sleeves worn by the Hottentots and Bush-
men of South Africa. These karosses are now often replaced
by a blanket. Their chiefs wore karosses of the skin of the wild
cat, leopard or caracal. The word is also loosely applied to the
cloaks of leopard-skin worn by the chiefs and principal men of
the Kaffir tribes. Kaross is probably either a genuine Hottentot
word, or else an adaptation of the Dutch kuras (Portuguese
eoura^a), a cuirass. In a vocabulary dated 1673 karos is
described as a " corrupt Dutch word.**
KARR. JEAN BAPTISTS ALPHONSB (1808-1800), French
critic and novelist, was born in Paris, on the 24th of November
1808, and after being educated at the College Bourbon, became a
teacher there. In 1832 he published a novel, Sous les lUleuls,
characterized by an attractive originality and a delightful
freshness of personal sentiment. A second novel, Une keure Irop
tard, followed next year, and was succeeded by many other
popular works. His Vendrtdi soir (1835) and Le Chimin le plus
court (1836) continued the vein of autobiographical romance
with which he had made his first success. OnetiHe (1838) is
one of his best stories, and his Voyage auiour de mo* jardin
(1845) was deservedly popular. Others were Feu Bressitr
(1848), and Fori en theme (1853), which had some influence in
stimulating educational reform. In 1839 Alphonse Karr, who
was essentially a brilliant journalist, became editor of Le Figaro,
to which be had been a constant contributor; and he also started
a monthly journal, Us Gulpes, of a keenly satirical tone, a
publication which brought him the reputation of a somewhat
bitter wit. His epigrams were frequently quoted; e.g. "plus
ca change, plus e'est la mftne chose," and, on the proposal to
abolish capital punishment, M je veux bien que messieurs les
assassins commencent." In 1848 he founded Le Journal. In
1855 he went to live at Nice, where he indulged his predilections
for floriculture, and gave his name to more than one new variety.
Indeed be practically founded the trade in cut flowers on the
Riviera. He was also devoted to fishing, and in Les Soiries do
Saints- Adresse (1853) and Au bord de la mer (i860) he made use
of his experiences. His reminiscences, Litre de bord, were
published in 1870-1880. He died at St Raphael (Var), on the
20th of September 1800.
KARRBR, FBUX (1825-1003), Austrian geologist, was born
in Venice on the nth of March 1825. He was educated in
Vienna, and served for a time in the war department, but he
retired from the public service at the age of thirty-two, and
devoted himself to science. He made especial studies of the
Tertiary formations and fossils of the Vienna Basin, and investi-
gated the geological relations of the thermal and other springs
in that region. He became an authority on the foraminifera,
00 which subject he published numerous papers. He wrote
also a little book entitled Der Boden der HauptsiadU Emropas
(iSSi). He died in Vienna on the 10th of April 1003.
KARROO, two extensive plateaus m the Cape province,
South Africa, known respectively as the Great and Little Karroo.
Karroo is a corruption of K or us a, a Hottentot word meaning
dry, barren, and its use as a place-name indicates the character
of the plateaus so designated. They form the two intermediate
" steps " between the coast-lands and the inner plateau which
constitutes the largest part of South Africa, The Utile (also
called Southern) Karroo is the table-land nearest the southern
coast -tine of the Cape, and is bounded north by the Zwaarteberg,
which wparmtea it from the Great Karroo. From west to east
the I iu V Karroo has a length of some 200 m., whilst its Average
wivHh h $0 ra. West of the Zwaarteberg the Little Karroo
ax*;?* tftto the Great Karroo. Eastward it is limited by the
hilht whkh almost reach the sea in the direction of St Francis
4i*J Alfcoa Bays. The Great Karroo is of much larger extent.
fc\M*fa| *wih, as stated, by the Zwaarteberg, further east by
the J\iuibcf» (ol the coast chain), its northern limit is the
uKMtut tin runge which, under various names, such as Nieuwveld
*.k1 :>»«#uwbeej, forms the wall of the inner plateau. To
i'V ***• weal sad west it is bounded by the Hex River Moun-
tains end the Cold BokkeveM, east w ard by the Greet Pish
Rjver. West to east it extends fully 350 m. in a straight line,
varying in breadth from more than 80 to less than 40 m. Whilst
the Little Karroo is divided by a chain of bills which ran across
it from east to west, and varies in altitude from 1000 to 2000 ft,
the Great Karroo has more the aspect of a vast plain and has
a level of from 2000 to 3000 ft. The total area of the Karroo
plateaus is slated to be over 100,000 sq. m. The plains ate
dotted with low ranges of kopjes. The chief characteristics of
the Karroo are the absence of running water during a great part
of the year and the consequent parched aspect of the country.
There is little vegetation save stunted shrubs, such as the
mimosa (which generally marks the river beds), wild pome-
granate, and wax heaths, known collectively as Karroo bosh.
After the early nuns the bush bursts into gorgeous purple and
yellow blossoms and vivid greens, affording striking evidence of
the fertility of the soiL Suck parts of the Karroo as are
under perennial irrigation are among the most productive lands
in South Africa. Even the parched bush provides suffici en t
nourishment lor millions of sheep and goats. There are also
numerous ostrich farms, in particular hi the districts of
Oudtsboorn and Ladismith in the Little Karroo, where lucerne
grows with extraordinary luxuriance. The Karroo Is admirably
adapted to sufferers from pulmonary complaints. The dryness
of the air tempers the heat of summer, winch reaches in January
a mean maximum of 87° F., whilst July, the coldest month,
has a mean minimum of 36° F. A marked feature of the rlhiute
is the great daily range (nearly 30 ) in temperature; tbe Karroo
towns are also subject to violent dust storms. Game, formerly
plentiful, has been, with tbe exception of buck, almost exter-
minated. In a looser sense the term Karroo is also used of the
vast northern plains of the Cape which are part of the inner
table-land of the continent. (See Cape Colony.)
KABS, a province of Russian Transcaucasia, baring the
governments of Kutais and Tiflis on the N., those of Tifhs and
Erivan on the E., and Asiatic Turkey on the S. and W. Its
area amounts to 7410 sq. m. It is a mountainous, or rather a
highland, country, being in reality a plateau, with ranges of
mountains running across it. The northern border is formed
by the Arzyan range, a branch of the Ajari Mis., which attaint
altitudes of over 9000 ft. In the south tbe Kara-dagh reach
10,770 ft. in Mount Ala-dagh, and the Agry-dagh 10,7*0 ft.
in Mount Ashakh; and in the middle Allah-akhbar rises to
10,215 ft. The passes which connect valley with valley often he
at considerable altitudes, the average of those in the S.E. being
9000 ft. Chaldir-gol (altitude 6520 ft.) and one or two other
smaller lakes lie towards tbe N.E.; the Chaldir-gol a overhung
on tbe S.W. by tbe Kysyr-dagh (10,470 ft.). The east side of
the province is throughout demarcated by the Arpa-cbai, which
receives from the right the Kars river, and as it leaves the
province at hsS.E. corner joins the Aras. The Kura rises within
the province not far from the Kysyr-dagh and flows across it
westwards, then eastwards and north-eastwards, quitting it in
the north-east. The winters are very severe. The towns of
Kaghyshman (4620 ft.) and Sarykamish (7800 ft.) have a
winter temperature like that of Finland, and at the latter place,
with an annual mean (33* F.) equal to that of Hammerfest ia
the extreme north of Norway, the thermometer goes down ia
winter to 40* below zero and rises in summer to oo°. The annual
mean temperature at Kars is 40-5° and at Ardabsn, farther
north, 37°. The Alpine meadows (yaitas) reach up to 1000 ft.
and afford excellent pasturage in spring and summer. The
province is almost everywhere heavily forested. Firs and
birches flourish as high as 7000 ft., and the vine up to above
3000 ft. Cereals ripen well, and barley and maize grow op to
considerable altitudes. Large numbers of cattle and sheep are
bred. Extensive deposits of salt occur at Kaghyshman and
Olty. The population was 167,610 in 1883 and *9 a »863 in 1807.
The estimated population in 1906 was 349,10a It is mixed.
In remote antiquity the province was inhabited by Armenians,
the ruins of whose capital, Ani, attest the ancient prosperity of
the country. To the. Armenians succeeded tbe Turks, wnik
KARS—KARUN
683
Kurds invaded the Alpine p ast ma ge s above the valley of the
Aras; and after them Kabardians, Circassians, Ossetes and
Kara-papaks successively found a refuge in this highland region.
After the Russo-Turkisb War of 1877-78, when this region was
transferred to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, some 83,750
Turks emigrated to Asia Minor, their places being taken by nearly
32,000 Armenians, Greeks and Russians. At the census of
1807 the population consisted principally of Armenians (73,400),
Kurds (43,000), Greeks (32,600), Kara-papaks (30,000), Russians,
Turks and Persians. The capital is Ran. The province is
divided into four districts, the chief towns of which are Kars
(q.v.) } Ardahan (pop. 800 in 1897), Raghyshman (3435) and
Olty. (J. T. Bi.)
KARS, a fortified town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the
province of Kars, formerly at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish
vilayet of Erzerum. It is situated in 40° 3/ N. and 43 6' E.,
185 m. by rail S. W. of TiiUs, on a dark basalt spur of the Soghanli*
dagh, above the deep ravine of the Kars-chai, a sub-tributary
Of the Aras. Pop. (1878), 8673; (1897), 30,891. There are
three considerable suburbs— Orta-kapi to the S., Bairam Pasha
to the £., and Timur Pasha on the western side of the river.
At the N.W. corner of the town, overhanging the river, is the
ancient citadel, in earlier times a strong military post, but
completely commanded by the surrounding eminences. The
place is, however, still defended by a fort and batteries. There
h a loth century cathedral, Kars being the see of a bishop of
the Orthodox Greek Church. Coarse woollens, carpets and felt
are manufactured.
During the 9th and 10th centuries the seat of an independent
Armenian principality, Kars was captured and destroyed by the
Seljuk Turks in the nth century, by the Mongols in the 13th, and
by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1387. The citadel, it would appear,
was built by Sultan Murad III. during the war with Persia, at
the dose of the 16th century. It was strong enough to with-
stand a siege by Nadir Shah of Persia, in 1731, and in 1807 it
successfully resisted the Russians. After a brave defence it sur-
rendered on the 23rd of June 1828 to the Russian general Count
I. F. ^askevich, r 1,000 men becoming prisoners of war. During
the Crimean War the Turkish garrison, guided by General
Williams (Sir W. Fcnwick Williams of Kars) and other foreign
officers, kept the Russians at bay during a protracted siege;
but, after the garrison had been devastated by cholera, and
food had utterly failed, nothing was left but to capitulate
(Nov. 1855). The fortress was again stormed by the Russians
in the war of 1877-78, and on its conclusion was transferred to
Russia.
See Kmety, The Defence of Kars (1856), translated from the
German; H. A. Lake, Kars and our Captivity in Russia (London,
1856); and Narrative of the Defence of Kars (London, 1857);
Dr Sand with, Narrative of the Siege of Kars (London, 1856);
C. B. Norman, Armenia and the Campaign of 1877 (London, 1878);
Greene, Russian Army and its Campaigns in Turkey (1879).
KARSHI, a town of Bokhara, in Central Asia, situated 96 m.
S.E. of the city of Bokhara, in a plain at the junction of two
main confluents of the Kashka-darya. It is a large and strag-
gling place, with a citadel, and the population amounts to
25,000, There are three colleges, and the Biki mosque is a fine
building inlaid with blue and white tiles. Along the river
stretches a fine promenade sheltered by poplars. Poppies and
tobacco arc largely grown, the tobacco being deemed the best
in Central Asia. There is a considerable trade in grain; but the
commercial prosperity of Karshi is mainly due to its being a
meeting-point for the roads from Samarkand, Bokhara, Hissar,
Balkh and Maimana, and serves as the market where the
Turkomans and Uzbcgs dispose of their carpets, knives and fire-
arms. Its coppersmiths turn out excellent work. Karshi was
a favourite residence of Timur (Tamerlane).
KARST, in physical geography, the region east of the northern
part of the Adriatic. It is composed of high and dry limestone
ridges. The country is excessively faulted by a long series of
parallel fractures that border the N.E. Adriatic and continue
inland that series of steps which descend beneath the sea and
produce the scries of long parallel islands off the coast of Triest
and along the Dalmatian shore. It has been shown by E. Suesa
(AnH its ier Ertf#, vol. L pt. 3, ch. Hi.) that the N. Adriatic is a
sunken dish that has descended along these fractures and folds,
which are not uncommonly the scene of earthquakes, showing
that these movements are still in progress. The crust is very
much broken in consequence and the water sinks readily through
the broken limestone rocks, which owing to their nature are also
very absorbent. The result is that the scenery is barren and
desolate, and as this structure always, wherever found, gives
rise to similar features, a landscape of this character is called a
Karst landscape. The water running in underground channels
dissolves and denudes away the underlying rock, producing
great caves as at Adelsberg, and breaking the surface with
sinks, potholes and unroofed chasms. The barren nature of a
purely limestone country is seen in the treeless regions of some
parts of Derbyshire, while the underground streams and sinks
of parts of Yorkshire, and the unroofed gorge formed by the
Cheddar cliffs, give some indication of the action that in the
high fractured mountains of the Karst produces a depressing
landscape which has some of the features of the " bad lands " oi
America, though due to a different cause.
KARSTEH, KARL JOHAHM BBRNHARD (1782-1853),
German mineralogist, was born at Btttzow in Mecklenburg;, on
the 26th of November 1783. He was author of several compre-
hensive works, including Handtmek der Eiseu/nWenkund* (2 vols.,
181613rd ed., \a^t)\SystemderMeUiUurgUgesckickUick t siatistisch t
tkeoretisck und technisck (5 vols, with atlas, 1831-1832); Lekrbuck
der Salinenkunde (2 vols., 1846-1847). He was well known as
editor of the Artkivfilr Bcrgbau und HiiUenwesen (so vols., 181 8-
1831); and (with H. von Dechen) of the ArthivfUr Miner alogie,
Ctognosie, Dergbou und HUttenJtunde (26 vols., 1820-1854). He
died at Berlin on the 32nd of August 1853. His son, Dr Hermann
Karsten (1800-1877), was professor of mathematics and physics
in the university of Rostock.
KARTIKEYA, in Hindu mythology, the god of war. Of his
birth there are various legends. One relates that he had no
mother but was produced by Siva alone, and was suckled by sis
nymphs of the Ganges, being miraculously endowed with six
faces that he might simultaneously obtain nourishment from
each. Another story is that six babes, miraculously conceived,
were born of the six nymphs, and that Parvati, the wife of Siva,
in her great affection for them, embraced the infants so closely
that they became one, but preserved six faces, twelve arms, feet,
eyes, &c. Kartikeya became the victor of giants and the leader
of the armies of the gods. He is represented as riding a peacock.
In southern India he is known as Subramanya.
KARUN, an important river of Persia. Its bead-waters are
in the mountain cluster known since at least the 14th century
as Zardeh Kuh (13,000 ft.) and situated in the Bakhtiari country
about 115 m. W. of Isfahan. In its upper course until it reaches
Shushter it is called Ab i Kurang (also Kurand and Kuran),
and in the Bundaltisk, an old cosmographical work in Pahlavi,
it is named KharaC. 1 From the junction of the two principal
sources in the Zardeh Kuh at an altitude of about 8000 ft., the
Ab i Kurang is a powerful stream, full, deep and flowing with
great velocity for most of its upper course between precipices
varying In height from 1000 to 3000 ft. The steepness and
height of its banks make it in general useless for irrigation
purposes. From its principal sources to Shushter the distance
as the crow flies is only about 75m., but the course of the river
is so tortuous that it travels 250 m. before it reaches that
city. Besides being fed on its journey through the Bakhtiari
country by many mountain-side streams, fresh- water and salt,
it receives various tributaries, the most important being the
Ab i Bazuft from the right and the Ab 1 Barz from the left. At
Shushter it divides into two branches, one the ° Gerger," an
artificial channel cut in olden times and flowing cast of the
1 The real principal source of the river has been correctly located
at ten miles above ibe reputed principal source, bat the name Kurang
has been erroneously explained as standing for Kuh 1 rang and has
been given to the mountain with the real principal source. Kuh
i rang has been wrongly explained as meaning the " variegated
mountain.'*
C*$4
otv Mother the "Shatafc
w *jici* ate navigable to within * few ssaies below Shnshter, anile
-ixer i na «f about 50 m. at Band i Kir, £«M.S.af Shoshter,
^ there aha uke ap the Ab i Da (river at Dotal). From
g^ i&xioa fvtmt two miles above hluhamraa tbe river is
called Sana (Rio Carom ol tbe Portagwese writers of tbe 16th
__d x7 tb ceatwnes) awl is navigable all tbe way with the
*Tggption of about two miles at Aavaa, where a series of cliffs
^^d rocky shehes cross tbe river and cause rapids. Between
Twya* ft*^ BaD<i i Kir (46 **• by river, *4 av by road) the river
^^ an average depth of aboat so ft., bat below Ahvaz down to
^f e w miles above Mubaawah k is in places very shallow, and
*essels vith a draught esxxedaag 3 ft. are liable to ground.
▲ bout i> ^ Above Mohamrah and branching off to the left
- ^TcWed-up river bed called tbe M blind Karon," by which
"^_ £anm found its way to tbe sea in former days. Ten miles
ITrtber * P** 1 °* *■* nver branches off to the left and due S. by
^^^nad called Bahmashir (from Bahman-Ardashir, the name
^f\be district in tbe early middle ages) which is navigable to
^f- sea for vessels of little draught. The principal river, here
' voa: » quarter of a mile broad and so to 30 ft. deep, now flows
iljr and after passing Mubamrab enters into the Shatt el Arab
^^t 20 m. bdow Basra. This part of the river, from the
^L" w^ashir to the Shatt, is a little over three miles in length and,
T c< name, Hafar 0* dug fr ) implies, an artificial channel. It
"*^ "i* *■> AJL °So ^ v **** ^-Dto^^b to facilitate communica-
* ^ b* «atcr between Basra and Ahvaz, as related by the Arab
^c-j^bet Mckaddasi ajx. 0S6. Tbe total length of the river
^~ ^ ^ 4^ m. while the distance from the sources to its
"*" ^1' v ^ *£h tbc Shalt el Arab is only 160 m. as the crow flies.
' ^ s.*»' A<T *T ** Ahvat was opened to international navigation
.,,.• js*x c< October tSSS, and Messrs Lynch of London
"* r .Otos^« a fertaigatty steamer service on it immediately
* -> ■ v-c«* tbe water snnply of Isfahan Shah T&hmasp I.
. ^-- **i sats* of his successors, notably Shah Abbas I.
r — .C-.v » «k.v<t«*: some works for diverting the Kurang
, . »* ahx-a drains iato the Zayendeh-rud, the river of
.. v *acw2& or catting through a narrow rocky ridge
* ' . ,,. »k *w» rtrc systems. The result of many years'
-*— * .< 1 v*f *vs» kwu, 15 broad and 18 deep, cut into the
* , , . • • &»■*«»*£*** to a* more than one-twentieth of the
—*" . «••«». ,--* >* **n at tbe junction of the two principal
KARWAR— KASAI.
v m\e
»■* we Mrs Bishop, Journeys in Persia and
*< l.*d Curxon, Persia and Ike Persian
n. Xvv. Colonel H. A. Sawyer, "The
. v. , xxv tlua," Geog. Journal (Dec. 1894).
(A. H.-S.)
-•*—«- *--"- adminis-
Bombay
847. As
ere, with
Uly from
b English
ut a new
Bombay
ax round
r of islets
{htbouse.
to native
/ail from
irwar has
in
the
kt of tbe
railway;
idence of
accumu-
as "the
nucleus/'
nuclei to
form a single nucleus in syngamic processes (see REPfcOSHxrnos);
(2) the process of pairing in Infusoria (?.».)» in which two migra-
tory nuclei are interchanged and fuse with two stationary
nuclei, while the cytoplasmic bodies of the two mates are in
intimate temporary union.
KASAi, or Cassai, a river of Africa, the chief souihera
affluent of the Congo. It enters the main stream in 3 10' S^
1 6° 1 6' £. after a course of over 800 m. from its source in the
highlands which form the south-western edge of tbe Congo
basin — separating the Congo and Zambezi systems. The Kasai
and its many tributaries cover a very large part of tbe Congo
basin. The Kasai rises in about ia° S., 19° £. and flows first in
a north-easterly direction. About io° 35* S., aa° 15* E. it makes
a rectangular bend northward and then takes a north-westerly
direction. Five rivers—the Luembo, Chiumbo, Luijimo or
Luashimo, Chikapa and Lovua or Lowo — rise west of the
Kasai and run in parallel courses for a considerable distance,
falling successively into the parent stream (between 7 and 6 s S.)
as it bends westward in its northern course. The Luembo and
Chiumbo join and enter tbe Kasai as one river. A number of
rapids occur in these streams. A few miles below the confluence
of the Lowo, the last of the five rivers named to join tbe Kasai,
the main stream is interrupted by the Wissmann Falls which,
though not very high, bar further navigation from the north.
Below this point the river receives several right-hand (eastern)
tributaries. These also have their source in the Zambezi-Congo
watershed, rising just north of 12 S., flowing north in parallel
lines, and in their lower course bending west to join tbe Kasai.
The chief of these affluents are the Lulus and the Sankuru, the
Lulua running between the Kasai and the Sankuru. The
Sankuru makes a, bold curve westward on reaching 4° S-,
following that parallel of latitude a considerable distance. Its
waters are of a bright yellow colour. After the junction of the
two rivers (in 4 1 7' S., 20 1 5' E.), the united stream of tbe Kasai
flows N.W. to the Congo. From the south it is joined by the
Loange and the Kwango. The Kwango is a large river rising
a little north of 12 S., and west of the source of tbe Kasai
Without any marked bends it flows north — is joined from the
east by the Juma, Wamba and other streams— and has a coarse
of 600 m. before joining the Kasai in 3 S., x8' E. Tbe lower
reaches of the Kwango are navigable; the upper course a
interrupted by rapids. On the north (in 3 8' S., 17° £.) the
lower Kasai is joined by the Lukenye or Ikatta. This river,
the most northerly affluent of the Kasai, rises between 24° and
25° E., and about 3 S. in swampy land through which the
Lomami (another Congo affluent) flows northward. Tbe
Lukenye has an east to west direction flowing across a level
country once occupied by a lake, of which Lake Leopold LL
(9.9.), connected with the lower course of the Lukenye, b the
scanty remnant. Below the lake the Lukenye is known as the
Mfini. Near its mouth the Kasai, in its lower course generally
a broad stream strewn with islands, is narrowed to about half a
mile on passing through a gap in the inner line of the West Africa*
highlands, by the cutting of which the old lake of the Kasai basin
must have been drained. The Kasai enters the Congo with a
minimum depth of 25 feet and a breadth of about 700 yards,
at a height of 942 ft. above the sea. The confluence is known
as the Kwa mouth, Kwa being an alternative name for the
lower Kasai. The volume of water entering the Congo averages
321,000 cub. ft. per second: far the largest amount discharged by
any of the Congo affluents. In floodtime the current flows at the
rate of 5 or 6 m. an hour. The Kasai and its tributaries are
navigable for over 1500 m. by steamer.
The Kwango affluent of the Kasai was the first of tbe large
affluents of the Congo known to Europeans. It was reached by
the Portuguese from their settlements on the west coast in the iota
century. Of its lower course they were ignorant. Portuguese
travellers in the 18th century are believed to have reached the upper
Kasai, but the first accurate knowledge of the river basin was
obtained by David Livingstone, who reached the upper Kasai free
the east and explored in part the upper Kwango (1854-1855).
V. L. Cameron and Paul Pogge crossed the upper Kasai in the early
" seventies." The Kwa mouth was seen by H. M. Stanlev in hw
imirney down the Congo in 1877, and he rightly regarded it a* the
KASBEK— KASHGAR
685
outlet of the Kwa let
of the Kasai. In p-
Kasai confluence cd
Lake Leopold II. rer
beyond the Kwa of
the main stream s he
work of Hermann ad
other Germans da ci-
. ally Im Inner* Af 16,
Wissmann was ac an
Austrian, explored ne
was subsequently a
Baptist raiasionai ler
Captain C. Lemaii ng
valuable informal rn
Kasai tributaries. ire
further investigate S-
1900. (SeeTorda he
authorities there cited.)
KASBEK (Georgian; Mkin-vari) Ossetian, Urs-khokh),
one of the chief summits of the Caucasus, situated in 42 42' N.
and 44 30' E., 7 m. as the crow flics from a station of the same
name on the high road to Tiflis. Its altitude is 16,545 ft. It
rises on the range which runs north of the main range (main
water-parting), and which is pierced by the gorges of the Ardon
and the Terek. It represents an extinct volcano, built up of
trachyte and sheathed with lava, and has the shape of a double
cone, whose base lies at an altitude of 5800 ft. Owing to the
steepness of its slopes, its eight glaciers cover an aggregate surface
of not more than 8 sq. m., though one of them, Maliev, is 36 m.
long. The best-known glacier is the Dyevdorak, or Devdorak,
which creeps down the north-eastern slope into a gorge of the
same name, reaching a level of 7530 ft. At its eastern foot runs
the Georgian military road through the pass of Darial (7805 ft.).
The summit was first climbed in 1808 by D. W. Freshfield,
A. W. Moore, and C. Tucker, with a Swiss guide. Several
successful ascents have been made since, the most valuable in
scientific results being that of Pastukhov (1889) and that of
G. Mcrzbacher and L. Purtscheller in 1890. Kasbek has a
great literature, and has left a deep mark in Russian poetry.
See D. W. Freshfield in Proc. Geog. Soc. (November 1888) and The
Exploration of the Caucasus (and ed. f a vols., 190a); Hatisian's
"Kazbek Glaciers" in Itoestia Russ. Geog. Soc. (xxiv., 1888);
Pastukhov in Jssestia of the Caucasus Branch of Russ. Geog. Soc.
(x. 1, 1 89 1,. with large-scale map).
KASHAN, a small province of Persia, situated between
Isfahan and Kum. It is divided into the two districts germsir, the
" warm," and sardsir, the " cold," the former with the city of
Kashan in the plains, the latter in the hills. It has a population
of 75,000 to 80,000, and pays a yearly revenue of about £18,000.
Kashan (Cashan) is the provincial capital, in 34 o' N. and
51 27' E., at an elevation of 3190 ft., 150 m. from Teheran;
pop. 35,000, including a few hundred Jews occupied as silk-
winders, and a few Zoroastrians engaged in trade. Great
quantities of silk stuffs, from raw material imported from Gilan,
and copper utensils are manufactured at Kashan and sent to all
parts of Persia. Kashan also exports rose-water made in villages
in the hilly districts about 20 m. from the city, and is the
only place in Persia where cobalt can be obtained, from the
mine at Kamsar, 19 m. to the south. At the foot of the hills
4 m. W. oi the city are the beautiful gardens of Fin, the
scene of the official murder, on the 9th of January 1852, of
Mirza Taki Khan, Amir Nizam, the grand vizier, one of the
ablest ministers that Persia has had in modern times.
KASHGAR, an important city of Chinese Turkestan, in
39 *4* a6' N. lat., 76 6' 47 r E. long., 4043 ft. above sea-level.
It consists of two towns, Kuhna Shahr or " old city," and Yangi
Shahr or " new city," about five miles apart, and separated from
one another by the Kyzyl Su, a tributary of the Tarim river. It
is called Su-l€h by the Chinese, which perhaps represents an
original Solek or Sorak. This name seems to be older than
Kashgar, which is said to mean " variegated houses." Situated
at the junction of routes from the valley of the Oxus, from
Khokand and Samarkand, Almati, Aksu, and Khotan, the last
two leading from China and India, Kashgar has been noted from
very early times as a political and commercial centre. Like all
other cities of Central Asia, it has changed hands repeatedly, and
was from 1864- 1887 the seat of government of the Amir Yakub
Beg, surnamed the Alalik Ghazi, who established and for a
brief period ruled with remarkable success a Mahommedan state
comprising the chief cities of the Tarim basin from Turfan
round along the skirt of the mountains to Khoxan. But the
kingdom collapsed with his death and the Chinese retook the
country in 1877 and have held it since.
Kuhna Shahr is a small fortified city on high ground over-
looking the river Tuman. Its walls are lofty and supported by
buttress bastions with loopholcd turrets at intervals; the
fortifications, however, are but of hard clay and are much out
of repair. The city contains about 2500 houses. Beyond the
bridge, a little way off, are the ruins of ancient Kashgar,
which once covered a large extent of country on both sides of the
Tuman, and the walls of which even now are 12 feet wide at the
top and twice that in height. This city— Aski Shahr (Old Town)
as it is now called—was destroyed in 15 14 by Mirza Ababakar
(Abubekr) on the approach of Sultan Said Khan's army. About
two miles to the north beyond the river is the shrine of Hazrat
Aiak, the saint king of the country, who died and was buried here
in 1693. It is a handsome mausoleum faced with blue and white
glazed tiles, standing under the shade of some magnificent silver
poplars. About it Yakub Beg erected a commodious college,
mosque and monastery, the whole being surrounded by rich
orchards, fruit gardens and vineyards. The Yangi Shahr of
Kashgar is, as its name implies, modern, having been built in
1838. It is of oblong shape running north and south, and is
entered by a single gateway. The walls are lofty and massive
and topped by turrets, while on each side is a projecting bastion.
The whole is surrounded by a deep and wide ditch, which can be
filled from the river, at the risk, however, of bringing down the
whole structure, for the walls are of mud, and stand upon a
porous sandy soil. In the time of the Chinese, before Yakub
Beg's sway, Yangi Shahr held a garrison of six thousand men,
and was the residence of the amban or governor. Yakub erected
his orda or palace on the site of the amban's residence, and two
hundred ladies of his harem occupied a commodious enclosure
hard by. The population of Kashgar has been recently estimated
at 60,000 in the Kuhna Sfiahr and only 2000 in the Yangi
Shahr.
With the overthrow of the Chinese rule in 1865 the manu-
facturing industries of Kashgar declined. Silk culture and
carpet manufacture have flourished for ages at Khotan, and the
products always find a ready sale at Kashgar. Other manu-
factures consist of a strong coarse cotton cloth called kham (which
forms the dress of the common people, and for winter wear is
padded with cotton and quilted), boots and shoes, saddlery, felts,
furs and sheepskins made up into cloaks, and various articles of
domestic use. A curious street sight in Kashgar is presented by
the hawkers of meat pies, pastry and sweetmeats, which they
trundle about on hand-barrows just as their counterparts do in
Europe; while the knife-grinder's cart, and the vegetable seller
with his tray or basket on his head, recall exactly similar itinerant
traders further west.
686
KASHI— KASHMIR
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KASHI, or Kasi, formerly the Persian word for all glazed
and enamelled pottery Irrespectively; now the accepted term
for certain kinds of enamelled tile- work, including brick- work and
tile-mosaic work, manufactured in Persia and parts of Mahom-
medan India, chiefly during the 16th and 17th centuries. 1
Undoubtedly originating in the Semitic word for glass, kas,
1 Kashf, the Hindu name for the sacred city of Benares, has no
ceramic significance.
it is quite possible that the name kaski is immediately derived
from Kashan, a town in Persia noted for its faience. This ancient
pottery site, in turn, probably receives its name from the old-
time industry; as a " rity of the plain " it would obviously
have no claim to the farther-eastern suffix than, meaning a
mountain. Sir George Birdwood wisely considers that " the
art of glazing eat hen ware has, in Persia, descended in an
almost unbroken tradition from the period of the greatness of
Chaldaea and Assyria . . . the name kas, by which it is known in
Arabic and Hebrew, carries us back to the manufacture of glass
and enamels for which great Sidon was already famous 1500
years before Christ . . . the designs used in the decoration of Sind
and Punjab glazed pottery also go to prove how much these
Indian wares have been influenced by Persian examples and the
Persian tradition of the much earlier art of Nineveh and Baby-
lon " ( The Industrial Arts of India, 1880). The two native names
for glass, kanch and shisha, common to Persia and India, are,
seemingly, modifications of kashi. The Indian tradition of
Chinese potters settling in bygone days at Lahore and Hal*
respectively, still lingers in the Punjab and Sind provinces,
and evidently travelled eastward from Persia with the Moguls,
Howbeit in Lahore the name Chlnf is sometimes wrongly applied
to kashi work; and the so-called Chfni-ka-Rauza mausoleum at
Agra is an instance of this misuse. It now seems an established
fact that a colony of Chinese ceramic experts migrated to
Isfahan during the 16th century (probably in the reign, and
at the invitation, of Shah Abbas I.), and there helped to revive
the jaded pottery industry of that district.
Kashi work consisted of two kinds: (a) Enamel-faced tiles mad
bricks of strongly fired red earthenware, or terra-cotta; (&) Enamel
faced tiles and tesserae of lightly fired " lime-mortar," or sandstone.
Tile-mosaic work is described by some authorities as the true kaiki.
From examination of figured tile-mosaic patterns, it would appear
that, in some instances, the shaped tesserae had been cut out of
enamelled slabs or tiles after firing; in other examples to have been
cut into shape before receiving their facing of coloured enantcL
Mosaic panels in the fort at Lahore are described by J. L. Kiplin*
as " showing a gtd dasta, or foliated pattern of a branching tree, caca
leaf of which is a separate piece of pottery." Conventional repre-
sentations of foliage, flowers and fruit, intricate geometrical figures,
interlacing arabesques, and decorative calligrapny-^inscriptioas in
Arabic and Persian — constitute the ordinary kaski designs. The
colours chiefly used were cobalt blue, copper blue (turquoise colour),
lead-antimomate yellow (mustard colour), manganese purple, iron
brown and tin white. A colour-scheme, popular with Mosul and
contemporary Persian kaskigars, was the design, in cobalt blue and
copper blue, reserved on a ground of deep mustard yellow. Before
applying the enamel colours, the rough face of the tile, or the tesserae,
received a thin coating of dip of variable composition. It is prob-
ab .._ ___. .._*„. *_ ^-. ,. L ,__r^
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KASHMIR, or Cashmere, a native state of India, including
much of the Himalayan mountain system to the north of tbe
Punjab. It has been fabled in song for its beauty (e.g. in Moore's
Lalla Rookh), and is tbe chief health resort for Europeans in
India, while politically it is important as guarding one of the
approaches to India on the north-west frontier. The proper
KASHMIR
687
name of the state Is Jamraa and Kashmir, and It comprises m
all an estimated area of 80,900 sq. m., with a population (1901)
of 2.005,57s, showing an increase of 14*21 % in the decade. It
is bounded on the north by some petty hills chiefships and by
the Karakoram mountains; on the east by Tibet; and on the
south and west by the Punjab and North-West Frontier
provinces. The state is in. direct political subordination to the
Government of India, which is represented by a resident. Its
territories comprise the provinces of Jammu (including the
Jagir of Punch), Kashmir, Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit; the
Shin states of Yaghistan, of which the most important are
Chilas, Darel and Tangir, are nominally subordinate to it, and
the two former pay a tribute of gold dust. The following are
the statistics for the main divisions of the state: —
Area in sq. m. Pop. in 1901.
Jammu 5.123 1,521.307
Kashmir 7,922 1,157.394
Frontier Districts 443 226,877
The remainder of the state consists of uninhabited mountains,
and its only really important possessions are the districts of
Jammu and Kashmir.
Physical Conformation. — The greater portion of the country
b mountainous, and with the exception of a strip of plain on the
south-west, which is continuous with the great level of the
Punjab, may be conveniently divided into the following regions:
(1) The outer hills and the central mountains of Jammu district.
(2) The valley of Kashmir.
(3) The far side of the great central range, including Ladakh,
Baltistan and Gilgit.
The hills in the outer region of Jammu, adjoining the Punjab
plains, begin with a height of 100 to 200 ft., followed by a tract
of rugged country, including various ridges running nearly
parallel, with long narrow valleys between. The average
height of these ridges is from 3000 to 4000 ft. The central
mountains are commonly 8000 to 10,000 ft., covered with
pasture or else with forest. Then follow the more lofty mountain
ranges, including the region of perpetual snow. A great chain
of snowy mountains branching off south-east and north-west
divides the drainage of the Chenab and the Jhelum rivers from
that of the higher branches of the Indus.. It is within spurs
from this chain that the valley of Kashmir is enclosed amid
hills which rise from 14,000 to 15,000 ft., while the valley itself
forms a cup-like basin at an elevation of 5000 to 6000 ft. All
beyond that great range is a wide tract of mountainous country,
bordering the north-western part of Tibet and embracing
Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit.
The length of the Kashmir valley, including the inner slopes of
its surrounding hills, is about 120 m. from north-west to south-east
with a maximum width of about 75 m. The low and comparatively
level door of the basin is 84 m. long and 20 to 21 m broad.
The hills forming the northern half-circuit of the Kashmir valley.
and running beyond, : "
sales, the most conspii
ashmir. is Nanga Pari
peaks, the most conspii
Kashmir, is Nanga Pari
26,656 ft. above the sea
face. The great ridge
Nanga Parbat rises, at a
in height, from which
which are the nortbc
former range, after rui
of the Kishenganga am
closely presrirtg the riv
{anga, with a break a
Lunhar. This range pn
two 16.487 and 15.544
south-east from the jun
of the Kishenganga fro
the Indus.- The highe
mir. is 17.202 ft. above
Parbat there are no gl
increase; one. near the Zoji-la pass, is only 10,850 ft. above the sea.
The mountains at the cast end of the valley, running nearly north
and south, drain inwards to the Jhelum, and on the other side to the
Wardwan, a tributary of the Chenab. The highest part of this
eastern boundary is 14,700 ft. There no are glaciers. The highest
point on the Panjal range, which forms the south and south-west
boundary, b 15.523 ft. above the sea.
The river Jhelum (*».) or Behat (Sanskrit ( ViAuto)— the Hydaspes
of Greek historians and geographers— flows north-westward through
the middle of the valley. After a slow and winding course it expands
about 25 m. below Srinagar. over a slight depression in the plain, and
forms the Wular lake and marsh, which is about 12 J m. by 5 m. in
extent, and surrounded by the lofty mountains which tower over
the north and north-east of the valley. Leaving the lake on the
south-weat side, near the town of Sopur. the river pursues its sluggish
course south; westward, about 18 m. to the gorge at Baramulla.
From this point the stream is more rapid through the narrow valley
which conducts it westward 75 m. to Muzaffarabad. where it turns
sharply south, joined by the Kishenganga. At Islamabad, about
40 m. above Snnagar, the river is $400 ft. above sea-level, and at
Srinagar 5235 ft. It has thus a fall of about 4 ft. per mile in this part
of its course. For the next 24 m. to the Wular lake, and thence to
Baramulla, its fall is only about 2f ft. in the mile. On the 80 ro. of the
river in the flat valley between Islamabad and Baramulla, there ia
much boat traffic: but none below Baramulla. till the river cornea
out into the plains.
On the north-east side of this low narrow plain of the Jhelum is
a broad hilly tract between which and the higher boundary range
runs the Kishenganga River. Near the east end of this interior hilly
tract, and connected with the higher range, b one summit 17,839 ft.
Around this peak and between the ridges which run from it are many
small glaciers. These heights look down on one side into the beauti-
ful valley of the Sind River, and on another into the valley of the
Lidar, which join the Jhelum. Among the hills north of Srinagar
rises one conspicuous mountain mass, 10.903 ft. in height, from which
on its north side descend tributaries of the Kishenganga, and on the
south the Wangat River, which flows into the Sind. By these rivers
and their numerous affluents the whole valley of Kashmir b watered
abundantly.
Around the foot of many spurs of the hills which run down on the
Kashmir plain are pieces of low table-land, called kartwa. These
terraces vary in height at different parts of the valley from 100 to
300 ft. above the alluvial plain. Those which arc near each other
are mostly about the same level, and separated by deep ravines.
The level plain in the middle of the Kashmir valley consists of fine
day and sand, with water-worn pebbles. The karewas consist of
horizontal beds of clay and sand, the lacustrine nature of which b
shown by the shells which they contain.
Two passes lead northward from the Kashmir valley, the Burzit
(13.500 ft.) and the Kamri (14,050). The Burzil is the main pass
between Srinagar and Gilgit via Astor. It is usually practicable
only between the middle of July and the middle of September. The
road from Srinagar to Lehin Ladakh follows the Sind valley to the
Zoji-la-pass (1 1 ,300 ft.) Only a short piece of the road, where snow
accumulates, prevents this pass being used all the year. At the
south-east end of the valley are three passes, the Margan (1 1.500 ft.),
the Holcsar (13.315) and the Marbal (1 1,500), leading to the valleys
of the Chenab and the Ravi. South of Islamabad, on the direct
route to jammu and Sialkot, is the Banihal pass (9236 ft). Further
Geology.— The general strike of the beds, andof the folds which have
affected them, is from N.W to S.E., parallel to the mountain ranges.
Along the south-western border lies the zone of Tertiary beds which
forms the Sub-Himalayas. Next to this b a great belt of Palaeozoic
rocks, through which rise the granite, gneiss and schist of the
Zanslcar and Dhauladhar ranges and of the Pir Panjal In the midst
of the Palaeozoic area lie the alluvium and Pleistocene deposits of
the Srinagar valley, and the Mesozoic and Carboniferous basin of the
upper part of the Sind valley. Beyond the great Palaeozoic belt
b a zone of Mesozoic and Tertiary beds which commences at Kargil
and extends south-eastward past the Kashmir boundary to Sp'tii and
beyond. Finally, in Baltbtan and the Ladakh range there is a broad
zone composed chiefly of gneiss and schist of ancient date.
The oldest fossils found belong either to the Ordovician or Silurian
systems. But it is not until the Carboniferous is reached that fossils
become at all abundant (so far as is yet known). The Mesozoic
deposits belong chiefly to the Trias and Jura, but Cretaceous beds
have been found near the head of the Tsarap valley. The Tertbry
system includes representatives of all the principal divisions recog*
nized in other parts of the Himalayas.
Climate.— The valley of Kashmir, sheltered from the south-west
monsoon by the Panjal range, has not the periodical rains of India.
Its rainfall b irregular, greatest ia the spring months. Occasional
6$o
KASHMIRI
linguistic progress later than that of Sanskrit, and earlier than
that which we find recorded in the Iranian A vesta.
The immigrants into Kashmir must have been Shins, speaking
a language closely allied to the ancestor of the modern Shlna.
They appear to have dispossessed and absorbed an older oon-
Aryan people, whom local tradition now classes as Nagas, or
Snake-gods, and, at an early period, to have come themselves
under the influence of Indo-Aryan immigrants from the south,
who entered the valley along the course of the river Jhelam. The
language has therefore lost most of its original Pisaca character,
and is now a mixed one. Sanskrit has been actively studied for
many centuries, and the Kashmiri vocabulary, and even its
grammar, are now largely Indian. So much is this the case that,
for convenience' sake, it is now frequently classed (see Inoo-
Aryan Languages) as belonging to the north-western group of
Indo-Aryan languages, instead of as belonging to the Pisaca
family as its origin demands. It cannot be said that either
classification is wrong.
Kashmiri has few dialects. In the valley there are slight
changes of idiom from place to place, but the only important
variety is Kishtwari, spoken in the hills south-west of Kashmir.
Smaller dialects, such as Pogul and RambanI of the hills south of
the Banihal pass, may also be mentioned. The language itself
is an old one. Pure Kashmiri words are preserved in t be Sanskrit
Rajatarahgini written by Kalhaua in the 12th century a. d., and,
judging from these specimens, the language, does not appear to
have changed materially since his time.
Central Character of the Language. — Kashmiri is a language of
great philological interest. The two principal features which at
once strike the student are the numerous epenthetic changes of
vowels and consonants and the employment of pronominal
suffixes. In both cases the phenomena are perfectly plain, cause
and effect being alike presented to the eye in the somewhat com-
plicated systems of declension and conjugation. The Indo-
Aryan languages proper have long ago passed through this stage,
and many of the phenomena now presented by them are due to
its influence, although all record of it has disappeared. In this
way a study of Kashmiri explains a number of difficulties found
by the student of Indo-Aryan vernaculars. 1
In the following account the reader is presumed to be in possession
of the facts recorded in the articles Indo-Aryan Languages and
Prakrit, and the following contractions will be employed: Ksh. ■»
Kashmiri ; Skr. - Sanskrit ; P. - Pisica ; Sh. - Shlna.
A. Vocabulary. The vocabulary of Kashmiri is, as has been
explained, mixed. At its basis it has a large number of words which
— r.t._ t 1 :_ ^u :_li : — cu.i r_J -i u ,_
for
:ed
ian
les
ter
>n-
us-
«n
ian
liy
Ian
las
ian
as they are called, confine their borrowings almost entirely to words
derived from Sanskrit. As the literary class is mostly Hindu, it
follows that Kashmiri literature, taken as a whole, while affording
most interesting and profitable study, hardly represents the actual
language spoken by the mass of the people. There are, however, a few
good Kashmiri works written by Mussulmans in their own dialect.
B. Written Characters. Mussulmans and Christian missionaries em-
ploy an adaptation of the Persian character for their writings. * This
alphabet is quite unsuited for representing the very complex Kash-
miri vowel system. Hindns employ the S&rada alphabet, of Indian
origin and akin to the well-known Nigari. Kashmiri vowel sounds
can be recorded very successfully in this character, but there is, unfor-
l See G. A. Grierson, "On Pronominal Suffixes in the Kacmiri
Languages," and " On the Radical and Participial Tenses of the
Modern Indo-Aryan Languages," in Journal of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, vol. Ixiv. (1895), pt.1 pp. 336 and 35*-
tunatdy,nofixedsysteraof spelling. TW Nagari al ph a be t is also cosm-
ing into use in printed books, no Saradl types being yet in existence.
C. Phonetics. Comparing the Kashmin with the Sanskrit alpha-
|)£| (***— C»tl*lf»l»» ~t~ «■».«• £m* mmVa m -*.m»iA — — KL» ^^tCnSHJU
of th da a. *.
1, f , 1 • init it
has a met **).
a she ' all ").
It alt lick ase
reprc he line.
viz. rmiaast
soum pt that
it m. 1. thou.
The i at ike
end c se sane
syllal elyand
is so stances,
* rer s short
Gcrn enisaa
older 1 tabbl
vowc A, they
exerc e. We
may If we
add t ound of
the a onnced
in it «rei» is
tech 1 e most
striki rhtch is
unini In the
folloi mitnV
vowc - . - - *s has*.
This is not the native system, according to which the change b
indicated sometimes by a diacritical mark and sometimes by writing
a different letter. The changes of pronunciation effected by each
mltri-vowel arc shown in the following table. If natives employ
a different letter to indicate the change the fact b mentioned, la
other cases they content themselves with diacritical marks. When
no entry is made, it should be understood that the sound of the
vowel remains unaltered:—
Pronunciation when followed by
a-mdlr*
a {.ad'r % be
moist) fsomc
thing like a
short Ger-
man 6)
6 <MK'r, pr.
kOfi"r, make
one-eyed)
(like a long
German 0)
i W. pr.
lid'r. be yel-
low}
« (WtW, pr.
kukh'r, make
dry)
umdlrd
a* (kqr 1 , pr.
hatr, made,
phiralmasc.)
6' (German 6;
m^', pr.
***<**, killed,
masc. plur.)
*' top*! pr.
gu { r\ horses)
A* (gfr*, pr.
f**r, cow-
herds)
I <fk?r<,. pr.
and written
phlr*, turned,
plur.)
v&W, ari~
masc. plur.
ti' <hu>i<
... . pr.
arisen,
masc. uiu
u< (MV,
M's* — *■
Ms*, nc
masc. pi 1
written
heard.
lur.)
i-matrd
tZ (as in Ger-
man: kqr*,
pr. ftdr.made,
lem. sing.)
6 (m4r*, pr.
mor, killed,
fern, sing.)
7* tfr*Vpr.
lytto, plas-
tered, Tern.
pr./jjd.
squeexed,
fern, sing.)
i (ph*r* f pr.
pkir, written,
tokir*, turned,
lem. sing.)
J (w&th\ pr.
vnitk, arisen,
fern, sing.)
« (**•, Pr.
Ms, written,
M**, heard,
fem. sing.)
(like first o in
" promote "*;
ha**, pr. a*r.
yu ftj^. pr.
tsyul, writ-
ten lsjw> t
sq tree a eel,
masc. nog.)
ten P*y*t- t
turned, osaac.
. arWn*.
masc. sing.) 1
a (Ms-, pr.
Ma, writtem
Ms*, keawd.
masc situ.)
The letters u and t, even when not a-matra or t-matrft, often cfcaissn
apreceding long a" to d, which b usually written 6, and 4 respectivelv.
Thus rawuhht they have lost, b pronounced r&wukh, and, in t&e
KASHMIRI
69!
mtive character, b written r*w«*s. SitmtutymOHsYiocometmflii
(mttis). The diphthong ai b pronounced 4 when it commences a
word ; thus, asfi, eight* » pronounced 6{k. When i and a commence
a word they are pronounced yi and vm respectively. With
Important exception, common to all Pisaca languages, Kashmiri
employs every consonant found in the Sanskrit alphabet.
The
exception b the series of aspirated consonants, gh, jh, dh, dk and 6a,
which are wanting in Kan , the c o rre s ponding unaspirated consonants
instituted" ' *""
being substituted for them. Thus, Slcr. ikdiakas, but Ksh. gar", a
bone; Skr. bkawati, Ksh. WW, he will be. There b a tendency to
use dental letters where Hindi employs cerebrals, as in Hindi ajA,
Ksh. w6tk t arise. Cerebral letters are, however, owing to Sanskrit
influence, on the whole better preserved in Ksh. than in the other
Pisaca languages. The cerebr al * has almost disappeared, i being
employed instead. The only common word in which it b found b
the numeral ma, six. which is merely a learned spelling for iah, due
to the influence of the Skr. sat. *" •' ■ — ■- - -«■ *
series of consonants has been fori
U+k, not *+**)• and s (as in Ei
Ksh. |j*>, a thief ; Skr. ckalayaii
joJetn, Ksh. as/, water. The si
frequently represented by a. Tl
itroi, Ksh. as>, a head. We nu
word Hind, India (compare the
from the Skr. Stttdkus, the river I
by a palatal letter the i returns;
we have the nominative masculii
the abstract noun kdiyar, because
The palatal letters i. #, *-*•**
consonant. The modifications
examples: rU- t night; nora. pi
arose: fee*, build; iqr, she was btii
fit*, a tablet ; Ag. sing, pad: baH
great; nom. ptur. fern, bajii batmi
■em. hdeh*; srQf, cheap; sr&jyar, 1
a small ring ; Us, be weary ; /flr* or t
are each subject to certain rules.
only before *, * or y, and not be p
contrary, do not change s, but do change before t, 7 or i-mdlrd.
No word can end in an unaspirated surd consonant. I f such a conso-
nant fans at the end of a word it is aspirated. Thus, ak, one, becomes
akk (but ace akis); ka(, a ram, becomes kafk; and kat, a hundred, hath.
D. Dtcknrion. If the above phonetic rules are borne in mind,
declension in Kashmiri is a fairly simple process. If attention b
not paid to them, the whole system at once becomes a field of in-
extricable confusion. In the following pages it will be assumed that
the reader b familiar with them.
Nouns substantive and adjective have two genders, a masculine
and a feminine. Words referring to males are masculine, and to
females are feminine. Inanimate things are sometimes masculine
and sometimes feminine. Pronouns have three genders, arranged
on a different principle. One gender refers to male living beings,
another to female living beings, and a third (or neuter) to all inani-
mate things whether they are grammatically masculine or feminine.
Nouns ending in ■ are masculine, and most, but not all, of those
ending in *, •, t or ft are feminine. Of nouns ending in consonants,
some are masculine, and some are feminine. No rule can be formu-
lated regarding these, except that all abstract nouns ending in or
(a very numerous class) are masculine. There are four declensions.
The first consists of masculine nouns ending in a consonant, in b, I
or * (very few of these last two). The second consists of the impor-
tant class of masculine nouns in *; the third of feminine nouns in
<, *, or ft (being the feminines corresponding to the masculine nouns
of the second declension) ; and the fourth of feminine nouns ending
in •, I or a consonant.
The noon posse ss e s two numbers, a singular and a plural, and in
each number, there are, besides the nominative, three organic cases,
the accusative, the case of the agent (see betow, under " verbs "), and
the ablative. The accusative, when not definite, may also be the
same in form as the nominative. The following are the forms which
a noun takes in each declension, the words chosen as examples being :
First declension, tsir, a thief; second declension, m<f/\ a father;
third declension, maj* % a mother; fourth declension, (a) mil, a
garland, (b) rill-, night.
The declension 40 b confined to certain nouns inf. la, a*.*,* and J,
in which the final consonant b liable to change owing to a following
sZ-md/rd.
Other cases are formed (as in true Indo-Aryan languages) by the
addition of postpositions, some of which are added to the accusative,
while others are added to the ablative case. To the former are added
man*, in; £»>, to or for ; s$tin, with, and others. To the ablative are
Adjectives ending in " (second declension) form the feminine in *,
with the usual changes of the preceding consonant. Thus /a/*, hot,
fem. lais* (pronounced hits). Other adjectives do not change for
gender. All adjectives agree with the qualified noun in gender,
number and case, the postposition, if any, being added to the latter
word of the two. Take, for example. choC, white, and jar - , a horse.
From these we have ckai* g«r*. a white horse; ace. sing, ckalis guru;
nom. plur. that gar* ; and chatyau guryau sijiiu, by means of white
horses
The first two personal pronouns are bSk. I; mi, me, by me; or*,
we; asi t us, by us; and ts*h, thou; 1st, thee, by thee; #«', ye* tdki
you, by you. Possessive pronouns are employed instead of the
fenitive. Thus, my^n", my; #»•, our; cy$* m t thy; tuhand", your,
or the third person, we have sing, masc suk, fem. sdk, ncut. Its;
ace. sing. (masc. or fem.) tamis or tas, neut. talk; agent sing masc
neut. torn', fem. tamu The plural b of common gender throughout.
Nom. tim ; ace. timan ; ag. Oman. The possessive pronou n b lasand*,
of him, of her; tamyuk* f of it; tikand*, of them. The neuter gender
b used for all things without life.
Other pronouns are: — This: via (com. gen.); ace masc fem.
yimis, or ttifmis, neut, ytih, ndtk; ag. masc. neut., yitm*, nfm 4 , fem.
yimt, nSmi; nom. plur. yim, fem. yrwro, and so on.
That (within sight): masc ncut. kuh, fem. kdk; ace masc fem.
knmts or amis, neut. kutk, and so 00; nom. plur. masc kum.
Who, masc. yus, fem. ySssa, neut. yih\ ace masc. fem. yimis,
yis, neut. ytih; ag. masc neut. yim 1 , Fem. yimi; nom. plur. masc
yim, and so on.
Who? masc kits, fem. Msso, neut. ky6k; ace masc. fem. hamis,
kas. neut. katk; ag. masc. neut. kam*, fem. kami; nom. plur. masc. kam.
Self, p&na. Anyone, someone, k&k, kuh, or kfUsk&k, neut. UiskOk.
Kashmiri makes very free use of pronominal suffixes, which are
added to verbs to supply the place of personal terminations. These
represent almost any case, and are as follows: —
Before these the verbal terminations are often slightly changed
for the sake of euphony, and, when necessary for the pronuncbtion,
the vowel a is inserted as a junction vowel.
In this connexion we may mention another set of suffixes also
commonly added to verbs, with an adverbial force. Of these no
negatives the verb, as m ckuk, he js; chtma, he b not; 4 asks «
6o*
KASHMIRI
Question, at in ckwd, is he ? tf adds emphasis, as In ckuH, he is indeed ;
and ty& asks a question with emphasis, as in chutyd, is he indeed ?
Two or three suffixes may be employed together, as in kar*, was
made, kqru-m, was made by me, kar'-m-akk, thou wast made by
me; kar m -m-akk~a', wast thou made by me? The two kh suffixes
become h when they are followed by a pronominal suffix commencing
with a vowel, as in kar*-k-as (for kar*-kh-as), I was made by them.
E. Conjugation. As in the case of the modern Indo-Aryan
vernaculars, the conjugation of the verb is mainly participial.
Three only of the old tenses, the present, the future and the impera-
tive have survived, the first having become a future, and the second
a past conditional. These three we may call radical tenses. The
rest, viz. the Kashmiri present, imperfect, past, aorist, perfect and
other past tenses are all participial.
The verb substantive, which is also used as an auxiliary verb,
has two tenses, a present and a past. The former is made by adding
the pronominal suffixes of the nominative to a base cku(h), and the
latter by adding the same to a base fii*. Thus: —
Singular
Plural
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
I
2
3
chu-s, I am
chu~kk, thou
art
chuh, he is
chi-s, I am
ckl-kh, thou
art
chih, she is
chik, we are
cki~wa, you
are
chih, they are
chih, we are
cM-wo, you are
chik, they are
I
2
3
qsu-s, I was
Qsu-kk, thou
wast
&$", he was
$sVf, I was
Qs*-kh, thou
wast
£j", she was
$**, we were
$f<-wa, you
were
$**. they
were
dsa, we were
dsa-toa, you
were
too, they were
As for the finite verb, the modern future (old present), and the past
conditional (old future) do not change for gender, and do not employ
suffixes, but retain relics of the old personal terminations of the
tenses from which they are derived. They are thus conjugated,
taking the verbal root kar, as the typical verb.
Future, I shall make, &c.
Past Conditional, (if) I had made, Ac.
Singular
Plural
Singular
Plural
t
2
3
kara
karakh
kari
karav
karh
karan
karahA
karah&kh
karihi
karahdv
karkto
karakdn
For the imperative we have and person singular, kar, plur. karh;
third person singular and plural karin.
Many of the above forms will be intelligible from a consideration
of the closely allied Sanskrit, although they are not derived from
that language; but some (e.g. those of the second person singular)
can only be explained by the analogy of the Iranian and of the
Pi&fica languages.
The present participle is formed by adding dn to the root; thus,
kar&n, making. It docs not change for gender. From this we get a
present and an imperfect, formed by adding respectively the present
and past tenses of the auxiliary verb. Thus, kdran chus, I (mascu-
line) am making, I make; kar&n this. I (feminine) am making, I
make; kar&n asus, I (masculine) was making; and so on.
There are several past participles, all of which are liable to change
for gender, and arc utilized in conjugation. We have: —
Singular
Plural
Masculine
Feminine
Masculine
Feminine
Weak past participle
Strong past participle
Pluperfect participle
Compound past parti-
ciple
kar-
koryov
karyav
kar u maT
kar*
karyiya
karyeya
kafmaW
kar<
karyiy
kareyiy
kar*m4l*
kari
karyiya
karyeya
karematsa
In the strong past participle and the pluperfect participle, the
final v and y (like the final k of chuh quoted above) are not parts of
the original words, but are only added for the sake of euphony.
The true words are katyd, kar ye, karyU and karytyt. There are
three conjugations. The first includes all transitive verbs. These
have both the weak and the strong past participles. The second
conjugation consists' of sixty-six common intransitive verbs, which
also have both of these participles. The third conjugation consists
of the remaining intransitive verbs. These have only the strong
past participle. The weak past participle in the first two conjuga-
tions refers to something which has lately happened, and is used to
form an immediate past tense. The strong past participle is more
indefinite, and is employed to form a tense corresponding to the
Creek aorist. The pluperfect participle refers to something which
''lou.
Hi,
happened a long time ago, and Is used to* fonn the past
narration. As the third conjugation hat no weak past participle,
the strong past participle is employed to make the immediate past,
and the pluperfect participle it employed to make the aorist past.
while the new pluperfect participle is formed co make the tense of
narration. Thus, from the root wuftfc, fly (third conjugation) we
have vuphydo, he flew just now, while karydv (first conjugation)
means *' he was made at some indefinite time "; wupkytv. he flew
at some indefinite time, but karya9, he was made a long time ago)
finally, the new participle of the third conjugation, wvpktyto, he
flew a long time ago.
The corresponding tenses are formed by adding pronominal
suffixes to the weak, the strong, or the pluperfect participle. In the
las - - - -• ' * • • ' d by euphony, are
dr uciptes are t
by e suffix f *
th r»i
Fc kanMN; for "thoa
mi the thing made it
fei lilarlv if it it plural
it sr*-NK, I made her;
ha made them (femi-
nu we have haryfi-m,
I i made him (a loaf
tir ve verba are oat
pa ect must be in the
no njugatbn) ; fsaav-s;
es< ne) escaped, and so
on to, flew; wvpky*-s,
II , Ac.
td one on another.
nt ■» iuiuki ^AAJupiv «*« &umj g**^ «" f ' , iwuci Haru^ftj raaoe oy
him, he made; karu-n-as, made by him I, he made me, or (as -* also
means " for him ") he made for him; karu-nrasJL, did he make mtr
or, did he make for him ? and so on.
Tenses corresponding to the English perfect and pluperfect are
formed by conjugating the auxiliary verb, adding the a p pr opri ate
suffixes, with the compound past participle. Thus kor^maf dkm*
n-as t made ara-by-him-I, he has made me; tsot'm^r dks-aa,
. thou hast escaped; wupkyhmq? t
Similarly for the pluperfect, ka
nu him-I, he had made me, and so on.
i have irregular past participlea, ■ That «sar, die, has
mi , has rffT*; *A», eat, has JWjuw for its weak, and aMjds
foi participle, while ui, take, has nyin and ttrwJv, r e ap e c *
th rt must be learnt from the regular grammars.
ve is formed by adding -ait to the root; thus ear ■nyto
nu declined like a somewhat irregular noun of the first
de • accusative being karanas. There are three forms of
th agency, of whkh typical examples are Jhii mm',
ka no kor-an-grakk, a maker.
■ is formed Dy conjugating the verb yi, come, with th*
ab i infinitive. Thus, karana yvn&u. chuh, it is coming by
nu ito making, sVe. it is being made. A root it -raaoe
ac lal by adding -anavi, -4w, or -fdw. Thus, kar-awtm.
ca c; kumaL, be tender, kumal-avf, make tender; hoi, be
du , „ r -_w, make dumb. Some verbs take one form and some
another, and there are numerous irregularities, especially in the case
of the last.
F. Indedinables. Indeclmablet (adverbs, prepositions, oonjuac*
tione and interjections) must be learnt from the dictionary. The
number of interjections is very large, and they are distinguished by
minute rules depending on the gender of the person addressed and
the exact amount of respect due to him.
Li/era/w*.— Kashmiri possesses a somewhat extensive litera-
ture, which has been very little studied. The missionary William
Carey published in 1821 a version of the New Testament (in the
Sarada character), which was the first book published in the
language. In 1885 the Rev. J. Hinton Knowles published at
Bombay a collection of Kashmiri proverbs and sayings, and K. F.
Burkhard in 1895 published an edition of Mahmud Gamfspoem
on YQsuf and Zulaikha. This, with the exception of later trans-
lations of the Scriptures in the Persian character and a few minor
works, Is all the literature that has been printed or about which
anything has been writ ten. MahmQd GamT's poem is valuable as
an example of the Kashmiri used by Mussulmans. For Hindu
literature, we may quote a history of Krishna by Dinan&iha.
The very popular Lalld-vdkya, a poem on Saiva phUosopy by
a woman named L&Uadcvi, h said to be the oldest work in the
language which has survived. Another esteemed work is the
Siva Parinaya of Krsna Rajanaka, a living author. These And
other books which have been studied by the present writer have
little independent value, being imitations of Sanskrit litecattuc.
Nothing is known about, the dales of most of the author*.
/RASHUBES-^KASSALA
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KASHTJBES (sing. Kaszub, plur. >y<wj«M, a Slavonic people
Cumbering about 200,000, and living on the borders of West
Prussia and Pomerania, along the Baltic coast between Danzig
and Lake Garden, and inland as far as Ronitz. They have no
literature and no history, as they consist of peasants and fisher-
men, the educated classes being mostly Germans or Poles. Their
language has been held to be but a dialect of Polish, but it scorns
better to separate it, as in some points it is quite independent,
in some it offers a resemblance to the language of the Polabs (gv.).
This is most seen in the western dialect of the so-called Slovinci
(of whom there are about 250 left) and Kabatki, whereas the
eastern Kashubc is more like Polish, which is encroaching upon
and assimilating it. Lorentz calls the western dialect a language,
and distinguishes 38 vowels. The chief points of Kashubc as
against Polish are that all its vowels can be nasal instead of a
and e only, that it has preserved quantity and a free accent, has
developed several special vowels, e. g. <J, <r, U, and has preserved
the original order, e.g. gard as against (tod. The consonants
are very like Polish. (See also Slavs.)
Authorities. — F. Lorentz, .SfariMsittfe Grammaiih (St Petersburg,
1903) and " Die pegenseitigen Vcrhaltniaee der sogen. Lcchuchcn
Sprachen," in Arch. f. Slav. Phil. xxiv. (1902);" J. Baudouin de
Courtenay, " Kurzes Resume" der Kaschubrachcn Frage," ibid,
xxvi. (1904); G. fironisch, Kaukubischc DiaUklstudicn (Leipzig,
I896-1998) ; S. RamuH, Stoitmikjciiyk* pomerskieto ctyii kaszubskicg*,
i.e. " Dictionary of the Seacoast (Pomeranian) or Kashu^e Language"
(Cracow, 1893). (E. H. M.)
KASIMOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazan,
on the Oka river, in 54° 56' N, and 41° 3' E., 75 m. E.N.E. of
Ryazan. Pop. ( 1897), 13, 54 5, of whom about 1000 were Tatars,
It is famed for its tanneries and leather goods, sheepskins- and
post-horse bells. Founded in 1152, it was formerly known as
Meshcherski GotOdcts. In the x 5th century it became the capital
of a Tatar khanate, subject to Moscow, and so remained until
1667. The town possesses a cathedral and a mosque supposed
to have been built by Kanm* founder of the Tatar principality.
Near the mosque stands a mausoleum: built by Shah-Ali in 1555.
Lying on the direct road from Astrakhan to Moscow and Nizhni y-
Novgorod. Kasimov is a place of some trade, and has a large
annual fair in July. The waiters in the best hotels of St Peters-
burg are mostly Kasimov Tatars.
See Veliarainov-Zernov, The Kasimov Tsars (St Petersburg,
1863-1866).
KASdA (Germ. Kasckau; Lat. Cassmta), the capital of the
county of Abauj-Torna, in Hungary, 170 m. N.E. of Budapest by
rail. Pop. (1900), 35,856. Kassa is one of the oldest and hand-
somest towns of Hungary, and is pleasantly situated on the right
bank of the Hernid. It is surrounded on three sides by hills
covered with forests and vineyards, and opens to the S.E. to-
wards a pretty vaUey watered by the Hern&d and the Tarcza.
Kassa consists of the inner town, which was the former otd town
surrounded with walls, and of three suburbs separated from it by
a broad glacis. The most! remarkable building, eansitfeatt the
grandest masterpiece of architecture in Hungary, is the Gothic
cathedral of St Elizabeth. Begun about 1370 by Stephen V., it
was continued ( 1342-1382) by Queen Elizabeth; wife of Charles I.,
and her son Louis L, and finished about 1468, in the reign of
Matthias L (Corvinus). The interior was transformed m. the
1 8th century to the Renaissance style,- and the whole church
thoroughly restored in 1877-1896. The church of St Mkbael
and the Franciscan or garrison church date from the 13th cen-
tury. The royal law academy, founded in 1650, and sanctioned
by golden baU of King Leopold I. in 1660, has an extensive
library; there are also a museum, a Roman Catholic upper
gymnasium and seminary for priests, and other schools and
benevolent institutions. Kassa is the see of a Roman Calhohc
bishopric It is the chief political and commercial town of Upper
Hungary, and the principal entrepot for the commerce between
Hungary and Galicio. Its most important manufactures are
tobacco, machinery, iron, furniture, textiles and muling. About
3 m. N. W. of the town are the baths of Bank6, with alkaline and
ferruginous springs, and about 12 m. N.E. lies Rank-Herlein, with
an intermit tent chalybeate spring. About so m. W. of Kassa lies
the famous Prcmonstratensiau abbey of Jasao, founded in the
12th century. The abbey contains a rich library, and valuable
archives. In the neighbourhood is a fine stalactite grotto,
which often served as a place of refuge to the inhabitants in war
time.
Kassa was created a town and granted special privileges by
Bela IV. in 1235, and was raised to the rank of a royal free town
by Stephen V. in 1270. In 1200 it was surrounded with walls.
The subsequent history presents a long record of revolts, sieges
and disastrous conflagrations. In 1430 the plague ccBricoV.off a
great number of the inhabitants. In 1458 the right of minting
money according to the pattern and value of the Bu<U coinage
was granted to the municipality by King Matthias I. The
bishopric was established in 1804. In the revolutionary war of
1848-49 the Hungarians were twice defeated before the walls of
Kassa by the Austrian! under General Schlick, and the town was
held successively by the Austrian*, Hungarians and Russians. ;
KASSALA, a town aud tnudiria of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan*
The town, a military station of some importance, lies on the river
Gash (Mareb) in 1 5 28' N., 36° 34' E., 260 m. E.S.E. of Khartum
and 240 m. W. of Massawa, the nearest seaport. Pop. about
20,000. It is built on a plain, 1700 ft. above the sea, at the foot
of the Abyssinian highlands. 15 m.W. of the frontier of the Italian
colony of Eritrea. Two dome-shaped mountains about 2600 ft,
high, jcbels Mokram and Kassaia, rise abruptly from the plain
some 3 m» to the east and south-east. These mountains and
the numerous gardens Kassaia contains give to the place a
picturesque appearance. The chief buildings are of brick, but
most of the natives dwell in grass tukls. .A short distance from
the town is Khatmia, containing a tomb mosque with a high
tower, the headquarters of the Morgani family. The sheikhs EI
Morgani are the chiefs of a religious brotherhood widely spread
and of considerable influence in the eastern Sudan. The Morgani
family are of Afghan descent. Long settled in Jidda, the head
of the family removed to the Sudan about 1800 and founded the
Morgani sect. Kassaia was founded by the Egyptians in 1840
as a fortified post from which to control their newly conquered
territory near the Abyssinian, frontier. In a few years it grew
into a place of some importance. In November 1883 it was be*
*'ic garrison held out till the 30th of J uly
food they capitulated. Kassaia was
cs by an Italian force under Colonel
V 1894 and by the Italians was handed
I to Egypt. The bulk of the inhabit-
siegedbytbede
1885 when owii
captured from
Baratieri on th<
over on Christ r
ants are Hallcn
Kassaia mud $ some of the most fertile land in the
Anglo- Egypliai It corresponds roughly with the dis-
trict formerly k ca. It is a region of light rainfall, and
cultivation depends chiefly on the Gash flood. The river is how-
ever absolutely dry from October to June. White durra of
excellent quality is raised.
69+
KAS8ASSIN— KATANGA
KASSASSIN. a village of Loner Egypt u m. by rtfl W. of
Istnailia on the Suex Canal At this place, on the 38th of August
and again on the oth of September 1882 the British force opera-
ting agaiust Arabi Pasha was attacked by the Egyptians— both
attack* being repulsed (see Eoyft: Military Operations).
KASSITES, an Elamite tribe who played an important part
In the history of Babylonia. They still inhabited the north-
.western mountains of Elam, immediately south of Hoiwan, when
Sennacherib attacked them in 70a B.C. They are the Kossaeans
of Ptolemy, who divides Susiana between them and the Ely-
inaeans; according to Strabo (xi. 13, 3, 6) they were the neighbours
of the Medes. Th. Ndldeke (GfilL C. C, 1874, pp. 173 seq.) has
shown that they are the Kissians of the older Greek authors who
are identified with the Susians by Aeschylus (Chotph. 424, Ptrs.
17, 120) and Herodotus (v. 40, 52). We already hear of them as
attacking Babylonia in the 9th year of Samsu*fluna the son of
Khammurabi, and about 1780 B.C. they overran Babylonia and
founded a dynasty there which lasted for 576 years and nine
months. In the course of centuries, however, they were absorbed
Into the Babylonian population; the kings adopted Semitic names
and married into the royal family of Assyria. Like the other
languages of the non-Semitic tribes of Elam that of the Kassites
was agglutinative; a vocabulary of it has been handed down in a
cuneiform tablet, as well as a list of Kassile names with their
Semitic equivalents. It has no connexion with Indo-European,
as has erroneously been supposed. Some of the Kassile deities
were introduced into the Babylonian pantheon, and the Kassitc
tribe of Khabiri seems to have settled in the Babylonian plain.
See Fr. Dditoch, DU Sprocktder Kossdcr (1884). (A. H. S.)
KASTAWJN1, or KastaicbOl. (i) A vilayet of Asia Minor
which includes Paphlagonia and parts of Pontus and Galatia.
It b divided into four sanjaks— Kastamuni, Boli, Changra and
Sinope— is rich in mineral wealth, and has many mineral springs
and extensive forests, the timber being used for charcoal and
building and the bark for tanning. The products are chiefly
cereals, fruits, opium, cotton, tobacco, wool, ordinary goat-hair
and mohair, in which there is a large trade. There are coal-mines
at and near Eregli (anc. Hcradeio) which yield steam coal nearly
as good in quality as the English, but they are badly worked.
Its population comprises about 003,000 Moslems and 27,000
Christians. (2) The capital of the vilayet, the andent Castamon,
altitude 2500 ft., situated in the narrow valley of the Geuk Irmak
(Amnios), and connected by a carriage road, 54 m., with its port
Ineboli on the Black Sea. The town is noted for its copper
utensils, but the famous copper mines about 36 m. N., worked
from ancient times to the igth century, are now abandoned.
There are over 30 mosques in the town, a dervish monastery, and
numerous theological colleges (medrtsscs), and the Moslem inhabi-
tants have a reputation for bigotry. The climate though subject
to extremes of heat and cold is healthy; in winter the roads are
often closed by snow. The population of 16,000 includes about
2500 Christians.. Castamon became an important city in later
Byzantine times. It by on the northern trunk-road to the
Euphrates and was built round a strong fortress whose ruins
crown the rocky hill west of the town. It was taken by the
Danishmand Amirs of Si vas early in the 12th century, and passed
to the Turks in 1393. (J- G. C. A.)
JCASTORIA (Turkish Kesrie), a city of Macedonia, European
Turkey, in the vilayet of Monastir, 45 ra. S. by W. of Monastlr
(Bitolia). Pop. (1005), about 10,000, one-third of whom are
Greeks, one-third Slavs, and the remainder Albanians or Turks.
Kastoria occupies part of a peninsula on the western shore of
Lake Kastoria, which here receives from the north its affluent the
Zhelova. The lake is formed in a deep hollow surrounded by
limestone mountains, and is drained on the south by the Bis-
tritza^a large river which flows S.E. nearly to the Greek frontier,
then sharply turns N.E., and finally enters the Gulf of Salonica.
The lake has an area of 20 sq. m., and is 2850 ft. above sca-lcvel.
Kastoria is the seat of an Orthodox archbishop. It is usually
identified with the ancient Ccldrum, captured by the Romans
tinder Sulpicius, during the first Macedonian campaign, 200 B.C.,
and better known for the defence maintained by Hrvennms
against Alexis I. in 1084. A Byzantine wall with round towers
runs across the peninsula.
KASUR, a town of British India, in the Lahore district of the
Punjab, situated on the north bank of the old bed of the river
Beas, 34 m. S.E. of Lahore. Pop. (1001), 22,022. A Rajput
colony seems to have occupied the present site before the earliest
Mahommedan invasion; but Kasur does not appear in history
until late in the Mussulman period, when it was settled by a
Palhan colony from beyond the Indus. It has an export trade
in grain and cotton, and manufactures of cotton and leather
goods;
KATAGUM, the sub-province of the double province of Kano
in the British protectorate of Northern Nigeria. It lies approxi-
mately between 1 1° and 13* N. and 8* 20' and to* 40* E. It is
bounded N. by the French Sudan, E. by Bornu, 5. by Baocbi,
and W. by Kano. Katagum consists of several small but ancient
Mahommedan emirates— Katagum, Messau, Gummel, Hadeija»
Machena, with a fringe of Bedde pagans on its eastern frontier
towards Bornu, and other pagans on the south towards BanchL
The Waube flows from Kano through the province via Hadeija
and by Damjiri in Bornu to Lake Chad, affording a route for the
transport of goods brought by the Zungeru-Zaria-Kano raOway
to the headquarters of Katagum and western Bornu. Katagum
is a fertile province inhabited by an industrious people whose
manufactures rival those of Kano.
In ancient limes the province of Katagum formed the debate*
able country between Bornu and the Hausa states. Though
Mahommedan it resisted the Fula invasion. Its northern
emirates were for a long time subject to Bornu, and its customs
are nearly assimilated to those of Bornu. The province was taken
under administrative control by the British in October 1903. la
1004 the capitals of Gummel, Hadeija, Messau and Jemaari,
were brought into touch with the administration and native and
provincial courts established. At the beginning of 1005 Katagum
was incorporated as a sub-province with the province 0/ Kano,
and the administrative organization of a double province was
extended over the whole. Hadeija, which is a very wealthy
town and holds an important position both as a source of supplies
and a centre of trade, received a. garrison of mounted infantry
and became the capital of the sub-province.
Hadeija was an old Habe town and its name, an evident cor-
ruption of Khadija, the name of the celebrated wife and first
convert of Mahomet, is a strong presumption of the incorrectness
of the Fula daim to have introduced Islam to its inhabitants.
The ruling dynasty of Hadeija was, however, overthrown by Fula
usurpation towards the end of the 18th century, and the Fula
ruler received a flag and a Messing from Dan Fodio at the begin-
ning of his sacred war in the opening years of the xoth century.
Nevertheless the habit of independence being strong in the town
of Hadeija the little emirate held its own against Sokoto, Bornu
and all comers. Though included nominally within the province
at Katagum it was the boast of Hadeija that it bad never bees
conquered. It had made nominal submission to the British ia
1003 on the successful conclusion of the Kano-Sokoto campaign,
and in 1005, ** has been staled, was chosen as the capital of the
sub-province. The emir's ait nude became, however, in the
spring of 1406 openly antagonistic to the British and a military
expedition was sent against him. The emir with his disaffected
chiefs made a plucky stand but after five hours' street fighting
the town was reduced. The emir and threeof his sons were killed,
and a new emir, the rightful heir to the throne, who had shown
himself io favour of a peaceful policy, was appointed. The
offices of the war chiefs in Hadeija were abolished and 150 yards
of the town wall were broken down.
Slave dealing is at an end in Katagum. The military station
at Hadeija forms a link in the chain of British forts which extends
along the northern frontier of the protectorate. (See Nicssua.)
(F. L. L.)
KATANGA, a district of Belgian Congo, forming the south-
eastern part of the colony. Area, approximately, 180,000 sq. m.;
estimated population 1,000 , 000. The natives axe members of
RATEJU-KATHIAWAR
69S
the Luba-Lunda group of Bantus, It is a highly mlaeralSxed
region, being specialty rich in copper, ore Gold, Iron and tin
are also mined. Katanga is bounded S. and S.E- by Norther*
Rhodesia, and British capital ia largely Interested in the develop-
ment of its resources, the administration of the territory being
entrusted to * committee on which British members have seats.
Direct railway communication with Cape Town and Beira was
established in 1900. There is also a raU and river service via
the Congo to the west coast. (See Congo Free State.)
KATER, HENRY (i777-i*35)> English physicist of German
descent, was born at Bristol on the 16th of April 1777- At first
be purposed to study law; but this be abandoned on bis father's
death in 1704, and entered the army, obtaining a commission
in the 12th regiment of foot, then stationed in India, where he
rendered valuable assistance in the gflcat trigonometrical survey.
Failing health obliged him to return to England; and in 1808,
being then a lieutenant, be entered on a distinguished a studeot
career in the senior department of the Royal Military College at
Sandhurst, Shortly after he was promoted to the rank of
captain. In 1814 he retired on half-pay, and devoted the
remainder of his life to scientific research. He died at London
on the 26th of April 1835.
His first important contribution to scientific knowledge vaa
the comparison of the merits of the Casscgrainian<and Gregorian
telescopes, from which (Phil. Trous., 1813 and 1814) be deduced
that the illuminating power of the former exceeded that of the.
latter in the proportion of 5 : 2. Ibis inferiority of the Gregorian
he explained as being probably due to* the mutual interference
of the rays as they crossed at the principal focus before reflection
at the second mirror. His most valuable work was the determina-
tion of the length of the second's pendulum, first at London and
subsequently at various stations throughout the country {Phil.
Trans., 1818, 1819). In these researches, he skilfuUy took
advantage of the well-known property of reciprocity between the
centres o( suspension and oscillation of an oscillating body, so
as to determine experimentally the precise position of the centre
of oscillation; the distance between these centres was then the
length of the ideal simple pendulum haying the same time of
oscillation. As the inventor of the floating collimator, Kater
rendered a great service to practical astronomy (Pkil. Tram*,
1825, 1828). He also published memoirs (Phil* Trans., i&ti,
1831) on British standards of length and. mass; and in 1832 be
published an account of his labours m verifying the Russian
standards of length. For his services to Russia in this respect
he received in 18 14 the decoration of the order of St. Anne; and
the same year he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society*
His attention was also turned to the subject of compass needle*,
his Bakerian lecture " On the Best Kind of Steel and Form, for a
Compass Needle '* (Phil. Trans., 1821) containing the results of many
experiments. The treatise on " Mechanics" in Lardner's Cyclopaedia
was partly written by him: and his interest in more purely astro-
nomical questions was evidenced by two communications to the
Astronomical Society's Memoirs for 1831-1833— the one on an obser-
vation of Saturn's outer ring, (he other on a method of determining
longitude by means of lunar eclipses;
' KATHA, a district in the northern division of Upper Burma,
with an area of 6094 sq. m., 3730 of which consists of the former
separate state of Wuntho. It is bounded N. by the Upper
Chindwin, Bhamo and Myitkyina districts, E. by the Kaukkwe
River as far as the Irrawaddy, thence east of the Irrawaddy by
the Shan State of Mdng Mit( Momeik), and by the Shvveli River,
S. by the Ruby Mines district and Shwebo, and W. by the Upper
Chindwin district. Three ranges of hills run through the district,
known as the Minwun, Gangaw and Mangin ranges. They
separate the three main rivers— the Irrawaddy, the Miza and the
Mu. The Minwun range runs from north to south, and forms
for a considerable part of its length the dividing line between the
Katha district proper and what formerly was the Wuntho state,
Its average altitude is between 1500 and 2000 ft. The Gangaw
range runs from the north of the district for a considerable
portion of its length close to and down the right bank of the
Irrawaddy as far as Tigyaing, where the Myatheindan pagoda
fives its name to the last point. Its highest point is 4400 ft.,
but the average is between 1 500 and aooo ft. The Katha branch
of. the railway crosses it at Petsut, a village 12 miles west of
Katha town. The Mangin range runs through Wuntho (highest
peak, Mamgthon, $450 ft.).
Gold, copper, iron and lead are found in considerable quantities
in the district. The Kyaukpazat gold-mines, worked by an
English company, gave good returns, but the quartz reef proved
to be a mere pocket and is now worked onL The iron, copper
and lead are not now worked. Jade and soapstone also exist,
and salt is produced from brine wells. There are three forest
reserves in Katha, with a total area of 1 119 sq. m. The popula-
tion in 1001 was 176,223, an increase of 32% in. the decade.
The number of Shans is about half that of Burmese, and of Kadus
half that of Shans. The Shans are mostly in the Wuntho sub*
division. Rice is the chief crop in the plains, tea, cotton,
sesamum and hill rice in the hills. The valley of the Meaa»
which is very malarious, was used as a convict settlement under
Burmese rule. The district was first occupied by British tcoopa
in 1886, but it was not finally quieted till r8oo, when the Wuntho
sawbwa was deposed and his state incorporated in Katha district.
Kasha is the headquarters of the district. The principal
means of communication are the Irrawaddy Flotilla steamers*
which run between Mandalay and Bhamo, and the railway which
communicates with Sagaing to the south and Myitkyina to the
north. A ferry-steamer plies between Katha and Bhamo.
KATHIAWAR, or Kattywa*, a peninsula of India, within
the Gujarat division of Bombay, giving its name to a political
agency. Total Area, about 23,400 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 2,645,805.
These figures include a portion of the British district of Ahrne*
dabad, a portion of the state of Baroda, and the small Portuguese
settlement of Diu. The peninsula is bounded N. by the Rum
of Gutch, E. by Ahmedabad district and the Gulf of Cambay, and
S. and W. by the Arabian Sea. The extreme length is 220 m.j
the greatest breadth about 165 no. Generally speaking, tho
surface is undulating; with low ranges running in various direc-
tions. With the exception of the Tangha and Mandav bills,
in the west of Jhalawar, and some unimportant hills in HaHar,
the northern portion of the country is flat; but in the south, from
near Gogo, the Gir range runt nearly parallel with the coast, and
at a distance of about to m. from it, along the north of Babriawat
and Soratb, to the neighbourhood of Girnar. Opposite this latter
mountain is the solitary Osam hill, and then still farther west
is the Barada group, between Hallar and Baxada, running about
20 m. north and south from Gumli to Ranawao. The Girnar
group of mountains is an important granitic mass, the highest
peak of which rises to 3500 ft. The principal river is the Bhadar,
which rises in the Mandav hills, and flowing S.W. falls into the
sea at Navi-Bandar; it is everywhere marked by highly culti-
vated lands adjoining its course of about 115m. Other rivers are
the Aji, Macbhu and Satrunji— the last remarkable for romantic
scenery. Four of the old races, the J ail was, Cburasamw,
Solunkis and Walas still exist as proprietors of the soil who
exercised sovereignty in the country prior to the immigration
of the Jhalas, Jadejaa, Purmars, Katuis, Gohels, Jats, Mahom-
medans and Mahrattas, between whom the country is now chiefly
portioned out. Kalhiawar has many notable antiquities, coavj
prising a rock inscription of Asoka, Buddhist caves, ami fine Jain
temples on the sacred hill of Girnar and at Palitana.
The political agency of Kathiawar has an area of 20,882 sq, nv
In toot the population was 2,320,196, showing a decrease of
x 5 % in the decade due to the results of famine. The estimated
gross revenue of the several states is £1,278,000; total tribute
(payable to the British, the gaekwar of Baroda and the nawab
of Junagarh), £70*000. There are altogether 193 states of varying
sixe and importance, of which 14 exercise independent jurisdic-
tion, while the rest are more or less under British administration.
The eight states of the first class are Junagaw, Nawanagar*
Bhaunagar, Porbandar, Dhrangadra, Morvi, Gondal and Jafara-
bad. The headquarters of the political agent are at Rajkot, in
the centre of the peninsula, where also is the Rajkumar college,
for the education of the sons of the chiefs. There is a similar,
school for girasias, or chiefs of lower rank, at Gondal. An
6 9 6
' KATKOV— KATSENA
excellent system of metre-gauge railways has been provided at
the cost of the leading states. Maritime trade is also very active,
the chief ports being Porbandar, Mangrol and Verawal. In
i 003-1004 the total sea-borne exports were valued at £1,300,000*
and the imports at £1,120,000. The progressive prosperity of
Kathtavar received a shock from the famine of 1899-1900,
Which was felt everywhere with extreme severity.
KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH (1818-1S87), Russian
journalist, was born in Moscow in 1818. On finishing his course
at the university he devoted himself to literature and philosophy,
and showed so little individuality that during the reign of
Nicholas 1. he never once came into disagreeable contact with the
authorities. With the Liberal reaction and strong reform move-
ment which characterized the earlier years of Alexander II.'s reign
(1855-1881) he thoroughly sympathized, and for some time he
warmly advocated the introduction of liberal institutions of the
British type, but when he perceived that the agitation was assum-
ing a Socialistic and Nihilist tinge, and that in some quarters of
the Liberal camp indulgence was being shown to Polish national
aspirations, he gradually modified his attitude until he came to
be regarded by the Liberals as a renegade. At the beginning of
1863 he assumed the management and editorship of the Moscow
GazttU, and he retained that position till his death in 1887.
Dining these twenty4our years he exercised considerable influ-
ence on public opinion and even on the Government, by repre-
senting with great ability the moderately Conservative spirit
of Moscow in opposition to the occasionally ultra-Liberal and
always cosmopolitan spirit of St Petersburg. With 'the Slavo-
phils he agreed in advocating the extension of Russian influence
in south-eastern Europe, but he carefully kept aloof from them
and condemned their archaeological and ecclesiastical senti-
mentality. Though generally temperate in his views, he was
extremely incisive and often violent in his modes of expressing
them, so thai be made many enemies and sometimes incurred
the displeasure of the press-censure and the ministers, against
which he was more than once protected by Alexander III. in
consideration of his able advocacy of national interests. He Is
remembered chiefly as an energetic opponent of Polish national
aspirations, of extreme Liberalism, of the system of public
instruction based on natural science, and of German political
influence. In this last capacity he helped to prepare the way
for the Franco-Russian alliance.
KATMANDU (less correctly Khatmakdu), the capital of the
state of Nepal, India, situated on the bank of the Vishnumati
river at its confluence with the ^aghmati, in 27° 36' N., 85* 24' E.
The town, which is said to have been founded about 723, contains
a population estimated at 70,000, occupying 5000 houses made
of brick, and usually from two to four storeys high. Many of
the houses have large projecting wooden windows or balconies,
richly carved. The maharaja's palace, a huge, rambling, un-
gainly building, stands in the centre of the town, which also
contains numerous temples* One of these, a wooden building
in the centre of the town, gives it its name (kal - wood).
The streets are extremely narrow, and the whole town very
dirty. A British resident is stationed about a mile north of the
town.
KATO, TAKA-AKIRA (1850- ), Japanese statesman, was
born at Nagoya, and commenced life as an employee in the groat
firm of Mitsu Bishi. In 1887 he became private secretary to
Count Ok urn a, minister of state for foreign affairs. Subse-
quently he served as director of a bureau in the finance depart-
ment, and from 1894 to 1809 he represented his country at the
court of St James. He received the portfolio of foreign affairs
in the fourth Ito cabinet (rooo-rooi), which remained in office
only a few months. Appointed again to the same position in the
Saionji cabinet (1006), he resigned after a brief interval, being
opposed to the nationalization of the private railways, which
measure the cabinet approved. He then remained without
office until 1008, when he again accepted the post of ambassador
in London. He was decorated with the grand cross of St Michael
and St George, and earned the reputation of being one of the
strongest men among the junior statesmen.
KATRINE, LOCH, a freshwater lake of Scotland, lying almost'
entirely in Perthshire. The boundary between the coanties of
Perth and Stirling runs from Gtefigyle, at the head of the lake,
down the centre to a point opposite Stronachtachar from which
it strikes to the south-western shore towards Loch Ark let. The
loch, which has a south-easterly trend, is about 8 m. long, and
its greatest breadth is 1 m. It lies 364 ft. above the sea-
level It occupies an area of 4} square miles and has a drainage
basin of 37} square miles. The average depth is 14 a ft.,
the greatest depth being 495 ft. The average annual rainfall is
78 inches. The mean temperature at the surface b 56-4° P., and
at the bottom 41° F. The scenery has been immortalised in Str
Walter Scott's Lady of the Lake. The surrounding hills are of
considerable altitude, the most remarkable being the head of
Ben A 'an (1750 ft.) and the grassy craigs and broken contour
of Ben Venue (2393 ft.). It is fed by the Gyle and numerous
burns, and drained by the Achray to Loch Achray and thence
by the 'Black Avon to Loch Vennacher. Since 1859 it has
formed the chief source of the water-supply of Glasgow, the
aqueduct leaving the lake about i| m. S.E. of Stronachlachar.
By powers obtained in 1885 the level of the lake was increased
by 5 ft. by a system of sluices regulating the outflow of the
Achray. One result of this damming up has been to submerge
the Silver Strand and to curtail the dimensions of Ellen's Isle.
Hie principal points on the snores are Glengyte, formerly a fast-
ness of the Macgregors, the Trossachs, the Goblins' Cave on Ben
Venue, and Stronachlachar (Gaelic^ " the mason's nose "), from
which there is a ferry to Coilachra on the opposite side. A road
has been constructed from, the Trossachs for nearly six miles
along the northern shore. During summer steamers ply be-
tween the Trossachs and Stronachlachar and there is a dairy
service of coaches from the Trossachs to Callander (about 10 m.)
and to Aberfoyle (9 m.), and between Stronachlachar, to Inver-
snaid on Loch Lomond (about 4) m.). The road to In*ersnaid
runs through the Macgregors' country referred to in Scott's
Rob Roy,
KATSENA, an ancient state of the western Sudan, now in-
cluded in the province of Kano in the British protectorate of
Northern Nigeria. Katsena was amongst the oldest of the Hausa
states. There exist manuscripts which carry back its history
for about 1000 years and tradition ascribes the origin of the
Hausa population, which is known also by the name of Habe or
Habeche, to the union of Bajibda of Bagdad with a prehistoric
queen of Daura. The conquest of the Habe of Katsena by the
Fula about the beginning of the 19th century made little differ-
ence to the country. The more cultivated Habe were already
Mahommedan and the new rulers adopted the existing customs
and system of government. These were in many respects highly
developed and included elaborate systems of taxation and
justice.
The capital of the administrative district is a town of the same
name, inijfN.^^i'E., being 160 m. E. by S. of the city of
Sokoto, and 84 m. N.W. of Kano. The walls of Katsena have
a circuit of between 13 and 14 miles, but only a small part of the
enclosed space is inhabited. In the 17th and iSlh centuries it
appears to have been the largest town in the Hausa countries,
and its inhabitants at that time numbered some 100,000. The
dale of the foundation of the present town must be comparatively
modern, for it is believed to have been moved from its ancient
site and at the time of Leo Africanus (c 1513) there was no place
of any considerable size in the province of Katsena. Before 1 hat
period Katsena boasted of being the chief seat of learning
throughout the Hausa states and this reputation was main-
tained to the time of the Fula conquest. In the beginning of the
19th century the town fell into the hands of the Fula, but only
after a protracted and heroic defence. In March 1903 Sir F.
Lugard visited Katsena on his way from Sokoto and the emir and
chiefs accepted British suzerainty without fighting. The Katsena
district has since formed an administrative district in the double
province of Kano and Katagum. The emir was unfaithful to
his oath of allegiance to the British crown, and was deposed in
* -04. His successor was installed and look the oath of allegiance
KATSURA— KAUFFMAN1NL ANGELICA
697
in DedAnfcer of the same year. Katsena it a rich and populous
district.
See the Travels of Heinrich Barrh (new ed.. London, 1890, chs.
xxiii. and xxiv.). Consult ako the Annual Reports on Northern
Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office, London, particularly the Report
for 1902.
Katsena is also the name of a town in the district of Katsena-
Allah, in the province of Muri, Northern Nigeria, This district
is watered by a river of the same name which takes its rise in the
mountains of the German colony of Cameroon, and flows into the
Bcnue at a point above Abinsf.
KATSURA, TARO, Marquess (1847- ), Japanese soldier
and statesman, was born in 1847 in Choshu. He commenced
bis career by fighting under the imperial banner in the civil war
of the Restoration, and he displayed such tatent that he was
twice sent at public expense to Germany (in 1870 and 1884) to
study strategy and tactics. In 1886 he was appointed vices
minister of war, and in 1891 the command of division devolved
on him. He led the left wing of the Japanese army in the
campaign of 1894-95 against China, and made a memorable march
in the depth of* winter from the north-east shore of the Yellow
Sea to Haicheng, finally occupying Niuchwang, and effecting a
junction with the second army corps which moved up the
Liaotung peninsula. For these services he received the title
of viscount. He held the portfolio of war from 1898 to 1901,
when he became premier and retained office for four and a half
years, a record in Japan. In 1002 his cabinet concluded the
first entente with England, which event procured for Katsura the
rank of count. He also directed state affairs throughout the war
with Russia, and concluded the offensive and defensive treaty
of 1905 with Great Britain, receiving from King Edward the
grand cross of the order of St Michael and St George, and being
raised by the mikado to the rank of marquess. He resigned the
premiership in 1905 to Marquess Saionji, but was again invited
to form a cabinet in 1908. Marquess Katsura might be con-
sidered the chief exponent of conservative views in Japan.
Adhering strictly to the doctrine that ministries were respon-
sible to the emperor alone and not at all to the diet, he stood
wholly aloof from political parties, only his remarkable gift of
tact and conciliation enabling him to govern on such principles.
KATTERFELTO (or Kateipelto), GUSTAVUS (d. 1799),
quack doctor and conjurer, was born in Prussia. About 1782
he came to London, where his advertisements in the newspapers,
headed " Wonders I Wonders I Wonders!" enabled him to
trade most profitably upon the credulity of the public during the
widespread influenza epidemic of that year. His public enter-
tainment, which, besides conjuring, included electrical and
chemical experiments and demonstrations with the microscope,
extracted a flattering testimonial from the royal family, who
witnessed it in 1784. The poet William Cowpcr refers to
Katterielto in The Task; he became notorious for a long tour
he undertook, exciting marvel by his conjuring performances.
KATTOWITZ, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, on
the Rawa, near the Russian frontier, 5 m. S.E. from Bcuthen by
rail. Pop. (1875), 11,352; (1005)1 35,77*- There are large iron-
works, foundries and machine shops in the town, and near it
zinc and anthracite mines. The growth of Kattowitz, like that
of other places in the same district, has been very rapid, owing
to the development of the mineral resources of the neighbour-
hood. In 181 5 it was a mere village, and became a town in 1867.
It has monuments to the emperors William I. and Frederick 111.
See G. Hoffmann, CeschkhU der Stadl KalUmitx (Kattowitz, 1895).
KATWA, or Cutwa, a town of British India, in Burdwan
district, Bengal, situated at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and
Ajai rivers. Pop. (1001), 7220. It was the residence of many
wealthy merchants, but its commercial importance has declined
a* it is without railway communication and the difficulties of
the river navigation have increased. It was formerly regarded
as the key to Murshidabad. The old fort, of which scarcely a
vestige remains, is noted as the scene of the defeat of the
Igahrattas by Ali Vardi Khan.
KATYDID, the name given to certain North American insects,
belonging to the family Loeustidae, and related to the green or
tree grasshoppers of England. As in other members of the
family, the chirrup, alleged to resemble the words " Katydid,"
is produced by the friction of a file on the underside of the left
fore wing over a ridge on the upperside of the right. Several
species, belonging mostly to the genera Microcentonus and
CyrtopHdilus, are known.
KADFBEUREN, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria, on the
Wcrtach, 55 m. S.W. of Munich by rail. Pop. (1905), 8955.
Kaufbcuren is still surrounded by its medieval walls and presents
a picturesque appearance. It has a handsome town hall with
fine paintings, an old tower (the Hexenturm, or witches' tower),
a museum and various educational institutions. The most
interesting of the ecclesiastical buildings is the chapel of St
Blasius, which was restored in 1806. The chief industries are
cotton spinning, weaving, bleaching, dyeing, printing, machine
building and lithography, and there is an active trade in wine,
beer and cheese. Kaufbeuren is said to have been founded in
842, and is first mentioned in chronicles of the year 11 26. It
appears to have become a free imperial city about 1288, retain-
ing the dignity until 1803, when it passed to Bavaria. It was
formerly a resort of pilgrims, and Roman coins have been found
tn the vicinity.
See F. Stieve.D ie Reichsstadt Kaufbeuren und die bayrische Restaura-
tiompotitik (Munich, 1870); and Schroder, Geschitkle der Stadt und
Katkoliscken Pfarrei Kaufbeuren (Augsburg, 1903).
KAUPFMANN, [MARIA ANNA) ANGELICA (1741-1807), the
once popular artist and Royal Academician, was born at Coire in
the Grisons, on the 30th of October 1741. Her father, John
Josef Kauffmann, was a poor man and mediocre painter, but
apparently very successful in teaching his precocious daughter.
She rapidly acquired several languages, read incessantly, and
showed marked talents as a musician. Her greatest progress,
however, was in painting; and in her twelfth year she had become
a notability, with bishops and nobles for her sitters. In 1754
her father took her to Milan. Later visits to Italy of long dura-
tion appear to have succeeded this excursion; in 1763 she visited
Rome, returning to it again in 1764. From Rome she passed to
Bologna and Venice, being everywhere fCtcd and caressed, as
much for her talents as for her personal charms. Writing from
Rome in August 1764 to his friend Frankc, Winckelmann refers
to her cxceptionarpopulafity. She was then painting his picture,
a half-length, of which she also made an etching. She spoke
Italian as well as German, he says; and she also expressed her-
self with facility in French and English — one result of the last-
named accomplishment being that she painted all the English
visitors to the Eternal City. " She may be styled beautiful,"
he adds, " and in singing may vie with our best virtuosi" While
at Venice, she was induced by Lady Wentworth, the wife of the
English ambassador to accompany her to London, where she
appeared in 1766. One of her first works was a portrait of
Garrick, exhibited in the year of her arrival at " Mr Moreing's
great room in Maiden Lane." The rank of Lady Wentworth
opened society to her, and she was everywhere well received/the
royal family especially showing her great favour.
Her firmest friend, however, was Sir Joshua Reynolds. In his
pocket-book her name as*" Miss Angelica " or " Miss Angel "
appears frequently, and in 1766 he painted her, a compliment-
which she returned by her " Portrait of Sir Joshua Reynolds,"
aetat. 46. Another instance of her intimacy with Reynolds is
to be found in the variation of Guertino's " Et in Arcadia ego "
produced by her at this date, a subject which Reynolds repeated
a few years later in his portrait of Mrs Bouvcrie and Mrs Crewe.
When, about November 1767, she was entrapped into a clandes-
tine marriage with an adventurer who passed for a Swedish count
(the Count de Horn) Reynolds befriended her, and it was doubt-
less owing to his good offices that her name is found among the
signatories to the famous petition to the king for the establish-
ment of the Royal Academy. In its first catalogue of 1769 she
appears with "R.A." after her name (an honour which she shared
6 9 8
kaufmann; c: r-^kaulbach
with another Udy And compatriot, Mary Moser); and she con-
tributed the " Interview of Hector and Andromache," and three
other classical oompositioos. From this time until 1 782 she was
an annual exhibitor, sending sometimes as many as seven
pictures, generally classic or allegorical subjects. One of the
most notable of her performances was the " Leonardo expiring
in the Arms of Francis the First," which belongs to the year
1778. In 1773 she was appointed by the Academy with others
to decorate St Paul's, and it was she who, with Biagio Rebecca,
painted the Academy's old lecture room at Somerset House. It
is probable that her popularity declined a little in consequence of
her unfortunate marriage; but in 1781, after her first husband's
death (she had been long separated from him), she married
Antonio Zucchi (1728-1795), a Venetian artist then resident in
England. Shortly afterwards she retired to Rome, where she
lived for twenty-five years with much of her old prestige. In
1782 she lost her father; and in 1705— the year in which she
painted the picture of Lady Hamilton— her husband. She
continued at intervals to contribute to the Academy, her last
exhibit being in 1797. After this she produced little, and in
November 1807 she died, being honoured by a splendid funeral
under the direction of Canova. The entire Academy of St Luke,
with numerous ecclesiastics and virtuosi, followed her to her
tomb in S. Andrea delle Fratte, and, as at the burial of Raphael,
two of her best pictures were carried in procession.
m The works of Angelica Kauffmann have not retained their reputa-
tion. She had a certain gift of grace, and considerable skill in
composition. But her drawing is weak and faulty ; her figures lack
variety and expression; and her men are masculine women. Her
colouring, however, is fairly enough defined by Waagcn's term
" cheerful.** Rooms decorated by her brush are still to be seen in
various quarters. At Hampton Court is a portrait of the duchess
of Brunswick; in the National Portrait Gallery, a portrait of herself.
There are other pictures by her at Paris, at Dresden, in the Hermitage
*tt St Petersburg, and in the Altc Pinakothek at Munich. The
fitunich example is another portrait of herself; and there is a third
«■ the Uffui at Florence. A lew of her works in private collections
fave been exhibited among the " Old Masters " at Burlington House.
fkt she is perhaps best known by the numerous engravings from her
4o£gns by Schiavonetti, Bartolozxi and others. Those by Bartolozzi
^specially still find considerable favour with collectors. Her life
^as written in 1810 by Giovanni de Rossi. It has also been used
^ the bash of a romance by Leon de Wailly, 1838; and it prompted
The charming novel contributed by Mrs Richmond Ritchie to the
StUuB ifsfasuw in 1875 under the title of " Miss Angel. "
fAUnUl*. CONSTANTINB PETROVICH (18x8-1882),
^^w general, was born at Maidani on the 3rd of March 18 18.
Jr^ered theengineer branch in 1838, served in the campaigns
.^ Caucasus rose to ** co ' one ^» anc ^ commanded the sappers
ral Sir W.
general of
tin in the
1 in 1864,
tor of the
governor
ng himself
Asia. He
Bokhara,
he whole
pital, and
(i followed
Etaufmann
f the Syr-
>f the rest
ibsorption
> Afghani-
- the Amir
n in 1878.
rnment to
t, he sent
►, and was
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KAUKAUNA, a city of Outagamie comity, Wkcoosin, U.SJL,
on the Fox river 7 m. N.E. of Appletou and about 100 m. N. of
Milwaukee. Pop. (1900), 5115, of whom 1044 were foreign*
born (1005) 4091; (1910) 4717. Kaukauna is served by the
Chicago & North-Western railway (which has car-shops here),
by inter-urban electric railway lines connecting with other cities
in the Fox river, valley, and by river steaaiboats. It has a
Carnegie library, a hospital and manufactories of pulp, paper,
lumber and woodenware. Dams on the Fox River furnish a
good water-power The city owns its water-works. A small
settlement of Indian traders was made here as early as 1820; in
1830 a Presbyterian mission was established, but the growth of
the place was slow, and the city was not chartered until 1885.
KAULBACH. WILHELM VON (1805-1874), German painter,
was born in Westphalia on the 15th of October 1805. His father,
who was poor, combined painting with the goldsmith's trade,
but means were found to place Wilhelm, a youth of seventeen,
in the art academy of DUsscldorf, then becoming renowned under
the directorship of Peter von Cornelius. Young Kaulbach con-
tended against hardships, even hunger. But his courage never
failed; and, uniting genius with industry, he was ere long fore-
most among the young national party which sought to revive
the arts of Germany. The ambitious work by which Louis L
sought to transform Munich into a German Athens afforded the
young painter an appropriate sphere. Cornelius had been com-,
missioned to execute the enormous frescoes in the Glyptothek,
and his custom was in the winters, with the aid of Kaulbach and
others, to complete the cartoons at DUsscldorf, and in the sum-
mers, accompanied by his best scholars, to carry out the designs
in colour on the museum walls in Munich. But in 1824 Cornelius
became director of the Bavarian academy. Kaulbach, not yet
twenty, followed, took up his permanent residence in Munich,
laboured hard on the public works, executed independent com-
missions, and in 1849, when Cornelius left for Berlin, succeeded
to the directorship of the academy, an office which he held till
his death on the 7th of April 1874. His son Hermann (1846-
1909) also became a distinguished painter.
Kaulbach matured, after the example of the masters of the
Middle Ages, the practice of mural or monumental decoration;
he once more conjoined painting with architecture, and displayed
a creative fertility and readiness of resource scarcely found since
the era of Raphael and Michelangelo. Early in the series of his
multitudinous works came the famous Narrcnhaus, the appalling
memories of a certain madhouse near DUsscldorf ; the composi-
tion all the more deserves mention for points of contact with
Hogarth. Somewhat to the same category belong the illustra-
tions to Reineke Fucks. These, together with occasional figures
or passages in complex pictorial dramas, show how dominant
and irrepressible were the artist's sense of satire and enjoyment
of fun; character in its breadth and sharpness is depicted with
keenest relish, and at times the sardonic smile bursts into the
loudest laugh. Thus occasionally the grotesque degenerates
into the vulgar, the grand into the ridiculous, as in the satire on
" the Pigtail Age" in a fresco outside the New Pinakothek. Yet
these exceptional extravagances came not of weakness but from
excess of power. Kaulbach tried hard to become Grecian and
Italian, but he never reached Phidias or Raphael; in short the
blood of Diirer, Holbein and Martin Schongauer ran strong in
his veins. The art products in Munich during the middle of ihe
19th century were of a quantity to preclude first-rate quality,
and Kaulbach contracted a fatal facility in covering wall and
canvas by the acre. He painted in the Hofgartcn, the Odeon,
the Palace and on the external walls of the New Pinakothek.
His perspicuous and showy manner also gained him abundant
occupation as a book illustrator: in the pages of the poets bis
fancy revelled; he was glad to take inspiration from Wieland,
Goethe, even Klopslock; among his engraved designs are the
Shakespeare gallery, the Goethe gallery and a folio edition of
the Gospels. With regard to these examples of " the Munich
school," it was asserted that Kaulbach had been unfortunate
alike in having found Cornelius for a master and King Louis for
a patron, that he attempted " subjects far beyond him* beheving
KAUNITZ-RlfiTBURG
699
that his admiration for them was, the time as inspiration ";
and supplied ihe lack of real imagination by " a compound of
intellect and fancy."
Nevertheless in such compositions as the Destruction of
Jerusalem and the Battle of the Hubs Kaulbach shows creative
imagination. As a dramatic poet he tells the story, depicts
character, seises on action aad situation, and thus as it were
takes the spectator by storm. The manoer'may be occasionally
noisy and ranting, but the effect after its kind is tremendous.
The cartoon, which, as usual in modern German art, it superior
to the ultimate picture* was executed in the artist 's prime at the
age of thirty. At this period, as here seen, the knowledge was
little short of absolute; subtle is the sense of beauty; playful,
delicate, firm the touch; the whole treatment artistic*
Ten or more years were devoted to what the Germans term a
" cyclus "—a series of pictures depicting the Tower of Babel,
the Age of Homer, the Destruction of Jerusalem, the Battle of
the Huns, the Crusades and the Reformation. These major
tableaux, severally 30 ft. long, and each comprising- over one
hundred figures above life-size, are surrounded by minor com-
positions making more than twenty m alL The idem is to
congregate around the world's historic dramas the prime agents
of civilization; thus here are assembled allegoric figures of Ardri«
tecture and other arts, of Science and other kingdoms of know-
ledge, together with lawgivers from the time of Moses, not for-
getting Frederick the Great. The chosen situation for this
imposing didactic and theatric display is the Treppcnhaus or
grand staircase in the new museum, Berlin; the surface is a
granulated, absorbent wall, specially prepared; the technical
method is that known as " water-glass," or u liquid flint," the
infusion of silica securing permanence. The same medium was
adopted in the later wall-pictures in the Houses of Parliament,
Westminster.
The painter's last period brings no new departure; his ultimate
works stand conspicuous by exaggerations of early character-
istics. The series of designs illustrative of Goethe, which had
an immense success, were melodramatic and pandered to popular
taste. The vast canvas, more than 30 ft. long, the Sea Fight
at Satamts, painted for the Maximilfaneum, Munich, evinces
wonted imagination and facility in composition; the handling
also retains its largeness and vigour; but in this astounding scenic
uproar moderation and the simplicity of nature are thrown to
the winds, and the whole atmosphere 4s hot and feverish.
Kaulbach's was a beauty-loving art. He a
colourist ; he belongs in fact to a school that b-
ordination; but he bid, in common with the gr re
foundation of his art in form and composition. ce
of composition hasscldom if ever been so clearly 1 ed
out with equal complexity and exactitude; the < tie
relation of the parts to the whole, are brought e-
ment ; in modem Germany painting and mu«e I lei
paths, and Kaulbach is musical in the melody its
compositions. His narrative too is lucid, and ly
march or royal triumph ; the sequence of the figi he
arrangement of the jgroups accords with cvci. .... ._. .he
Picture falls imo incident, episode, dialogue, action, plot, as a drama.
Tie style is eclectic: in the Age of Homer the types and the treat-
ment are derived from Greek marbles and vases; then in the Tower
of Babd the severity of the antique gives place to the suavity of the
Italian renaissance; while in the Crusades the composition is let loose
into modern romanticism, and so the manner descends into the midst 1
of the 19th century. And yet this scholastically compounded art-
is so nicely adjusted and smoothly blended that it casts off all incon-
gruity and becomes homogeneous as the issue of one mind. But a
fickle public craved for change ; and so the great master in later years
waned in favour, and had to witness, not without inquietude, the
rise of an opposing party of naturalism and realism. (J- B. A.)
KAUNITZ-RIETBURG. WENZEL ANTON, Prince voy (1711-
1704). Austrian chancellor and diplomatist, was born at Vienna
on the and of February 17 11. His father, Max Ulrich.was the
third count of Kaunitz, and married an heiress, Maria Ernestine
Franziska von Rielburg. The family was ancient, and was
believed to have been of Slavonic origin in Moravia. Wcnicl
Anton, being a second son, was designed for the church, but on
the death of his elder brother he was trained for the law and Tor
diplomacy, at Vienna, Leipzig and Leiden, and by travel. His
family had served the Habsburgs with some distinction, and
Kaunitz had no difficulty in obtaining employment. la 1735
he was a Reufukofraik. When the Emperor Charles VI. died
in 1740, he is said to have hesitated before deciding to support
Maria Theresa. If so, his hesitation did not last long, and left
no trace on his loyaky. From 1742 to 1744 he was minister at
Turin, .and in the laitter year was sent as minister with the Arcb>
duke Charles of Lorraine, the governor of Belgium. He was
therefore an eye-witness of the campaigns in which Marshal Saxe
overran Belgium. At this time he was extremely discouraged,
and sought for his recall. But he had earned the approval of.
Maria Therr^a, who sent him as representative of Austria to the
peace congress of Aix-ia-Chapclle in 1748. His tenacity and
dexterity established his reputation as a diplomatist. He con-
firmed his hold on the regard and confidence of the empress by
the line he took after the conclusion of the peace. In 1 740 Maria
Theresa appealed to all ber counsellors for advice as to the policy
Austria ought to pursue m view of the changed conditions pro-
duced by the rise of Prussia, The great majority of them,
including her husband Francis I., were of opinion that the old
alliance with the sea Powers, England and Holland, should be
maintained. Kaunitz, cither because he was really persuaded
that the old policy must be given up, or because he saw that the
dominating idea in the mind of Maria Theresa was the recovery
of Silesia, gave it as his opinion that Frederick was now the
"most wicked and dangerous enemy of Austria," that it was
hopeless to expect the support of Protestant nations against
him, and that the only way of recovering Silesia was by an
alliance with Russia and Frances. The empress eagerly accepted
views which were already her own, and entrusted the adviser
with the execution of his own plana. An ambassador to France
from 1750 to 1752, and after 1753 as " house, court and state
chancellor," Kaunitz laboured successfully to bring about the
alliance which led to the Seven Years' War. It was considered
a great feat of diplomacy, and established Kaunitz as the recog-
nized master of the art. His triumph was won in spite of per*
sonal defects and absurdities which would have ruined most
men. Kaunitz had manias rarely found in company with!
absolute sanity. He would not hear of death, nor approach a
sick man. He refused to visit Ms dying master Joseph II. for
two whole years. He would not breathe fresh air. On the
warmest summer day he kept a handkerchief over his mouth
when out of doors, and his only exercise was riding under glass,
which he did every morning for exactly the same number of
minutes. He relaxed from his work in the company of a small
dependent society of sycophants and buffoons. He was con-
sumed by a solemn, garrulous and pedantic vanity. When in
1770 he met Frederick the Great at Mlhriscb-Neustadt, he came
with a summary of political principles, which he called a cate-
chism, in his pocket, and assured the king that he must be allowed
to speak without interruption. When Frederick, whose interest
it was to humour him, promised to listen quietly, Kaunitz rolled
his mind* out for two hours, and went away with the firm con-
viction that he had at last enlightened the inferior intellect of
the king of Prussia as to what politics really were. Within a
very short time Frederick had completely deceived and out-
manoeuvred him. With all his pomposity and conceit, Kaunits
was astute, he was laborious and orderly; when his advice was
not taken he would carry out the wishes of his masters, while no
defeat ever damped his pertinacity.
To tell his history from 1750 till his retirement in 1702 would
be to tell part of the internal history of Austria, and all the inter*
national politics of eastern and central Europe. His governing
principle was to forward the interests of M the august house of
Austria," a phrase sometimes repeated at every few lines of his
despatches. In internal affairs he in 1758 recommended, and
helped to promote, a simplification of the confused and sub-
divided Austrian administration. But his main concern waa
always with diplomacy and foreign policy. Here he strove with
untiring energy, and no small measure of success, to extend the
Austrian dominions. After the Seven Years' War he endea-
voured to avoid great risks, and sought to secure his ends by
7©o
KAUP—KAVADH
alliances, exchanges and daims professing to have a legal basis,
and justified at enormous length by arguments both pedantic
and hypocritical. The French Revolution had begun to alter
all the relations of the Powers before his retirement. .He never
understood its full meaning. Yet the circular despatch which
he addressed to the ambassadors of the emperor on the 17th of
July 1704 contains the first outline* of Metternkh's policy of
" legitimacy," and the first proposal for the combined action of
the powers, based on the full recognition of one another's rights,
to defend themselves against subversive principles. Kaunitz
died at his house, the Garten Palast, near Vienna, on the 27th
of June 1704. He married on the 6th of May 1736, Maria
Ernestine von Starhemberg, who died on the 6th of September
1754. Four sons were born of the marriage.
See Hormayr, Oesterrekhischer Plutarch (Vienna, 1823). for a
biographical sketch based on personal knowledge. Also see Brunner,
Joseph II.: Correspondence avec Cobentl et Kaunilx (Maycnce, 1871) ;
A. Beer, Joseph II., Leopold //. und Kaunits (Vienna, 1873).
KAUP, JOHAMN JAKOB (1 803-1 873), German naturalist,
was born at Darmstadt on the 10th of April 1803. After study-
ing at GOttingen and Heidelberg he spent two years at Leiden,
where his attention was specially devoted to the amphibians
and fishes. He then returned to Darmstadt as an assistant in
the grand ducal museum, of which in 1840 he became inspector.
In 1819 he published Skiae tur Entwichelungsgeschickie der
europMisdun Tkierwdt, in which be regarded the animal world
as developed from lower to higher forms, from the amphibians
through the birds to the beasts of prey; but subsequently he
repudiated tins work as a youthful indiscretion, and on the
publication of Darwin's Origin of Species he declared himself
against its doctrines. The extensive fossil deposits in the neigh-
bourhood of Darmstadt gave htm ample opportunities for
palaeontological inquiries, and he gained considerable reputation
by his Beilrdgezur nUheren Kennlniss der urwdttichen S&ugelkiere
(1855- 1 862). He also wrote Classification der Stiugcihiert und
Vdgtl (1844), and, with H. G. Brown (1800-1862) of Heidelberg,
Die Catinl-crligen Rate cms dem Lias (1842-1844). He died at
Darmstadt on the 4th of July 1873.
KAURI PINE, in botany, Agathis austratis, a conifer native
of New Zealand where it is abundant in forests in the North
Island between the North Cape and 38° south latitude. The
forests are rapidly disappearing owing to use as timber and to
destruction by fires. It is a tall rcsinifcroos tree, usually ranging
from 80 to 100 ft. in height, with a trunk 4 to 10 ft. in diameter,
but reaching 150 ft., with a diameter of 1 5 to 22 ft. ; it has a straight
columnar trunk and a rounded bushy head. The thick resini-
ferous bark falls off in large flat flakes. The leaves, which per-
sist for several years, are very thick and leathery; on young trees
they are lance-shaped 2 to 4 in. long and i to J in. broad, becom-
ing on mature trees linear-oblong or obovate-oblong and \ to i|
in. long. The ripe cones are almost spherical, erect, and 2 to 3
in. in diameter; the broad, flat, rather thin cone-scales fall from
the axis when ripe. Each scale bears a single compressed seed
with a membranous wing- The timber is remarkable for its
strength, durability and the ease with which it is worked. The
resin, kauri- gum, is an amber-like deposit dug in large quantities
from the sites of previous forests, in lumps generally vary-
ing ia site from that of a hen's egg to that of a man's head.
The otlour is of a rich brown or amber yellow, or it may be
almost colourless and translucent. It is of value for varnish-
KAVA (Cava or Ava), an intoxicating, but non-alcoholic
beverage, produced principally in the islands of the South
Pacific, from the roots or leaves of a variety of the pepper plant
{Piper methysticum). The method of preparation is somewhat
peculiar. The roots or leaves are first chewed by young girls or
boys, care being taken that only those possessing sound teeth
and excellent general health shall take part- in this operation.
The chewed material is then placed in a bowl, and water or
coco-nut milk is poured over it, the whole is well stirred, and
subsequently the woody matter is removed by an ingenious but
simple mechanical manipulation. The resulting liquid, which
has a muddy or caf*-*u4ati appearance, or is of a greenish hue if
made from leaves, is now ready for consumption. The taste of
the liquid is at first sweet, and then pungent and acrid. The
usual dose corresponds to about two mouthful* of the root.
Intoxication (but this apparently only applies to those not
inured to the use of the liquor) follows in about twenty minutes.
The drunkenness produced by kava is of a melancholy, silent and
drowsy character. Excessive drinking is said to lead to skis
and other diseases, but per contra many medicinal virtues are
ascribed to the preparation. There appears to be little doubt
that the active principle in this beverage is a poison of an aJka-
loidal nature. It seems likely that this substance is not present
as such (i.e. as a free alkaloid) in the plant, but that it exists ia
the form of a gtucoside, and that by the process of chewing this
giucoside is split up by one of the ferments in the saliva into the
free alkaloid and sugar.
See Pkxtrm. Jour*. IH. 474; fv. 85; be 210; vii 149; Comptts
Rendu*, 1 436, 508; Hi. 206; Joum.de Pkarm. (i860) ao\ (1862) 218:
Socman, Flora Vitiensis, 260; Beachy. Voyage of the " Blossom,'
u. 120.
KAVADH (Kabadxs, Kauades), a Persian name which occurs
first in the mythical history of the old Iranian kingdom as Kai
Kobadh (Kaikobad). It was borne by two kings of the Sassanid
dynasty.
(1) Kavaoh I., son of Perot* crowned by the nobles in 488
in place of his uncle Baksh, who was deposed and blinded. At
this time the empire was utterly disorganised by the invasion of
the Epht halites or While Huns from the east. After one of
their victories against Peroa, Kavadh had been a hostage among
them during two years, pending the payment of a heavy ran-
som. In 484 Peroz had been defeated and slain with his whole
army. Balash was not able to restore the royal authority.
The hopes of the magnates and high priests that Kavadh would
suit their purpose were soon disappointed. Kavadh gave bis
support to the communistic sect founded by Maadak, son of
BamdadV who demanded that the rich should divide their wives
and their wealth with the poor. His intention evidently was,
by adopting the doctrine of the Masdakites, to break the influ-
ence of the magnates. But in 406 he was deposed and incar-
cerated in the " Castle of Oblivion (Lethe) " in Susiana, and his
brother Jamasp (Zamaspes) was raised to the throne. Kavadh,
however, escaped and found refuge with the Ephthalitcs, whose
king gave him his daughter in marriage and aided him to return
to Persia. In 490 he became king again and punished his oppo-
nents. He had to pay a tribute to the Ephthalitcs and applied
for subsidies to Rome, which had before supported the Persians.
But now the emperor Anastashis refused subsidies, expecting
that the two rival powers of the East would exhaust one another
in war. At the same lime he intervened in the affairs of the
Persian part of Armenia. So Kavadh joined the Epht halites
and began war against the Romans. In 502 he took Theodoaio-
polis in Armenia, in 503 Amida (Diarbekr) on the Tigris. In 505
an invasion of Armenia by the western Huns from the Caucasus
led to an armistice, during which the Romans paid subsidies to
the Persians for the maintenance of the fortifications on tbc
Caucasus. When Justin I. (518-527) came to the throne the
conflict began anew. The Persian vassal, Mondhir of rfira,
laid waste Mesopotamia and slaughtered the monks and
nuns. In 531 Bclisarius was beaten at Callinicum. Shortly
afterwards Kavadh died, at the age of eighty-two, in Septe mb er
531. During his last years his favourite son Chosroes had had
great influence over him and had been proclaimed successor.
He also induced Kavadh to break with the Maadakites, whose
doctrine had spread widely and caused great social confusion
throughout Persia. In 529 they were refuted lb a theological
discussion held before the throne of the king by the orthodox
Magians, and were slaughtered and persecuted everywhere;
Mazdak himself was hanged. Kavadh evidently was, as Pro-
copius (Pers. i. 6) calls him, an unusually clear-sighted and ener-
getic ruler. Although he could not free himself from the yoke
of the Ephthalites, he succeeded in restoring order in the interior
and fought with success against the Romans. He built some
KAVAIA^-KAVIRONDO
70'J
(owns which .were named after him, and began to regulate the
taxation.
• (2) Kavadh IL Shekob (Sines), son of Chosroes II., was raised
to the throne in opposition to his father in February 028, after
the great victories of the emperor Heraclius. He put his father
and eighteen brothers to death, began negotiations with Hera-
clius, but died after a reign of a few months. (£0. M.)
KAVALA, or Ca valla, a watted town and seaport of European
Turkey in the vilayet of Salonica, on the Bay of Kavala, an inlet
of the Aegean Sea. Pop. (1905), about 5000. Kavala is built
on a promontory stretching south into the bay, and opposite the
island of Thasos. There is a harbour on each side of the pro-
montory. The resident population is increased in summer by an
influx of peasantry, of whom during the season 5000 to 6000 are
employed in curing tobacco and preparing it for export. The
finest Turkish tobacco Is grown in the district, and shipped to
all parts of Europe and America, to the annual value of about
£1,250,000. Mehemet AU was born here in 1769, and founded a
Turkish school which still exists. His birthplace, an unpreten-
tious little house in one of the tortuous older streets, can be dis-
tinguished by the tablet which the municipal authorities have
affixed to lis front wall. Numerous Roman remains have been
found' in the neighbourhood, of which the chief is the large
aqueduct on two tiers of arches which still serves to supply the
town and dilapidated citadel with water from Mount Pangeus.
1 Kavala has been identified with Neapolis, at which St Paul landed
on his way from Samothrace to Phflippi (Acts xvi. 11). Neapolis
was the port of Philippi, as Kavala now is of Seresj in the bay
on which it stands the fleet of Brutus and Cassius was stationed
daring the battle of Philiprii. Some authorities identify Neapolis
with Datum (A&ro»), mentioned by Herodotus as famous for its
gold mines.
KAVAKAGH, ARTHUR M ACMORROUGH (1831-1889), Irish
politician, son of Thomas Kavanagh, M.P., who traced his
descent to the ancient kings of Leinster, was born in Co. Carlow,
Ireland, on the 35th of March 1851. He had only the rudiments
of arms and legs, but in spite of these physical defects had a
remarkable career. He karat to ride in the most fearless way,
strapped to a special saddle, and managing the horse with the
stumps of his arms; and also fished, shot, drew and wrote,
various mechanical contrivances being devised to supplement
his limited physical capacities. He travelled extensively in
Egypt, Asia Minor, Persia and India between 1846 and 1*53,
and after succeeding to the family estates in the latter year, he
,majriedini8s5liJscx>uaio^MissFian<^MaryLeathley. Assisted
by his wife, he was a most philanthropic landlord, and was an
active county magistrate and chairman of the board of guardians.
A Conservative and a Protestant, he sat in Parliament for Co.
Wexford from 1866 to 1868, and for Co. Carlow from 1868 to
1880. He was opposed to the disestablishment of the Irish
Church, but supported the Land Act of 1870, and sat on the
Besshorough Commission. In 1886 he was made a member of
the Privy Council, in Iceland. He died of pneumonia, on the
85th of December 1889, in London. It is supposed that his
extraordinary career suggested the idea of "Lucas Malet's"
novel. The History of Sir Richard Cahttady.
KAVANAGH, JULIA (1834-1677), British novelist, was bom
at Thurles in Tipperary, Ireland, in 1824. She was the daughter
of Mocgan Peter Kavanagh (dL 1874) ^author of various worthless
philological works and some poems. Julia spent several years
of her early life with her parents in Normandy, laying there the
foundation of a mastery of the French language and insight into
French modes of thought, which was perfected by her later
frequent and long residences in France. Miss Kavanagh 's
Kleraty career began with her arrival in London about 1844, and
her uneventful hie affords few incidents to the biographer. Her
first book was Three Paths (1847), a story for the young; bat her
first work to attract notice was Madeleine, a Tale of Auyergne
(1848). Other books followed: A Summer and Winter in the
Two Sicilies (1858); French Women of Letters (186a); English
Women of Letters (1862); Woman in France during (he iSth
Century (1850); and Women of Christianity (1852). The scenes
of her stories are almost always laid in France, and she handles
her French themes with fidelity and skill. Her style is simple
and pleasing rather than striking; and her characters are
interesting without being strongly individualized. Her most
popular novels were perhaps AdtU (1857), Queen Uah (1863),
and John Dorrien (1875). On the outbreak oi the Franco-
German War Julia Kavanagh removed with her mother from
Paris to Rouen. She died at Nice on the 26th of October 1877.
KAVASS, or Cavass (adapted from the Turkish 90*1*0*, a
bow-maker; Arabic qaws, a bow), a Turkish name for an armed
police-officer; also for a courier such as it is usual to engage when
travelling in Turkey.
KAVTROKDO, a people of British East Africa, who dwell In
the valley of the Nzoia River, on the western slopes of Mount
Elgon, and along the north-east coast of Victoria Nyansa.
Kavirondo is the general name of two distinct groups of tribes,
one Bantu and the other Nilotic. Both groups art: immigrants,
the Bantu from the south, the Nilotic from the north. The
Bantu appear to have been the first comers. The Nilotic tribes,
probably an offshoot of the Aeholi (o.v.), appear to have crossed
the lake to retch their present home, the country around
Kavirondo Gulf. Of the two groups the Bantu now occupy *
more northerly position than their neighbours, and "are
practically the most northerly representatives of that race"
(Hobley). Their further progress north was stopped by the
southward movement of the Nilotic tribes, while the Nilotic
Kavirondo in their turn had their wanderings arrested by an
irruption of Elgumi people from the east. The Elgumi are
themselves probably of Nilotic origin. Both groups of Kavi-
rondo are physically fine, the Nilotic stock appearing more
virile than the Bantu. The Bantu Kavirondo are divided into
three principal types—the Awa-Rimi, the Awa-Ware and the
Awa-Kisii. By the Nilotic Kavirondo their Bantu neighbours
are known as Ja-Mwa. The generic name for the Nilotic tribes
is Ja-Luo. The Bantu Kavirondo call them Awa-Nyoro. The
two groups have many characteristics in common. A charac-
teristic feature of the people is their nakedness. Among the
Nilotic Kavirondo married men who are fathers wear a small
piece of goat-skin, which though practically useless as a covering
must be worn according to tribal etiquette. Even among men
who have adopted European clothing this goat-skin must stUl
be worn underneath. Contact with whites has led to the
adoption of European clothing by numbers of the men, but the
women, more conservative, prefer nudity or the scanty covering
which they wore before the advent of Europeans. Among the
Bantu Kavirondo married women wear a abort fringe of black
string in front and a tassel of banana fibre suspended from a
girdle behind, this tassel having at a distance the. appearance
of a tail. Hence the report of early travellers as to a tailed race
in Africa. The Nilotic Kavirondo women wear the tail, but
dispense with the fringe in front. For " dandy " they wear a
goat-skin slung over the shoulders. Some of the Bantu tribes
practise circumcision, the Nilotic tribes do not. Patterns ape
tattooed on chest and stomach for ornament. Men, even
husbands, are forbidden to touch the women's tails, which must
be worn even should any other clothing be wrapped round the
body. The Kavirondo are noted for their independent and
pugnacious nature, their honesty and their sexual morality,
traits particularly marked among the Bantu tribes. There are
more women than men, and thus the Kavirondo are naturaUy
inclined towards polygamy. Among the Bantu tribes a man has
the refusal of all the younger sisters of his wife as they attain
puberty. Practically no woman lives unmarried all her life,
for if no suitor seeks her, she singles out a man and offers herself
to him at a " reduced price," an offer usually accepted, as the
women are excellent agricultural labourers. The Nilotic
Kavirondo incline to exogamy, endeavouring always to marry
outside their clan. Girls are betrothed at six or seven, and the
husband-elect continually makes small presents to his father-
in-law-elect till the bride reaches womanhood. It is regarded
as shameful if the girl be not found a virgin on her wedding day.
She is sent back to ber parents, who have to return the marriage
702 KAW—KAY
flat blades without blood-courses, and broad-hladed swords. £
use dings, and most carry shields. Bows and arrows are also i
wa
Wl
his
du
th(
JS
wa
iro
sui
wo
hei
arc
th<
Kz
tra
Tli
foi
Tr
of.
it i
ah
th
foi
dc
sei
drums.
The Ja-Luo women use for ear ornaments small beads attached
to pieces of brass. Like the aggry beads of West Africa these beads
are not of local manufacture nor of recent introduction. They are
ancient, in colour generally blue, occasionally yellow or green, aad
are picked up in certain districts after heavy rain. By the natives
they are supposed to come down with the rain. They are identical
in shape and colour with ancient Egyptian beads and other beads
obtained from ancient cities in Baluchistan.
See C. W. Hobley. Eastern Uganda, an Ethnological Snrmn
(Anthrop. Inst., Occasional Papers. No. I, London, 1902); Sir H. H.
Johnston, Uganda Protectorate (1902), I. F. Cunningham. Utmwda
and its Peoples (1905).; Paul Kollmana, The Victoria Nyanea (»»99)-
RAW, or Kansa, a tribe of North American Indians of
Siouan stock. They were originally an offshoot of the Osage*.
Their early home was in Missouri, whence they were driven to
Kansas by the Dakotas. They were moved from one reservation
to another, till in 1873 they were settled in Indian Territory;
they have since steadily decreased, and now number some soo.
KAWARDHA, a feudatory state of India, within the Central
Provinces; area, 708 sq. m.; pop. (1001), 57*474, showing a
decrease of 37 % in the decade, doe to famine; estimated revenue,
£7000. Half the state consists of hill and forest. The residence
of the chief, who is a Raj Gond, is at Kawardha (pop. 4773),
which is also the headquarters of the Kabirpanihi sect (see
Kabib).
KAY, JOHN (1749-1826), Scottish caricaturist, was bom near
Dalkeith, where his father was a mason. At thirteen be was
apprenticed to a barber, whom he served for six years. He
then went to Edinburgh, where in 1771 he obtained the fi ee tl om
of the city by joining the corporation of barber-surgeons. la
1785, induced by the favour which greeted certain attempts of
his to etch in aquafortis, be took down his barber's pole auad
opened a small print shop in Parliament Square. There be
continued to flourish, painting miniatures, and publishing a*
short intervals his sketches and caricatures of local celebrities
and oddities, who abounded at that period in Edinburgh aocsetw.
He died on the aist of February 1816.
Kay's portraits were collected by Hugh Paton and published
under the title A series of original portraits and cancatmre etckrngs
by the late John Kay, with biographical sketches and tUnstwnima
ane c dote s (Edin., 2 vols. 410. 1838; 8vo ed.. 4 vols., 184a; new 410
ed», with additional plates, 2 vols., 1877), forming a unique 1
KAT—KXZAft
703
iitlieM^ltfeaBdpofwlirlut^orE<D4>irshatitsmostiiitef«t-
tag epoch.
KAY, JOSEPH (1821-1878), English economist, was bom at
Salford, Lancashire, on the 17th of February 1821. Educated
privately and at Trinity College, Cambridge, he was called to
the bar at the Inner Temple in 1848. He was appointed judge
of the Salford Hundred court of record in 1862 and fa 1869 was
made a queen's counsel. He Is best known for a series-of works
on the social condition of the poor in France, Switzerland,
Holland, Germany and Austria, the materials for which he
gathered on a four years' tour as travelling bachelor of his
university. They were The Education of the Poor in England
end Europe (London, 1846); The Social Condition of the People
in England and Europe (London, 1850, 2 vols.); The Condition
and Education of Poor Children in English and in German Towns
(Manchester, 1853). He was also the author of The Law relating
to Shipmasters and Seamen (London, 1875) and Free Trade in
Land (1879, with a memoir). He died at Dorking, Surrey, on
the 9th of October 1878.
KAYAK, or Cayak, an Eskimo word for a fishing boat, In
common use from Greenland to Alaska. It has been erroneously
derived from the Arabic caique, supposed to have been applied
to the native boats by early explorers. The boat is made by
covering a light wooden framework with sealskin. A hole is
pierced in the centre of the top of the boat, and the kayaker (also
dressed in sealskin) laces himself up securely when seated to
prevent the entrance of water. The kayak is propelled Eke a
canoe by a double-bladcd paddle. The name kayak is properly
only applied to the boat used by an Eskimo man— that used by
a woman is called an umiak.
KAYASTH, the writer caste of Northern India, especially
numerous and influential in Bengal In root their total
number in all India was more than two millions. Their claim
to be Kshattriyas who have taken to clerical work is not admitted
by the Brahmans. Under Mahommedan rule they learnt
Persian, and filled many important offices. They are now
eager students of English, and have supplied not only several
judges to the high court but also the first Hindu to be a member
of the governor-general's council. In Bombay their place is
taken by the Prabhus, and in Assam by the Kalitas (Kolitas);
in Southern India there is no distinct clerical caste.
KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1814-1876), English military
historian, was the son of Charles Kaye, a solicitor, and was
educated at Eton and the Royal Military College, Addiscombe.
From 1832 to 1841 he was an officer in the Bengal Artillery,
afterwards spending some years in literary pursuits both In
India and in England. In 1856 he entered the civil service of
the East India Company, and when the government of India
was transferred to the British crown succeeded John Stuart
Mill as secretary of the political and secret department of the
India office. In 1871 he was made a K. C.S.I. He died in
London on the 24th of July 1876. Kaye's numerous writings
include History of the Sepoy War in India (London, 1S64-1876),
which was revised and continued by Colonel G. B. Malleson and
published in six volumes in 1888-1880; History of the War in
Afghanistan (London, 1851), republished in 1858 and 1874;
Administration of the East India Company (London, 1853); The
Life and Correspondence of Charles, Lord Metcalfe (London, 1 854) ;
The Life and Correspondence of Henry St George Tucker (London,
1854); Life and Correspondence of Sir John Malcolm (London,
1856); Christianity in India (London, 1859); Lives of Indian
Officers (London, 1867); and two novels, Peregrine Pullncy and
Long engagements. He also edited several works dealing with
Indian affairs; wrote Essays of an Optimist (London, 1870); and
was a frequent contributor to periodicals.
KAYSER, PRIEDR1CH HE1NRICH EMANUEL (1845* ).
German geologist and palaeontologist, was born at Konigsbcrg,
on the 26th of March 1 84 5. He was educated at Berlin where he
took his degree of Ph.D. in 1870. In 1882 he became professor
of geology in the university at Marburg. He investigated
fossils of various ages and from all parts of the world, but more
especially from the Palaeozoic formations, including those of
South Africa, the Polar regions, and notably the Devonian
fossils of Germany, Bohemia and other pans of Europe.
Among his separate works are Lehrbuch der Geologic (2 vols., IS.),
Geoiogtsrhe Formattonshtnde 1891 (2nd ed., 1902), and i. Atlgtmeint
Geologic (1893), v ol. H. (the volume first issued) was translated and
edited by P. Lake. 1803, under the title Textbook of Comparative
Geology. Another work is Beitrdge tur Kenntniss der fauna der
Siegenschen Grauwacke (1892).
KAY-SHUTTLRWORTH, SIR JAMBS PHILLIPS, Bart.
(1804-1877), English politician and educationalist, was born at
Rochdale, Lancashire, on the 20th of July 1804, the son of
Robert Kay. At first engaged in a Rochdale bank, in 1824 he
became a medical student at Edinburgh University. Settling
in Manchester about 1827, he worked for the Ancoats and
Ardwick Dispensary, and the experience which he thus gained
of the conditions of the poor in the Lancashire factory districts,
together with his interest in economic science, led to his appoint-
ment in 183s as poor law commissioner in Norfolk and Suffolk
and later in the London districts. In 1839 he was appointed
first secretary of the committee formed by the Privy Council
to administer the Government grant for the public education
in Great Britain. He is remembered as having founded at
Battersea, London, in conjunction with E. Carleton Tufnell, the
first training college for school teachers (1830-1840); and the
system of national school education of the present day, with its
public inspection, trained teachers and its support by state as
well as local funds, is largely due to his initiative. In 1842 he
married Lady Janet Shuttle worth, assuming by royal licence his
bride's name and arms. A breakdown in his health led him to
resign his post on the committee in 1849, but subsequent
recovery enabled him to take an active part in the working of
the central relief committee instituted under Lord Derby,
during the Lancashire cotton famine of 186 1-1865. He was
created a baronet in 1849. Until the end of his life be interested
himself in the movements of the Liberal party in Lancashire,
and the progress of education. He died in London on the 26th
of May 1877. His Physiology, Pathology and Treatment of
Asphyxia became a standard textbook, and he also wrote
numerous papers on public education.
His son, Sir Ughtrcd James Kay-Shuttleworth (b. 1844),
became a well-known Liberal politician, sitting in parliament
for Hastings from 1869 to 1880 and for the Clitheroe division of
Lancashire from 1885 till 1902, when he was created Baron
Shut tie worth. He was chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster
in 1886, and secretary to the Admiralty in 1892-1895.
KAZALA, or Kazalinsk, a fort and town in the Russian
province of Syr-darya in West Turkestan, at the point where
the Kazala River falls into the Syr-darya, about 50 m. from its
mouth in Lake Aral, in 45 45* N. and 62 7' E., '• at the junc-
tion," to quote Schuyler, " of all the trade routes in Central
Asia, as the road from Orenburg meets here with the Khiva,
Bokhara and Tashkent roads." Besides carrying on an active
trade with the Kirghiz of the surrounding country, it is of
growing importance in the general current of commerce. Pop.
(1897), 7600. The floods in the river make it an island in
spring; in summer it is parched by the sun and hot winds, and
hardly a tree can be got to grow. The streets are wide, but the
houses, as well as the fairly strong fort, are built of mud bncks.
KAZAft, a government of middle Russia, surrounded by the
governments of Vyatka, Ufa, Samara, Simbirsk, . Nizhniy-
Novgorod and Kostroma. Area 24,601 sq. m. It belongs to
the basins of the Volga and its tributary the Kama, and by these
streams the government is divided into three regions; the first,
to the right of the main river, is traversed by deep ravines
sloping to the north-east, towards the Volga, and by two ranges
of hills, one of which (300 to 500 ft.) skirts the river; the second
region, between the left bank of the Volga and the left hank of
the Kama, is an open steppe; and the third, between the left
bank of the Volga and the right bank of the Kama, resembles in
its eastern pari the first region, and in its western part is covered
with forest. Marls. limestones and sandstones, of Permian or
Trias&ic age, are the principal rocks; the Jurassic formation
7°4
KAZAS-^-KAZINCZY
appears ih a small part of the Tetyfiski district in the south; and
Tertiary rocks stretch along the left bank of the Volga* Mineral
springs (iron, sulphur and petroleum) exist in several places.
The Volga Is navigable throughout its course of 200 m. through
Kazan, as well as the Kama (1 20 m.) ; and the Vyatka. Kazanka,
Rutka, Tsivyl, Greater Kokshaga, llet, Vetluga and Mesha, are
not without value as waterways. About four hundred small
lakes are enumerated within the government; the upper and
lower Kabaa supply the city of Kazafi with water.
The climate is severe, the annual mean temperature being
57-8° F. The rainfall amounts to 16 in. Agriculture is the
chief occupation, and 82 % of the population are peasants. Out
of 7,672,600 acres of arable land, 4,516,500 are under crops —
chiefly rye and oats, with some wheat, barley, buckwheat,
lentils, flax, hemp and potatoes. But there generally results
great scarcity, and even famine, in bad years. Live stock are
numerous. Forests cover 35% of the total area. Bee-keeping
is an important industry. Factories employ about 10,000
persons and include flour-mills, distilleries, factories for soap,
candles and tallow, and tanneries. A great variety of petty
trades, especially those connected with wood, arc carried on in
the villages, partly for export. The fairs are well attended.
There is considerable shipping on the Volga, Kama, Vyatka and
their tributaries. Kazan is divided into twelve districts. The
chief town is Kazan (?.?.). The district capitals, with their
populations in 1897 are: Cheboksary (4568), Chistopol (20,161),
Kozmodemyansk (5212), Laishev (5439), Mamadyzh (4213)*
Spask (2779), Sviyazhsk (2363), Tetyushi (4754)1 Tsarevokok-
shaisk (1654), Tsivylsk (2337) and Yadrin (2467). Population
(1879), 1,872,437; (1897), 3,190,18s, of whom i,ii3,5SS were
women, and 176,396 lived in towns. The estimated population
in 1006 was 2,504,400. It consists principally of Russians
and Tatars, with a variety of Finno-Turkish tribes: Chuvashes,
Cheremisses, Mordvinians, Votyaks, Mescheryaks, and some
Jews and Poles. The Russians belong to the Orthodox Greek
Church or are Nonconformists; the Tatars are Mussulmans; and
the Finno-Turkish tribes are either pagans or belong officially to
the Orthodox Greek Church, the respective proportions being
(in 1897): Orthodox Greek, 69*4% of the whole; Noncon-
formists, 1 %; Mussulmans, 28-8%. (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KAZAft (called by the Cheremisses Ozon\ a town of eastern
Russia, capital of the government of the same name, situated
in 55 P 48' N. and 49° 26" E., on the river Kazanka, 3 m. from the
Volga, which however reaches the city when it overflows its
banks every spring. Kazan lies 650 m. E. from Moscow by rail
and 253 E. of Nizhniy-Novgorod by the Volga. Pop. (1883),
140,726; (1000), 143,707, all Russians except for some 20,000
Tatars. The most striking feature of the city is the kreml or
citadel, founded in 1437, which crowns a low hill on the N.W.
Within its wall, capped with five towers, it contains several
churches, amongst them the cathedral of the Annunciation,
founded in 1562 by Gury, the first archbishop of Kazan, Kazan
being an archicpiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church.
Other buildings in the kreml arc a magnificent monastery, built
in 1556; an arsenal; the modem castle in which the governor
resides; and the red brick Suyumbeka tower, 246 ft. high, which
is an object of great veneration to the Tatars as the reputed
burial-place of one of their saints. A little E. of the kreml is
the Bogoroditski convent, built in 1579 for the reception of the
Black Virgin of Kazan, a miracle-working image transferred to
Moscow in 161 2, and in St Petersburg since 1710. Kazafi is the
intellectual capital of eastern Russia, and an important seat of
Oriental scholarship. Its university, founded in 1804, is attended
by nearly 1000 students. Attached to it are an excellent
library of 220,000 vols., an astronomical observatory, a botanical
garden and various museums. The ecclesiastical academy,
founded in 1846, contains the old library of the Solovetsk
(Solovki) monastery, which is of importance for the .history of
Russian religious sects. The city is adorned with bronze
statues of Tsar Alexander II , set up facing the kreml in 1895,
and of the poet G. R. Derzhavin (1743- 181 6); also with a
nonumtnt commemorating the — * ' ^-rafi by Ivan the
Terrible. The central parts of tbexitjr consist principally «*
small one-storeyed houses, surrounded by gardens, and are
inhabited chiefly by Russians, while some 20,000 Tatars dwell
in the suburbs. Kazan is, further, the intellectual centre of
the Russian Mahommedans, who have here their more important
schools and their printing-presses. Between the city and the
Volga is the Admiralty suburb, where Peter the Great had his
Caspian .fleet built for his campaigns against Persia. The more
important manufactures are leather goods, soap, wax candles,
sacred images, cloth, cottons, spirits and bells, A considerable
trade is carried on with eastern Russia, and with Turkestan and
Persia. Previous to the 13th century, the present government
of Kazan formed part of the territory of the Bulgarians, the ruins
of whose ancient capital, Bolgari or Bolgary, lie 60 in. S. of Kazan.
The city of Kazafi itself stood, down to the 13th century, 30 m.
to the N.E., where traces of it can still be seen. In 1438 I'lugh
Mahommed (or Ulu Makhmet), khan of the Golden Horde of
the Mongols, founded, on the ruins of the Bulgarian state, the
kingdom of Kazafi, which in its turn was destroyed by Ivan the
Terrible of Russia in 1552 and its territory annexed to Russia.
In 1774 the city was laid waste by the rebel Pugachev. It has
suffered repeatedly from fires, especially in 181 5 and 1825. The
Kazafi Tatars, from having lived so long amongst Russians and
Finnish tribes, have lost a good many of the characteristic
features of their Tatar (Mongol) ancestry,' and bear now the
stamp of a distinct ethnographic type. They are found also ia
the neighbouring governments of Vyatka, Ufa, Orenburg,
Samara, Saratov, Simbirsk, Tambov and Nizhniy-Novgorod.
They are intelligent and enterprising, and are engaged princi-
pally in trade.
See Pineghin's KasaH Old o*d New (in Russian) ; Vclvamfawv-
Zernov'tKastmov Tsars (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1 863-1 866) ;Zarin*ky'»
Sketches of Old Kazafi (Kazafi, 1877) ; Trofimov's Siege of Kasai ts
1552 (Kazafi, 1890); Firsov's books on the history of the native
population (Kazafi, 1864 and 1869); and Stipitevski, on the antiqm-
ties of the town and government, 10 Itoeslta i Zapiski of the Kaxri
" • • 1877). At ~'
ty is print* _
(1867). Compare also L. Legcr's " Kazafi et tes tartares/* in BA
University (1877). A bibliography of the Oriental books published
in the city is printed in Bulletins of the St Petersburg Academy
Urn*, de Genhx (1874). (P. A. K. ; J. T. Be)
KAZKRCN, a district and town of the province of Fan it
Persia. The district is situated between Shiraz and Bushire.
In its centre is the Kazcrun Valley with a direction N.W. to
S.E., a fertile plain 30 m. long and 7 to 8 ra. broad, bounded SH
by the ParishSn Lake (8 m. long, 3 m. broad) N.W. by the
Boshavir River, with the ruins of the old city of Beh-Shahpnr
(Beshaver, Boshavir, also, short, Shapflr) and Sassanian bas-
reliefs on its banks. There also, in a cave, is a statue of Shapur.
The remainder of the district is mostly hilly country intersected
by numerous streams, plains and hills being covered with
zizyphus, wild almond and oak. The district is divided into
two divisions: town and villages, the latter being called Kuh i
Marreh and again subdivided into (1) Pusht 1 Kuh; (2) Yarrtk;
(3) ShakSn. It has forty-six villages and a population of about
15,000, it produces rice of excellent quality, cotton, tobacco and
opium, but very little corn, and bread made of the flour of acorns
is a staple of food in many villages. Wild almonds arc exported.
KazcrQn, the chief place of the district, is an Unwalled towi
situated in the midst of the central plain, in 20 37 r N ,sx° 43' E
at an elevation of 2800 ft., 70 ro. from Shiraz, and 96 m. frora
Bushire. It has a population of about 8000, and is divided
into four quarters separated by open spaces. Adjoining it on
the W. is the famous Nazar garden, with noble avenues of orange
trees planted by a former governor, Hajji Ali Kuli Khan, is
1 767. A couple of miles N. of the city behind a low range of
hills are the imposing ruins of a marble building said to stand
over the grave of Sheik Amin ed din Mahommed b. Zia. ed
din Mas'Qd, who died a h 740 (a.d. 1339). S.E. of the city
on a hugh mound are ruins of buildings with underground
chambers, popularly known as Kal'eh i Gabr, " castle of the
fire-worshippers. 1 *
KAZINCZY, FERENCZ (1 750-1831), Hungarian author, the
most indefatigable agent in the regeneration of the Magyar
KAZVIN— KEAN r EDMUND
705
bagnage and literature at ttre end of the i8lh and beginning of
the 10th century, was bora on the 27th of October 1759, at
£r-Semlyen, in the county of Bihar, Hungary. He studied law
at Kassa and Eperies, and in Pest, where he also obtained a
thorough knowledge of French and German literature, and made
the acquaintance of Gideon Riday, who allowed him the use of
hid library. In 1784 Kazincxy became subnotary for the county
of Abaaj; and in 1786 he was nominated inspector of schools at
Kassa. There he began to devote himself to the restoration of
the Magyar language and literature by translations from cl assical
foreign works, and by the augmentation of the native vocabulary
from ancient Magyar sources. In 1788, with the assistance of
Baroti Szabo and John Bacsanyi, he started at Kassa the first
Magyar literary magazine, Magyar Museum; the Orpheus, which
succeeded it in 1700, was his own creation. Although, upon
the accession of Leopold II., Kazinczy, as a non-Catholic, was
obliged to resign his post at Kassa, his literary activity in no
way decreased. He not only assisted Gideon Riday fn the
establishment and direction of the first Magyar dramatic society,
but enrkhed the repertoire with several translations from foreign
authors. His Hamlet, which first appeared at Kassa in 1700, is
a rendering from the German version of SchriJder. Implicated
m the democratic conspiracy of the abbot Martinovfcs, Kazinczy
was arrested on the 14th of December 1794, and condemned to
death*, but the sentence was commuted to imprisonment. He
was released in 1801, and shortly afterwards married Sophia
TdrQk, daughter of his former patron, and retired to his small
estate at Szephalom or " Fairhill," near Sator-Ujhely, in the
county of Zemplen. In 1828 he took an active part in the
conferences held for the establishment of the Hungarian academy
in the historical section of which he became the first correspond-
ing member. He died of Asiatic cholera, at Szephalom, on the
sand of August 1831.
. Kazinczy, although possessing great beauty of style* cannot be
regarded as a powerful and original thinker; his fame is chiefly due
to the felicity of his translations from the masterpieces of Lessidg,
Goethe, Wicftand, Kloostoek, Ossian, La Rochefoucauld, Marmontet,
Moliere, Metastatic. Shakespeare, Sterne, Cicero, Salltst, Anacoeon,
edition of nis works {Szip Literature), consisting for the most part of
translations, was published at Pest, 1814-1816. in 9 vols. Hib origi-
nal productions (Eredeti Mukdi), largely made up of letters, were
edited by Joseph Bajza and Francis Toldy at Pest, 1836-1845, in
5 vols. Editions of his poems appeared in 1858 and in 1863.
KAZVIN, a province and town of Persia. The province is
situated N.W. of Teheran and S. of Gilan. On the W. it is
bounded by Khamseh* It pays a yearly revenue of about
£22,000, and contains many rich villages which produce much
grain and fruit, great quantities of the latter being dried and
exported.
Kazvin, the capital of the province, is situated at an elevation
of 4165 ft., tn 36 15' N. and 50 9 £., and 9a m. by road from
Teheran. The city is said to have been founded in the 4th
century by the Sassanian king Shapur H (309-379). It has been
repeatedly damaged by earthquakes. Many of its streets and
most of the magnificent buikuags seen there by Chardtn in 1674
and other travellers during the 17th century are in ruins. The
most remarkable remains are the palace of the Safawid shahs and
the mosque with its large blue dome. In the roth century Shah
lahmasp I. (1 524-1 576) made Kazvin his capital, and it re-
mained 90 till Shah Abbas L (1587-1629) transferred the seat
of government to Isfahan. The town still bears the title Dar es
Sal tench, " the seat of government." Kazvin has many batus
and cisterns fed by underground canals. The system. of irriga
tion formerly carried on by these canals rendered the plain of
Kazvin one of the most fertile regions in Persia; now most of the
canals are choked up. The city has a population of about
50,000 and a thriving transit trade, particularly since 1899 when
the carriage road between Rasht and Teheran with Kazvin aa a
half-way stage was opened under the auspices of the Russian
" Enxeli-Tebcua Road Company." Great quantities of rice,
fish sad silk are brought to ft from Gilan for distribution in
Persia and export to Turkey.
KEAM, EDMUHD ^787-1833), was born in London on tfat
17th of March 1 1787. His father was probably Edmund Kean,
an architect'* clerk; and bis mother was-an actress, Ann Carey,
grand-daughter of Henry Carey* When in his fourth year
Kean made his first appearance on theatage as Cupid in Noverre's
ballet of Cymtn. As a child his* vivacity and cleverness, and
his ready 'affection for those who treated aim with kindness,
made him a universal favourite, but the harsh circumstances
of his lot, and the want of proper restraint, while they developed
strong self- reliances fostered wayward tendencies. About 1794
a few benevolent persons provided the means of sending him to
school, where he mastered his tasks with remarkable case and
rapidity; but finding the restraint intolerable, he shipped as a
cabin boy at Portsmouth. Discovering that he had only escaped
to a more rigorous bondage, he counterfeited both deafness and
lameness with a histrionic mastery which deceived even the
physicians at Madeira. On his return to England he sought the
protection of bis uncle Moses Kean, mimkr, ventriloquist and
general entertainer, who, besides continuing his pantomimic
studies, introduced him to the study of Shakespeare. At the
same time Miss Tidswell, an actress who had been specially kind
to him from infancy, taught him the principles of acting. On
the death of his uncle he was taken charge of by Miss TidsweU,
and under her direction he began the systematic study of the
principal Shakespearian characters, displaying the peculiar
originality of his genius by interpretations entirely different
from those of Kembtev His talents and interesting countenance
induced a Mrs Clarke to adopt htm, but the slight of a visitor so
wounded his pride that he suddenly left her house and went back
to his old surroundings. In his fourteenth year he obtained an
engagement to play leading characters for twenty nights in
York Theatre, appearing as Hamlet, Hastings and Cato. Shortly
afterwards, while he was in the strolling troupe belonging to
Richardson's show, the rumour of bis abilities reached George
III., who commanded him to recite at Windsor* He subse-
quently joined Saunders's drcus, where in the performance of an
equestrian feat he fell and broke his legs— the accident leaving
traces of swelling in his insteps throughout his life. About
this time he picked up musk from Charles Indedon, dancing
from D'Egville, and fencing from Angelo. In 1807 he played
leading parts in the Belfast theatre with Mrs Siddons, who began
by calling him " a horrid little man " and on further experience
of his ability said that be " played very, very well,' 1 but that
" there was too little of him to make a great actor." An engage-,
merit in 1808 to phiy leading characters in Beverley's provincial
troupe was brought to an abrupt close by his marriage
(July 17) with Miss Mary Chambers of Waterford, the leading
actress. For several years bis prospects were very gloomy, but
in 18 14 the committee of Drury Lane theatre, the fortunes of
which were then so low that bankruptcy seemed inevitable,
resolved to give him a chance among the " experiments " they
were making to win a return of popularity. When the expecta-
tion of his first appearance in London was close upon him he was
so feverish that he exclaimed " If I succeed I shall go mad."
His opening at Drury Lane on the a6th of January 1 814 as Shy-
lock roused the audience to almost uncontrollable enthusiasm.
Successive appearances in Richard in., Hamlet, Othello, Mac-
beth and Lear served to demonstrate his complete mastery of
the whole range of tragic emotion. His triumph was so great
that he himself said on one occasion, " I could not feel the stage
under me." On the 39th of November 1820 Keen appeared
for the first time in New York as Richard III. The success of his
visit to America was unequivocal, although he fell into a vexa-
tious dispute with the press. On the 4th of June 1821 he
returned to England.
1 This date is apparently settled by a letter from Kean in i8so,
to Dx Gibson (see Rothesay Express for the 28th of June 1891,
where the letter is printed and vouched for), inviting him to dinner
on the 17th of March to celebrate Kean's birthday; various other
dates have been given in books of reference, the 4th of November
having been formerly accepted by this Encyclopaedia.
706
KEANE
Probably his irregular habits were prejudicial to the refinement
of his taste, and latterly they tended to exaggerate his special
delects and mannerisms. The adverse decision in the divorce
case of Cox ». Kean on the 17th of January 1825 caused his wife
to kave him* and aroused against him such bitter feeling, shown
by the almost riotous conduct of the audiences before which he
appeared about this time, as nearly to compel him to retire per-
manently into private life. A second visit to America in 182 s
was largely a repetition of the persecution which, in the name of
morality, be had suffered in England. Some cities showed him
a spirit of charity; many audiences submitted him to the grossest
insults and endangered his life by the violence of their disapproval.
In Quebec be was much impressed with the kindness of some
Huron Indians who attended his performances, and he was made
chief of the tribe, receiving the name Alanienouidet. Kean 's last
appearance in New York was on the 5th of December 1826 in
Richard III., the role in which he was first seen in America. He
returned to England and was ultimately received with all the old
favour, but the contest had made him so dependent on the use of
stimulants that the gradual deterioration of his gifts was inevit-
able. Still, even in their decay his great powers triumphed during
the moments of his inspiration over the absolute wreck of his
physical faculties, and compelled admiration after his gait had
degenerated into a weak hobble, and the lightning brilliancy of his
X eyes had become dull and bloodshot, and the tones of his match-
f less voice marred by rough and grating hoarseness. His appear-
!■*» in Paris was a failure owing to a fit of drunkenness. His
fast appearance on the stage was at Coveat Garden, on the 25th
of March 1833 when be played Othello to the logo of his son
Chnrses. At the words " Villain, be sure," In scene 3 of act iiL,
he suddenly broke down, and crying in a faltering voice "
God. I am dying- Speak to them, Charles," fell insensible into
bis son's arms. He died at Richmond on the 15th of May
j£ ^as m the impersonation of the great creations of Shake-
ataoes genius that the varied beauty and grandeur of the acting
y^^pa vtte displayed in their highest form, although probably
teaMat powerful character was Sir Giles Overreach in Massinger's
A Vnr W*ymF*yOtd Debts, the effect of his first impersonation
m *hica was such that the pit rose eft masse, and even the actors
ssa themselves were overcome by the terrific dramatic
Hat only p er so n a l disadvantage as an actor was his
Hfe countenance was strikingly interesting and
.Jar; he had a matchless command of facial expres-
_^ ^j. <?C 5 scintillated with the slightest shades of emo-
^MBttsvocfr** "* V0 * C ?* laoil * n wcak * n d n * B0 m ^ U PP CT
(ge tones of penetrating and
*oess like the witchery of the
jder moments of his passion,
be beyond material barriers
1 their own greatness. Kean
if passion. In Othello, Iago,
rs utterly different from each
At element is some form of
personality, as he had con-
e perfect, and each isolated
"~LZ^ mssst was elabotated with the minutest
mmm "~^ L-^ -* <t w*h an absolute subordinatioa of
_^ -ttuity he was endeavouring to portray.
ending Shakespeare
character in which
tow, no one except
eat impersonations.
oedy, but in the ex-
and ghostly gaiety.
e height of his fame
cklessry on his horse
tented with a tame
1 his drawing-room.
e Black w#> »irw>ntr
._ _.-- la.-
round him off and he wiD be a perfect tragedian." Mscready,
who was much impressed by Kean's Richard IIL and met the
actor at supper, speaks of his " unassuming manner . . . par-
taking in some degree of shyness " and of the •' touching grace n
of his singing. Kean's delivery of the three words " I a ns wer—
NOl " in the part of Sir Edward Mortimer in The Iton Chat,
cast Macready into an abyss of despair at rivalling him in this
role.. So full of dramatic interest is the life of Edmund Keaa
that it formed the subject for a play by the elder Dumas, entitled
Kean on disordre et tint*, in which Frederick- Lemaitre achieved
one of his greatest triumphs.
See Francis Phippen, Authentic Memoirs of Edmund Kean (1814);
B. W. Procter (Barry Cornwall). The Ufa of Edmund Kean (1835):
F. W. Hawkins, The Life of Edmund Kean (1869); J. FrugeraW
Moltoy, The Life and Adventures of Edmund Kean (t$88); Edward
Stirling, Old Drury Lane (1887).
His son, Charles John Kean (1811-1868), was born at Water-
ford, Ireland, on the 18th of January 181 1. After preparatory
education at Worplesdon and at Greenford, near Harrow, he was
sent to Eton College, where he remained three years. In 1827
he was offered a cadetship in the East India Company's service,
which be was prepared to accept if his father would settle as
income of £400 on his mother. The elder Kean refused to do
this, and his son determined to become an actor. He made his
first appearance at Drury Lane on the 1st of October 1827 as
Norval in Home's Doutfas, but his continued failure to achieve
popularity led him to leave London in the spring of 1828 for the
provinces. At Glasgow, on the 1st of October in this year,
father and son acted together in Arnold Payne's Brutus, the
elder Kean in the title-part and his son as Titus. After a. visit
to America in 1830, where he was received with much favour, be
appeared in 1833 at Covent Garden as Sir Edmnnd Mortimer ia
Colman's The Iron Chest, but his success was not pronounced
enough to encourage him to remain in London, especially as he
had already won a high position in the provinces. In January
1838, however, he returned to Drury Lane, and played Hamlet
with a success which gave him a place among the principal
tragedians of his time. He was married to the actress Ettea
Tree (180 5- 1880) on the 20th of January 1842, and paid a
second visit to America with her from 1845 to 1847. Returning
to England, he entered on a successful engagemesit at the
Haymarket, and in 1850, with Robert Keeky, became lessee
of the Princess Theatre. The most noteworthy feature of has
management was a series of gorgeous Shakespearian revivals.
Charles Kean was not a great tragic actor. He did all that
could be done by the persevering cultivation of his powers,
and in many ways manifested the possession of high intelligence
and refined taste, but his defects of person and voice made it
impossible for him to give a representation at all adequate ol
the varying and subtle emotions of pure tragedy. But in
melodramatic parts such as the king in Boucicault's adaptation
of Casimir Delavigne's Louis XI., and Louis and Fabian dri
Franchi in Boucicault's adaptation of Durras's The Cmrxicen
Brothers, his success was complete. From bis ** tour round the
world " Kean returned in 1866 in broken health, and died hi
London on the 22nd of January 1868.
See The Life and Theatrical Times of Charles Kama, by John
William Cole (1859).
KBAME. JOHN JOSEPH (1830- ), American
Catholic archbishop, was born in rUDyshannon, Co. Donegal,
Ireland, on the 12th of September 1830. His family settled ia
America when he was seven years old. He was educated at
Saint Charles's Cottefe, Elhcott Cty. Maryland, and at Saint
Mary's Seminary, Baltimore, and in 1866 was ordained a priest
and marie curate of St Patrick's, Washington, D.C On the
15th of August 1878 he was consecrated Bishop of Richmond,
to succeed James Gibbons, and he had established the Coo-
fraternity of the Hory Ghost in that diocese, and founded schools
and churches for negroes before his appointment as rector of the
Catholic University. Washington. D.C. in 1886, and Ins appoint-
^ent in 18S8 to the see of Ajasso. He did much to upbttad
Caihohc University, but his democratic and fiber*! 1
KEARNEY-CREATE
707
made Mm enemies at Home, whence there came fn 1896 a request
for his resignation of the lectorate, and where he spent the years
1897-1900 as canon of St John Latere n, assistant bishop at the
pontifical throne, and counsellor to the Propaganda. In 1900 he
was consecrated archbishop of Dubuque, Iowa. He took a
prominent part in the Catholic Young Men's National Union and
in the Total Abstinence Union of North America; and was in
general charge of the Catholic delegation to the World's Parlia-
ment of Religions held at the Columbian Exposition In 1893.
He lectured widely on temperance, education and American
institutions, and in 1890 was Dudleian lecturer at Harvard
University.
A selection from his writings and addresses was edited by Maurice
Francis Egan under the title Onward and Upward: A Year Book
(Baltimore. 1903).
KEARNEY, a city and the county-seat of Buffalo county,
Nebraska. U.S.A.. about 130 m. W. of Lincoln. Pop. (1890),
8074; (1000), 5634 (650 foretgn-born); (1010), 6ao*. It is on
the main overland line of the Union Pacific, and on a branch of
the Burlington & Missouri River railroad. The city is situated
in the broad, flat bottom-lands a short distance N. of the Platte
River. Lake Kearney, in the city, has an area of 40 acres. The
surrounding region is rich farming land, devoted especially to
the growing of alfalfa and Indian corn. At Kearney are a
State Industrial School for boys, a State Normal School, the
Kearney Military Academy, and a Carnegie library. Good
water-power is provided by a canal from the Platte River
about 17 m. above Kearney, and the city's manufactures include
foundry and machine-shop products, flour and bricks. Kearney
Junction, as Kearney was called from 1872 to 1875, was settled
a year before the two railways actually formed their junction
here or the city was platted. Kearney became a town in 1873,
a dty of the second class and the county seat in 1874, and a city
of the first class in 1001. It is to be distinguished from an older
and once famous prairie city, popularly known as " Dobey Town '*
(i.e. Adobe), founded in the early 'fifties on the edge of the reser-
vation of old Fort Kearney (removed in 1848 from Nebraska
City), in Kearney county, on the S. shore of the Platte about
6 m. S.E. of the present Kearney; here in 1861 the post office of
Kearney City was established. In the days of the prairie freight-
ing caravans Dobey Town was one of the most important towns
between Independence, Missouri, and the Pacific coast, and it had
a rough, wild, picturesque history; but it lost its immense
freighting interests after the Union Pacific had been extended
through it in 1866. The site of Dobey Town, together with the
Fort, was abandoned in 1871. Fort Kearney and the city too
were named in honour of General Stephen W. Kearny, and the
name was at first correctly spelt without a second " e."
KEARNY. PHILIP (1815-1862), American soldier, was* bom
in New York on the 2nd of June 181 5, and was originally in-
tended for the legal profession. He graduated at Columbia Uni-
versity (1833), but his bent was decidedly towards soldiering,
and in 1837 he obtained a commission in the cavalry regiment of
which his uncle, (General) Stephen Watts Kearny (1794-1848),
was colonel and Lieutenant Jefferson Davis adjutant. Two years
later he was sent to France to study the methods of cavalry
training in vogue there. Before bis return to the United Slates
in 1840 he had served, on leave, in Algeria. He had
inherited a large fortune, but he remained in the service, and his
wide experience of cavalry work caused him to be employed on
the headquarters staff of the army. After six more years' service
Kearny left the army, but almost immediately afterwards be
rejoined, bringing with him a company of cavalry, which he had
raised and equipped chiefly at his own expense, to take part in
the Mexican war. In December 1846 he wus promoted captain.
In leading a brilliant cavalry charge at Cburubusco he lost his
left arm, but he remained at the front, and won the brevet of
major for his gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco. In 1851
be again resigned, to travel round the world. He saw further
active service with his old comrades of the French cavalry in
the Italian war of 1830, and received the cross of the Legion of
Honour for his conduct at Solfefino. Up to the outbreak of
the American Civil War he lived in Paris, bat early In i86r he
hastened home to join the Federal army. At first as a brigade
commander and later as a divisional commander of infantry in
the Army of the Potomac, he infused into his men his own cavalry
spirit of dash and bravery. At Williamsburg, Seven Pines,
and Second Bull Run, he displayed his usual romantic courage,
but at Chantffly (Sept. 1, 1862), after repulsing an attack of
the enemy, he rode out in the dark too far to the front, and mis-
taking the Confederates for his own men was shot dead. Hrs
body was sent to the Federal lines with a message from General
Lee, and was buried in Trinity Churchyard, New York. His
commission as major-general of volunteers was dated July 4,
1862, but he never received it.
See J. W. de Peyater. Personal and Military History of Philip
Kearny (Now York, 1869).
KEARNY, a town of Hudson county. New Jersey, U.S.A.,
between the Passaic and Hackensack rivers, adjoining Harrison,
and connected with Newark by bridges over the Passaic. Pop.
(1900), 10,896, of whom 3507 were foreign-bora; (19x0 census),
18,659. The New York & Greenwood Lake division of the Erie
railroad has a station at Arlington, the principal village (in the
N.W. part), which contain attractive residences of Newark,
Jersey CHy and New York City business men. The town covers
an area of about 7 aq. m., including a large .tract of marsh-land*
In Kearny are railway repair shops of the Pennsylvania system,
and a large abattoir; and there are numerous manufactures.
The value of the town's factory products increased from-
$1,607,00* in 1000 to $4,437,904 in 1905, or 175-5%. Among
iu institutions are the State Soldiers' Home, removed here
from Newark in 1880, a Carnegie Ubrary, two Italian homes for
orphans, and a Catholic Industrial School for boys.
The neck of land between the Passaic and the Hackensack
rivers, for 7 m. N. from where they unite, was purchased iron
the proprietors of East Jersey and from the Indians by Captain
William Sandford in 1668 and through Nathaniel Kingsland,
sergeant-major of Barbadoes, received the name " New Bar-
badocs*" After the town under this name had been extended
considerably to the northward, the town of Lodi was formed out
of the S. portion in 1825, the town of Harrison was founded out
of the S. portion of Lodi in 1840, and in 1867 a portion of Harrison
was set apart as a township and named in honour of General
Philip Kearny, a former resident. Kearny was incorporated as
a town in 189$.
KEARY, ANNIE (1825-1879), English novelist, was born near
Wetherby, Yorkshire, on the 3rd of March 1825, the daughter
of an Irish clergyman. She was the author of several children's
books and novels, of Which the best known is Castle Daly, aa
Irish story. She also wrote an Early Egyptian History (1861)
and The Nation A round ( 1 870). She died at Eastbourne on the
3rd of March 1879.
KEATE, JOHN (1773-185?), English schoolmaster, was born
at Wells, Somersetshire, in 1773, the son of Prebendary William
Keate. He was educated at Eton and King's College, Cam-
bridge, where he had a brilliant career as a scholar, taking holy
orders, he became, about 1797, an assistant master at Eton
College. . In 1809 he was elected headmaster. The discipline
of the school was then in a most unsatisfactory condition, and
Dr Keate (who took the degree of D.D. in 1810) took stern
measures t6 improve it. His partiality for the birch became a
by-word, but he succeeded in restoring otder and strengthening
the weakened authority of the masters. Beneath an outwardly"
rough manner the little man concealed a really kind heart, and
when he retired in 1834, the boys, who admired his courage,
presented him with a handsome testimonial. A couple of years
before he had publicly flogged eighty boys on one day. Keate
was made a canon of Windsor in 1820. He died on the 5th
or March 1852 at Hartley Westpall, Hampshire, of which parish
he had been rector since 1824.
See Maxwell Lyte. History of Eton College (3rd ed.. 1899): Collins.
Etonianai Harwood. Alumni Eiontenus; Annual Register (185a);
Centlemian's Mataxtne (1852).
7<3*
KEATS
li ZZ
5»
(1795-18*1), English poet, was born on the
«yh it jrjt 04 October 1795 at the sign of the Swan and Hoop,
24 7w> pavement, Moorfields, London. He published his first
vtuuxae o£ vexse in 181 7, his second in the following year, his
r^m -n **&» aad died of consumption at Rome on the 23rd of
tirx ia the fourth month of his twenty-sixth year.
oiogxapfcical facts see the later section of this article.)
.s act book there was little foretaste of anything
jr even genuinely good; but between the marshy and
v f.r^ at sterile or futile verse there were undoubtedly
e cw jmrpie p^T*-**^* of floral promise. The style was fre-
mixture of sham Spenserian and mock
%. r-svumuan. alternately florid and arid. His second book,
.£ j-Tir" rses a* its best passages to the highest level of Barn-
i*i uM J« Lo«2ge. the two previous poets with whom, had he
:uttuaCc u. tsotiuxg aaore, he might most properly have been
jxaaaxi xaa *^ anaoag minor minstrels, is no unenviable place.
j»iaMKtL'jmak caaxd maa at once to a foremost rank in the high -
s ^^, jx Ebgnsa poets. Shelley, up to twenty, had written
.1 c^r -waauxg tfca* would have done credit to a boy of ten; and
^ ^ „^ ,«* nt may be said that the merit of his work at twenty-
xv« «» ^^ tiv thr comparison more wonderful than its demerit
u , |>r - ^^ow Eis fast book fell as flat as it deserved to fall;
at -ecEjnrott Jt Vs second, though less considerate than on the
M«i. was not more contemptuous than that of
Vctar books published about the same time
^r^^e* -andoe and Shelley. A critic of exceptional
^^ m* ^xx&mr aught have noted in the first book so
~ | ^ jcurpta «* * >tork among the cranes as the famous
^ «**.-. .w -cxa*c «•* Chapman** Homer; a just judge would
a* -^•L *».«**» * sactul advocate might have exaggerated, the
^ v .. ^». tm grata amid a garish harvest of tares as the
1^1 *, >*» -«^ *•*• aaaalation into verse of Titian's Baccha-
^^^ ^c^t»* ■** w**ty wilderness of Endymion. But the
J"* * .,7 x. -*** a * **** P ** 1 ov tne Quarterly reviewer was
^ % .xiwm *jt M» future author of Adonais—that
m rm- * *"^ *ja«*u«\v ta»noatible to read through; and the
***** .-s^rftw*** *** ** Hmckguard'a Magazine," as Landor
"l"^" "" ^* ***.»> afrAfd it» ia explicable though certainly
"*" TL^ft . * «» ***•*» *** ** *«ch a passage as that where
T ' m ":J — -— <^o^ u>h m and liquorish endearments with
** f, ^V ^^vm* *+m wtoat his being sips such darling (/)
"•J"** ^^j* **«***■* a** pitiful phrases as these, and cer-
*»**' .^ * ** ,y»"w**N**roce, make us understand the
*■ 'TV..** ****** iwtHMattena or insinuations levelled
*■*• "" * *« * m«rt^^ mkI. while admitting that neither
«« .v ** ynv^ma outcries of his wailing and
aavr been made public by merciful
***> admit that, if they ought
* <*•■ *■ "~^*» **J»>*frJ* A U no leas certain that they
**• % **"7 -**« Xv * *" 1 ^ that a manful kind of man or
>r in his suffering,
b>le fashion. One
c apid glance at his
p 9 explain: how it
n cloved by so great
pi rnpt of a mistaken
at bom the best that
the isionate oblivion.
Coi cr inspection, this
by nve desired. But
Kca considered apart
Garr friends and their
Unlik Ticicnt proof than
pressi r *^ impression left
he wa. * cc t0 Endymion
were n 1 a) suggestion that
Shyloc) V °' publication,
Hon wft u)r WU!i ^oniething
Thcpri ' lo M' in Brawnc
his vtfiar, |A||fi|bMkjatm In-
T.u-Ti ^ - ._% » _^__^^^ l ^ l ^HaM«it»»
side. But if it must be said that he lived long enough only to
give promise of being a man, it must also be said that he lived
long enough to give assurance of being a poet who was not born
to come short of the first rank. Not even a hint of such a prob-
ability could have been gathered from his first or even from his
second appearance; after the publication of his third volume it
was no longer a matter of possible debate among judges of
tolerable competence that this improbability had become a
certainty. Two or three phrases cancelled, two or three lines
erased, would have left us in Lamia one of the most faultless as
surely as one of the most glorious jewels in the crown of English
poetry. Isabella, feeble and awkward in narrative to a degree
almost incredible in a student of Dryden and a pupil of Leigh
Hunt, is overcharged with episodical effects of splendid and
pathetic expression beyond the reach of either. The Etc #/
St Agtw, aiming at no doubtful success, succeeds in evading
all casual difficulty in the line of narrative; with no shadow of
pretence to such interest as may be derived from stress of inci-
dent or depth of sentiment, it stands out among all other famous
poems as a perfect and unsurpassable study in pure colour and
clear melody — a study in which the figure of Madeline bring*
back upon the mind's eye, if only as moonlight recalls a sense of
sunshine, the nuptial picture of Marlowe's Hero and the slecpu)g
presence of Shakespeare's Imogen. Beside this poem should
always be placed the less famous but not less precious Evt of Si
Mark, a fragment unexcelled for the simple perfection of its
perfect simplicity, exquisite alike in suggestion and in accom-
plishment. The triumph of Hyperion is as nearly complete as
the failure of Endymion; yet Keats never gave such proof of a
manly devotion and rational sense of duty to his art as in his
resolution to leave this great poem unfinished; not, as we may
gather from his correspondence on the subject, for the pitiful
reason assigned by his publishers, that of discouragement at the
reception given to his former work, but on the solid and reason-
able ground that a Miltonic study had something in its very
scheme and nature too artificial, too studious of a foreign influ-
ence, to be carried on and carried out at such length as was implied
by his original design. Fortified and purified as it had been oa
a first revision, when much introductory allegory and much
tentative effusion of sonorous and superfluous verse had been
rigorously clipped down or pruned away, it could not long have
retained spirit enough to support or inform the shadowy body of
a subject so little charged with tangible significance. The faculty
of assimilation as distinguished from imitation, than which there
can be no surer or stronger sign of strong and sure original
genius, is not more evident in the most Miltonic passages of the
revised Hyperion than in the more Shakespearian passages of the
unrevised tragedy which no radical correction could have left other
t han radically incorrigible. It is no conventional exaggeration, no
hyperbolical phrase of flattery with more sound than sense in it,
to say that in this chaotic and puerile play of Otho the Great there
are such verses as Shakespeare might not without pride have
signed at the age when he wrote and even at the age when he
rewrote the tragedy of Romeo and Juliet. The dramatic frag-
ment of King Stephen shows far more power of hand and gives
far more promise of success than does that of Shelley's Ckarta
the First. Yet we cannot say with any confidence that even this
far from extravagant promise would certainly or probably hare
been kept; it is certain only that Keats in these attempts did at
least succeed in showing a possibility of future excellence as a
tragic or at least a romantic dramatist. In every other line of
high and serious poetry his triumph was actual and consummate;
here only was it no more than potential or incomplete. As a
ballad of the more lyrical order, La Belle dame sans mrrci Is not
less absolutely excellent, less triumphantly perfect in force and
clearness of impression, that as a narrative poem is Lamia. Ia
his lines on Robin Hood, and in one or two other less noticeable
studies of the kind, he has shown thorough and easy mastery of
the beautiful metre inherited by Fletcher from Barnfield and
by Milton from Fletcher. The simple force of spirit and style
which distinguishes the genuine ballad manner from all spurious
KEATS
709
achieved in his verses on the crowning creation of Scott's
humaner and manlier genius — Meg MerriUes. No little injustice
has been done to Keats by such devotees as fix their mind's eye
only on the more salient and distinctive notes of a genius which
in fact was very much more various and tentative, less limited
and peculiar, than would be inferred from an exclusive study of
his more specially characteristic work. But within the limits
of that work must we look of course fox the genuine credentials
of his fame; and highest among them we must rate his un-
equalled and unrivalled odea, Of these perhaps the two nearest
to absolute perfection, to the triumphant achievement and
accomplishment of the very utmost beauty possible to human
words, may be that to Autumn and that on a Grecian Urn; the
most radiant, fervent and musical is that to a Nightingale; the
most pictorial and perhaps the tenderest in its ardour of passion-
ate fancy is that. to Psyche; the subtlest in sweetness of thought
and feeling is that on Melancholy. Greater lyrical poetry the
world may have seen than any that is in these; lovelier it
surely has never seen, nor ever can it possibly see. From the
divine fragment of an unfinished ode to Maia we can but guess
that if completed it would have been worthy of a place beside
the highest. His remaining lyrics have many beauties about
them, but none perhaps can be called thoroughly beautiful. He
has certainly left us one perfect sonnet of the first rank and as
certainly he has left us but one.
Keats has been promoted by modern criticism to a place beside
Shakespeare. The faultless force and the profound subtlety of
his deep and cunning instinct for the absolute expression of
absolute natural beauty can hardly be questioned or overlooked;
and this is doubtless the one main distinctive gift or power
which denotes him as a poet among all his equals, and gives him
a right to rank for ever beside Coleridge and Shelley. As a man,
the two admirers who did best service to bis memory were Lord
Houghton and Matthew Arnold. These alone, among all of
their day who have written of him without the disadvantage or
advantage of a personal acquaintance, have clearly seen and
shown us the manhood of the man. That ridiculous and degrad-
ing legend which imposed so strangely on the generous .tender-
ness of Shelley, while evoking the very natural and allowable
laughter of Byron, fell to dust at once for ever on the appearance
of Lord Houghton's biography, which gave perfect proof to all
time that " men have died and worms have eaten them " but
not for fear of critics or through suffering inflicted by reviews.
Somewhat too sensually sensitive Keats may have been in either
capacity, but the nature of the man was as far as was the quality
of the poet above thd pitiful level of a creature whose soul could
" let itself be snuffed out by an article M ; and, in fact, owing
doubtless to the accident of a death which followed so fast on
his early appearance and his dubious reception as a poet, the
insolence and injustice of his reviewers in general have been com-
paratively and even considerably exaggerated. Except from
the chief fountain-head of professional ribaldry then open in the
world of literary journalism, no reek of personal insult arose to
offend his nostrils; and the tactics of such unwashed malignanU
were inevitably suicidal; the references to hhv brief experiment
of apprenticeship to a surgeon which are quoted from Biadtwod,
in the shorter as well as in the longer memoir by Lord Houghton*
could leave no bad odour behind them save what might hang
about men's yet briefer recollection of his assailant's nnmemor-
aWe existence. The false Keats, therefore, whom Shelley pitied
and Byron despised would have been, had he ever existed, a
thing beneath compassion or contempt. That such a man could
have had such a genius is almost evidently impossible; and yet
more evident is the proof which remains on everlasting record
that none was ever further from the chance of decline to such
degradation than the real and actual man who made that same
immortal. (A. C. S.)
Subjoined are the chief particulars of Keats's life*
He was the eldest son of Thomas Keats and his wife Frances
Jennings, and was baptized at St BotolpVs, Btshopsgate, on
the 18th of December 1705. The entry of his baptism is supple-
mented by a marginal note stating that he was born on the 31st
of October. Thomas Keats was employed in the Swan and
Hoop livery stables, Finsbury Pavement, London. He had
married his master's daughter, and managed the business on
the retirement of his father-in-law. In April 1804 Thomas
Keats was killed by a fall from his horse, and within a year of
this event Mrs Keats married William RawUags, a stable-
keeper. The/ marriage proved an unhappy one, and in 1606 Mrs
Rawlings, with her children John, George, Thomas and Frances
Mary (afterwards Mrs Llanos, d. 1869)! went to live at Edmonton
with her mother, who had inherited a considerable competence
from her husband. There is evidence that Keats's parents were
by no means of the commonplace type that might be hastily
inferred from these associations. They had desired to send their
sons to Harrow, but John Keats and his two brothers were even-
tually sent to a school kept by John Clarke at Enfield, where
he became intimate with his master's son, Charles Cowdcn
Clarke. His vivacity of temperament showed itself at school in
a love of fighting, but in the last year of his school life he
developed a great appetite for reading of all sorts. In i8ro he
left school to be apprenticed to Mr Thomas Hammond, a surgeon
in Edmonton. He was still within easy reach of his old school,
where he frequently borrowed books, especially the works of
Spenser and the Elizabethans. With Hammond he quarrelled
before the termination of his apprenticeship, and in 1814 the
connexion was broken by mutual consent. His mother had died
m. i8to r and in 18x4 Mrs Jennings. The children were left in the
care of two guardians, one of whom, Richard Abbey, seems to
have made himself solely responsible. John Keats went to
London to study at Guy's and St Thomas's hospitals, living at
first alone at 8 Dean Street, Borough, and later with two fellow
students in St Thomas's Street. It does not appear that he
neglected his medical studies, but his chief interest was turned to
poetry. In March 1 8x6 he became a dresser at Guy's, but about
the same time his poetic gifts were stimulated by an acquaintance
formed with Leigh Hunt. His friendship with Benjamin
Haydon, the painter, dates from later in the same year. Hunt
introduced him to Shelley, who showed the younger poet a
constant kindness. In 1816 Keats moved to the Poultry to be
with his brothers George and Tom, the former of whom was then
employed in his guardian's counting-house, but much of the
poet's time was spent at Leigh Hunt's cottage at Hampstcad.
In the winter of 1816-1817 he definitely abandoned medicine, and
in the spring appeared P&ems ky John Keats dedicated to Leigh
Hunt, and published by Charles and James Oilier. On the 14th
of April he left London to find quiet for work. He spent some
time at Shanklin, Isle of Wight, then at Margate and Canterbury,
where he was joined by his brother Tom. In the summer the
three brothers took lodgings in Well Walk, Hampstcad, where
Keats formed a fast friendship with Charles Went worth Dilkc and
Charles Armttagc Brown. In September of the same year ( 1 81 7)
he paid a visit to his friend, Benjamin Bailey, at Oxford, and in
November he finished Endymion at Bur ford Bridge, near Dorking.
His youngest brother had developed consumption, and hi March
John went to Tcignmouth to nurse him tn place of his brother
George, who had decided to sail for America with his newly
married wife, Georgf&na Wyliei In May (1818) Keats returned
to London, and soon after appeared Endymion: A Poetic
Romance (t8t 8), bearing on the title-page as motto ''The stretched
metre of an antique song.' 1 Late in June Keats and his friend
Armkage Brown started on ft walking tour in Scotland, vividly
described In the poet's letters. The fatigue and hardship
involved proved too great a strain for Keats, who was forbidden
by an Inverness doctor to continue his tour. He returned to
London by boat, arriving on the 18th of August. The autumn
was spent in constant attendance on Ms brother Tom, who died
at the beginning of December. There is no doubt that he
resented the attacks on him in Blackwood's Magannt (Augnst
1818), and the Quarterly Retiew (April r8i8, published only rn
September), but his chief preoccupations were elsewhere. After
his brother's death he went to live with his friend Brown. He
had already made the acquaintance of Fanny Brawne, a girl of
seventeen, who lived with her mother close by. For <her Keats
7ro
KEBLE
i
<
d
St
pv
OO
it*
the
ft*e
•fa
*ami
English essay tnd also for the Latin essay. But he was more
remarkable for the rare beauty of his character than even for
academic distinctions. Sir John Taylor Coleridge, his fellow
scholar at Corpus and his life-long friend, says of him, after their
friendship of five and fifty years had closed, " It was the singular
happiness of his nature, remarkable even in his undergraduate
days, that love for him was always sanctified by reverence —
reverence that did not make the love less tender, and love that
did but add intensity to the reverence. M Oriel College was, at
the time when Keble became a fellow, the centre of all the finest
ability in Oxford. Copleston, Davison, Whately, were among
the fellows who elected Keble; Arnold, Pusey, Newman, were
soon after added to the society. In 1815 Keble was ordained
deacon, and priest in 1816. His real bent and choice were
towards a pastoral cure in a country parish; but he remained ia
Oxford, acting first as a public examiner in the schools, then as a
tutor in Oriel, till 1823. In summer he sometimes took clerical
work, sometimes made tours on foot through various English
counties, during which he was composing poems, which after-
wards took their place in the Christian Year. He had a rare
power of attracting to himself the finest spirits, a power which
lay not so much in his ability or his genius as in his character, so
simple, so humble, so pure, so unworldly, yet wanting not that
severity which can stand by principle and maintain what he holds
to be the truth. In 1823 he returned to Fairford, there to assist his
father, and with his brother to serve one or two small and poorly
endowed curacies in the neighbourhood of Coin. He had made
a quiet but deep impression 00 all who came within his influence
in Oxford, and during his five years of college tutorship had won
the affection of his pupils. But it was to pastoral work, and not
to academic duty, that he thenceforth devoted himself, associ-
ating with it, and scarcely placing on a lower level, the affection-
ate discharge of his duties as a son and brother. Final piety
influenced in a quite unusual degree his feelings and his action all
life through. It was in 1827, a few years after he settled at
Fairford, that he published the Christian Year. The poems
which make up that book had been the silent gathering of yean.
Keble had purposed in his own mind to keep them beside him,
correcting and improving them, as long as he lived, and to Leave
them to be published only " when he was fairly out of the way."*
Thb resolution was at length overcome by the importunities of
his friends, and above all by the strong desire of his father to see
his son's poems in print before he died. Accordingly they were
printed in two small volumes in Oxford, and given to the world
in June 1827, but with no name 00 the title-pace. The book
continued to be published anonymously, but the name of the
author soon transpired.
Between 1827 and 1871 one hundred and fifty-eight editions
had issued from the press, and it has been largely reprinted since.
The author, so far from taking pride in his widespread reputation,
seemed all his life long to wish to disconnect bis name with the
book, and " as if he would rather it had been the work of some
one else than himself.** This feeling arose from no false modesty.
It was because he knew that in these poems he had painted his
own heart, the best part of it; and he doubted whether it was
right thus to exhibit himself, and by the revelation of only his
better self, to win the good opinion of the world.
Towards the dose of 1831 KebJe was elected to fill the chair
of the poetry professorship in Oxford, as successor to his friend
and admirer, Dean XI U man. This chair he occupied for tea
eventful years. He delivered a series of lectures, dothed in
excellent kite ma tic Latin (as was the rule), ia which he expounded
a theory of poetry which was original and suggestive. He footed
on poetry as a vent for overcharged feeling, or a full nman^na-
tioo. or some imaginative regret, whkh had not found their
natural outlet te Life and action. This suggested to him a dis-
tinction bet»e\m what he caTed prrntiry and secondary poets —
the nrst errpJoying poetry to reiieve thek own hearts, the second,
poetic artels* competing poetry from some other asd ksn im-
pulsive motive. Of the fcravr kind were Homer. LacreOus,
Burns, Scott; of the Utter were Euripides, Dryden, iLhic
This view was act forth m an ankle confrirwtcd an the &&sk
KECSKEMET— KEDGEREE
7«
Critic In 1S3& on the life of Scott, and was more fully developed
in two volumes of Praeicctiortes Academicae.
His regular visits to Oxford kept him in intercourse with his
old friends in Oriel common room, and made him familiar with
the currents of feeling which swayed the university. Catholic
emancipation and the Reform Bill bad deeply stirred, not only
the political spirit of Oxford, but also the church feeh'ng which
had long been Stagnant. Cardinal Newman writes, " On Sunday
July 14, 1833, Mr Kcble preached the assize sermon in the
University pulpit. It was published under the title of National
Apostasy; I have ever considered and kept the day as the start
of the religious movement of 1833." The occasion of this
sermon was the suppression, by Earl Grey's Reform ministry, of
ten Irish bishoprics. Against the spirit which would treat
the church as the mere creature of the state Kcble had long
chafed inwardly, and now he made his outward protest, asserting
the claim of the church to a heavenly origin and a divine preroga-
tive. About the same time, and partly stimulated by Kcblc's
sermon, some leading spirits in Oxford and elsewhere began a
concerted and systematic course of action to revive High Church
principles and the ancient patristic theology, and by these means
both to defend the church against the assaults of its enemies,
and also to raise to a higher tone the standard of Christian life
in England. This design embodied itself in the Tractarian
movement, a name it received from the famous Tracts for the
Times, which were the vehicle for promulgating the new doctrines.
If Keble is to be reckoned, as Newman would have it, as the
primary author of the movement, it was from Pusey that it
received one of its best known names, and in Newman that it
soon found its genuine leader. To the tracts Kcble made only
four contributions: — No. 4, containing an argument, In the
manner of Bishop Butler, to show that adherence to apostolical
succession is the safest course; No. 13, which explains the prin-
ciple on which the Sunday lessons in the church service are
selected; No. 40, on marriage with one who is unbapttaed; No. 89,
on the mysticism attributed to the early fathers of the church.
Besides these contributions from his own pen, he did much for
the series by suggesting subjects, by reviewing tracts written by
others, and by lending to their circulation the weight of his
personal influence.
In 1835 Keblc's father died at the age of ninety, and soon after
this his son married Miss Clarke, left Fairford, and settled at
Hursley vicarage in Hampshire, a living to which be had been
presented by his friend and attached pupil, Sir William Heath-
cotc, and which continued to be Keble's home and cure for the
remainder of his life.
In 1841 the tracts were brought to an abrupt termination by
the publication of Newman's tract No. 00. All the Protestantism
of England was in arms against the author of the obnoxious
tract Keble came forward at the time, desirous to share the
responsibility and the blame, if there was any; for he had seen
the tract before it was published, and approved it. The same
year in which burst this ecclesiastical storm saw the close of
Kcblc's tenure of the professorship of poetTy, and thenceforward
he was seen but rarely in Oxford. No other public event ever
affected Keble so deeply as the secession of Newman to the Church
of Rome in 1845. It was to him both a public and a private
sorrow, which nothing could repair. But he did not lose heart;
at once he threw himself into the double duty, which now
devolved on himself and Pusey, of counselling the many who
had hitherto followed the movement, and who, now in their per-
plexity, might be tempted to follow their leader's example, and
at the same time of maintaining the rights of the church against
what he held to be the encroachments of the state, as seen in
such acts as the Gorham judgment, and the decision on Essays
and Reviews. In all the ecclesiastical contests of the twenty
years which followed 1845, Keble took a part, not loud or obtru-
sive, but firm and resolute, in maintaining those High Anglican
principles with which his life had been identified. These absorb-
ing duties, added to his parochial work, left little time for
literature. But in 1846 he published the Lyra Innocentiunt;
and in 1863 he completed a life of Bishop Wilson.
In the late autumn of the latter year, Keble left Hursley for
the sake of his wife's health, and sought the milder climate of
Bournemouth. There be had an attack of paralysis, from which
he died on the 29th of March 1866. He was buried in his own
churchyard at Hursley; and in little more than a month his
wife was laid by her husband's side.
Keble also published A Metrical Version of the Psalter (1839),
Lyra Innocent rum (1846), and a volume of poems was published post-
humously. But it is by the Christian Year that he won the car of
the religious world. It was a happy thought that dictated the plan
of the book, to furnish a meditative religious lyric for each Sunday of
the year, and for each saint's day and festival of the English Church.
The subject of each poem is generally suggested by some part of the
lessons or the gospel or the epistle for the day. One thing which
gives these poems their strangely unique power is the sentiment to
which they appeal, and the saintly character of j.he poet who makes
the appeal, illumining more or less every poem.
The intimacy with the Bible which is manifest in the pages of
the Christian Year-, and the unobtrusive felicity with which Biblical
sentiments and language arc introduced have done much to endear
these poems to all Bible readers. " The exactness of the descrip-
tions ofvPalestinc. which Keble had never visited, have been noted,
and verified on the spot," by Dean Stanley. He points to features
of the lake of Gcnncsareth, which were first touched in the Chris-
tian year; and he observes that throughout the book " the Biblical
scenery is treated graphically as real scenery, and the Biblical history
and poetry as real history and poetry."
As to its style, the Christian Year is calm and grave in tone, and
subdued in colour, as beseems its subjects and sentiments. Tlie
contemporary poets whom Kcble most admired were Scott, Words-
worth and Sou they; and of their influence traces are visible in his
diction. Yet he has a style of language and a cadence of his own,
which steal into the heart with strangely soothing power. Some of
the poems are faultless, after their kind, flowing from the first stage
to the last, lucid in thought, vivid in diction, harmonious in then*
pensive melody. In others there arc imperfections in rhythm,
conventionalities of language, obscurities or over-subtleties of
thought, which mar the ( reader's enjoyment.^ Yet even the most
dc* "' '"" *■
so
•y
Li
(I
Bi
St
vc
(1
KECSKEMET, a town of Hungary, in the county of Pest-
Pilis-Solt-Kiskun, 65 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop.
(1000), 56,786. Kecskemet is a poorly built and straggling town,
situated in the extensive Kecskemet plain. It contains monas-
teries belonging to the Piarist and Franciscan orders, a Catholic
(founded in 1714), a Calvinistic and a Lutheran school. The
manufacture of soap and leather are the principal industries.
Besides the raising of cereals, fruit is extensively cultivated in
the surrounding district; its apples and apricots are largely
exported, large quantities of wine are produced, and cattle-
rearing constitutes another great source of revenue. Kecskemet
was the birthplace of the Hungarian dramatist Jozsef Katona
(1792-1830), author of the historical drama, Bdnk-Bdn
(181 5).
KBDDAH (from Hindu Kkedno, to chase), the term used
in India for the enclosure constructed to entrap elephants.
In Ceylon the word employed in the same meaning is corral.
KEDGEREE (Hindostani, kkickri), an Indian dish, composed
of boiled rice and various highly-flavoured ingredients. Kedgeree
is of two kinds, white and yellow. The white Is made with
grain, onions, ghee (clarified butter), cloves, pepper and salt.
Yellow kedgeree includes eggs, and is coloured by turmeric.
Kedgeree is a favourite and universal dish in India, among the
poorer classes it is frequently made of rice and pulse only, or
rice and beans. In European cookery kedgeree is a similar dish
usually made with fish.
7T2
KEBL— KEENE, C. S.
KEEL, the bottom timber or combination of plates of a ship
or boat, extending longitudinally from bow to stern, and sup-
porting the framework (see Ship-building). The origin of the
word has been obscured by confusion of two words, the Old
Norwegian kjoU (cf. Swedish kol) and a Dutch and German kid.
The first had the meaning of the English " keel," the other of
ship, boat. The modern usage in Dutch and German has
approximated to the English. The word kid is represented in
old English by Uol t a word applied to the long war galleys of
the Vikings, in whkh sense " keel " or " keele " is still used by
archaeologists. On the Tyne " keel n is the name given to a
flat- bolt omed vessel used to carry coals to the colliers. There
is another word " keel, " meaning to cool, familiar in Shakespea r e
(Love's Labour Lost, v. ii. 930), " while greasy Joan doth keel
the pot," Lt. prevents a pot from boiling over by pouring in
cold water, &c, stirring or skimming. This is from the Old
English ctian, to cool, a common Teutonic word, cf. German
kiildcn.
KEELET, MARY ANNE (1806-1899), English actress, was born
at Ipswich on the 22nd of November 1805 or 1806. Her maiden
name was Coward, her father being a brazier and tinman. After
some experience in the provinces, she first appeared on the stage
in London on the 2nd of July 1825, in the opera Rosina. It was
not long before she gave up " singing parts " in favour of the
drama proper, where her powers of character-acting could have
scope. In June 1829 she married Robert Keeley (179371869),
an admirable comedian, with whom she had often appeared.
Between 1832 and 1842 they acted at Covent Garden, at the
Adclphi with Buckstone, at the Olympic with Charles Mathews,
and at Drury Lane with Macready. In 1836 they visited America.
In 1838 she made her first great success as Nydia, the blind girl,
in a dramatized version of Bulwer Lytton's The Last Days of
Pomheii, and followed this with an equally striking impersona-
tion of Smike in Nicholas Nickleby. In 1839 came her decisive
triumph with her picturesque and spirited acting as the hero of a
play founded upon Harrison Ainsworth's Jack SkcppanL So
dangerous was considered the popularity of the play, with its
glorification of the prison-breaking felon, that the lord chamber-
lain ultimately forbade the performance of any piece upon the
subject. It is perhaps mainly as Jack Sheppard that Mrs Keeley
lived in the memory of playgoers, despite her long subsequent
career in plays more worthy of her remarkable ©its. Under
Macready's management she played Nerissa in The Merchant
of Venice, and Audrey in As You Like It, She managed the
Lyceum with her husband from 1844 to 1847; acted with Webster
and Kean at the Haymarket; returned for five years to the
Adelphi; and made her last regular pontic appearance at the
Lyceum in 1850. A public reception was given her at this
theatre on her 90th birthday. She died on the 12th of March
1809.
See Walter Goodman, The Ketkys — Ike Stags ami of (London,
1*95).
KEEUHG ISLANDS (often called Cocos and Cooos-Kkeung
Islands), a group of coral islands in the Indian Ocean, between
ii* 4' and is 9 13' S^ and 06° 49 / -57 / E., but including a smaller
eland in ii° so' N. and 06*50' E. The group furnished Charles
Darwin with the typical example of an atoll or lagoon island.
There are altogether twenty-three small islands, oj m. being the
greatest width of the whole alolL The lagoon is very shallow
and the passages between many of the islands are fordable on
tool. An opening on the northern side of the neef permits the
eatraace of vessels into the northern part of the lagoon, which
K -as a good harbour known as Port Refuge or Port Albion. The
o.vo-aut v as the name Cocos Islands indicates) is the character-
«^*r prtniuct and is cultivated on all the islands. The flora is
*** v x ta species. One of the commonest living creatures is a
«»*•«* innwS ctab whkh lives on the coco-nuts; and in some places
*m^V<* e*e great cotonies of the poineffai^e crab. The group
» ^ *v*x4 ^v D» H. O. Forbesin 1S78, and later, at the expense
^ vt v »* Va ?ta> . by Dr Guppy, Mr Ridley and Dr Andrews.
t-s v*x\* *>«* ^ ©its was the investigation of the fauna and
... v j. -•»:. »*<* csficoally of the form***"* of the coral
reefs. Dr Guppy was fortunate m reaching North Keefing Island,
where a landing is only possible during the calmest weather.
The island he found to be about a mile long, with a shallow
enclosed lagoon, less than 3 ft. deep at ordinary low water, with
a single opening on its east or weather side. A dense vegetation
of iron-wood (Cordia) and other trees and shrubs, together with
a forest of coco-nut palms, covers its surface. It is tenanted by
myriads of sea-fowl, frigate-birds, boobies, and terns (Cjfis
camdida), which find here an excellent nesting-place, for the
island is uninhabited, and is visited only once or twice a year.
The excrement from this large colony haschanged the carbonate
of lime in the soil and the coral nodules on the surface into
phosphates, to the extent in some cases of 60-70%, thus forming
a valuable deposit, beneficial to the vegetation of the island
itself and promising commercial value. The lagoon is slowly
filling up and becoming cultivable land, but the rate of re co v er y
from the sea has been specially marked since the eruption of
Krakatoa, the pumice from whkh was washed on to it it
enormous quantity, so that the lagoon advanced its shores
from 20 to 30 yards. Forbes's and Guppy's investigations go
to show that, contrary to Darwin's belief, there is no evidence
of upheaval or of subsidence in either of the Keeling groups.
The atoll has an exceedingly healthy climate, and might wefl
be used as a sanatorium for phthisical patients, the temperature
never reaching extremes. The highest annual reading of the
thermometer hardly ever exceeds 89° F. or falls beneath 70*.
The mean temperature for the year is 78-5° F., and as the rainfall
rarely exceeds 40 in. the atmosphere never becomes unpleasantly
moist. The south-east trade blows almost ceaselessly for ten
months of the year. Terrific storms sometimes break over the
island; and it has been more than once visited by earthquakes.
A profitable trade is done in coco-nuts, but there are few other
exports. The imports are almost entirely foodstuffs and other
necessaries for the inhabitants, who form a ratriarrrul colony
under a private proprietor.
The islands were discovered in 1609 by Captain William Keeling
on his voyage from Batavia to the Cape. In 1823 Alexander
Hare, an English adventurer, settled on the southernmost island
with a number of slaves. Some two or three years after, a
Scotchman, J. Ross, who had commanded a brig during the
KngltfKftffiipatiftnnf Jav^srtth»d wilhhktamfly (yhornjitiriTvd
in the ownership) on Direction Island, and bis little colony
was soon strengthened by Hare's runaway slaves. Tbe Lhach
Government had in an informal way claimed the possession of the
islands since 1829; but they refused to allow Ross to hoist the
Dutch flag, and accordingly the group was taken under British
protection in 1856. In 187S it was attached to the gorerrxmcat
of Ceylon, and in 1882 placed under the authority of the governor
of the Straits Settlements. The ownership and superic tendency
continued in the Ross family, of whom George dunies Ross
died in 1910, and was succeeded by his son Sydney.
See C Darwin, Journal cf the Yoyam of the" Bcajfcv" and Gcoio-
cat Observations on Corel Keels; also Henry O. Forbes, A Aata
'cndcrinis in the Eastern Atxkijtcia&o (London, 1 884) ; H. B. <
neat Observations on Coral Kerfs ; also Henry O. Forbes, A KnimraUsfs
Wcndcrinis in the EcsUm Archipelago (London, 1884) ; H. B. Gappy.
ThcCocos-KccKng Islands," Scottish Geographical Magashtt (v^oL r«.
1889).
KEEL-MOULDING, in architecture, a round on which there is
a small fillet, somewhat like the keel of a ship. It is common in
the Early English and Decorated styles.
KEEHB, CHARLES SAMUEL (1813-1891), English black-and-
white artist, the son of Samuel Browne Keenc, a solicitor, was
born at Hornsey on the ioth of August 1S23. Educated at the
Ipswich Grammar School until bis sixteenth year, he eari> showed
artistic leanings, Two years after the death of his father be was
articled to a London solicitor, but, the occupation proving urcon-
genial, he was removed to the oface of an architect, Mr Ffl*ic£-
ton. His spare time was now spent in drawing historical axxl
nautical subjects in water-colour. For these 1 rifles his mother,
to whose energy and common sense he was greatly indebted, soon
found a purchaser, through whom he was brought to the notice
of the Whympers, the wood-engravers. This led to his beanf
bound to them as apprtnik* for iveycirs. His earliest knows
KJEENE, X.— KEEP
7^3
design is the fror*Jspieos, signed " Cha*. Kesne," to Tha Aiom-
lures of Dick BoUhero in Starch of kit Uncle, &c. (Dartea ft Co.,
194a). His term of apprenticeship oyer, he hired «s studio an
attic in the block of buildingB standing, up to 1900, between the
Strand and Holywell Street, and was soon hard at work lor the
Illustrated London Sews, At this time he was a member of the
" Artists' Society " in Clipstone Street, afterwards removed to the
Langham studios. In December 1851 he made his first appear*
ance in Punch and, after nine years of steady work, was called
to a seat at the famous table* It was during this period of pro-
bation that he first gave evidence of those transcendent qualities
which make his work at once the joy and despair of his brother
craftsmen. On the starting of Once a Week, in 1850, Keene's
services were requisitioned, his most notable series in this
periodical being the. illustrations to Charles Reade's A Good
Fight (afterwards rechristened The Cloister and Ike Hearth) and to
George Meredith's Eton Harrington. There is a quality of conven-
tionality in the earlier of these which completely disappears in
the later. In 1858 Keene, who was endowed with a fine voice
and was an enthusiastic admirer of old-fashioned music, joined
the " Jermyn Band/' afterwards better known as the " Moray
Minstrels." He was abo for many years a member of Leslie's
Choir, the Sacred Harmonic Society, the Catch, Glee and Canon
Club, and the Bach Choir. He was also an industrious performer
on the bagpipes, of which instrument he brought together a con-
siderable collection of specimens. About 1863 the Arts Club in
Hanover Square was started, with Keene as one of the original
members. In 1864 John Leech died, and Keene's work in Punch
thenceforward found wider opportunities. It was about this time
that the greatest of all modern artistsoi hisclass,Menzet f discovered
Keene's existence, and became a subscriber to Punch solely for
the sake of enjoying week by week the work of his brother crafts-
man. In 187a Keene, who, though fully possessed of the humor-
ous sense, was not within measurable distance of Leech as a jester,
and whose drawings were consequently not sufficiently " funny "
to appeal to the laughter-loving public, was fortunate enough
to make the acquaintance of Mr Joseph Crawhall, who had been
in the habit for many years of jotting down any humorous
incidents he might hear of or observe, illustrating them at leisure
for his own amusement. These were placed unreservedly at
Keene's disposal, and to their inspiration we owe at least 250 of
his most successful drawings in the last twenty years of his con-
nexion with Punch. A list of more than 200 of these subjects is
given at the end of The Life and Letters of Charles Keene of
" Punch." In 1879 Keene removed to 339 King's Road, Chelsea,
which he occupied until his last illness, walking daily to and from
his house, it a Hammersmith Road. In 1881 a volume of his
Punch drawings was published by Messrs Bradbury & Agnew,
with the title Our People. In 1883 Keene, who had hitherto been
a strong man, developed symptoms of dyspepsia and rheumatism.
By 1889 these had increased to an alarming degree, and the last
two years of his rife were passed in acute suffering borne with the
greatest courage. He died unmarried, after a singularly un-
eventful life, on the 4th of January 1891, and his body lies in
Hammersmith cemetery.
Keene, who never had any regular art training, was essentially
an artists' artist. He holds the foremost place amongst English
craftsmen in black and white, though his work has never been appre-
ciated at its real value by the general public. No doubt the main
reason for this lack of public recognition was his unconventionality.
He drew his models exactly as he saw them, not as he knew the world
wanted to see them. He found enough beanty and romance in all
that was around him, and, in his Punch work, enough subtle humour
in nature seized at her most humorous moments to satisfy him. He
never required his models to grin through a horse collar, as Gillray
did, or to put on their company manners, as was du Manner's wont.
But Keene was not only a brilliant worker in pen and ink. As an
etcher he has also to be reckoned with, notwithstanding the fact that
his plates numbered not more than fifty at the outside. Impres-
sions of them arc exceedingly rare, and hardly half a dozen of the
plates are now known to be in existence. He himself regarded them
only as experiments in a difficult but fascinating medium. But
in the opinion of the expert they suffice to place him among the best
etchers of the 19th century. Apart from the etched frontispieces
to some of the Punch pocket-books, only three, and these by no
LAURA (e. 1870-1873), Anglo-American actress
and manager, whose real name was Mary Moss, was born in
England. In 1851, in London, she was playing Pauline in The
Lady of Lyons. She made her first appearance in New York
on the 20th of September 1852, on her way to Australia. She
returned in 1855 and till 1863 managed Laura Keene's theatre,
in which was produced, in 1858, Our American Cousin. It was
her company that was playing at Ford's theatre, Washington,
on the night of Lincoln's assassination. Miss Keene was a
successful melodramatic actress, and an admirable manager.
She died at Montckrr, New Jersey, on the 4th of November
1873.
See John Creahan's Life of Laura Keene (1897).
KEENS, a city and the county-seat of Cheshire county, New
Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Ashuelot river, about 45 m. S.W. of
Concord, N.H., and about 92 m. W.N.W. of Boston. Pop.
(1900), 9165, of whom 1255 were foreign-born; (1910 census),
1 0,068. Area, 36-5 sq. m. It is served by the Boston &
Maine railroad and by the Fitchburg railroad (leased by the
Boston & Maine). The site is level, but is surrounded by
ranges of lofty hills— Monad nock Mountain is about xo m. S.E.
Most of the streets are pleasantly shaded. There are three
parks, with a total area of about 219 acres; and in Central
Square stands a soldiers' and sailors' monument designed by
Martin Milmore and erected in 187 1. The principal buildings
are the city hall, the county buildings and the city hospital.
The Public Library had in 1908 about 16,300 volumes. There
are repair shops of the Boston k Maine railroad here, and
manufactures of boots and shoes, woollen goods, furniture
(especially chairs), pottery, &c The value of the factory,
product in 1905 was $2,690,967. The site of Keene was -one of
the Massachusetts grants made in 1733, but Canadian Indians
made it untenable and it was abandoned from 1746 until 1750.
In 1753 it was incorporated and was named Keene, in honour
of Sir Benjamin Keene (1697-1757), the English diplomatist,
who as agent for the South Sea Company and Minister in
Madrid, and as responsible for the commerical treaty between
England and Spain in 1750, was in high reputation at the time*
it was chartered as a city in 1874.
KEEP, ROBERT PORTER (1 844-1904), American scholar,
was born in Farmington, Connecticut, on the 26th of April 1844.
He graduated at Yale in 1865, was instructor there for two
years, was United States consul at the Piraeus in Greece in
1869-1871, taught Greek in Williston Seminary, Easthampton,
Massachusetts, in 1876-1885, and was principal of Norwich Free
Academy, Norwich, Conn., from 1885 to 1903, the school
owing its prosperity to him hardly less than to its founders. In
1903 he took charge of Miss Porter's school for girls at Farming-
ton, Conn., founded in 1844 an <J long controlled by his aunt,
Sarah Porter. He died in Farmington on the 3rd of June
1904.
KEEP (corresponding to the French donjon), in architecture
the inmost and strongest part of a medieval castle, answering
to the citadel of modern times. The arrangement is said to
have originated with Gundulf, bishop of Rochester (d. 1108),
architect of the White Tower. The Norman keep is generally
a very massive square tower. There is generally a well in a
medieval keep, ingeniously concealed in the thickness of a wall
or in a pillar. The most celebrated keeps of Norman times in
England are the White Tower in London, those at Rochester
7«4
KEEWATIN— KEI ISLANDS
Arundel and Newcastle, Cattle Hedlngham, Ac. When the
kcfp was circular, at at Conisborough and Windsor, it was
called * " sbdl-keep " (see CasaE). The verb •• to keep,"
from which the noun with iu particular meaning here treated
was formed, appears In O.E. u cipan, of which the deriva-
tion It unknown, no words related to it are found in cognate
language*. The earliest meaning (c. iooo) appears to have
been to lay hold of, to seise, from which its common uses of
to guard, observe, retain possession of, have developed.
KBEWAT1N. a district of Canada, bounded E. by Committee
Bay* F° x Channel, and Hudson and James bays, S. and S.W. by
the Albany and English rivers, Manitoba, Lake Winnipeg, and
Nelson river, W. by the tooth meridian, and N. by Simpson and
JUc straits and gulf and peninsula of Boothia; thus including
an area of 445,000 so. m. Its surface is In general barren and
rmky, studded with innumerable lakes with intervening eleva-
tions, forest-clad below 60* N , but usually bare or covered
w ith moss or lichens, forming the so-called " barren lands " of
the north. With the exception of a strip of Silurian and
tVvonian rocks, 40 to So m. wide, extending from the vicinity of
the Severn river to the Churchill, and several isolated areas of
Cambrian anil lluronlan, the district is occupied byLaurentian
fsv kft The principal river is the Nelson, which, with iu great
tutmtarv, the Saskatchewan, is uso m. long; other tributaries
*»y the rWrcns, KnglUh, Winnipeg, Red and Assiniboine. The
lUve*, Severn and Wintsk also flow from the south-west into
)*,n<*'* rU\\ and the Kkwan, Attawapiskat and Albany, 500 m.
v*«tf into James Bay. Yhe Churchill, gas m., Thlewliaza,
Vsr** **" rYrjuson rivers discharge into Hudson Bay on the
%s ^. «•>**, the KA»an, 500 m.. and Dubawnt, 660 m., into
,>v»v^<M Into; and Backs river, rising near Aylmer Lake,
* ^.s k* 1 h «*»l * at\h $00 nv to the Arct ic Ocean. The principal
*^* %v Si h*«et^h and Seul on the southern boundary; north-
.„ ^5 W X *W Winnipeg, 710 fl. above the sea, Island;
Ci*.* >****> t^awnev. Nuchin; Yalhkycd, at an altitude
» ,v * >&*gww» Kaminuriak, Baker, 30 fl., Aberdeen,
» w— \U^\x The principal islands are Southampton,
" ^» ■-•--» ^- usual wintering place
k Islands, in Hudson
, of the Hudson Bay
• of the white popula-
t ChurchiH and Nelson
e for the district as a
1 are Norway House,
d House, on the lake
nouth of Hayes river;
mouths of the Severn
iqo$ the district of
st Territories and the
acting governor. TV
ihe - aocth wind."
\ a town of Tunisia,
i 75 m. S£. of Bona
oeaan ooSoot of Sicca
of a rock ia a v>rcn-
cIVer-je, an aftorat of
a of grain rootes from
a of strategic iacjwt-
tW Algerian fcvimct
rafii and c.tadd mere
s TV tcwa w«h »:s
streets* s ssS pant?
I Vas K^werer bcr\
fejk* « fccing V* **
CNyri » the rr«v->
*j* a upcVt ewr*rscr
V
arf %
remain, but are empty, being used as part of the barracks. TV
town is however supplied by water from the same spring which
filled the cisterns. The Christian cemetery is on the site of a
basilica. There are ruins of another Christian basilica, excavated
by the French, the apse being intact and the nartbex serving as a
church. Many stones with Roman inscriptions are built into
the walls of Arab houses. The modern town is much smaller
than the Roman colony. Pop. about 6000, including about
too Europeans (chiefly Maltese).
The Roman colony of Sicca Veneria appears from the character
of iu worshipof Venue (Val. Max. ii. 6,| 15) to have been a Phoe ni c ia n
settlement. It was afterwards a Nuraidian stronghold, and under
the Caesars became a fashionable residential city and one of the
chief centres of Christianity in North Africa. The Christian apolo-
gist Amobius the Elder lived here
See H. Barth. Du Kistenldnder des Milldmueres (1840); Cmfut
Inscrtpt. Lot., vol viii. ; Sombrun in Bull, delasoc de gtog. dtBordmmx
(1878). Also Cardinal Newman's Callista: a Skeicl tf the Third
Century (1856), for a " reconstruction " of the manner of life of the
early Christians and their oppressors,
KEHL, a town in the grand-duchy of Baden, on the right bank
of the Rhine, opposite Strassburg, with which it is connected
by a railway bridge and a bridge of boats. Pop. 4000. It has
a considerable river trade in timber, tobacco and coal, which has
been developed by the formation of a harbour with two basins.
The chief importance of Kehl is its connexion with the military
defence of Strassburg, to the strategic area of which it belongs It
is encircled by the strong forts Bote, Blumenthal and Kirchbncfc
of that system. In 1678 Kehl was taken from the imperialists by
the French, and in 1683 a new fortress, built by Vaubon, was
begun. In 1697 it was restored to the Empire and was given to
Baden, but in 1703 and again in 1733 » l was taken by the French,
who did not however retain it for very long. In 1703 the French
again took the town, which was retaken by the Anstrisns and
was restored to Baden in 1803. In 1808 the French, again in
possession, restored the fortifications, bat these were dismantled
in 1815, when Kehl was again restored to Baden. In Angnst
1870, during the Franco-German War, Use French shelled the
defenceless town.
KHQHLET (locally Ketthley), a aoankipal limiingh in
the Keighley parliamentary division of Use West Riding «f
Yorkshire, England, 17 m. W.N.W. of Leeds, on branches of
the Great Northern and Midland railways.
It is beautifully situated ia a deep valley 1
t V Worth with the Aire. A canal betwea
affords it water communication with both 1
The principal buildings are the parish chnrch of St
(dating from the lime of Henry L ? aw win w a r d in 17*0* 1
with the erceplion of the tower in 1805. and i
iS;S), and the handsome Gothic
technical school (1S70). A grammar
1713, the operations of which have
embrace a trade school (iS;i) for boys, and a j
for girls. The principal industries are mainsTirmii of '
goods, spinning, sewing and mashing 1
town was incorporated in 1S&2, and the <
of a mavor. © ahfermen and iS coodSocs.
KB iSLUTOS \Kt, Key, KM, Ac; native. £am§i a <
in the Dctch East Indaes. in the residency of Assaowna. baa n ajj
5* and 1? 5' 5v awi 151* 50* and ijj* if E, and * »— -^ "g, rf
foer rtsrtv N *>•!?: or Great KeL. Roa or Link swej, the
Tayaasia, ani ;be La grasp. Gseai Kes dsfiers ]
cverr rofcvt from rhe echer geenmv It is of Te
tW* s \Ix«c«eir^ and has a cfeaa of 1
atdk rr*cK=g a hr^ia of ?*oc fL bi
t*c*i Usi a?ea oc iSr irosp be.ag 57a so. m> A& aw *dum*
c4andsatear nns-Temftnr inrma^n an^ «i ar^ svince. TW
frr«ccr Ins «uSnorme crmnrrwir. smder re*x=«velr snwmwnr sen.
%"V ;W T^Bw-txis jrnc tc ine sroch-west and the chah ni
c«*as^h ecriva nj: avr.t^«ea >aiajdi- Cessnv; dham wnmnr
1 «tm«raees c on :he ens f-am dae An aabmds ami em ^ went
Pop. (1901K 41,914.
the jmvtaam of
i Li vu pool and Hsi
KEIM— KEITH
7»5
tn4 tobacco. The population is about 13,000, off whom 14*900
arc pagans, and 8300 Mahommedans.
The inhabitant* are of three types. There is the true Kei
Islander, a Polynesian by his height and black or brown wavy
hair, with a complexion between the Papuan black and the
Malay yellow. There is the pure Papuan, who has been largely
merged in the Kei type. Thirdly, there are the immigrant
Malays. These (distinguished by the use of a special language
and by the profession of Mohammedanism) are descendants of
natives of the Banda islands who fled eastward before the
encroachments of the Dutch. The pagans have rude statues of
deities and places of sacrifice indicated by flat-topped cairns. The
Kei Islanders are skilful in carving and celebrated boat-builders.
See C. M. Kan. " Onze gcographiache kennis der Keij-Eilanden,"
tn Ttjdsckrift Aordrijkskundig Cenootschap (1887): Martin, "Die
Kei-inseln u. ihr Verhsltniss zur Australisch-Asiatiscnen Gremlinfe."
Ibid, part vii. {1890); W. R. van HoeVtll, " De Kei-EUanden," in
Tijdsckr. Balaman. Gen, (1889) ; " Veralagenvande wetenachappeUjke
opoeroingen en onderzoekingen op de Keij-Eilanden " (1889-1890),
by Planten and Wcrtheim (1891), with map and ethnographical atlas
of the south-western and south-eastern islands by Pfeyte; Langen,
Die Key- oder Kii-Inseln (Vienna, 1903).
KEIM, KARL THEODOR (1825-1878), German Protestant
theologian, was born at Stuttgart on the 17th of December 182$.
His father, Johann Christian Keim, was headmaster of a gym-
nasium. Here Karl Theodor received his early education, and
then proceeded to the Stuttgart Obergymnaslum. In 1843 he
went to the university of Ttlbingen, where he studied philosophy
under J. P. Reiff, a follower of Hegel, and Oriental languages
under Heinrich Ewald and Heinrich Meier. F. C. Baur, the
leader of the new Tubingen school, was lecturing on the New
Testament and on the history of the church and of dogma, and
by him in particular Keim was greatly impressed. The special
bent of Keim's mind is seen in his prize essay, Ver/Utltniss der
Christen in den ersten drei Jahrhunderten bis Konstantm turn
rdmischen Reiche (1847). His first published work was Die
Reformation der Reiehstadt Ulm (1851). In 1850 he visited the
university of Bonn, where he attended some of the lectures of
Friedrich Bleek, Richard Rothe, C. M. Arndt and Isaak Dorner.
He taught at Tubingen from June 1851 until 1856, when, having
become a pastor, he was made deacon at Essfingen, Wttrttcmberg.
In 1850 he was appointed archdeacon; but a few months later
he was called to the university of Zurich as professor of theology
{1850-1873), where he produced his important works. Before
this he had mritten on church history (e.g. Schwttbische Refor-
mationsgesekkhie bis sum Augsburger Reichstag, 1855). His
Inaugural address at Zurich on the human development of Jesus,
Die mensehHche, Entwiehiung Jesu CkrisH (1861), and his Die
fesekitktliehe WUrde Jesu (1864) were preparatory to his chief
work, Die Getckichte Jesu ten Nasaro in threr Verhettung mil dtm
Gesomtieben seines Vothes (3 vols., 1867-1872; Eng. trans., Jesus
#/ Natareth, and the National Life of Israel, 6 vols.), 1873-1882.
In 1873 Keim was appointed professor of theology at Giessen.
This post he resigned, through ill-health, shortly before his
death on the 17th of November 1878. He belonged to the
" mediation " school of theology.
Chief works, besides the above; Reformation sotdtUr der'Reiths-
fiadt Esslingen ( 1 860) ; Amkrosius Biarer, der Sckwabiuhe Reformaior
(i860); Der Ubertrilt Ktmstantins <L Cr sum Ckrutenthum (1862):
his sermons, Preundesworte sur Gemeinde (2 vols., 1861- 1862); and
Cdsus* wearer Wert (1873). I" «88i H. Ziegler published one of
Kefaa's earliest works, Rom unddas Ckrislentknm, with a biographical
sketch. See also ZsegJer's article in Herzog-Hauck, RenleneyUepadie.
KEITH, the name of an old Scottish family which derived
Its name from the barony of Keith in East Lothian, said to have
been granted by Malcolm IX, king of Scotland, to a member
of the house for services against the Danes. The office of
great marishal of Scotland, afterwards hereditary in the Keith
family, may have been conferred at .the same time; for ft was
confirmed, together with possession of the lands of Keith, to
Sir Robert Kekh by a charter of King Robert Bruce, and
appears to have been held as annexed to the land by the tenure
of grand serjeanty. Sir Robert Keith commanded the Scottish
Horse at Bannockburn, and was fettled at the battle of Neville's
Cross in 1346. At the close of the 14th century Sir William
Keith, by exchange of lands with Lord Lindsay, obtained the
crag of Dunnottar in Kincardineshire, where he built the castle
of Dunnottar, which became the stronghold of his descendants.
He died about 1407. In 1430 a later Sir William Keith was
created Lord Keith, and a few years afterwards earl marishal,
and these titles remained in the family till 1716. William,
fourth earl marishal (d. 1581), was one of the guardians of Mary
queen of Scots during her minority, end was a member of ber
privy council on her return to Scotland. While refraining
from extreme partisanship, be was an adherent of the Refor-
mation; be retired into private life at Dunnottar Castle about
1567, thereby gaining the sobriquet " William of the Tower. 1 '
He was reputed to be the wealthiest man in Scotland His
eldest daughter Anne married the regent Murray. His grand-
son George, 5th earl marishal (c 1553-1623), was one of the most
cultured men of his time. He was educated at King's College,
Aberdeen, where he became a proficient classical scholar, after-
wards studying divinity under Theodore Beza-at Geneva. He
was a firm Protestant, and took an active part in the affairs of
the kirk. His high character and abilities procured him the
appointment of special ambassador to Denmark to arrange the
marriage of James VI. with the Princess Anne. He was sub-
sequently employed oh a number of important commissions;
but he preferred literature to public affairs, and about 1620 he
retired to Dunnottar, where he died in 1623. He is chiefly
remembered as the founder in 1593 of the Marischal College in
the university of Aberdeen, which he richly endowed. From an
uncle he inherited the title of Lord Altric about 1590. William,
7th earl marishal (c. 1617-1661), took a prominent part in the
Civil War, being at first a leader of the covenanting party in
north-east Scotland, and the most powerful opponent of the
marquess of Huntly. He co-operated with Montrose in Aber-
deenshire and neighbouring counties against the Gordons. With
Montrose he signed the Bond of Cumbernauld in August 1640,
but took no active steps against the popular party till 1648,
when be joined the duke of Hamilton in his invasion of England,
escaping from the rout at Preston. In 1650 Charles II. was
entertained by the marishal at Dunnottar; and in 1651 the
Scottish regalia were left for safe keeping in his castle. Taken
prisoner in the same year, be was committed to the Tower and
was excluded from Cromwell's Act of Grace. He was made a
privy councillor at the Restoration and died in 1661. Sir John
Keith (d. 1714)1 brother of the 7th earl marishal, was, at the
Restoration, given the hereditary office of knight marishal of
Scotland, and in 1677 was created earl of Kintore, and Lord
Keith of Inverurie and Keith-Hall, a reward for his share in
preserving the regalia of Scotland, which were secretly conveyed
from Dunnottar to another hiding-place, when the castle was
.besieged by Cromwell's troops, and which Sir John, perilously
to himself, swore he had carried abroad and delivered to
Charles II., thus preventing further search. From him are
descended the earls of Kintore.
George, 10th earl marishal (c. 1693-1778), served under Marl*
borough, and like his brother Francis, Marshal Keith (q.v.), was a
zealous Jacobite, taking part in the rising of 171 5, after which
he escaped to the continent. In the following year he was
attainted, his estates and titles being forfeited to the Crown. He
lived for many years In Spain, where he concerned himself with
Jacobite intrigues, but be took no part in the rebellion of 1745,
proceeding about that year to Prussia, where he became, like
his brother, intimate with Frederick the Great. Frederick
employed him in several diplomatic posts, and be Is said to have
conveyed valuable information to the earl of Chatham, as a
reward for which he received a pardon from George II., and
returned to Scotland in 1759. His heir male, on whom, but for
the attainder of 1716, his titles would have devolved, was
apparently Ins cousin Alexander Keith of Ravelston, to whom
the attainted earl had sold the castle and lands of Dunnottar
in 1766. From Alexander Keith was descended, through the
female line, Sir Patrick Keith Murray of Ochtertyre, who sold
the estates of Dunnottar and Ravelston. After the attainder
^\
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KELLGREN— KILLS
7*9
Mlvdy senator (r8oo) f honorary marshal of Fnaee (1803),
■ uke of Valmy (iftoS). He was frequently employed in the
^^listrttion of the army, the control of the line of communi-
45, and the command of reserve troop*, and bis long and
" - experience made him one of Napoleon's most valuable
ants. In 18x4 he voted for the deposition of the emperor
became a peer under the royal government. After the
ndred Days " he sat in the Chamber of Peers and voted
the Liberals. He died at Paris on the 93rd of September
e J. G. P. de Salve, Fragments hisloriques tut MM mathhaldo
tmann (Paris. 1807), and De Botidoux, Esqnisse de la earrihre
oirodeF.C. Kelkrmaun, due de Valmy (Pans, 1817).
--""a_iiiim. Francois finsNNt de Killermann, duke of Valmy
0-1835), French cavalry general , was born at Met* and served
- a short time in his father's regiment of Hussars previous to
:ring the diplomatic service in 1791* *° »79J he again joined
_ army, serving chiefly under his father's command in the Alps;
. rising in 1796 to the rank of chef de brigade. In the latter
" t of Bonaparte's celebrated Italian campaign of 1796-97 the
inger Kellermann attracted the future emperor's notice by his
. liant conduct at the forcing of the Tagliamento. He was
de general of brigade at once, and continued In Italy after the
tee of Campo Formio, being employed successively in the
nies of Rome and Naples under Macdonald and Champkmnet.
the campaign of 1800 be commanded a cavalry brigade under
5 First Consul, and at Marengo (?.*.) he initiated and carried
t one of the most famous cavalry charges of history, which, with
•saix's infantry attack, regained the lost battle and decided the
,ue of the war. He was promoted general of division at once,
it as early as the evening of the battle he resented what he
lought to be an attempt to belittle his exploit. A heated con-
oversy followed as to the influence of Kellermann's charge on
ie course of the battle, and in this controversy he displayed
either tact nor forbearance. However, his merits were too
teat for his career to be ruined either by his conduct in the dispute
r by the frequent scandals, and even by the frauds, of his private
ife. Unlike his father's, his title to fame did not rest on one
ortunate opportunity. Though not the most famous, be was
perhaps the ablest of all Napoleon's cavalry leaders, and dis-
.inguisned himself at Austerlks (o.v.), m Portugal under Junot
"^(on this occasion as a skilful diplomatist), at the brilliant cavalry
combat of Tonnes (Nov. 28, 1809), and on many other
occasions in the Peninsular War. His rapacity was more than
ever notorious in Spain, yet Napoleon met ha unconvincing
excuses with the words, " General, whenever your name is
brought before me, I think of nothing but Marengo." He was
on sick leave during the Russian expedition of 181 a, but in i&i$
and 1 8 14 his skill and leading were as conspicuous as ever. He
retained his rank under the first Restoration, but joinedNapoleon
during the Hundred Days, and commanded a cavalry corps in
the Waterloo campaign. At Quatre Bras he personally led his
squadrons in the famous cavalry charge, and almost lost his life
in the melee, and at Waterloo he was again wounded. He was
disgraced at the second Restoration, and, on succeeding to his
father's title and seat in the Chamber of Peers in iSao, at once
took up and maintained till the fall of Charles X. in 1830 an
attitude of determined opposition to the Bourbons. He died on
the and of June 1835.
His son Francois Citristophe Edmond de Kellermann,
duke of Valmy (1 802-1868), was a distinguished statesman,
political historian, and diplomatist under the July Monarchy.
KBLLGRBlf. JO HAN HBMRIK (1 751- » 795), Swedish poet and
critic, was born at Floby in West Gothland, on the 1st of Decern*
ber 1 751. He studied at the university of Abo, and had already
tome reputation as a poet when in 1774 he there became a
" docent " in aesthetics. Three years later he removed to Stock-
holm, where in conjunction with Assessor Carl Lenngren he
began in 1778 the publication of the journal Stockholmsposien, of
which be was sole editor from 1788 onwards. Kellgren was
librarian to Gusts vus III. from 1780, and from 1785 his private
jecreUxy. On the institution of the Swedish Academy in 1786
he was appointed one of fos first members. He died at Stock-
holm on the soth of April 1705. His strong satiric tendency led
him into numerous controversies, the chief that with the critic
Thomas Thorild, against whom he directed his satire Nytftrsth
till orimmad tews, where he sneers at the " raving of Shakespeare "
and " the convulsions of Goethe," His lack of humour detracts
from the interest of his polemical writings. His poetical works
are partly lyrical, partly dramatic; of the plays the versification
belongs to Mm, the plots being due to Gustavus III. The songs
interspersed in the four operas which they produced in common,
via., Gusto/ Vast, GusUj Adolf och EJbba Brake, Aeneas i Kartago,
and Drottmng Kristin*, are wholly the work of Kellgren. From
about the year 1788 a higher and graver feeling pervades Kell-
gren'* verses, partly owing to the Influence of the works of Leasing
and Goethe, but probably more directly due to his controversy
with Thorild. Of his minor poems written before that date the
most important are the charming spring-song Yinlems vOldo
tyktar, and the satrical Mina lojtn and Man eger ej snilitfSr det
man Or galen. The best productions of what is called his later
period are the satire Ljusets ftender, the comic poem Dumboms
lefvernt, the warmly patriotic Kanlal d. 1. Jan. 1789, the ode Till
Kristina, the fragment Sigwart och Hilma, and the beautiful song
Nya shapelsen, both in thought and form the finest of his works.
Among his lyrics are the choicest fruits of the Gustavian age of
Swedish letters. His earlier efforts, indeed, express the superficial
doubt and pert frivolousness characteristic of his time; but in
the works of his riper years he is no mere " poet of pleasure," as
Thorild contemptuously styled him, but a worthy exponent of
earnest moral feeling and wise human sympathies in felicitous
and melodius verse.
His Samlade skrijter (3 vols., 1796; a later edition. 1884-1885) were
revised by himself. His co r r e spo ndence with Roseastcin and with
Clewberg was edited by H. Schuck (i«86-i887and 1804). See Wiesel-
gren, Sveriges skdna ItUenlur Q 833-1 849); Atterbom. Svenska stare
. ... . ~ W.Bdtttgcrin Transactions of the Swedish
och skalderji 841-1855) ; C
Academy, xlv.^ 107 «eq. (1870)
and Gustaf Ljunggren't Kellgren,
*fder (I873-I877).
Leopold, och Thorild, and his Saenska vsUerhekms haft
KELLOGG, CLAfU LOUISB (1841- ), American singer,
was born at SumterviHe, South Carolina, in July 1842, and was
educated in New York for the musical profession, singing first
in opera there in 1861. Her fine soprano voke and artistic
gifts soon made her famous. She appeared as prima donna in
Italian opera in London, and at concerts, in 1867 and 1868; and
from that time till 1887 was one of the leading public singers.
She appeared at intervals in London, but was principally engaged
in America. In 1 874 she organized an opera company which was
widely known in the United States, and her enterprise and energy
in directing it were remarkable. In 1887 she married Carl
Strakosch, and retired from the profession.
KELLS, a market town of county Meath, Ireland, on the Black-
water, 9} m. N.W. of Navan on a branch of the Great Northern
railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 2428. The prosperity
of the town depends chiefly upon its antiquarian remains. The
most notable is St ColumbkiUe's house, orginally an oratory,
but afterwards converted into a church, the chancel of which
was in existence in 1752. The present church is modern, with
the exception of the bell-tower, rebuilt in 1 578. Near the church
there is a fine though imperfect specimen of the andent round
tower, 09 ft- in height; and there are several ancient crosses, the
finest being that* now erected in the market-place. Kells was
originally a royal residence, whence its ancient name Ceanannus,
meaning the dim or circular northern fort, in which the king
resided, and the intermediate name Kenlis, meaning bead fort*
Here Conn of the Hundred Fights resided in the 2nd century;
and here was a palaceofDermot,kingoi Ireland, in 544-565. The
other places in Ireland named Kells are probably derived from
CeaUa, signifying church, bi the 6th century Kells, it is said,
was granted to St Columbkille. Of the monastery which he is
reported to have founded there are no remains, and the town
owes its chief ecclesiastical importance to the bishopric founded
about 807, and united to Meath in the 13th century. The
ecclesiastical establishment was noted as a seat of learning, and a
monument of this remains in the Book of /Cells an illuminated
j to KELLY, E.— KELP
_^py of the Gospels in Latin, containing also local records, dating
SJorn the 8th century, and preserved in the library of Trinity
*£^jjege, Dublin. The illumination is executed with extraordinary
J^lic&y* and tne worK a asserted to be the finest extant example
**T e *rly Christian art of this kind. Neighbouring antiquities
^*5^ the church of Dulane, with a fine doorway, and the dun or
^ *^tificationof Dimor, the principal erectioaof a series of defences
£***\w!t bM* *&°ut 6 m. W. oi Kdls. Among several seats in the
^f* •AJty ■* tnat °* int M** .* 4 * 9 * of Headfort. Kelts returned two
-^ r ** r *2>ef* l0 lne I"*h parliament before the Union.
<^g^j^U.Y. EDWARD (1854-1880), Australian bushranger, was
^^pl Wallan Wallan, Victoria. His father was a transported
t*&*~fL^L coavict, and his mother's family included several thieves.
«^»I**^L |ie and his brothers were constantly in trouble for horse-
a^ *2^AiC. *** M Ncd " ^^ tnrec vcars ' io^ 9 ™* " 1 * for this
Z^&* 3 Jje?' In April 1878, an attempt was made to arrest his brother
Ztffetif'otk a similar charge. The whole Kelly family resisted this
T^a^lSirc* -wounded one of the constables.
9g ^c$. /T^*werccapture
Mrs Kelly and some of
"^.f^ were captured, but Ned and Daniel escaped to the hills,
l^Zfrey wcre joined by two other desperadoes, Byrne and
"T^*^ t ^ , oT two years, despite a reward of £8000 offered jointly
Jjr^^ jLvemments of Victoria and New South Wales for their
B * r ^-^ ^ gang under tbe leadership of Kelly terrorized the
4*& lh * borderland of Victoria and New South Wales,
u p " towns and plundering banks. Their intimate
of the district, full of convenient hiding-places, and
^.te system of well-paid spies, ensured the direct
interest of many persons and contributed to their
jty from capture. They never ill-t rented a woman,
the poor, thus surrounding themselves with an
^pttspherc of romance. In June 1880, however,
^ last tracked to a wooden shanty at Glen rowan,
vfekfa the police surrounded, riddled with bullets,
3» fire. Kelly himself, who was outside, could, he
, f have escaped had he not refused to desert his
"~^L ct whom were killed. He was severely wounded,
J,*!* to Beechworth, where he was tried, con-
*-gfk in October 1880. The total cost oi the
jr* ijslfr gang was reckoned at £115,000.
* £ '*~ tr !V La* ef the Bushrangers (London, 1 89a).
* ^I^IT (1 706-1880), English judge, was born
fZ "^^ ~*<*er r?o6, the son of a captain in the Royal
\, " , * tt «ss called to the bar, where he gained a
" *"* ^3s« Trader. In 1834 he was made a king's
., - ' j^e- **«T- »* *** returned as member of parlia-
* r ?^ be* was unseated on petition. In 1837
-*** \ ^qm im m\)*t for that town. In 1843 he sat
s«**" ^ c "*>* *** elected member for Harwich,
.,-» ^g^anr aiming in East Suffolk, he preferred
-* ~ . r v«ae Acted. He was solicitor-general in
. • •' ^-^t**?.. and again in 185a. In 1858-1859
^2-*—- r Uni Derby's second administration.
~? ""-I • *e*exck as chief baron of the exchequer
^s- n> t« *r*rCounciL He died at Brighton
«. ** . .«^rr» % >*» d r a matist and poet, son of
tm ^^* ^ ^n st rrja at Killarney. He was
* — ^^^B^sa »* * t^o went to London. Here
■» - — '^^ m ssssa sisse, and then became an
— •** » ^ .jtwotossst _» various newspapers, and
*" ~ ' he published
dmay (1 vols.),
tone published
into the Merits
? Lane Theatre,
attacks on the
he poem opens
, and bestows
tire was p*-""
m is o*
P l
cc
Se,
par
in t
origi
empl
(1878;
a novel
July iS
is very \
such unco
abounding
dictated chiefly by personal prejudice. In 1767 he produced t
second part, less scurrilous in tone, dealing with the Caveat
Garden actors. His first comedy, False Delicacy, written in
prose, was produced by Garrick at Drury Lane on the 23rd el
January 1768, with the intention of rivalling Oliver Goldsmith's
Good-Matured Man. It is a moral and sentimental comedy,
described by Garrick in the prologue as a sermon preached in acts.
Although Samuel Johnson described it as " totally void of char-
acter," it was very popular and had a great sale. In French and
Portuguese versions it drew crowded houses in Paris and Lisbon.
Kelly was a journalist in the pay of Lord North, and therefore
hated by the party of John Wilkes, especially as being t he editor
of the Public Ledger. His Thespis had also made him many
enemies; and Mrs Clive refused to act in bis pieces. The pro-
duction of his second comedy, A Word to the Wise (Drury Lane,
3rd of March 1770), occasioned a riot in the theatre, repeated at
the second performance, and the piece had to be abandoned. His
other plays arc: Clementina (Covent Garden, 23rd of February
x 7 7 1 \ % a blank verse tragedy, given out to be the work of a ** young
American Clergyman " in order to escape the opposition of the
Wilkites; The School for Wives (Drury Lane, nth of December
1 773) . a prose comedy given out as the work of Major (afterwards
Sir William) Addington ; a two-act piece, The Romance of am Hem
(Covent Garden, and of December 1774), borrowed from Mar-
montel's tale L'AmilU a I'epreuie; and an unsuccessful comedy,
The Man of Reason (Covent Garden, oth of February 1776).
He was called to the bar at the Middle Temple in 1774, and
determined to give up literature. He failed in his new profession
and died in poverty on the 3rd of February 1777*
See The Works of Ruek Kelly, to which is prefixed (he Life of fit
Author ( 1 778) ; Genest , History of the Stage (v. 163*, 263-969. 508, 399.
457. 517)* Pamphlets in reply to Thespis are: Anti-The*pis . . .
(1767); " The Kellyad . . . (1767). by Louis Stamma; and " The
Rescue or Thespian Scourge ..." (1767), by John Brown-Smith,
KELLY, MICHAEL (1762-1826), British actor, singer and
composer, was the son of a Dublin wine-merchant and dandnf-
master. He had a musical education at home and in Italy, and
for four years from x 783 was engaged to sing at the Court Theatre
at Vienna, where he became a friend of Mozart. In x 786 he sang
in the first performance of tbe Nozze di Figaro. Appearing ta
London, at Drury Lane in 1787, he had a great success, and
thenceforth was the principal English tenor at that theatre. In
1793 he became acting-manager of the King's Theatre, and he
was in great request at concerts. He wrote a number of songs
(including " The Woodpecker"), and the music for many dramatic
pieces, now fallen into oblivion. In 1 826 he published his enter-
taining Reminiscences, in writing which he was helped by Theodore
Hook. He combined his professional work with conducting
a music-shop and a wine-shop, but with disastrous <■««>
results. He died at Margate on the 9th of October 1&6.
KELP (in M.E. culp or culpe, of unknown origin; the Fr.
equivalent is varech), the ash produced by the incineration of
various kinds of sea- weed (Algae) obtainable in great abundance
on the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland, and the coast of
Brittany. It Is prepared from the deep-sea tangle (LamsnaHm ■
digital*), sugar wrack (L. saccharina), knobbed wrack {JFnem
nodosus), black wrack (F. serratus), and bladder wrack (P- vesicu-
losa). The Laminarias yield what is termed " drift-weed ketp,"
obtainable only when cast up on the coasts by storms or other
causes. The species of Fucus growing within the tidal range
are cut from the rocks at low water, and are therefore known as
" cut-weeds." The weeds are first dried in the sun and are then
collected into shallow pits and burned till they form a fused
mass, which While still hot is sprinkled with water to break it op
into convenient pieces. A ton of kelp is obtained from 20 to 2 >
tons of wet sea-weed. The average composition may vary as
follows: potassium sulphate, 10 to 12%; potassium chloride,
20 to 25%; sodium carbonate, 5%; other sodium and mag-
nesium salts, is to 20%; and insoluble ash from 40 to 50%.
The relative richness in iodine of different samples varies
1 '" ~«od drift kelp yielding as much as 10 to 15 fb per ton
whilst cut-weed kelp will not give more thin 3 to
KELSO^KELVIN
yzt
4 lb. The use of kelp in soap and glass manufacture baa been
rendered obsolete by tbe modem process of obtaining carbonate
of soda cheaply from common salt (see Iodine).
KELSO, a police burgh and market town oi Roxburghshire,
Scotland, on the left bank of the Tweed, 52 ra. (43 m. by road)
S.E. of Edinburgh and io[ m. N.E. of Jedburgh by the North
British railway. Pop. (1901), 4008. The oame has been derived
from the Old Welsh catch, or Anglo-Saxon etale, " chalk", and
the Scots how, "hollow," a derivation more evident in the
earlier forms Calkoo and Cakhon, and illustrated in Cbalkheugb,
the name of a locality in the town. The ruined abbey, dedicated
to the Virgin and St John the Evangelist, was founded in 11 28
by David I. for monks from Tiron in Picardy, whom he trans-
ferred hither from Selkirk, where they had been installed fifteen
years before. The abbey, the building of which was completed
towards the middle of the 13th century, became one of the
richest and most powerful establishments in Scotland, claiming
precedence over the other monasteries and disputing for a time
the supremacy with St Andrews. It suffered damage in numerous
English forays, was pillaged by the 4th earl of Shrewsbury in
1522, and was reduced to ruins in 1545 by the carl of Hertford
(afterwards the Protector Somerset). In 1602 the abbey lands
passed into the hands of Sir Robert Ker of Ccssford, 1st earl of
Roxburghe. The ruins were disfigured by an attempt to render
part of them available for public worship, and one vault was long
utilized as the town gaol. All excrescences, however, were
cleared away at the beginning of the 19th century, by the efforts
of the Duke of Roxburghe. The late Norman and Early Pointed
cruciform church has an unusual ground-plan, the west end of the
cross forming the nave and being shorter than the chancel. The
nave and transepts extend only 23 ft. from the central tower.
The remains include most of the tower, nearly the whole of the
walls of the south transept, less than half of the west front with a
fragment of the richly moulded and deeply-set doorway, the
north and west sides of the north transept, and a remnant of the
chancel. The chancel alone had aisles, while its main circular
arches were surmounted by two tiers of triforium galleries. The
predominant feature is the great central tower, which, as seen
from a distance, suggests the keep of a Norman castle. It rested
on four Early Pointed arches, each 45 ft. high (of which the south
and west yet exist) supported by piers of clustered columns.
Over the Norman porch in the north transept is a small chamber
with an interlaced arcade surmounted by a network gable.
The Tweed is crossed at Kelso by a bridge of five arches con-
structed in 1803 by John Rennie. The public buildings include
a court house, the town hall, corn exchange, high school and
grammar school (occupying the site of tbe school which Sir
Walter Scott attended in 1 783). The public park lies in the east
of the town, and the race-course to the north of it. The leading
industries are the making of fishing tackle, agricultural machinery
and implements, and chemical manures, besides coach-building,
cabinet-making and- upholstery, corn and saw mills, iron found*
ing, &c. James and John Ballantyne, friends of Scott, set up a
press about the end of the 18th century, from which there issued,
in 1802, the nrst two volumes of tbe Minstrelsy 0/ the Scottish
Border; but when the brothers transferred their business to
Edinburgh printing languished. The Kelso Mail, founded by
James Ballantyne in 1797, is now the oldest of the Border news-
papers. The town is an important agricultural centre, there
being weekly corn and fortnightly cattle markets, and, every
September, a great sale of Border rams.
Kelso became a burgh of barony in 1634 and five years later
received the Covenanters, under Sir Alexander Leslie, on their way
to the encampment on Duns Law. On the 24th of October 1715 the
Old Pretender was proclaimed James VIII. in the market square;
but in 1745 Prince Charles Edward found no active adherents in the
town.
About 1 m. W. of Kelso is Floors or Pleura Castle, the principal
seat of the duke of Roxburghe. The mansion as originally designed
by^ Sir John Vanbrugh in 1718 was severely plain, but in 1819
William Henry PlayfaTr converted it into a magnificent structure in
tbe Tudor style.
On the peninsula formed by the junction of the TevSot and tbe
Tweed stood the formidable castle and flourishing town of Roxburgh,
XV 12*
strongly influenced Thomson's mind, with the result that in 1&4&
KELVIN
, ^^Mnd^rfkapmtare, which h
X -.ra rJi rn *f uy particular tbermometric
"J "7^ * — >* rfiinrtrd to ike Royal Society of
■I ^ ****-** * ii mini theory of heat which
jJsT .* »*< * v *- S"* Canbt wnfc *** coodusioiis
^ ~ ^ ^ a Davy. J. R. Mayer and Joule, and
.* • n—-' ***** of heat and the fundamental
**"** ' ^ ^^^biM W energy m a rxKitictt to command
l.J^aUojM-c* h«i. this paper that the prindple of
^ ju»j^^^ ^ »K«y. briefly sammarued in the second law
^ _3tn— ^ was not stated.
^i*^«* •• h»u rtmrioni to thermodynamics may properly
>c ^of^veti *» he most important scientific work, it is in the field
* ^t^^^,«pe«ijJlyi«»uap|*cationtosubmarinetelegraphy,
uW U*d KeNin as best known to the world at large. From
jt*^ tt MK prosniaes* among telegraphists. The stranded
form of if itwrtor was due to his suggestion; but it was in the
fetter* which ht addressed in November and December of that
yoar to Sk <X C Stokes, and which were published in the Pro-
oW>«t* <<«** R*ytS*ckty for 1855, that he discussed the mathe-
matical theory of signalling through submarine cables, and
enunciated the conclusion that in long cables the retardation due
to capacity must render the speed of signalling inversely propor-
tional to the square of the cable's length. Some held that if this
were trne ocean telegraphy would be impossible, and sought in
coastoweace to disprove Thomson's conclusion. Thomson, on
the other hand, set to work to overcome the difficulty by improve-
ment in the manufacture of cables, and first of all in the pro-
sfrqjou of copper of high conductivity and the construction of
apparatus whkh would readily respond to the slightest variation
of the current in the cable. The mirror galvanometer and the
sfr hq* recorder, which was patented in 1867, were the outcome
of these researches; but the scientific value of the mirror galvano-
meter is independent of its use in telegraphy, and the siphon
reorder is the direct precursor of one form of galvanometer
(d'Arsonval's ) now commonly used in electrical laboratories. A
ss ^ like that of Thomson could not be content to deal wKh any
physical quantity, however successfully from a practical point
of view, without subjecting it to measurement. Thomson's
work in connexion with telegraphy led to the production in rapid
succession of instruments adapted to the requirements of the
time for the measurement of every electrical quantity, and when
electric lighting came to the front a new set of instruments was
produced to meet the needs of the electrical engineer. Some
account of Thomson's electrometer is given in the article on that
subject, while every modern work of importance on electric
lighting describes the instruments which he has specially de-
signed for central station work; and it may be said that there is
so quantity which the electrical engineer is ordinarily called upon
to measure for which Lord Kelvin did not construct the suitable
Instrument. Currents from the ten-thousandth of an ampere to
ten thousand amperes, electrical pressures from a minute fraction
of a volt to 100,000 volts, come within the range of his instru-
ments, while the private consumer of electric energy b provided
with a meter recording Board of Trade units.
When W. Weber in 1851 proposed the extension of C. F. Gauss's
system of absolute units to electromagnetism, Thomson took up
the question, and, applying the principles of energy, calculated
the absolute electromotive force of a Daniell cell, and determined
the absolute measure of the resistance of a wire from the heat
produced in it by a known current In 1861 H was Thomson who
induced the British Association to appoint its first famous com-
mittee for the determination of electrical standards, and it was.
he who suggested much of the work carried out by J. Clerk
Maxwell, Balfour Stewart and Fleeroing Jenlrin as members
of that committee. The oscillatory character of the discharge
of the Leyden jar, the foundation of the work of H. R. Hertz
and of wireless telegraphy were investigated by him in
1853.
It was In 1873 that he undertook to write a series of articles for
G—4 Wmis on the mariner's compass. He wrote the first, but
so many questions atose in bis mind that U was five years before
the second appeared, In the meanwhile the'
through a process of complete reconstruction in his hands,
a process which enabled both the permanent and the temporary
magnetism of the ship to be readily compensated, whue the
weight of the 10-in. card was reduced to one-seventeenth of that
of the standard card previously in use, although the time of swing
was Increase d. Second only to the compass in its value to the
sailor is Thomson's sounding apparatus, whereby soundings cat
be taken In 100 fathoms by a ship steaming at 16 knots; and by
the employment of piano-wire of a breaking strength of 140 tons
per square inch and an iron sinker weighing only 34 lb, with a sdf-
registering pressure gauge, soundings can be rapidly taken ia
deep ocean. Thomson's tide gauge, tidal harmonic analyser and
tide predicter are famous, and among his work in the interest of
navigation must be mentioned his tables for the sunpfificatioa
of Sumner's method for determining the position of a ship
at sea.
It is impossible within brief limits to convey more than a
general idea of the work of a philosopher who published more than
three hundred original papers bearing upon nearly every branch
of physical science; who one day was working out the mathe-
matics of a vortex theory of matter on hydrodynamical principles
or discovering the limitations of the capabilities of the vortex
atom, on another was applying the theory of elasticity to tides
in the solid earth, or was calculating the size of water mokcuks,
and later was designing an electricity meter, a dynamo or a
domestic water-tap. It is only by reference to his published
papers that any approximate conception can be formed of his
life's work; but the student who had read all these knew com-
paratively little of Lord Kelvin if be had not talked with him face
to face. Extreme modesty, almost amounting to diffidence, was
combined with the utmost kindliness in Lord Kelvin's bearing
to the most elementary student, and nothing seemed to give hira
so much pleasure as an opportunity to acknowledge the efforts
of the humblest scientific worker. The progress of physical dis-
covery during the last half of the 10th century was perhaps as
much due to the kindly encouragement which be gave to his
students and to others who came in contact with him as to his
own researches and inventions; and it would be difficult to speak
of his influence as a teacher in stronger terms than this.
One of his former pupils, Professor J. D. Cormack, wrote of him:
" It is perhaps at the lecture tabic that Lord Kelvin displays
most of his characteristics. . . . His master mind, soaring high,
sees one vast connected whole, and, alive with enthusiasm, with
smiling face and sparkling eye, he shows the panorama to his
pupils, pointing out the similarities and differences of its parts,
the boundaries of our knowledge, and the regions of doubt
and speculation. To follow him in his nights is real mental
exhilaration."
In 185a Thomson married Margaret, daughter of Walter Cram
of Thornliebank, who died in 1870; and in 1874 he married Frances
Anna, daughter of Charles R. Blandy of Madeira. In 1866,.
perhaps chiefly In acknowledgment of his services to tram-
Atlantic telegraphy, Thomson received the honour of knighthood,
and in 1892 he was raised to the peerage with the title of Baron
Kelvin of Largs. The Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
was conferred on him in 1806, the year of the jubilee of his pro-
fessoriate. In 1800 he became president of the Royal Society,
and he received the Order of Merit on its institution in 1002.
A list of the degrees and other honours which he received during
the fifty-three years he held his Glasgow chair would occupy as
much space as tins article; but any biographical sketch would be
conspicuously incomplete if it failed to notice the celebration in
1806 of the jubilee of his professorship. Never before had such
a gathering of rank and science assembled as that which filled
the halls in the university of Glasgow on the 15th, 16th and 1 7th
of June in that year. The city authorities joined with the
university in honouring their most distinguished citizen. About
2500 guests were received in the university buildings, the library
of which was devoted to an exhibition of the instruments invented
by Lord Kelvin, together with his certificates, diplomas and
medals. The Eastern, the Anglo-American and the Commercial
KEMBLE.
7*3
Cable companies united to celebrate the event, and from the
university library a message was sent through Newfoundland,
New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New Orleans,
Florida and Washington, and was received by Lord Kelvin seven
and a half minutes after it had been despatched, having travelled
about 20,000 miles and twice crossed the Atlantic during the
interval. It was at the banquet in connexion with the jubilee
celebration that the Lord Provost of Glasgow thus summarized
Lord Kelvin's character: " His industry is unwearied; and he
seems to take rest by turning from one difficulty to another —
difficulties that would appal most men and be taken as enjoy-
ment by no one else. . . . This life of unwearied industry, of
universal honour, has left Lord Kelvin with a lovable nature that
charms all with whom he comes in contact."
Three years after this celebration Lord Kelvin resigned his
chair at Glasgow, though by formally matriculating as a student
he maintained his connexion with the university t of which in 1004
he was elected chancellor. But bis retirement did not mean
cessation of active work or any slackening of interest in the
scientific thought of the day. Much of his time was given to
writing and revising the lectures on the wave theory of light which
he had delivered at Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, in
1884, but which were not finally published till 1004. He con-
tinued to take part in the proceedings of various learned societies;
and only a few months before his death, at the Leicester meeting
of the British Association, he attested the keenness with which
he followed the current developments of scientific speculation
by delivering a long and searching address on the electronic
theory of matter. He died on the 17th of December 1907 at his
residence, Nethcrhall, near Largs, Scotland; there was no heir
to his title, which became extinct.
In addition to the Baltimore lectures, he published with Profa
_>. G. Tait a standard but unfinished Treatise c~ "-•-—' »*■-•*—
(1867). A number of his scientific papers
P. G. Tait a standard but unfinished Treatise on Natural Philosophy
(1867). A number of his scientific papers were collected in hts
Reprint of Papers on Electricity and Magnetism (1872). and in his
Mathematical and Physical Papers (1882, 1883 and 1896), and three
volumes of his Popular Lectures and Addresses appeared in 1889-1894.
He was also the author of the articles on " Heat " and *' Elasticity
in the 9th edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
See Andrew Gray, Lord Kelvin (1908); S. P. Thompson, Life
of Lord Kelvin (1910), which contains a full bibliography of his
writings. (W. G.; H. M. R.)
KEMBLE, the name of a family of English actors, of whom
the most famous were Mrs Siddons (q.v.) and her brother John
Philip Kemble, the eldest of the twelve children of Rocjk
Kemble (1721-1802), a strolling player and manager, who in
1 7 S3 married an actress, Sarah Wood.
John Philip Kemble (1757-1823), the second child, was
born at Prescot, Lancashire, on the 1st of February 1757. His
mother was a Roman Catholic, and he was educated at Stdgeley
Park Catholic seminary, near Wolverhampton, and the English
college at Douai, with the view of becoming a priest. But at
the conclusion of the four years' course he discovered that he
had no vocation for the priesthood, and returning to England he
joined the theatrical company of Crump & Chamberlain, lus
first appearance being as Theodosius in Lee's tragedy of that
name at Wolverhampton on the 8th of January 1776. In 1778
he joined the York company of Tate Wilkinson, appearing at
Wakefield as Captain Plume in Farquhar's The Recruiting
Officer; in Hull for the first time as Macbeth on the 30th of
October, and in York as Orestes in Ambrose Philips'* Distressed
U other. In 1 781 he obtained a " star " engagement at Dublin,
making his first appearance there on the 2nd of November as
Hamlet. He also achieved great success as Raymond in The
Count of Narbonne, a play taken from Horace Walpde's Castle
of Otranto. Gradually he won for himself a high reputation as
a careful and finished actor, and this, combined with the greater
fame of his sister, led to an engagement at Drury Lane, where- he
made his first appearance on the 30th of September 1783 as
Hamlet. In this role he awakened interest and discussion
among the critics rather than the enthusiastic approval of the
public But as Macbeth on the 31st of March 1785 he shared
in the enthusiasfri aroused by Mrs Siddons, and established a
reputation among living actors second only to hen. Brother and
sister had first appeared together at Drury Lane on the 22nd of
November 1783, as Beverley and Mrs Beverley in Moore's
The Gamester, and as King John and Constance in Shakespeare's
tragedy. In the following year they played Montgomerie and
Matilda in Cumberland's The Osrmdile, and in 1785 Adorni
and Camiola in Kemble's adaptation of Massinger's A if aid
of Honour, and Othello and Desdemona. Between 1785 and
1787 Kemble appeared in a variety of roles, his Mentevole in
Jephson's Julia producing an overwhelming impression. On the
8th of December 1787 he married PrisdQa Hcpkins Brereton
(1756-1845), the widow of an actor and herself an actress.
Kemble's appointment as manager of Drury Lane in 1788 gave
him full opportunity to dress the characters less according lb
tradition than in harmony with his own conception of what was
suitable. He was also able to experiment with whatever parts
might 6trike his .fancy, and of this privilege he took advantage
moth greater courage than discretion. His activity was prodi-
gious, the list of his parts including a large number of Shake-
spearian characters and also a great many in plays now forgotten.
In his own version of Coriolanus, which was revived during his
first season, the character of the " noble Roman " was so exactly
suited to his powers that be not only played it with a perfection
that has never been approached, but, it is said, unconsciously
allowed its influence to colour his private manner and modes of
speech. His tall and imposing person, noble countenance, and
solemn and grave demeanour were uniquely adapted for the
Roman characters in Shakespeare's plays; and, when in addition
he had to depict the gradual growth and development of one
absorbing passion, his representation gathered a momentum
and majestic force that were irresistible. His defect was in
flexibility, variety, rapidity; the characteristic of his style was
method, regularity, precision, elaboration even of the minutest
details, founded on a thorough psychological study of the special
personality be had to represent. His elocutionary art, his fine
sense of rhythm and emphasis, enabled him to excel in declama-
tion, but physically he was incapable of giving expression to
impetuous vehemence and searching pathos. In Coriolanus and
Cato he was beyond praise, and possibly he may have been
superior to both Garrick and Kean in Macbeth, although it must
be remembered that in it part of his inspiration must have been
caught from Mrs Siddons. In all the other great Shakespearian
characters be was, according to the best critics, inferior to them,
least so in Lear, Hamlet and Wolsey, and most so in Shyiock and
Richard HI. On account of the eccentricities of Sheridan, the
proprietor of Drury Lane, Kemble withdrew from the manage-
ment, and, although be resumed his duties at the beginning of the
season 1 800-1801, he at the dose of 1802 finally resigned con-
nexion with it. In 1803 he became manager of Covent Garden,
in which he had acquired a sixth share for £23,000. The theatre
was burned down on the 20th of September 1808, and the
raising of the prices after the opening of the new theatre, in 1809,
led to riots, which practically suspended the performances for
three months. Kemble had been nearly ruined by the fire, and
was only saved by a generous loan, afterwards converted into a
gift, of £10,000 from the duke of Northumberland. Kemble
took his final leave of the stage in the part of Coriolanus on the
23rd of June 1817. His retirement was probably hastened by
the rising popularity of Edmund Kean. The remaining years
of his life were spent chiefly abroad, and he died at Lausanne on
the 26th of February 1823.
See Boaden, Life of Join Philip Kemble (182s); Fitzgerald, The
KembUs (1871).
Stephen Kemble (1758-1822), the second son of Roger, was
rather an indifferent actor, ever eclipsed by his wife and fellow
player, Elisabeth SatcheU Kemble (c. 1 763-1841), and a man
of such portly proportions that he played Faislaff without
padding He managed theatres in Edinburgh and elsewhere.
Charles Kemblx (i 775-1854), a younger brother of John
Philip and Stephen, was born at Brecon, South Wales, on the
25th. of November 1775. He, too, was educated at Douai.
*-M
KEMBLE, J. M.—KEMENY
After returning to England In 170*, he obtained a situation in
the post-office, but this he soon resigned for the stage, making
his 6rst recorded appearance at Sheffield as Orlando in As You
Jjhe it fa that year. During the early period of his career as
an actor ha made his way slowly to public favour. For a con-
siderable time he played with his brother and sister, chiefly in
secondary parts, and this with a grace and finish whkh received
scant justice from the critics* His first London appearance was
on the list of April 1704, as Malcolm to his brother's Macbeth.
Ultimately he won independent faint* especially in such char-
acters as Archer in George Farquhar's Beaux* Stratagem, Dorin-
court in Mrs Cowley's BetWs Stratagem, Charles Surface and
Ranger in Dr Benjamin Hoadley's Suspicious Husband. His
Laertes and Macduff werehardly less interesting than his brother's
Hamlet and Macbeth. In comedy he was ably supported by Ins
wife, Marie Theresa De Camp (1774-1838), whom be married on
the 2nd of Jury 1806. His visit, with his daughter Fanny, to
America during 183a and 1834, aroused much enthusiasm. The
later period of his career was clouded by money embarrassments
in connexion with his joint proprietorship in Covent Garden
theatre. He formally retired from'the stage* in December 1836,
but his final appearance was on the 10th of April 1840. For
some time be held the office of examiner of plays. In 1844*
1B45 he gave- readings from Shakespeare at Willis's Rooms.
He died on the latfa of November 1854. Macready regarded
his Cassio aa incomparable, and summed him up as " a first-rate
actor of second-rate parts."
See Gentleman' s Matssine, January 1855; Records of a Girlhood,
by France* Anne Kern We.
Elizabeth Wrrlock (1761-1836), who was a daughter of
Roger Remble, made her first appearance on the stage in 1783
at Drury Lane as Portia. In 1785 she married Charles E.
Whitlock, went with him to America and played with much
success there. She bad the honour of appearing before President
Washington. She seems to have retired about 1807, and she
died on the 37th of February rt$6. Her reputation as a tragic
actress might have been greater had she not been Mrs Siddons's
sister.
* FramcBs Anns Kemble (Fanny Kemble) (1800-1803), the
actress and author, was Charles Kemble's elder daughter; she
was born in London on the 37th of November 1800, and educated
chiefly in France. She first appeared on the stage on the 35th
of October 1820 as Juliet at Covent Garden. Her attractive
personality at once made her a great favourite, her' popularity
enabling her father to recoup his losses as a- manager. She played
aH the principal women's parts, notably Portia, Beatrice and
Lady Tearie, but JuUa in Sheridan Knowles** The Hunchback,
especially written for her, was perhaps her greatest-success. In
4833 she went with her father to America, and in 1834 the
-married there a Southern planter, Pierce Butler. They were
divorced in 1849. In 1847 she returned to the stage, from which
she had retired on her marriage, and later, following ber father*!
example, appeared with much success as a Shakespearian reader.
In 1877 she returned to England, where she lived— using her
maiden name— till her death in London on the 15th of January
1*893. During tbisi period Fanny Kembte was a prominent and
popular. figure in the social life of London. Besides her plays,
Francis the First, unsuccessfully produced in 1833, The Star of
Senile (1837), a volume of Poems (1844), and a book of Italian
travel, A Year of Consolation (1847), she published a volume of
her Journal in 1835, and in 1863 another (dealing with life on
the Georgia plantation), and also a volume of Plays, including
translations from Dumas and Schiller. These were followed by
Records of a Girlhood (1878), Records of Later Life (1883), Notes
on seme of Shakes pear* 9 * Plays (1883), Far Away ant Long Ago
(1880), aad Further Records (1891). Her various volumes of
reminiscences contain much valuable material for the social and
dramatic history of the period.
Adelaide Kemble (1814-1870), Charles Kemble's second
daughter, was an opera singer of great promise, whose first
London appearance was mode in Norma on the rod of November
1841 . In i«43Sfce married Ecr»»"1 Tnhn S*xtoris, a rich Itafiaih
and retired after a brief but brilliant career. She wrote A Week
in a French Country House (1867), a bright and humorous story,
and of a literary quality not shared by other tales that followed.
Her son, Algernon Charles Sartoris, married General U. S. Grant's
daughter.
Among more recent members of the Kemble family, mention
may also be made of Charles Kemble's grandson, Henry Kemble
(1848-^1007), a sterling and popular London actor.
ftBMBLE, JOHN MITCHELL (1807-1857), English scholar
and historian, eldest son of Charles Kemble the actor, was born
in 1807. He received his education partly from Dr Richardson,
author of the Dictionary of the English Language, and partly at
the grammar school of Bury St Edmunds, where he obtained
in 1836 an exhibition to Trinity College, Cambridge. At the
university his historical essays gained him high reputation. The
bent of bis studies was turned more especially towards the Anglo-
Saxon period through the influence of the brothers Grimm, under
whom he studied at G&tfogeh (1831). His thorough knowledge
of the Teutonic languages and his critical faculty were shown
in his Beowulf (1833-183 7), Ober die Slammtafel der WcstsacJtsen
(1836), Codex Diphmaiicus Aeri Saxonici (1830-1848), and in
many contributions to reviews; while his- History of the Saxons
in England (1849; new ed. 1876), though ft must now be read
with caution, was the first attempt at a thorough examination
of the original sources of the early period of English history. He
was editor Of the British and Foreign Rene* from 1835 to 1844;
and from 1840 to his death was examiner of plays. In i8$7 be
published State Papers and Correspondence illustrative of the
Social and Political State of Europe from the Revolution to the
Accession of the Horns* of Hanover. He died at Dublin on the
36th of March 1857. His HoroeFerales, or Studies in (he Archae-
ology of Northern Nations, was completed by Dr R. G. I .at ham,
and published in 1864. He married the daughter of Professor
Amadeus Wendt of Gettingen in 1836; and had two daughters
and a son ; the elder daughter was the wife of Sir Charles Santley,
the singer.
KEMfiNY, 2SIGM0ND, Baron (18x6-1875), Hungarian author,
came of a noble but reduced family. In 1837 he studied Juris-
prudence at Marosvisarhely, but soon devoted himself entirely
to journalism and literature. His first unfinished work, On the
Causes of the Disaster of Mohacs (1840), attracted much attention.
In the same year he studied natural history and anatomy at
Vienna University. In 1841 , along with Lajos Kov&cs, he edited
the Transyrvanian newspaper Erdilyi Hiradd. He also took an
active part in provincial politics and warmly supported the
principles of Count Stephen Szechenyi. In 1846 he moved to
Pest, where his pamphlet, Korteskedls is dlcnsxrrei (Partisanship
and its Antidote)*, had already made him famous. Here he
consorted with the most eminent of the moderate reformers, and
for a time was on the staff of the Pesti Hirfap. The same year
he brought out his first great novel, Pdl Gyulay. He was elected
a member of the revolutionary diet of 1848 and accompanied
ft through all its vicissitudes. After a brief exile he accepted
the amnesty and returned to Hungary. Careless of his unpopu-
larity, he took up hfs pen to defend the cause of justice and
moderation, and in his two pamphlets, Forradalom utdn (After
the Revolution) and Mig egysz 6 a forradalom utdn (One word
more after the Revolution), he defended the point of .view which
was realized by Dc4k in 1867. He subsequently edited the Pesti
NapH, which became virtually Deak's political organ. Kemenjr
also published several political essays (e.g. The Two WesscUnyis,
and Stephen Szechenyi) which are among the best of their kind
in any literature. His novels published during these years, such
as Firj is nil (Husband and Wife), Sthdrvinyei (The Heart**
Secrets), &C, also won for him a foremost rank among con-
temporary novelists. During the 'sixties Kcmeny took an active
part in the political labours' of DeAk, whose right hand he con-
tinued to be, and popularized the Composition of 1867 which
he had don* so much to bring about. He was elected to the diet
of 1867 for one of the divisions of Pest, but took no part in the
debates. The last years of his life were passed m complete
•eduwon u* IVansvivHiua. To the works of Kemeny already
KEMP—KEMPT
^5
mentioned should be added the fin* historical novel Rajongok
(The Fanatics) (Peat, 1858-1859), and Cotkdod Speeches
(Hong.) (Pest, 1880).
See L. Notrady. Baron Sigismund Keinenfi Life and Wrilinfs
(Hung.) (Budapest. 190a) ; G. Be\aks.Sigunnmd Keminy.Uu Revolu-
tion and Ik* Composition (Hung.) (Budapest, 188$), (R, N. B.)
KEMP, WILLIA* (fl. 1600), English actor and dancer. He
probably began his career as a member of the esrt of Leicester's
company 4 , hut his name first appears after the death of Leicester
in a list of players authorised by an order of the privy council
nt 1 50 j to play 7 m. out of London, Ferdinand Stanley,
Lord Strange, was the patron of the company of which Kemp
was 1 the leading member until 1598, and in 1394 was summoned
with Burbage and Shakespeare to act before the queen at Green-
wich. He was the successor, both in parts and reputation, of
Richard Tarlton. But it was as a dancer of jigs that he won his
greatest popularity, one or two actors dancing and singing with
him, and the words doubtless often being improvised. Examples
of the music may be seen in the MS. collection of John Dowland
now in the Cambridge University library. At the same time
Kemp was given parts like Dogberry, and Peter in Romto and
Juliet; indeed his name appears by accident in place of those of
the characters in early copies. Kemp seems to have exhibited
his dancing on the Continent, but in 160* he was a member of the
earl of Worcester's players, and Philip Henslowe's diary shows
several payments made to him m that year.
KEMPE, JOHN (c. 1380-1454), English cardinal, archbishop
of Canterbury, and chancellor, was son of Thomas Kcmpc, a
gentleman of Ollantigh, in the parish of Wye near Ash ford, Kent.
He was born about 1380 and educated at Merton College, Oxford.
He practised as an ecclesiastical lawyer, was an assessor at the
trial of Oldcastle, and in 1415 was made dean Of the Court of
Arches. Then he passed into the royal service, and being cm-
ployed in the administration of Normandy was eventually made
chancellor of the duchy. Early in 14x9 he was elected bishop
Of Rochester, and was consecrated at Rouen on the 3rd of
December. In February 1421 he was translated to Chichester,
and in November following to London. During the minority
of Henry VI. Kempe had a prominent position in the English
council as a supporter of Henry Beaufort, whom he succeeded
as chancellor in March 1426. In this same year he was promoted
to the archbishopric of York. Kcmpc held office as chancellor
for six years; his main task in government was to keep Humphrey
of Gloucester in check. His resignation on the 28th of February
143 2 was a concession to Gloucester. He still enjoyed Beau-
fort's favour, and retaining his place in the council was employed
on important missions, especially at the congress of Arras in
143 5. an d the conference at Calais in 1438. In December 1430
he was created cardinal, and during the next few years took less
share in politics. He supported Suffolk over the king's marriage
with Margaret of Anjou; but afterwards there arose some differ-
ence between them, due in part to a dispute about the nomination
of the cardinal's nephew, Thomas Kempe, to the bishopric of
London. At the time of Suffolk's fall in January 1450 Kempe
once more became chancellor. His appointment may have been
due to the fact that he was not committed entirely to either party.
In spite of his age and infirmity he showed some vigour in dealing
with Cade's rebellion, and by bis official experience and skill did
what be could for four years to sustain the king's authority. He
was rewarded by his translation to Canterbury in Jury 145a,
when Pope Nicholas added as a special honour the title of
cardinal-bishop of Santa Rufina. As Richard of York gained
influence, Kempe became unpopular; men called him " the
cursed cardinal," and his fall seemed imminent when be died
suddenly on the 22nd of March 1454. He was buried at Canter-
bury, in- the choir. Kempe was a politician first, and hardly at
ait a bishop; and he was accused with some justice of neglecting
his dioceses, especially at York. Still he was a capable official,
and a faithful servant to Henry VI., who called him " one of the
wisest lords of the land " (Paston Utters, i. 31s). He founded
a college at his native place at Wye, which was suppressed at the
Reformation,
For con tem por ar y authorities see under Hbjtry VI. See also
J. Raine't Historians of the Chunk of York. vol. ii.; W. Dugdale's
MonaUice*! iii. 2.54. vi. 1430- 1434 ; and W. F. Hook's Lives of Arch-
biskops of Canterbury, v. 188-267. (C. L. K.)
KEMPER, a town in the Prussian Rhine Province, 40 m:
N. of Cologne by the railway to Zevenaar. Pop. (1900), 6319.
It has a monument to Thomas a Kern pis, who was born there.
The industries are considerable, and include silk-weaving, glass-
making and the manufacture of electrical plant. Kempen
belonged in the middle ages to the archbishopric of Cologne and
received civic rights in 1204. It is memorable as &e scene of a
victory gained, on the 17th of January 1642, by the French and
Hessians over the Imperialists.
See Tcrwelp. Die Stadt Kempen (Kempen, 1894), and Niessen,
Heimatknnde des Kreises Kompen (Crefcld, 1895).
KEMPENFELT, RICHAflfD (1718-1782), British rear-admiral,
was born at Westminster in 17 18. His father, a Swede, is said
to have been in the service of James II., and subsequently to
have entered the British army. Richard Kempenfeit went into
the navy, and saw his first service in the West Indies, taking part
in the capture of PortobcHo. In 1746 he returned to England,
and from that date to 1780, when he was made rear-admiral, saw
active service in the Last Indies with Sir George Pocock and in
various quarters of the world. In 1781 he gained, with a vastly
inferior force, a brilliant victory, fifty leagues south-west of
Ushant, over the French fleet under De Guichen, capturing
twenty prizes. In 1782 he hoisted his flag on the "Royal
George," which formed part of the fleet under Lord Howe. In
August this fleet was ordered to refit at top speed at Portsmouth,
and proceed to the relief of Gibraltar. A leak having been located
below the waterhne of the ** Royal George," the vessel was
careened to allow of the defect being repaired. According to the
version of the disaster favoured by the Admiralty, she was over-
turned by a breeze. But the general opinion of the navy was
that the shifting of her weights was more than the old and rotten
timbers of the " Royal George " couM stand. A large piece of
her bottom fell out, and she went down at once. It is estimated
that not fewer than 800 persons went down with her, for besides
the crew there were A large number of tradesmen, women and
children on board. Kempcnfclt, who was in his cabin, perished
with the rest. Cowper's poem, the " Loss of the Royal George,"
commemorates this disaster. Kempcnfeft effected radical altera-
tions and improvements fn the signalling system then existing
in the British navy. A painting of the loss of the " Royal
George " is in the Royal United Service Institution, London.
See Charnock's Biog. Nov., vi. 146, and Ralfe's Naval Biografrhies,
i. 215.
KEMPT, SIR JAMBS (1764-1854), British soldier, wasga2etted
to the toist Foot in India in 1783, but on its disbandment two
years later was placed on half-pay. It is. said that he took a
clerkship iir Greenwood's, the armyagents (afterwards Cox 8t Co.).
He attracted the notice of the Duke of York, through whom
he obtained a captaincy (very soon followed by a majority) in
the newly raised 113th Foot. But it was not long before his
regiment experienced the fate of the old roist; this time how-
ever Kempt was retained on full pay in the recruiting service.
In 1709 he accompanied Sir Ralph Abereromby to Holland, and
later to Egypt as an aide-de-camp. After Abcrcromby's death
Kempt remained on hrs successor's staff until the end of the
campaign in Egypt. In April 1803 he joined the staff of Sir
David Dundas, but next month returned to regimental duty, and
a little later received a lieutenant-colonelcy in the flist Foot.
With hi* new regiment he went, under Craig, to the Mediter-
ranean theatre of operations, and at Maida the light brigade
led by him bore the heaviest share of the battle. Employed
from 1807 to i8tt on the staff fn North America, Brevet -Colonel
Kempt at the end of 18 ti joined Wellington's army in Spain
with the local rank of major-general, which was, on the 1st of
January r8i 2, made substantive. As one of Picton's brigadiers,
Kempt took part in the great assault on Badajoz and was severely
wounded. On rejoining for duty, he was posted to the command
of a brigade of the light Division (43rd, 52nd and 95th Rifles),
•726
KEMPTEN^-KEN, THOMAS
which he led at Vera, the NiveJJe (where he was again wounded),
Bayonne, Orthcz and Toulouse. Early in 181 5 he was made
K.C.B., and in July for his services at Waterloo, G.C.B. At
that battle he commanded the 28th, 32nd and 70th as a
brigadier under his old chief, Picton, and on Picton's death
succeeded to the command of his division. From 1828 to 1830
be was Governor-General of Canada, and at a critical time dis-
played firmness and moderation. He was afterwards Master-
General of the Ordnance. At the time of his death in 1854 he
had been for some years a full General.
KEMPTEM, a town in the kingdom of Bavaria on the Hler,
81 m. S.W. of Munich by rail. Pop. (1005), 20,663. The town
is well built, has many spacious squares and attractive public
grounds, and contains a castle, a handsome town-hall, a gym-
nasium, &c The old palace of the abbots of Kempten, dating
from the end of the 1 7 th century, is now partly used as barracks,
and near to it is the fine abbey church. The industries include
wool-spinning and weaving and the manufacture of paper, beer,
machines, hosiery and matches. As the commercial centre of
the Algiu, Kempten carries on active trade in timber and dairy
produce. Numerous remains have been discovered on the
lindenberg, a hill in the vicinity.
Kempten, identified with the Roman Cambodunum, consisted
in early times of two towns, the old and the new. The continual
hostility that existed between these was intensified by the wel-
come given by the old town, a free imperial city since 1289, to
the Reformed doctrines, the new town keeping to the older
faith. The Benedictine abbey of Kempten, said to have been
founded in 773 by Hildegarde, the wife of Charlemagne, was an
important house. In 1360 its abbot was promoted to the dignity
of a prince of the Empire by the emperor Charles IV.; the town
and abbey passed to Bavaria in 1803. Here the.Austrians
defeated the French on the 17th of September 1796.
See Forderrenther, Die Sladl Kempten und ikre Umtebung
(Kempten, 1901); Haggenmulier, Gesckkhte der Stadt una der
iefursteten Grafschaft Kempten, voL i {Kempten, 1840); and
Meirhofer, Gesckichlluke Darstetlung der dtnhwurdigsten Sckicksate
der Stadt Kempten (Kempten, 1856).
> KEN, THOMAS (1637-1 711), the most eminent of the English
non-juring bishops, and one of the fathers of modern English
hymnology, was born at Little Berkhampstead, Herts, in 1637.
He was the son of Thomas Ken of Furnival's Inn, who belonged
to an ancient stock, — that of the Kens of Ken Place, in Somerset-
shire; his mother was a daughter of the now forgotten poet, John
Chalkhill, who is called by Walton an " acquaintant and friend
of Edmund Spenser." Ken's step-sister, Anne, was married to
Izaak Walton in 1646, a connexion which brought Ken from his
boyhood under the refining influence of this gentle and devout
man. In 1652 Ken entered Winchester College, and in 1656
became a student of Hart Hall, Oxford. He gained a fellowship
at New College in 1657, and proceeded B.A. in 166 1 and M.A. in
1664. He was for some time tutor of his college; but the most
characteristic reminiscence of his university life is the mention
made by Anthony Wood that in the musical gatherings of the
time " Thomas Ken of New College, a junior, would be sometimes
among them, and sing his part." Ordained in 1662, he succes-
sively held the livings of Little Easton in Essex, Brighstone
(sometimes called Brixton) in the Isle of Wight, and East Wood-
bay in Hampshire; in 1672 he resigned the last of these, and
returned to Winchester, being by this time a prebendary of the
cathedral, and chaplain to the bishop, as well as a fellow of
Winchester College. He remained there for several years, acting
as curate in one of the lowest districts, preparing his Manual
of Prayers for the use of the Scholars of Winchester College (first
published in 1674), and composing hymns. It was at this time
that he wrote, primarily for the same body as his prayers, his
morning, evening and midnight hymns, the first two of which,
beginning " Awake, my soul, and with the sun " and " Glory to
Thee, my God, this night," are now household words wherever
the English tongue is spoken. The latter is often made to begin
with the line " All praise to Thee, my God, this night," but in
the earlier editions over which Ken had control, the line is as
first given. 1 In 1674 Ken paid a visit to Rome in company with
young Izaak Walton, and thb journey seems mainly to have
resulted in confirming his regard for the Anglican commtmioa.
In 1670 he was appointed by Charles IL chaplain to the Princess
Mary, wife of William of Orange. While with the court at the
Hague, he incurred the displeasure of William by insisting that
a promise of marriage, made to an English lady of high birth by
a relative of the prince, should be kept; and he therefore gladly
returned to England in 1680, when he was immediately appointed
one of the king's chaplains. He was once more residing at
Winchester in 1683 when Charles came to the city with his doubt-
fully composed court, and his residence was chosen as the home
of Nell Gwynne; but Ken stoutly objected to this arrangement,
and succeeded in making the favourite find quarters elsewhere.
In August of this same year he accompanied Lord Dartmouth
to Tangier as chaplain to the fleet, and Pepys, who was one of
the company, has left on record some quaint and k»ndly remini-
scences of him and of his services on board. The fleet returned
in April 1684, and a few months after, upon a vacancy occurring
in the see of Bath and Wells, Ken, now Dr Ken, was appointed
bishop. It is said that, upon the occurrence of the vacancy,
Charles, mindful of the spirit he had shown at Winchester,
exclaimed, " Where is the good little man that refused his lodging
to poor Nell? " and determined that no other should be bishop.
The consecration took place at Lambeth on the 251b of January
1685; and one of Ken's first duties was to attend the death-bed
of Charles, where his wise and faithful ministrations won the
admiration of everybody except Bishop Burnet. In this year
he published his Exposition on the Church Catechism, perhaps
better known by its sub-title, The Practice of Diane Love, In
1 688, when James reissued his " Declaration of Indulgence."
Ken was one of the " seven bishops " who refused to publish it-
He was probably influenced by two considerations: first, by
his profound aversion from Roman Catholicism, to which he felt
he would be giving some episcopal recognition by compliance;
but, second and more especially, by the feeling that James was
compromising the spiritual freedom of the church. Along with
his six brethren, Ken was committed to the Tower on the Sth of
June 1688, on a charge of high misdemeanour; the trial, which
took place on the 29th and 30th of the month, and which resulted
in a verdict of acquittal, is matter of history. With the revolu-
tion which speedily followed this impolitic trial, new troubles
encountered Ken; for, having sworn allegiance to James, he
thought himself thereby precluded from taking the oath to
William of Orange. Accordingly, he took his place among the
non-jurors, and, as he stood firm to his refusal, he was, in August
1691, superseded in his bishopric by Dr Kidder, dean of Peter-
borough. From this time he lived mostly in retirement, finding
a congenial home with Lord Weymouth, his friend from college
days, at Longleat in Wiltshire; and though pressed to resume
his diocese in 1703, upon the death of Bishop Kidder, he declined,
partly on the ground of growing weakness, but partly no doubt
from his love for the quiet life of devotion which he was able to
lead at Longleat. His death took place there on the 19th of
March 17x1.
Although Ken wrote much poetry, besides his hymns, he cannot
be called a great poet; but he had that fine combination of spiritual
insight and feeling with poetic taste which marks all great hymn-
writers. As a hymn-writer he has had few equals in England: it
can scarcely be said that even Keble, though possessed of moch
rarer poetic gifts, surpassed him in his own sphere (see Hrtovs).
In his own day he took high rank as a pulpit orator, and even royalty
had to beg for a seat amongst his audiences; but his sermons are ncr*
forgotten. He lives in history, apart from his three hymns, mainly
as a man of unstained purity and invincible fidelity to co nsci e n ce,
weak only in a certain narrowness of view which is a frequent at-
tribute of the intense character which he possessed. As an rrrlnriasTir
be was a High Churchman of the old school.
Ken's poetical works were published in collected form in four
volumes by W. Hawkins, his relative and exceptor, in 1 711 ; his prose
m • The fact, however, that in 1712— only a year after Ken's de
his publisher, Brome, published the hymn with the opening 1
" All ptaiae," has been deemed by such a high authority mm the sat
earl of Selborne sufficient evidence that the alteration had Kens
authority.
KEN—KENDAL
i*7
works «tre issued in 1838 In one volume, trader the editorship «f
I. T. Round. A brief memoir was prefixed by Hawkins to a selection
from Ken's works which he published in 1713; and a life, in two
volumes, by the Rev. W. L. Bowles, appeared in 1830. But the
standard biographies of Ken are those of J. Lavicount Anderdon
(The Life of Thomas Ken. Bishop of Bath and Weils, by a Layman,
1851 ; 2nd ed., 1854) and of Dean Plumptre (2 vols., 1888; revised,
1890). See also the Rev. W. Hunt's article in the Diet. Nat. Biog.
KEN, a river of Northern India, tributary to the Jumna on
its right bank, flowing through Bundelkhand. An important
reservoir in its upper basin, which impounds about 180 million
cubic feet of water, irrigates about 374,000 acres in a region
specially liable to drought.
. KEN A, or Keneh (sometimes written Qina), a town of Upper
Egypt on a canal about a mile E. of the Nile and 380 m. S.S.E.
of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907), 20,069. Kena, the capital of a
province of the same name, was called by the Greeks Caene or
Caenepolis (probably the Nfa} *6Xis of Herodotus; see Akhmim)
in distinction from Coptos (qv), r$ m - S., to whose trade it
eventually succeeded. It is a remarkable fact that its modern
name should be derived from a purely Greek word, like Iskenderia
from Alexandria, and Nekrash from Naucratis; in the absence
of any known Egyptian name it seems to point to Kena having
originated in a foreign settlement in connexion with the Red Sea
trade. It is a flourishing town, specially noted for the manufac-
ture of the porous water jars and bottles used throughout Egypt.
The clay for making them is obtained from a valley north of
Kena. The pottery is sent down the Nile in specially constructed
boats. Kena is also known for the excellence of the dates sold
in its bazaars and for the large colony of dancing girls who live
there. It carries on a trade in grain and dates with Arabia, via
Kosseir on the Red Sea, 100 m. E. in a direct line. This incon-
siderable traffic is all that is left of the extensive commerce
formerly maintained— chiefly via Berenice and Coptos — between
Upper Egypt and India and Arabia. The road to Kosseir is
one of great antiquity. It leads through the valley of Ham mi -
mat, celebrated for its ancient breccia quarries and deserted
gold mines. During the British operations in Egypt in 1801
Sir David Baird and his force marched along this road to Kena,
taking sixteen days on the journey from Kosseir.
KENDAL. DUKEDOM OP. The English title of duke of
Kendal was first bestowed in May 1667 upon Charles (d. 1667),
the infant son of the duke of York, afterwards James II.
Several persons have been created earl of Kendal, among them
being John, duke of Bedford, son of Henry IV.; John Beaufort,
duke of Somerset (d. 1444); and Queen Anne's husband, George,
prince of Denmark.
In 1719 Ehrengarde Melusina (1667- 1743), mistress of the
English king George I., was created duchess of Kendal. This
lady was the daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, count of Schulen-
burg (d. 169 1), and was born at Emden on the 25th of December
1667. Her father held important positions under the elector
of Brandenburg; her brother Matthias John (1661-1747) won
great fame as a soldier in Germany and was afterwards com-
mander-in-chief of the army of the republic of Venice. Having
entered the household of Sophia, electrcss of Hanover, Melusina
attracted the notice of her son, the future king, whose mistress
she became about 1690. When George crossed over to England
in 1714, the " Schulenburgin," as Sophia called her, followed him
and soon supplanted her principal rival, Charlotte Sophia,
Baroness von KUmannseggc (c. 1673-1725), afterwards countess
of Darlington, as his first favourite. In 1716 she was created
duchess of Munster; then duchess of Kendal; and in 1723 the
emperor Charles VI. made her a princess of the Empire. The
duchess was very avaricious and obtained large sums of money
by selling public offices and titles; she also sold patent rights,
one of these being the privilege of supplying Ireland with a new
copper coinage. This she sold to a Wolverhampton iron mer-
chant named William Wood (1671-1730), who flooded the country
with coins known as " Wood's halfpence," thus giving occasion
for the publication of Swift's famous Chapter's Letters. In poli-
tical matters she had much influence with the king, and she
received £10,000 for procuring the recall of Botingbroke from
exile. After George's death in 1727 she lived at Kendal House,
Islewoitb, Middlesex, until her death on the 10th of May 1743.
The duchess was by no means a beautiful woman, and her thin
figure caused the populace to refer to her as the " maypole."
By the king she had two daughters: PetroniHa Melusina
(c. 1693-17 78), who was created countess of Walsingham in 1722,
and who married the great earl of Chesterfield; and Margaret
Gertrude, countess of Lippe (1703-1773).
KENDAL. WILLIAM HUNTER (1843* ), English actor,
whose family name was Grimston, was born in London on the
16th of December 1843, the son of a painter. He made his first
stage appearance at Glasgow in 1862 as Louis XTV., in A Life's
Revenge, billed as " Mr Kendatt." After some experience at
Birmingham and elsewhere, be joined the Haymarket company
in London in 1866, acting everything from burlesque to Romeo.
In 1869 he married Margaret (Madge) Shafto Robertson (b. 1849),
sister of the dramatist, T. W. Robertson. As " Mr and Mrs
Kendal" their professional careers then became inseparable.
Mrs Kendal's first stage appearance was as Marie, " a child,"
in The Orphan of the Pratm Sea in 1854 in London. She soon
showed such talent both as actress and singer that she secured
numerous engagements, and by 1865 was playing Ophelia and
Desdemona. She was Mary Meredith in Our American Cousin
with Sothern, and Pauline to his Claud Melnotte. But her real
triumphs were at the Haymarket in Shakespearian revivals
and the old English comedies. While Mr Kendal played
Orlando, Charles Surface, Jack Absolute and Young Marlowe,
his wife made the combination perfect with her Rosalind, Lady
Teazle, Lydia Languish and Kate Hardcastle; and she created
Galatea in Gilbert's Pygmalion and Calaiea (1871). Short
seasons followed at the Court theatre and at the Prince of
Wales's, at the latter of which they joined the Bancrofts in
Diplomacy and other plays. Then in 1879 began a long associa-
tion with Mr (afterwards Sir John) Hare as joint-managers of
the St James's theatre, some of their notable successes being in
The Squire, Impulse, The Ironmaster and A Scrap of Paper. In
1888, however, the Hare and Kendal regime came to an end.
From that time Mr and Mrs Kendal chiefly toured in the pro-
vinces and in America, with an occasional season at rare intervals
in London.
KENDAL, a market town and municipal borough in the
Kendal parliamentary division of Westmorland, England, 251 m.
ft.N.W. from London on the Windermere branch of the London
& North-Western railway. Pop.*(i9oi), 14,183. The town, the
fuH name of which is Kirkby-Kendal or Kirkby-in-Kendal, is
the largest in the county. It is picturesquely placed on the river
Kent, and is irregularly built. The white-walled houses with
their blue-slated roofs, and the numerous trees, give it an attrac-
tive appearance. To the S.W. rises an abrupt limestone emi-
nence, Scout Scar, which commands an extensive view towards
Windermere and the southern mountains of the Lake District.
The church of the Holy Trinity, the oldest part of which dates
from about 1 200, is a Gothic building with five aisles and a square
tower. In it is the helmet of Major Robert Pbilipson, who rode
into the church during service in search of one of Cromwell's
officers, Colonel Briggs, to do vengeance on him. This major
was notorious as " Robin the Devil," and his story is told in
Scott's Roheby. Among the public buildings are the town hall,
classic in style; the market house, and literary and scientific
institution, with a museum containing a fossil collection from the
limestone of the locality. Educational establishments include a
free grammar school, in modern buildings, founded in 1525 and
well endowed; a blue-coat school, science and art school, and
green-coat Sunday school (18 13). On an eminence east of the town
are the ruins of Kendal castle, attributed to the first barons of
Kendal. It was the birthplace of Catherine Parr, Henry VUI.'s
last queen. On the Castlebrow Hill, an artificial mound prob-
ably of pre- Norman origin, an obelisk was raised in 1788 in
memory of the revolution of t6B8. The woollen manufactures
of Kendal have been noted since 1331, when Edward III. is said
to have granted tetters of protection to John Kemp, a Flemish
weaver who settled in the town; ami, although the coarse doth
7*»
KENDAIJ^-rKENG: TUNG
s * K^Aal p*"**" * »• *••» nude. I U
nVt *« «.** ■ iwwu wt of tweeds.
? as* !«;*• ■— « «l» *»d jackets,
mot feeds. Other manu-
r Scats aad shoes, cards for
k *^ - - - *— TkK tt a large weekly
aad cattle fairs. The
and 18 councillors.
at Watercrook near
or Kirkby-in-Kendal,
w , . -*«* - iwwor * W OvetQwut. were granted by William L
j*^ hmw^ **. :tefc*my wasdividcdinto three parts
!T * -*:a iivv: ;;. «e» part with the casUe passing to
* v .. .» JS-- *.«*•* ******* at Catherine Parr. After
a> <• u*K*k\Nto» .^rarr.awquessof Northampton,
wTki* * -be s*w «-** Man** Fee reverted to Queen
*, .x v ->to^c.S ^rwdeaily deserted, was in ruins in
»-nn" k -^ ** *~*.v-x4 by the Scots in 1210, and was
,^*n: v. -V ?cx* j *:» $ and again in 1745 when the Pre-
VfcV , n , NNW * -«v% t.i*< there. Burgesses in Kendal axe men-
*»■**. * .v • •* ?v Vwtoffc with "court house*" and the
*jv . - . «* .v- uMTir b aactuded in a confirmation charter to
S« * 1* r»r )a w** Richard III. in 14&4 granted the
i»k k" -**ix Kax^y freedom from toll, passage and pont-
*»v * *. w *v« * *** rtcoapotated in 1576 by Queen Elizabeth
**.* ,w- vv**»*W«aan and xa burgesses, but Charles I. in
w i> ^ w <^ * ***>>»» u aldermen and ao capital burgesses.
* » >* V V- o#** Reform Art of 1835 the corporation was
*t * * „*x>i t*v«* »*jt to 1885 Kendal sent one member to
m .*«. *»; ^*t ^"** t»* Ust date its representation has been
•^ ■ w. ^w^tw *«thern division of the county. A weekly
a** xv* „ni n*.-nmj «tanl«d by Richard I. to Roger Fiu Rein-
»h>» **x i^. v WwM hy the corporation from the carl of Lonsdale
«.. v \v> * **»»*> h>rds of the manor, in 1885 and 1886. Of
ta« j w ^ i \ » - s *» * art now held three are ancient, that now held
** i v -^ * V*«d being granted to Marmaduke dn Tweng and
% , i » .v Rvw » ».W» AAd those on the 8th and 9th of November
W J ., m. ***>* of Ingelram de Gynes, in 1333.
vx " \*f* Ci**** History, Westmorland; Cornelius Nicholson,
v ,.— v, .v ait* 11861).
MM***** HKNRY CLARENCE (1841-1882), Australian
y ^ . ^»m «rt * mmionary, was -born in New South Wales on the
w.vA «* V** l& * u ** c rece * VC{ * 0n ^ v a *K%bt education, and
* vw W anWtd a lawyer's office in Sydney. He had always
|>hi u<**,« vaUt*. and sent some of bis verses in 1862 to London
^ ^ ^V J*4 in the Atlunoeum, Next year he obtained a
s<v-(<^w * twe Lands Department at Sydney, being afterwards
v ,t«*vit*Jt t* it* Colonial Secretary's office; and he combined
*\.* %wi *»**• tte writing of poetry and with journalism. His
^k>U *\4»*«w* °^ vcrse wcre ^tefl* 6 * J rom «» Australian
^.^^ O*^^ and Songs from the Mountains (1880), his feeling
Lv aMwvw *» t«bodied in Australian landscape and bush-life,
K* * \^v twe and full of charm. In 1869 he resigned his post
«4 ,v jmV- •Hvice, and for some little while was in business
% \ a * V«y4»*«» Sir Henry Parkes took an interest in him,
,-4 ♦\*«*t»*^ appointed him to an inspectorship of forests,
"iv •' >A \« ttw i»t of August 1882. In 1886 a memorial edition
J V vTkCm* **> publUhcd at Melbourne.
k*W*AVt* DDWARD VAUGHAN HYDE (1810-1880),
t **\ Sw»wt« and author, was born at Cork on the 2nd of July
t ^* v^ m ^ ^ % ^^ > cal merchant. He was educated at Trinity
" sV l**fcfc* *a» called to the Irish bar in 1840 and to the
> ^ *m «a t*47- ^ obtained a fair practice in criminal
*L U* *»* W became a Q.C and a bencher of Gray's Inn.
** . ^ VmwWv till 1873. when he became leading counsel
v v V^hw claimant, that he came into any p-eat promi-
\\ \ v*<*t vvaduct of the case became a public scandal,
^'^ v %vtK ^ a<Ainst his client he started a paper to
* _^ ^^ w attack I he judges. His behaviour was so
*""* i^^asilisbenchcd and disbarred by his Inn.
He then started an agitation throughout the country to ventilate
his grievances, and in 1875 was elected to parliament for Slokc;
but no member would introduce him when he took his seat.
Dr Kenealy, as he was always called, gradually ceased 10
attract attention, and on the t6lh of April 1880 he died ia
London. He published a great quantity of verse, and also of
somewhat mystical theology. His second daughter, Dr Arabella
Kenealy, besides practising as a physician, wrote some clever
novels.
KfiNG TUNG, the most extensive of the Shan States in the
province of Burma. It is in the southern Shan States' charge
and lies almost entirely east of the Salwecn river. The area of
the state is rather over 12,000 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the
states of Mang Lon, Mong Lem and K£ng Hang (Hsip Hsawsg
PannJO, the two latter under Chinese control; E. by the Mckoctg
river, on the farther side of which is French Lao territory; S. by
the Siamese Shan States, and W. in a general way by the Salwcea
river, though it overlaps it in some places. The state is known
to the Chinese as Ming King, and was frequently called by the
Burmese " the 32 cities of the G6n " (Hkdn). Keng Tang has
expanded very considerably since the establishment of British
control, by the inclusion of the districts of Hscn Yaut, Hsca
Mawng, M5ng Hsat, Mong Pu, and the cis-Mckong portions of
Keng Cheng, which in Burmese tiroes wcre separate charges.
The " classical " name of the state is Khcmarata or Khonaraia
Tungkapuri. About 63% of the area lies in the basin of the
Mekong river and 37% in the Salwecn drainage area. The
watershed is a high and generally continuous range. Some of
its peaks rise to over 7000 ft., and the elevation is nowhere much
below 5000 ft. Parallel to this successive hill ranges run north
and south. Mountainous country so greatly predominates
that the scattered valleys are but as islands in a sea of rugged
hills. The chief rivers, tributaries of the Salwecn, are the Nam
Hka, the Hwe Long, Nam Pu, and the Nam Hsim. The first
and last are very considerable rivers. The Nam Hka rises in
the Wa or Vfl states, the Nam Hsim on the watershed range ia
the centre of the state. Rocks and rapids make both unnavi-
gable, but much timber goes down the Nam Hsim. The lower
part of both rivers forms the boundary of Keng Tung state.
The chief tributaries of the Mekong arc the Nam Nga* the Kara
Lwc, the Nam Yawng, Nam Lin, Nam H6k and Nam Kok. 01
these the chief is the Nam Lwe, which is navigable in the interior
of the state, but enters the Mekong by a gorge broken up by
rocks. The Nam Lin and the Nam Kok are also considerable
streams. The lower course of the latter passes by Chieag Rai
in Siamese territory. The lower Nam H6k or Me Huak fonos
the boundary with Siam.
The existence of minerals was reported by the sawbwa, or chief,
to Francis Carnicr in 1867, but none is worked or located. Ccid
is washed in most of the streams. Teak forests exist in Mong Pa
and M6ng Hsat, and the sawbwa works them as government con-
tracts. One-third of the price rje&lizcd from the sale of the logs at
Moulmein is retained as the government royalty. There arc teak
forests also in the Mckone drainage area in the south of the state, tat
there is only a local market for the timber. Rice, as elsewhere ia
the Shan States, is the chief crop. Next to it is sugar-cape, growa
both as a field crop and in gardens. Earth-nuts and tobacco are the
only other field crops in the valleys. On the hills, besides rice, cot ton,
poppy and tea are the chief crops. The tea is carelessly grown, badly
prepared, and only consumed locally. A great deal oTgarden pro-
duce is raised in the valleys, especially near the capital. The ««ate
is rich in cattle, and exports them to the country west of the Salweca.
Cotton and opium are exported in large quantities, the former en-
tirely to China, a good deal of the latter to northern Siam. which al-o
takes shoes and sandals. Tea is carried through westwards froca
K£ng HOng, and silk from the Siamese Shan States. Cotton as*
silk weaving are dying out as industries. Large quantities joi *hon
and sandals are made of buffalo and bullock hide, with Chinese feu
uppers and soft iron hobnails. There is a good deal of pottery work.
The chief work in iron is the manufacture of guns, which has been
carried on for many years in certain villages of the Sam Tao district.
The gun barrels and springs are rude but effective, though not yrerr
durable. The revenue of the state is collected as the Burr
thathameda, a rude system of income-tax. From tBoo. when the s
madeits submission, the annual tributary offerings made m Bun
times were continued Co the British government, but in 1804 these
offerings were converted into tribute- For the quinquennial j
1903-1908 the state paid Rs. 30,000 (Jkooo) annually.
KENlLWOkTH— KfeNMtJfcE
y2"9
The population of the state was enumera ted for the first tkne in
iqol giving ar total of 100698. According to an estimate made by
Mr G. C Stirling, the political officer in charge of the state, in 1897-
-1B98, of the various tribes of Shans. the Hkun and Lu contribute
about 36.000 eaon. the western Shans 32.000, the Lem and Lao Shans
•bout 7000. and the Chinese Shans about 5000. Of the hill tribes, the
Kaw or Aka are the most homogeneous with aa.ooo, but probably
the Wa (or Vu),. disguised under various tribal names, are at least
equally numerous. Nominal Buddhists make up a total of 133400,
and the remainder are classed as animtsts. Spirit-worship is, how-
everj very conspicuously prevalent amongst all classes even of the
Shans. The present sawbwa or chief received his patent from the
British government on the 9th of February 1897. The early history
of KengTflng is very obscure, but Burmese influence seems to have
been maintained since the latter half, at any rate, of the t6th century.
The Chinese made several attempts to subdue die state, and appear
to hava taken the capital in 1765-66. but were driveo out by the
united Shan and Burmese troops. The same fate seems to have
attended the first Siamese invasion of 1804. The second and third
Siamese Invasions, in 1852 and 1854. resulted in great disaster to the
invaders, though the capita) was invested for a time.
King Tung, the capital. « situated towards the southern and of a
valley about 12 m. long and with an average breadth of 7 m. The
town is surrounded by a brick wall and moat about 5 m. round.
Only the central and northern portions are much built over. Pop.
Ctooa), 5695. It is the most, considerable town m the British Shan
State*. In the dry season crowd* attend the market held according
to Shan custom every five days, and numerous caravans come from
China. The military post formerly was 7 m. west of the town, at
the foot of the watershed range. At first the headquarters of a
regiment waa stationed there; this was reduced to a wmg, and
recently to military police, The site was badly caoaea and proved
very unhealthy, and the headquarters both military and civil have
been transferred to Loi Ngwe Long, a ridge 6300 ft. above sea-level
ti in. south of the capital. The rainfall probably averages between
50 and 60 in. for the yean The temperature seems to rise to nearly
100 ° F. during the hot weather, falling jo* or more during the night.
In the cold weather a temperature of 40° or a few degrees more or
less appears to be the lowest experienced. The plain in which the
capital stands has an altitude of 3000 ft. 0- G. Sc.)
KENILWORTH, a market town in the Rugby parliamentary
division or Warwickshire, England; pleasantly situated on a
tributary of the Avon, on a branch of the London & North-
western railway* 99 m. N.W. from London. Pop. of urban
district (root), 4544. The town is only of importance from its
antiquarian interest and the magnificent ruins of its Old castle.
The walls originally enclosed an area of 7 acres. The principal
portions of the building remaining are the gatehouse, now used
as a dwctting»bouse; Caesar's tower, the only portion built by
Geoffrey de Clinton now extant, with massive walls 16 ft. thick;
the Mcrwyn's tower of Scott's Kenilworth I the great ball built
by John oi Gaunt with windows of very beautiful design; and
tbe Leicester buildings, which are in a very ruinous condition.
Not far from the castle are the remains of an Augustintan
monastery founded in 11 22, and afterwards made an abbey.
Adjoining the abbey is tbe parish church of St Nicholas, restored
in 1865, a structure of mixed architecture, containing a fine
Norman doorway, which is supposed to have been the entrance
of the former abbey church.
Kenilworth (Ckinewrde, Kenilkwurda, Kinelingworthe, Kcni-
lord y Kitlingwortk) is said to have been a member of Stone-
logb before tbe Norman Conquest and a possession of the Saaon
kings, whose royal residence there was destroyed in the wars
between Edward and Canute; The town was granted by
Henry L to Geoffrey de Clinton, a Norman who built the castle
mamd which tbe whole history of Kenilworth centres. He' also
foanded a monastery here about ir». Geoffrey's grandson
released his right la King John, and the castle remained with
the crown until Henry III. granted it to Shnon de Montfort,
earl of Leicester. The famous " Dictum de Kenttwotth " was
proclaimed here in 1 266. After the battle of Evesham the rebel
forces rallied at the castle, which, after a siege of six months, was
surrendered by Henry- de Hastings, the governor, on account of
tbe scarceness of food and of the " pestilent disease " which
raged there. The king then granted it to his son Edmund J
Through John of Gaunt it came to Henry IV. and was granted
by Elizabeth in 1562 to Robert Dudley, afterwards earl of
Leicester, but on his death in t&& again merged in the posses-
sfens of the Crown. The earl spent large sums on restoring the
castle and grounds, and here in July 157$ he entertained Queen
Elizabeth at " excessive cost,** as described In Scott's Kcnil-
worth. On the queen's first entry " a small floating island
illuminated by a great variety of torches . . . made its appear-
ance upon the lake," upon which, clad in silks, were the Lady of
the Lake and two nymphs waiting on her, and for the several
days of her stay " rare shews and sports were there exercised.**
During the civil wars the castle was dismantled by the soldiers of
Cromwell and was f rbm that time abandoned to decay. The only
mention of Kenilworth as a borough occurs in a charter of
Henry I. to Geoffrey de Clinton and in the charters of Henry I.
and Henry II. to the church of St Mary of Kenilworth confirming
the grant of lands made by Geoffrey to this church, and mention-
ing that he kept the land in which his castle was situated and
also land for making his borough, park and fishpond. The
town posses ses large tanneries.
KENITES, in the Bible a tribe or clan of the south of
Palestine, closely associated with the Amalekitcs, whose hostility
towards Israel, however, it did not share. On this account Saul
spared them when bidden by Yahweh to destroy Amalck;
David, too, whilst living in Judah, appears to have been on
friendly terms with them (1 Sam. xv. 6; xxx. 29). Moses himself
married into a Kenite family (Judges i. 16), and the variant
tradition would seem to show that the Kcnites were only a
branch of the Midianites (see Jethro, Midlm). Tacl, the
slayer of Sisera (see Deborah), was the wife of Heber the
Kenite, who lived near Kadesh in Naphtali; and the appear-
ance of the dan in this locality may be explained from the
nomadic habits of the tribe, or else as a result of the northward
movement in which at least one other clan or tribe took part (see
Dan). There is an obscure allusion to their destruction in an
appendage to the oracles of Balaam (Num. xxiv. 21 scq., see
G. B. Gray, Intern. Crit. Comm. p. 376); and with this, the only
unfavourable reference to them, may perhaps be associated the
curse of Cain. Although some connexion with the name of
Cain is probable, it is difficult, however, to explain the curse
(for one view, see LtevrrEs). More important is the prominent
part played by the Kenite (or Midianite) father-in-law of Moses,
whose help and counsel are related in Exod. xvfif.; and if, as
seems probable, the Rechabites (q.v.) were likewise of Kenite
Origin (1 Chron. ii. 55), this obscure tribe had evidently an
important part in shaping the religion of Israel.
See on this question. Hebrew Religion, and Buddc. Religion of
Israel io the Exile, vol. i. ; G. A. Barton. Semitic Ottgtns, pp. 272
sqq.; L. B. Paton* BibHeal World (1006. July and August). Oh
the migration of the Kenites into Palestine (cf. Num. x.ao with
Judges u 16). sec Caleb, Genesis. Jerahmeel. Judah. . (S. A. C.)
KBNMOriB, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, 6 m.
W. of Aberfeldy. Pop. of parish (1001), 1271. It is situated
at the foot of Loch Tay, near the point where the river Tay
leaves the lake. Taymouth Castle, the seat of the Marquess
of Breadalbane, stands near the base of Dnimmond Hill in a
princely park through which flows the Tay It is a stately four-
storeyed edifice with corner towers and a central pavilion, and
was built in 1801 (the west wing being added in 1842) on the site
of the mansion erected in 1580 for Sir Colin Campbell of Glen-
orchy. The old house was called B alloc h (Gaelic, bealach, u the
outlet of a lake "). Two miles S.W. of Kenmore are the Palls of
the Acharn, 80 ft. high. When Wordsworth and his sister
visited them in 1803 the grotto at the cascade was fitted up to
represent a •' hermit's mossy cell." At the village of Fortingall,
on tbe north side of Loch Tay, are the shell of a yew conjectured
to be 3000 years old and the remains or a Roman camp. Glcn-
lyon House was the home of Campbell of GJenlyon, chief agent
in the massacre of Glencoe. At Garth, i\ m. N.E., arc the
ruins of an ancient castle, said to have been a stronghold of
Alexander Stewart, the Wolf of Badenoch (1343-1405), in close
proximity to the modern mansion built for Sir Donald Currte.
KENMURE, WILLIAM GORDON. 6th viscount (d. 17x6),
Jacobite leader, son of Alexander, 5th viscount* (d. 1608), was
descended from the same family as Sir John Gordon of Loch-
invar (d. 1604), whose grandson, Sir John Gordon (d. 2634), was
73°
ossm V^cawat Ka^mtw w «**?. TW iaaafc had paw if
tea Ma tvxputt m.* Jte «awo *aaor* •» eke Soett^
5»0«t .a :«*> ^^
Pt^«tt*iex a IT'S * s*^ » 7 ~ - > _, K u.
KENNEDY— KENNEDY, B. H.
%** Wi svxxcdrw he
an* had >»«rd the
sadeesesxetothe
* sua » *s*« *«» .as* *» **s wde Mary
awer a* Xj^efi. xh «ad of Camwaih.
** *« j* *>?* ****** * &**■* « L '^ t r* ^ u !l"u h
!^7\^^ S«gZ%a tad « ***swa. Tto small force
a*l UW ietoo, 51a •*» E>«s*wie reached Hawick,
• her* he ^-£^1*^ JZpm* RaddyrTe, 3rd carl
L J< £^. ^er^TRK ^V^eTSrces of some
of °^* w f^ * *2^«i* a ather aimless marches,
fourteen hundred I mea* ^^^^ by a brigade under
lulled at Keb\ «*«« 'S^LdhTaTEilish army under
William W^^J^^^«^ crossed the English
takea over hy Forster.
HiawiTT was taken prisoner at Preston
aa 4 «as acftt to the Tower. In the
tried with other Jacobite noblemen
_^ »**« a* pleaded guilty, and appealed
.. v \. _*«-v Taunedutcly before his execution on
Tower Hill on the t 4 if « ^ ^J^ ^ UlIc$ wcre forfeiled|
«,» v .v. ~, - ~"~. ^ ^^ ^git to the Tower. In the
r!^ ^liTt' £d with other Jacobite noblemen
£5T!£ J H^tX 55 he pleaded guilty, and appealed
before the Hou*oiuw«* execution on
. » ...-«! nirtuJftCAt repealed the forfeiture, and his
but in iSj4 an art of parwww F_l^ mQ .^ , v: .
claims of the Pretender,
S^^endaat 5oC l l^h« (.7S0-1840), became Viscount
direct df * t ^be^ B tf the succeeding peer, Adam, 8th
Kcnmure. «£* ^ ^ |he lUlc be^e dormant.
Vl wmnSlIlT the na«* of a famous and powerful Scottish
» ^!~?-«iVd i» Ayrshire, derived probably from the name
K^^uTcbicC MMi * ** Culxcan, or Colzean, near Maybole
in AynMfe |W|i ^ became eari of Carrick early in the
ancestor of the Kennedys, but a
Kennedy of Dunure, who obtained
a Ayrshire about 1350. John's
dy, married Mary, a daughter of
son, Sir Gilbert Kennedy, was
e 1458. Another son was James
op of St Andrews from 1441 until
■ bishop founded and endowed St
ews and built a large and famous
or." Andrew Lang (History of
, " The chapel which he built for
the scarlet gowns of his students;
n doors; the beautiful silver mace
s, and representing all orders of
ic of the few remaining relics of
>re the bishop had begun to assist
i. Sir Hugh Kennedy, bad helped
ish from France.
ons was the poet. Walter Kennedy
id, third Lord Kennedy (killed at
irl of Cassillis before 1510; David's
ie of the mistresses of James IV.
i son Gilbert, a prominent figure in
513 until he was killed at Prestwick
37. His son Gilbert, the 31 d earl
I by George Buchanan, and was a
>c rout of Sol way Most in 154a.
as lord hign treasurer of Scotland
, he had been intriguing with the
ill Cardinal Beaton in the interests
iMnewhat mysteriously at Dieppe
[rora Paris, where he had attended
*l Scots, and the dauphin of France;
,ng of Carrick " and the brother of
**), abbot of Croacraguel. The
I abbot wrote several works defending the doctrines of the Romas
Catholic Church, and in 1562 had a public discussion on these
questions with John Knox, which took place at Maybole and
lasted for three days. He died on the 22nd of August 1564.
Gilbert Kennedy, 4th earl of Cassillis (c. 1541-1576), called
the " king of Carrick," became a protest ant, but fought for
Queen Mary at Langside in 1568. He is better known through
his cruel treatment of Allan Stewart, the commendator abbot
of Crossraguel, Stewart being badly burned by the earl's orders
at Dunure in 1570 in order to compel him to renounce his title
to the abbey lands which had been seized by CassDlis. This
" ane werry greedy man " died at Edinburgh in December
1576. His son John (c. 1567-1615), who became the 5th earl,
was lord high treasurer of Scotland in 1509 and his lifetime wit*
nessed the culmination of a great feud between the senior and a
younger branch of the Kennedy family. He was succeeded as
6th earl by his nephew John (c. 1505-1668), called " the grave
and solemn earl." A strong presbyterian, John was one of the
leaders of the Scots in their resistance to Charles I. In 1643 he
went to the Westminster Assembly of Divines and several tiroes
he was sent on missions to Charles I. and to Charles I L, for a time
he was lord justice general and he was a member of CronrweS*!
House of Lords. His son, John, became the 7th earl, and one of
his daughters, Margaret, married Gilbert Burnet, afterwards
bishop of Salisbury. His first wife, Jean (1607-1642), daughter
of Thomas Hamilton, 1st earl of Haddington, has been regarded
as the heroine of the ballad "The Gypsie Laddie,*' but this
identity is now completely disproved. John, the 7th earl, M the
heir," says Burnet, " to his father's stiffness, bat not to bis other
virtues," supported the revolution of 1688 and died on the 23rd
of July 1 70 1 ; his grandson John, the 8th earl, died without sons
fn August 1759.
The titles and estates of the Kennedys were now claimed by
William Douglas, afterwards duke of Queensberry, a great-grand-
son in the female line of the 7th earl and also by Sir Thomas
Kennedy, Bart., of Culzean, a descendant of the 3rd earl, i.e. by
the heir general and the heir male. In January 1762 the House
of Lords decided in favour of the heir male, and Sir Thomas
became the 9th earl of Cassillis. He died unmarried 00 the 30th
of November 1775, and his brother David, the 10th earl, also died
unmarried on the 18th of December 1792, when the baronetcy
became extinct. The earldom of Cassillis now passed to a cousin,
Archibald Kennedy, a captain in the royal navy, whose father,
Archibald Kennedy (d 1763), had migrated to America in 1729
and had become collector of customs in New York. His son,
the 1 xth earl, had estates in New Jersey and married an American
heiress; in 1765 he was said to own more bouses in New York
than any one else. He died in London on the 30th of December
1794, and was succeeded by his son Archibald (1770-1846), who
was created Baron Ailsa in 1806 and marquess of Ailsa in 1831.
His great-grandson Archibald (b. 1847) became 3rd 1
See the article in vol. it. of Sir R. Douglas's Fro-ofc of Srnilmwd.
edited by Sir I. B. Paul (1905). This » written by Lord Ailaa't
son and heir, Archibald Kennedy, earl of Cassillis (b, 1872).
KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL (1804-1889), English scholar;
was born at Summer Hill, near Birmingham, on the 6th of
November 1804, the eldest son of Rann Kennedy (17 7 2-1851).
who came of a branch of the Ayrshire family which had settled
in Staffordshire. Rann Kennedy was a scholar and man of
letters, several of whose sons rose to distinction. B. H.
Kennedy was educated at Birmingham and Shrewsbury
schools, and St John's College, Cambridge. After a brilliant
university career he was elected fellow and classical lecturer of
St John's College in 1828. Two years later he became an aaais
tant master at Harrow, whence he went to Shrewsbury as head-
master in 1836. He retained this post until 1866, the thirty
years of his rule bring marked by a long aeries of soc ceasea won
by his pupils, chiefly in classics. When he retired from Shrews-
bury a large sum was collected as a testimonial to him, and wyes
devoted partly to the new school buildings and partly to the
founding of a Latin professorship at Cambridge. The first two
occupants of tat chair were both Kennedy's old pupila, H. A- J.
KENNEDY, T. F.—KENNETH
73'
Monro and J. E. B. Mayor. In 1867 he was elected regit)* pro-
fessor of Greek ai Cambridge and canon of Ely. From 1870 to
1880 he was a member of the committee for the revision of the
New Testament. He was an enthusiastic advocate for the
admission of women to a university education, and took a promi-
nent part in the establishment of Newnham and Girton colleges.
He was also a keen politician of liberal sympathies. He died
near Torquay on the 6th of April 1880. Among a number of
rlfM^l school-books published by him are two, a Public School
Latin Primer and Public School Latin Grammar, which were for
long in use in nearly alt English schools.
His other chief works are: Sopbodes, Oedipus Tynunm (and
ed., 1885), Aristophanes, Birds (1874); Aeschylus, Agamemnon
(and ed., 1882), with introduction, metrical translation and
notes; a commentary on Virgil (3rd ed., 1 881 ) ; and a translation
of Plato, TheacMus ( 1881). He contributed largely to the collec-
tion known as Sabrinae Corolla, and published a collection of
verse in Greek, Latin and English under the title of Between
Whiles (and ed., 1882), with many autobiographical details.
His brother, Charles Rann Kennedy (1808-1867), was
educated at Shrewsbury school and Trinity College, Cambridge,
where he graduated as senior classic (1831). He then became
a barrister. From 1840-1856 he was professor of law at
Queen's College, Birmingham. As adviser to Mrs Swinfen,
the plaintiff in the celebrated will case Swinfen «. Swinfen
(1856), he brought an action for remuneration for professional
services, but the verdict given in his favour at Warwick
assises was set aside by the court of Common Pleas, on the
ground that a barrister could not sue for the recovery of Us fees.
The excellence of Kennedy's scholarship is abundantly proved
by bis translation of the orations of Demosthenes (1852-1863, in
Bonn's Classical Library), and his blank verse translation of the
works of Virgil (1861). He was also the author of New Rules
far Pleading (2nd ed., 1841) and A Treatise on Annuities (1846).
He died in Birmingham on the 1 71b of December 1867.
Another brother, Rev. William James Kennedy (1814*1891),
was a prominent educationalist, and the father of Lord Justice
Sir William Rann Kennedy (b. 1846), himself a distinguished
Cambridge scholar.
KENNEDY. THOMAS FRANCIS (178S-1879), Scottish politi-
cian, was born near Ayr in 1788. He studied for the bar and
became advocate in 181 1. Having been elected M.P. for the
Ayr burghs in 1818, he devoted the greater part of his life
to the promotion of Liberal reforms. In 1820 he married the
only daughter of Sir Samuel Romilly. He was greatly assisted
by Lord Cockbum, then Mr Henry Cockburn, and a volume of
correspondence published by Kennedy in 1874 forms a curious
and interesting record of the consultations of the two friends on
measures which they regarded as requisite for the political
regeneration of their native country. One of the first measures
to which he directed his attention was the withdrawal of the
power of nominating juries from the judges, and the imparting
of a right of peremptory challenge to prisoners. Among other
subjects were the improvement of the parish schools, of pauper
administration, and of several of the corrupt forms of legal pro-
cedure which then prevailed. In the construction of the Scottish
Reform Act Kennedy took a prominent part, indeed he and
Lord Cockbum may almost be regarded as its authors. After
the accession of the Whigs to office in 1832 he held various impor-
tant offices in the ministry, and most of the measures of reform
for Scotland, such as burgh reform, the improvements in the
Uw of •mail, and the reform of the sheriff courts, owed much to
bis sagacity and energy. In 1837 he went to Ireland as pay-
master of civil services, and set himself to the promotion of
various measures of reform. Kennedy retired from office
is 1.854* but continued to take keen interest in political affairs,
and up to his death in 1879 took a great part in both county
and parish business. He bad a stern love of justice, and
a determined haired of everything savouring of jobbery or
dishonesty.
KBNNBDY, WALTER (c. t46o-c. 1508), Scottish poet, was
Cbe third son of Gilbert, 1st Lord Kennedy. He matriculated
at Glasgow University in 1475 and took his M.A. degree in 1478.
In 1481 he was one of four examiners in his university, and in
1402 he acted as depute for his nephew, the hereditary bailie of
Carrick. He is best known for his share in the Plyting with
Dunbar (?.*.). In this coarse combat of wits Dunbar taunts his
rival with his Highland speech (the poem is an expression of
Gaelic and " Inglis," ue. English, antagonism); and implies that
he had been involved In treason, and had disguised himself
as a beggar in Galloway. With the exception of this share in
the Flyttng Kennedy's poems are chiefly religious in character.
They include The Praise of Aige, Ana A git Manis Infective
against Mouth Thankless, Ant Ballot in Praise of Our Lady, The
Passion of Christ and Pious Comusale. They are printed in the
rare supplement to David Laing's edition of William Dunbar
(1834), and they have been re-edited by Dr J. Schipper in the
proceedings of the Kais. Akad. der Wissenschaften (Vienna).
See also the prolegomena in the Scottish Text Society's edition
of Dunbar; and (for the life) Pitcairn's edition of the Historic of the
Kennedies (1830).
KENNEL, a small hut or shelter for a dog, also extended to a
group of buildings for a pack of bounds (see Doc). The word is
apparently from a Norman-French henil (this form does not
occur, but is seen in the Norman hinet, a little dog), modern
French chenil, from popular Latin can tie, place for a dog, canis,
cf. ovile, sheep-cote. The word " kennel," a gutter, a drain in
a street or road, is a corruption of the Middle English cane*\
cannel, in modern English "channel," from Latin canalis,
canal.
KENNETH, the name of two kings of the Scots.
Kenneth I., MacAlpin (d. c. 860), often described as the first
king of Scotland (kingdom of Scone), was the son of the Alpin,
called king of the Scots, who had been slain by the Picts in 832
or 834, whilst endeavouring to assert bis claim to the Pictish
throne. On the death of his father, Kenneth is said to have
succeeded him in the kingdom of the Scots. The region of his
rule is matter of conjecture, though Galloway seems the most
probable suggestion, in which case he probably led a piratic host
against the Picts. On the father's side he was descended from the
Conall Gabhrain of the old Dalriadic Scottish kingdom, and the
claims of father and son to the Pictish throne were probably
through female descent. Their chief support seems to have
been found in Fife. In the seventh year of his reign
(839 or 841) be took advantage of the effects of a Danish
invasion of the Pictish kingdom to attack the remaining
Picts, whom he finally subdued in 844 or 846. In 846 or 848
he transported the relics of St Cotumba to a church which he
had constructed at Scone. He is said also to have carried out
six invasions of Northumbria, in the course of which he burnt
Dunbar and took Melrose. According to the Scalacronica of
Sir Thomas Gray he drove the Angles and Britons over the Tweed,
reduced the land as far as that river, and first called his kingdom
Scotland. In his reign there appears to have been a serious
invasion by Danish pirates, in which Cluny and Dunkefd were
burnt. He died in 860 or 862, after a reign of twenty-eight
years, at Forteviot and was buried at Iona. The double dates
are due to a contest of authorities. Twenty-eight years is the
accepted length of his reign, and according to the cbro tide of
Henry of Huntingdon it began in 832. The Pictish Chronicle,
however, gives Tuesday, the 13th of February as the day, and
this suits 862 only, in which case his reign would begin
In 834.
Kenneth II. (d. 095), son of Malcolm I., king of Alban,
succeeded Cuilean, son oTIndulph, who had been slain by the
Britons of Strathdyde in 971 in Lothian. Kenneth began his
reign by ravaging the British kingdom, but he lost a large part
of his force on the river Cornag. Soon afterwards be attacked
Eadulf, earl of the northern half of Northumbria, and ravaged
the whole of his territory. He fortified the fords of the Forth as
a defence against the Britons and again invaded Northumbria,
carrying off the earl's son. About this time he gave the dty of
Brechin to the church. In 977 be is said to have slain Amlaiph
or Olaf, son of Indulph, king of Alban, perhaps a rival claimant
73*
KENNETTh-KENNICOTT
to the throne. According to the English chronicler*, Kenneth
paid homage to King Edgar for the cession of Lothian, but these
•tatements are probably due to the controversy as to the posi-
tion of Scotland. The mormaers, or chiefs, of Kenneth were
engaged throughout his reign in a contest with Sigurd the Nor-
wegian, carl of Orkney, for the possession of Caithness and the
northern district of Scotland as far south as the Spcy. In this
struggle the Scots attained no permanent success. In 905
Kenneth, whose strength like that of the other kings of his
branch of the house of Kenneth MacAlpin lay chiefly north of
the Tay, was slain treacherously by bis own subjects, according
to the later chroniclers at Fettcrcairn in the Mearns through an
intrigue of Einvda, daughter of the earl of Angus. He was
buried at Iona. .
Sec Chronicles of the Picts and Setts, ed. W. F. Skene (Edinburgh,
1867), and W. F. Skene, CeUk Scotland (Edinburgh, 1876).
i KENNETT. WHITE (1660-1728), English bishop and anti-
quary, was born at Dover in August 1660. He was educated
at Westminster school and at St Edmund's Hall, Oxford, where,
while an undergraduate, he published several translation* of
Latin works, including Erasmus In Praise of Folly. In 1685
he became vicar of Ambrosden, Oxfordshire. A few years after-
wards he returned to Oxford as tutor and vice-principal of St
Edmund's Hall, where he gave considerable impetus to the study
of antiquities. George Hi ekes gave him lessons in Old English.
In 1605 he published Parochial Antiquities. In 1700 he became
rector of St Botolph's, Aldgate, London, and in 1701 archdeacon
of Huntingdon. For a eulogistic sermon on the first duke of
Devonshire be was in 1707 recommended to the deanery- of
Peterborough. He afterwards joined the Low Church party,
strenuously opposed the Sachevcrcl movement, and in the
Bangorian controversy supported with great zeal and consider-
able bitterness the side of Bishop Hoadly. His intimacy with
Charles Trimnell, bishop of Norwich, who was high in favour
with the king, secured for him in 1718 the bishopric of Peter-
borough. He died at Westminster in December 1 7 28.
Kennett published in 1698 an > edition of Sir Henry Spebnan's
History of Sacrilege, aod he was the author of fifty-seven printed
works, chiefly tracts and sermons. He wrote the third volume
(Charles l.-Anne) of the composite CompUat History of England
(1706), and a more detailed and valuable Register ana Chronicle of
the Restoration. He wa» much interested in the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel.
The Li/e of Bishop ^
(anonymous), appeal
Anecdotes, and I. Disraeli's Calamities of Authors.
• Life of Bishop White Kennett, by the Rev. William Newton
(anonymous), appeared in 1730. See also Nichols's Literary
KENNEY. JAMES (1780-1849)* English dramatist, was the
son of James Kenney, one of the founders of Boodles' Club in
London*. His first play, a farce called Raising the Wind (1803),
was a success owing to the popularity of the character of
" Jeremy Diddler." Kenney produced more than forty dramas
and operas between 1803 and 1845. &&d many of his pieces, in
which Mrs Siddons. Madame Vestris, Foote, Lewis* Liston and
other hading players appeared from time to time, enjoyed a
considerable vogue. His most popular play was Sweethearts and
Wives, produced at the Hay market theatre in 1823, and several
times aiteiwards revived; and among the -most successful of his
other works were ; False Alarms ( 1807 ), a comic opera with music
by Braham; Lava, lam and Physic (181 1); Sprint and Autumn
(1827); The Illustrious S*anger, or Marriad and Buried (1827);
Mosaniello (1820); The Sicilian Vespers, a tragedy (1840).
Kenney, who numbered Charles Lamb and Samuel Rogers among
bis friends, died in London on the a$th of July 1840. Hemarried
the widow of the dramatist Thomas Hokroit, by whom be had
two sons and two daughters.
His second son, Oimlts Lamb Ksnkey (1823-1881), made
a name as a journalist, dramatist and miscellaneous, writer.
Commencing life as a clerk in .the General Post Office in London,
he joined the staff of The Timet, to which paper he contributed
dramatic criticism. In 1856. having been called to the bar, he
became secretary to Ferdinand de Insteps, and in 1S57 he pub-
lished Thg Gates of the East in support of the projected construe*
tio i of the Suez Canal. Kenney wrote the words for a number
of light operas, and was the author of several popular 1
the best known of which were " Soft and Low " (1865)
"The Vagabond" (1871). He also published a Memoir of
M. W. Bolfe (1875), and translated the Correspondence of Balzac
He included Thackeray and Dickens among his friends in a
literary coterie in which he enjoyed the reputation of a wit and
an accomplished writer of vers de sociUi, He died in London on
the 25th of August 1881.
See John Genest, Some Account of the English Stage, 1660-1830,
vols, vii and viii. (10 vols.. London. 1832) ;P. W. Clavdect, Ragen
and his Contemporaries (2 vols., London, 1889) ; Did. National Burg
KEOTWOTT. 0U8TAV ADOUPH (1818-1807), German
mineralogist, was born at Breslau on the 6th of January 1818.
After being employed In the Hormfoeralien Cabinet at Vienna,
he became professor of mineralogy in the university of Zurich,
He was distinguished for his researches on mineralogy, crystallo-
graphy and petrology. He- died at Lugano, on the 7th of
March 1897.
PUBLICATION'S. — Lehrbuch dor return KrystaUograpMe (1846):
Lehrbuch der Mtneralogte (1853 and 1857; 5th ed., 1880); Vberskhi
der Resultate mmerojonscher Ponchungen in den Jahren 2844-186$
(7 vols.. 1853-1868) ; Die Minerals der Schvaeiz (1866) ; Elemente der
Petrographte (1868).
KENNICOTT. BENJAMIN (1 718-1783), English divine and
Hebrew scholar, was born at Tomes, Devonshire, on the 4th of
April 1718. He succeeded his father as master of a charity
school, but by the liberality of friends he was enabled to go to
Wadham College, Oxford, in 1744, where he distinguished him-
self in Hebrew and divinity. While an undergraduate be
published two dissertatiour, On the Tree- of Life in Paradise, with
some Observations on the Fall of Man, and On the Oblations of Cairn
and Abel (2nd ed., 1747), which procured him the honour of a
bachelor's degree before the statutory time. In 1747 he was
elected fellow of Exeter College, and in 1750 he took his degree
of M.A. In 1764 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society,
and in 1767 keeper of the Radcliffe Library. He was also
canon of Christ Church (1770) and rector of Culham (17 Si), in
Oxfordshire, and was subsequently presented to the living of
Menheniot, Cornwall, which he was unable to visit and resigned
two years before his death. He died at Oxford, on the 18th of
September 1783.
His chief work is the Veins Testament** hebroAemm cum mvms
lectionibus (2 vols, fol., Oxford, J 776-1580). Before this appeared
he had written two dissertations entitled The State of the Prtnted
Hebrew Text of the Old Testament considered, published respectively
in 1753 and 1750, which were designed to combat the then current
ideas as to the" 6 absolute integrity " of the received Hebrew 1
The first contains " a cotnpariso* of t Chron. xi. with s Sam. v. tad
xxiii. and observations on seventy MSS., with an extract of mistakes
and various readings '* ; the second defends the claims of the Samari-
tan Pentateuch, assails the correctness of the printed copies of the
Chaldee paraphrase, gives an account of Hebrew MSS. of the Bible
knowo to be extant, and catalogues one hundred MSS. p r eser v ed m
the British Museum and in the libraries of Oxford and Cambridge.
In 1760 be issued his proposals for collating all Hebrew MSS. of date
prior to the invention of printing. Subscriptions to the amount
of nearly £ro,ooo were obtained, and many learned men addressed
themselves to the work of eolation. Brans of Hehastaot mafciaft
himself specially useful as regarded MSS. in Germany, SwitzeiUad
and Italy. Between 1760 and 1760 ten "annual accounts " of the
progress of the work wea- given ; in its course 615 Hebrew MSS. and
52 printed edition* of the Bible were either wholly or partially
co lla te d, and use was also made (but often sery perfunctorily) of
the quotations in the Talmud. The materials thus collected, whets
f>roocrly ananged and made ready for the press, extended to 30 vol*.
o\. The text finally followed in printing was that of Van der
Hoogfit — unpointed however, the points having been disregarded
r— aod the various readings were printed at the foot of
The Samaritan Pentateuch stands alongside the Hebrew
in collation—and the various r
the page. The Samaritan Pea ._,_ , ^
in parallel columns. The Dissertatio generalis, appended to the
second volume, contains an account of the M3S. and other authori-
ties collated, and also a review of the Hebrew text, divided into*
periods, and beginning with the formation of the Hebrew canon after
the return of the Jews from the exile. Kennicott'a neat work wan
in one sense a failure. It yielded no materials of value far the
emendation of the received text, and by disregarding the vowel
points overlooked the one thing in which some result (grammatical
u not critical) might have been derived frooi collation of Mnsorebc
MSS. Bui the negative result of the publication and of the Vmrim
KENNINGTON—JCENSINGTON
733
Uctiones of De Row, published some year* later, was important.
It showed that the Hebrew text can be emended only by the use of
the versions aided by conjecture.
Kennicott'a work was perpetuated by his widow, who founded
two university scholarships at Oxford for the study of Hebrew,
The fund yields an income of £200 per annum.
KENNINGTON, a district in the south of London, England,
within the municipal borough of Lambeth. There was a royal
palace here until the reign of Henry VII. Kennington Common,
now represented by Kennington Park, was the site of a gallows
until the end of the 18th century, and was the meeting-place
appointed for the great Chartist demonstration of the xoth of
April 1848. Kennington Oval is the ground of the Surrey
County Cricket Club. (See Lambeth.)
KENOSA (formerly Rat Portage), a town and port of entry
in Ontario, Canada, and the chief town of Rainy River district,
situated at an altitude of 1087 ft. above the sea. Pop. (1801),
1806; (1001) 5222. It is 133 m. by rail east of Winnipeg, on
the Canadian Pacific railway, and at the outlet of the Lake of
the Woods. The Winnipeg river has at this point a fall of 16 ft.,
which, with the lake as a reservoir, furnishes an abundant and
unfailing water- power. The industrial establishments comprise
reduction works, saw-mills and flour-mills, one of the latter
being the largest in Canada. It is the distributing point for the'
gold mines of the district, and during the summer months
steamboat communication is maintained on the lake. There is
important sturgeon fishing.
KENOSHA, a city and the county-seat of Kenosha county,
Wisconsin, U.S-A., on the S.W. shore of Lake Michigan, 35 m.S.
of Milwaukee and 50 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900), it, 606,
of whom 3333 were foreign-born; (1910), 21,371. It is
served by the Chicago & North-Western railway, by inter-
urban electric lines connecting with Chicago and Milwaukee,
and by freight and passenger steamship lines on Lake Michigan.
It has a good harbour and a considerable lake commerce. The
city is finely situated on high bluffs above the lake, and is widely
known for its healthiness. At Kenosha is the Gilbert M.
Simmons library, with 19,300 volumes in 1008. Just south
of the city is Kemper Hall, a Protestant Episcopal school for
girls, under the charge of the Sisters of St Mary, opened in
1870 as a memorial to Jackson Kemper (1780-1870), the first
missionary bishop (1835-1859), and the first bishop of Wis-
consin (1854-1870) of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Among
Kenosha's manufactures are brass and iron beds (the Simmons
Manufacturing Co.), mattresses, typewriters, leather and brass
goods, wagons, and automobiles— the " Rambler " automobile
being made at Kenosha by Thomas B. Jeffery and Co. There
is an extensive sole-leather tannery. The total value of the
factory product in 1905 was $12,362,600, the city ranking third
in product value among the cities of the state. Kenosha,
originally known as Southport, was settled about 1832, organized
as the village of Southport in 1842, and chartered in 1850 as a
city under its present name.
KEUSETT, JOHN FREDERICK (1818-1872), American
artist, was born in Cheshire, Connecticut, on the 22nd of March
1818. After studying engraving he went abroad, took up
painting, and exhibited at the Royal Academy, London, in
1645. In 1849 he was elected to the National Academy of
Design, New York, and in 1859 he was appointed a member of
the committee to superintend the decoration of, the United.
States Capkol at Washington, D.C. After his death the con-
tents of his studio realized at public auction over St 50,000.
He painted landscapes more or less in the manner of the Hudson
River School.
KENSINGTON, a western metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N.E. by Paddington, and the city of West*
minster, S.E. by Chelsea, S.W. by Fulham, N.W. by Hammers-
smith, and extending N. to the boundary of the county of
London. Pop. (rooi), 176,628. It includes the districts, of
Keftsal Green (partly) in the north, Not ting Hill in the north-
central portion, Earl's Court in the south -west, and Rrompton
in the south-east. A considerable -but indefinite area adjoining
Bxomptan. is: commonly called • South Kensington; but the
area known as West Kensington is within the borough qf
Fulham.
The name appears in early forms as Cktncsilun and Kcnesiiune.
Its origin is obscure, and has been variously connected with a
Saxon royal residence (King's town), a family of the name of
Chenesi, and the word caen, meaning wood, from the forest
which originally covered the district and was still traceable
in Tudor times. The most probable derivation, however, finds
in the name a connection with the Saxon tribe or family of
Kensings. The history of the manor is traceable from the time
of Edward the Confessor, and after the Conquest it was held
of the Bishop of Coutances by Aubrey de Vere. Soon after this
it became the absolute property of the de Veres, who were
subsequently created Earls of Oxford. The place of the manorial
courts is preserved in the name of the modern district of Earl's
Court. With a few short intervals the manor continued in the
direct line until Tudor times. There were al&> three sub-
manors, one given by the first Aubrey de Vere early in the
1 2th century to the Abbot of Abingdon, whence the present
parish church is called St Mary Abbots; while in another,
Knotting Barnes, the origin of the name Not ting Hill is found.
The brilliant period of history for which Kensington is famous
may be dated from the settlement of the Court here by William
IIL, The village, as it was then, had a reputation for heal thiness
through its gravel soil and pure atmosphere. A mansion stand-
ing on the western Bank of the present Kensington Gardens bad
been the seat of Heneage Finch, Lord Chancellor and afterwards
Earl of Nottingham. It was known as Nottingham House, but
when bought from the second earl by William, who was desirous
of avoiding residence in London as he suffered from asthma, it
became known as Kensington Palace. The extensive additions
and alterations made by Wren according to the taste of the
King resulted in a severely plain edifice of brick; the orangery,
added in Queen Anne's time, is a better example of the same
architect's work. In the palace died Mary, William's consort,
William himself, Anne and George II., whose wife Caroline did
much to beautify Kensington Gardens, and formed the beautiful
lake called the Serpentine (1 733). But a higher interest attaches
to the palace as, the birthplace of Queen Victoria in 1819; and
here her accession was announced to her. By her order,
towards the dose of her life, the palace became open to the
public.
Modern influences, one of the most marked of which is the
widespread erection of vast blocks of residential flats, have swept
away much that was reminiscent of the historical connexions
of the " old court suburb." Kensington Square, however, lying
south of High Street in the vicinity of St Mary Abbots church,
still preserves some of its picturesque houses, nearly all of which
were formerly inhabited by those attached to the couit; it
numbered among its residents Addison, Talleyrand, John Stuart
Mill, and Green the historian. In Young Street, opening from
the Square, Thackeray lived for many years, His housc^here,
still standing, is most commonly associated with his work, though
he subsequently moved to Onslow Square and to Palace Green,
Another link with the past is found in Holland House, hidden
in its beautiful park north of Kensington Road. It was built
by Sir Walter Cope, lord of the manor, in 1607, and obtained its
present name on coming into the possession of Henry Rich, carl
of Holland, through his marriage with Cope's daughter. He
extended and beautified the mansion. General Fairfax and
General Lambert are mentioned as occupants after his death, and
later the property was let, William Perm of Pennsylvania being
among those who leased it. Addison, marrying the. widow of
the 6th earl, lived here until his death in 17x9. During the
tenancy of Henry Fox, third Lord Holland (1773-* 840)* *b*
' house gained a European reputation as a meeting-place of states*,
men and men of letters- The formal gardens of Holland House
are finely laid out, and the rooms of the house are both beautiful
in themselves and enriched with collections of pictures, china
and tapestries. Famous houses no longer standing were Camp*
den House, in the district north-west of the parish churchy
formerly known as the Gravel Pits; and Gore House* on the site
KfeNT, EARLS OP
„ v.^-^s... * v— %*t ^?*ikfcwc*of WtKam WiTberforce,
"v -N--0 ^ N * o* ^ \li-v \bbots. High Street, occupies
fc »kv.k ^. v <.%** Wt r*m the designs of Sir Gilbert
^.v, „ VVx . K ; , 4 vw«*^l $tyk, and has one of the loftiest
^ -^ a. v^*.^, i» % v north the borough includes the
. -n.v.^ , v y ^^ >:*v* v**** ln « exception of the Roman
^>. v-x Nx*.t^ »**,* * in the borough of Hammersmith); it
^. . vs-'sv t» v *^ **i great numbers of eminent persons are
^ -vs k<v, tv fcwin Catholic church of Our Lady of
^ v vs-v*. hj* v «tor t* Kensington Road, and in Brompton Road
K .*. Owv<* *t Si Pnitip Neri, a fine building with richly
^v^* w kv*vc noted for the beauty of its musical services,
w . *, w O««wlrto Church in Church Street. St Charles's Roman
% -i»i*m? Cvtftrge (for boys), near the north end of Ladbroke
K iw»*v w*» tonadtd by Cardinal Manning in 1863; the buildings
v < s»*t «wd as a training centre for Catholic school mistresses.
tit «CA*a»r institutions the principal are the museums in South
Kensington, The Victoria and Albert, commonly called the
$*«th Kensington, Museum contains various exhibits divided
l*»o sections, and includes the buildings of the Royal College of
Science. Close by is the Natural History Museum, in a great
building by Alfred Waterhouse, opened as a branch of the
British Museum in 1880, Near this stood Cromwell House,
erroneously considered to have been the residence of Oliver
Cromwell, the name of which survives in the adjacent Cromwell
Road. In Kensington Gardens, near the upper end of Exhibi-
tion Road, which separates the two museums, was held the Great
Exhibition of 1851, the hall of which b preserved as the Crystal
palace at Sydenham. The greater part of the gardens, however,
with the Albert Memorial, erected by Queen Victoria in memory
of Albert, prince consort, the Albert Hall, opposite to it, one of
the principal concert-halls in London, and the Imperial Institute
to the south, are actually within the city of Westminster, though
commonly connected with Kensington. The gardens (27$ acres)
were laid out in the time of Queen Anne, and have always been
a popular and fashionable place of recreation. Extensive
grounds at Eari> Court are open from time to time for various
exhibitions. Further notable buildings In Kensington are the
town-hall and free library in High Street, which Is also much
frequented for its excellent shops, and the Brompton Consump-
tion Hospital, Fulham Road. In Holland Park Road is the
house of Lord Leighton (d. 1806), given to the nation, and open,
with Us art collection, to the public
Kensington is a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of London.
The parliamentary borough of Kensington has north and south
divisions, each returning one member. The borough council
consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 60 councillors. Area,
twt acres.
KHTT. BAKU AND DUKES OP. The first holder of the
English earldom of Kent was probably Odo, bishop of Bayeux,
and the second a certain William de Yores (d. 1162), both of
whom were deprived of the dignity. The regent Hubert de
Ihirgh obtained this honour in 1227, and in 1321 it was granted
to Edmund Ptantagenet, the youngest brother of Edward II.
Mmund (1301-1330), who was born at Woodstock on the 5th
vJ August 1301, received many marks of favour from ha brother
«W king, whom he steadily supported until the last act in
rM*ard's life opened in 1326. He fought in Scotland and then
la France, and was a member of the council when Edward HI.
Wctme king in 1327. Soon at variance with Queen Isabella and
wit lover, Roger Mortimer, Edmund was involved in a conspiracy
to tvatore Edward II., who he was led to beheve was still alive;
he «** arrested, and beheaded on the loth of March 1330.
****** he had been condemned at a traitor his elder son
I^NmmmI (r 1327-1333) *at recognixed as earl of Kent, the title
M»^t *• us detth *° M» brother John (c i3JO-t3S>)-
V:wt Uhn^ childless death the earldom appears to have been
W*J t* a* s^ter Joan, M the fair maid of Kent,** and in 1360
>m\ Wrjand. Sir Thomas de Hotnnd, or Holland, was tunv
nw^aNtMrhWotascarlofKent. Hound, who was a soldier
« want wwftt* *td >» Normandy on the sftth of ~ *
1360, and his widow married Edward the BlackTrince, by whom
she was the mother of Richard II. The next earl was HoUnd'i
eldest son Thomas (1350-1307), who was marshal of England
from 1380 to 1385, and was in high favour with his half-brother,
Richard II. The 3rd earl of Kent of the Holaod family was his
son Thomas (1374-1400). In September 1397, a few months
after becoming earl of Kent, Thomas was made duke of Surrey
as a reward for assisting Richard II. against the lords appefiam;
but he was degraded from his dukedom in 1309, and was
beheaded in January of the following year for conspiring against
Henry IV. However, his brother Edmund (1384-1408) was
allowed to succeed to the earldom, which became extinct on his
death in Brittany in September 1408.
In the same century the title was revived in favour of William,
a younger son of Ralph Neville, 1st earl of Westmorland, and
through his mother Joan Beaufort a grandson of John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancaster. William (c. 1405-1463), who held the barony
of Fauconberg in right of his wife, Joan, gained fame during the
wars in France and fought for the Yorkists during the Wars of
the Roses. His prowess is said to have been chiefly responsible
for the victory of Edward IV. at Towton in March 1461, and soon
after this event be was created earl of Kent and admiral of
England. He died in January 1463, and, as his only legitimate
issue were three daughters, the title of earl of Kent again became
extinct. Neville's natural son Thomas, " the bastard of Faocon-
berg" (d. 1471), was a follower of Warwick, the "Kingmaker.**
The long connexion of the family of Grey with this title began
in 146$, when Edmund, Lord Grey of Ruthin, was created ead
of Kent. Edmund (c. 1420-1489) was the eldest son of Sir John
Grey, while his mother, Constance, was a daughter of Joha
Holand, duke of Exeter. During the earlier part of the Wars
of the Roses Grey fought for Henry VL; but by deserting the
Lancastrians during the battle of Northampton in 1460 he gave
the victory to the Yorkists. He was treasurer of England and
held other high offices under Edward IV. and Richard III. His
son and successor, George, 2nd earl of Kent (c. 1455-1503), aiso
a soldier, married Anne Woodville, a sister of Edward IV. 's
queen, Elizabeth, and was succeeded by his son Richard (1481-
1 524). After Richard's death without issue, his half-brotber and
heir, Henry (c. 1405-1562), did not assume the title of earl of
Kent on account of his poverty; but in 1572 Henry's grandson
Reginald (d. 1573), who had been member of parliament for
Weymouth, was recognixed as earl; he was followed by has
brother Henry (154 1-1615), and then by another brother, Charles
(c. 1 545-1623). Charles's son, Henry, the 8th earl (c 1583*
1630). married DL*abelh( 1581-1651), daughter of Gilbert Talbot,
7th earl of Shrew s b ury . This lady, who was an autboress,
took for her second husband the jurist John Setden. Henry
died without children in November 1639, when the nrldoan of
Kent, separated from the barony of Ruthin, passed to his 1 mil in
Anthony (1557-1643), * clergyman, who was succeeded by has
son Henry (1594-1651), Lord Grey of Ruthin. Henry had been
a member of parliament from 1640 to 1643, and as a supporter
of the popular party was speaker of the House of Lords traufl its
abolition. The tith earl was his son Anthony (1645-1 702 K
whose son Henry became 1 2 th earl in August 1 702 , lord chamber-
lain of the royal household from 1704 to 1710, and in 1706 was
created earl of Harold and marquess of Kent, b rconwn g chafer of
Kent four years later. AB his sons predeceased thesr father, aund
when the duke died in June 1740, his titles of eari, marques* sand
duke of Kent became extinct.
In t>o9 Edward Augustus, fourth son of George UI-, was
created duke of Kent and Strathearn by his father. Barm en
the 2nd of November 1767, Edward served in the Britisk mrnay-
in North America and elsewhere, becoming a netd ■tnbnl in
1805. To quote Sir Spencer Walpole, Kent, a stem
arian, M was unpopular among his troops; and the storm
wm created by hb wefl-intentioned effort at Gibraltar to
the licentiousness and drunkenness of the garrison
him unafly to retire from the g ov e rnor s hip of Una
Owing to pecuniary difficulties his later years were
on the continent of Europe, He died at ?i Jmonth on the ajrd
KENT, J.— KENT
of January 1820. In 18x8 die duke married Maria Louisa
Victoria (1786-1861), widow of Emich Charles, prince of Lew-
ingen (d. 1814). and aster of Leopold J., king of the Belgians;
and his only child was Queen Victoria (f.vv).
KENT, JAMES (1763*1847), American jurist, was born at
Philippi in New York State on the 31st of July 1763. He
graduated at Yale College in 1781, and began to practise law at
Poughkeepsie, in 1785 as an attorney, and in 1787 at the bar.
In 1791 and 1792-93 Kent was a representative of Dutchess
county in the state Asscm bly . In x 793 he removed to New York,
where Governor Jay, to whom the young lawyer's Federalist sym-
pathies were a strong recommendation, appointed him a master
in chancery for the dty. He was professor of law in Columbia
C^egein 1793-98^ againscrvedin the Assexnblyin 1796-97, In
1797 he became recorder of New York, in 1798 judge of the
supreme court of the state, in 1804 chief justice, and in 1814
chancellor of New York. In 183a he became a member of the
convention to revise the state constitution. Next year. Chan-
cellor Kent resigned his office and was re-elected to his former
Chair. Out of the lectures he now delivered grew the Com-
mentaries on American Lav (4 vols., 1826-1830), which by their
learning, range and luddity of style won for him a high and
permanent place in the estimation of both English and American
jurists. Kent rendered most essential service to American
jurisprudence while serving as chancellor. Chancery law had
been very unpopular during the colonial period, and had received
little development, and no decisions bad been published. His
judgments of this class (see Johnson's Chancery Reports, 7 vols.,
18x6-1824) cover a wide range of topics, and are so thoroughly
considered and developed as unquestionably to form the basis
of American equity jurisprudence. Kent was a man of great
purity of character and of singular simplicity and guilelessness.
He died in New York on the 12th of December 1847.
To Kent we owe several other works (including a Commentary on
International Lam) of less importance than the Commentaries. See
J. Duct's Discourse en the Life, Character and Public Services of James
Kent (1 848) ; The National Portrait Gallery of Distinguished A mericans,
vol. u. (1852); W. Kent, Memoirs and Letters of Chancellor Kent
(Boston. 1898).
KENT, WILLIAM (1685-1748), English "painter, architect,
and the father of modern gardening," as Horace Walpole in
his Anecdotes of Painting describes him, was born in Yorkshire
in 1685. Apprenticed to a coach-painter, his ambition soon led
him to London, where he began life as a portrait and historical
painter. He found patrons, who sent him in 17 10 to study in
Italy; and at Rome he made other friends, among them Lord
Burlington, with whom he returned to England in 1719. Under
that nobleman's roof Kent chiefly resided till his death on the
12th of April x 748— obtaining abundant commissions in all
departments' of his art, as well as various court appointments
which brought him an income of £600 a year. Walpole says
that Kent was below mediocrity in painting. He had some little
taste and skill in architecture, of which Holkham palace is
perhaps the roost favourable example. The mediocre statue of
Shakespeare in Westminster Abbey sufficiently stamps his
powers as a sculptor. His merit in landscape gardening is greater.
In Walpole's language, Kent " was painter enough to taste the
charms of landscape, bold and opinionative enough to dare and
to dictate, and born with a genius to strike out a great system
from the twilight of imperfect essays." In short, he was the first
in English gardening to vindicate the natural against the artificial.
Banishing all the clipped monstrosities of the topiary art in yew,
box or holly, releasing the streams from the conventional canal
and marble basin, and rejecting the mathematical symmetry
of ground plan then in vogue for gardens, Kent endeavoured to
imitate the variety of nature, with due regard to the principles
of light and shade and perspective. Sometimes he carried his
imitation too far, as when he planted dead trees in Kensington
gardens to give a greater air of truth to the scene, though he
himself was one of the first to detect the folly of such an extreme.
Kent's plans were designed rather with a view to immediate
effect over a comparatively small area than with regard to any
broader or subsequent results.
735
KENT, one of the kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain, the
dimensions of which seem to have corresponded with those of
the present county (see below). According to tradition it was
the first part of the country occupied by the invaders, its founders,
Hengest and Horsa, having been employed by the British king
Vortigern against the Picts and Scots. Their landing, according
to English tradition, took place between 450-455, though in
the Welsh accounts the Saxons are said to have arrived in 428
(cf. HisLBriU. 66). According to TheAngloSaxonChronidc, which
probably used some lost list of Kentish kings, Hengest reigned
455"488, and was succeeded by his son Aesc (Oisc), who reigned
till 512; but little value can be attached to these dates. Docu-
mentary history begins with Aethelberht, the great-grandson
of Acsc, who reigned probably 560-616. He married Berhta,
daughter of the Frankish king Haribert, or Charibert, an event
which no doubt was partly responsible for the success of the
mission of Augustine, who landed in 597. Aethelberht was at
this time supreme over all the English kings south of the Humber.
On his death in 6x6 he waa succeeded by bis son Eadbald, who
renounced Christianity and married his stepmother, but was
shortly afterwards converted by Laurentius, the successor of
Augustine. Eadbald was succeeded in 640 by his son Ercon-
berht, who enforced the acceptance of Christianity throughout
his kingdom, and was succeeded in 664 by his son Ecgbert, the
latter again by his brother Hlothhcre in 673. The early part of
Hlothhere's reign was disturbed by an invasion of Aethdred of
Merda. He issued a code of laws, which is still extant, together
with his nephew Eadric, the son of Ecgbert, but in 685 a quarrel
broke out between them in which Eadric called in the South
Saxons. Hlothhere died of his wounds, and was succeeded by
Eadric, who, however, reigned under two years.
The death of Eadric was followed by a disturbed period, in
which Kent was under kings whom Bede calls " dubii re/ externi."
An unsuccessful attempt at conquest seems to have been made
by the West Saxons, one of whose princes, Mul, brother of Cead-
walla, is said to have been killed in 687. There is some evidence
for a successful invasion by the East Saxon king Sigehexe during
the same yefr. A king named Oswine, who apparently belonged
to the native dynasty, seems to have obtained part of the king-
dom in 688. The other part came in 689 into the hands of
Swefheard, probably a son of the East Saxon king Sebbe.
Wihtred, a son of Ecgbert, succeeded Oswine about 690, and
obtained possession of the whole kingdom before 604. From
him also we have a code of laws. At Wihtred's death in 725 the
kingdom was divided between his sons Aethelberht, Eadberht
and Alric, the last of whom appears to have died soon afterwards.
Aethelberht reigned till 762; Eadberht, according to the Chronicle,
died in 748, but some doubtful charters speak of him as alive in
761-762. Eadberht was succeeded by his son Eardwulf, and he
again by Eanmund, while Aethelberht was succeeded by a king
named Sigered. From 764*779 we find a king named Ecgbert,
who in the early part of his reign had a colleague named Hea-
bcrht. At this period Kentish history is very obscure. Another
king named Aethelberht appears in 781, and a king Ealhmund
in 784, but there is some reason for suspecting that Ofta annexed
Kent about this time. On his death (796) Eadberht Praen made
himself king, but in 798 he was defeated and captured by Coen-
wulf, who made his own brother Cuthred king in his place. On
Cuthred's death in 807 Coenwulf seems to have kept Kent in his
own possession. His successors Ceolwulf and Beornwulf like-
wise appear to have held Kent, but in 825 we hear of a king
Baldred who was expelled by Ecgbert king of Wessex. Under
the West Saxon dynasty Kent, together with Essex, Sussex and
Surrey, was sometimes given as a dependent kingdom to one
of the royal family. During Ecgbert 's reign it was entrusted to
his son Aethdwulf, on whose accession to the throne of Wessex,
in 839, it was given to Aethdstan, probably his son, who hved
at least till 851. From 855 to 860 it was governed by Aethel-
berht son of AethelwulL During the last years of Alfred* s reign
it seems to have been entrusted by him to his son Edward.
Throughout the 9th century we hear also of two earls, whose
spheres of authority may have corresponded to those of the two
nf>
KENT
Stour joins the Great Stout in these lowlands from a deep vale
among the Downs.
About two-thirds of the boundary line of Kent is formed by
tidal water. The estuary of the Thames may be said to stretch
from London Bridge to Sheerness in the Isle of Sheppey. which
is divided from the mainland by the narrow channel (bridged at
Queensbridge) of the Swale. Sheerness lies at the mouth of the
Medway, a narrow branch of which cuts off a tongue of land
termed the Isle of Grain lying opposite Sheerness. Along the
banks of the Thames the coast is generally low and marshy,
embankments being in several places necessary to prevent
inundation. At a few points, however, as at Gravesend, spurs
of the North Downs descend directly upon the shore. In the
estuary of the Medway there are a number of low marshy islands*
but Sheppey presents to the sea a range of slight cliffs from 80
to 00- ft. in height,' The marshes extend along the Swale to
Whitstable, whence stretches a low line of clay and sandstone
cliffs towards the Isle of T ha net, when they become lofty and
grand, extending round the Foreland' southward to Peg well Bay
The coast from Sheppey round to the South Foreland is skirted
by numerous flats and sands, the most extensive of which are
the Goodwin Sands off Deal. From Pegwell Bay south to a
point near Deal the coast is flat, and the drained marshes or levels
of the lower Stour extend to the west; but thence the coast rises
again into chalk cliffs, the eastward termination of the North
Downs, the famous white cliffs which form the nearest point of
England to continental Europe, overlooking the Strait of Dover.
These cliffs continue round the South Foreland to Folkestone,
where they fall away, and arc succeeded west of Sandgate by a.
flat shingly shore. To the south of Hythe this shore borders
the wide expanse of Romney Marsh, which, immediately west
of Hythe, is overlooked by a line of abrupt hills, but for the rest
is divided on the north from the drainage system of the Stour
only by a slight uplift. The marsh, drained by many channels,
seldom rises over a dozen feet above sea-lcvcl. At its south-
eastern extremity, and at the extreme south of the county, is
the shingly promontory of Dungeness. Within historic times
much of this marsh was covered by the sea, and the valley of the
river Rot her, which forms part of the boundary cf Kent with
Sussex, entering the sea at Rye harbour, was represented by a
tidal estuary for a considerable distance inland.
southern
tbwards.
a of the
tot Und
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rr"» HOI,
ninences.
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s, but at
which ia
er The
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ight buff
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: entirely
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1040 ft.
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Clay and
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>ft.a«L
KENT 737
basin is
consistir
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or Than
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ill nssun
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for July
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any oth
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In the I
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county i
quarters
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ance. A
spinach,
the coui
Market
The prii
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and Can
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and curr
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trict. kn
are the
73*
KENT
proximity to London, beyond those included among the boroughs
«nd urban districts, there should be mentioned Orpington (4259).
Tbe county is in the south-eastern circuit, and assizes are held
M t Maidstone. It has two courts of quarter sessions, and is
divided into 1 7 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs having
separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions
m ze Canterbury, Deal, Dover, Faversham, Folkestone, Gravesend,
faythe, Maidstone, Margate, Rochester, Sandwich andTenterden;
-while those of Lydd, New Romney, Ramsgaie and Tunbridge
%VelU have separate commissions of the peace. The liberty of
ftomney Marsh has petty and general sessions. The justices
cpt the Cinque Ports exercise certain jurisdiction, the noncorpor-
ate members of the Cinque Ports of Dover and Sandwich having
separate commissions of the peace and courts of quarter sessions.
<X*he central criminal court has jurisdiction over certain parishes
adjacent to London. All those civU parishes within the county
^f Kent of which any part b within twelve miles of, or of which
n o part is more than fifteen miles from, Charing Cross are within
«J»*. jnetropolitan police district. The total number of civil
parishes is 4*7. Kent is mainly in the diocese of Canterbury,
t^ut has parts in those of Rochester, Southwark and Chichester.
** contains 476 ecclesiastical parishes or districts, wholly or in
p^rt. The county (extra-metropolitan) is divided into 8 parlia-
mentary divisions, namely, North-western or Dartford, Western
^ r Sevenoaks, South-western or Tunbridge, Mid or Medway,
^forth-eastern or Faversham, Southern or Ashford, Eastern or St
^ugustwes and the Isle of Thanet, each returning one member;
^bde the boroughs of Canterbury, Chatham, Dover, Gravesend,
jjy the, Maidstone and Rochester each return one member.
/ T^T *?. C * ndent kingdom of Kent see the preceding
^rt»clc. The shire organization of Kent dales from the time of
Ae ibelstan, the name as well as the boundary being that of the
**&*"* "f«aom, though at first probably with the addition of
tb e suffix shire," the form " Kentshire " occurring in a record
^ the folkmoot at this date. The inland shire-boundary has
v *ri«» w *h die altered course of the Rother. In 1888 the
^unty was diminished by the formation of the county of
j^ondon.
At the time of the Domesday Survey Kent comprised sixty
hundreds, and there was a further division into six lests, probably
representing the shires of the ancient kingdom, of which two,
Sutton and Aylesford, correspond with the present-day lathes.
•j-fce remaining four, Borowast Lest, Estrc Lest, Limowast Lest
and Wiwart Lest, existed at least as early as the gth century, and
were apparently named from their administrative centres,
Burgwara (the burg being Canterbury), Eastre, Lymne and Wye,
,11 of which were meeting places of the Kentish Council. The
n ve modern lathes (Aylesford, St Augustine, Scray, Sheppey and
Sutton-at-Hone) all existed in tbe time of Edward I., with the
additional lathe of Hedcling, which was absorbed before the next
reign in that of St Augustine. The Nomina Villarum of the
reign of Edward II. mentions all tbe sixty-six modern hundreds,
pore iha° two-thirds of which were at that date in the hands of
tfce church.
Sheriffs of Kent are mentioned in the time of iEthelred II.,
and in Saxon times the shiremoot met three times a year on
Penenden Heath near Maidstone. After the Conquest the great
ecclesiastical landholders claimed exemption from the jurisdic-
tion of the shire, and in 1 270 the abbot of Battle claimed to have
bis own coroner in the hundred of Wye. In the 13th century
twelve liberties in Kent claimed to have separate bailiffs. The
assises for the county were held in the reign of Henry III. at
Canterbury and Rochester, and also at the Lowey of Tonbridge
under a mandate from the Crown as a distinct liberty; after-
wards at different intervals at East Greenwich, Dartford, Maid-
stone, Milton-next-Gravesend and Sevenoaks; from the Restora-
tion to the present day they have been held at Maidstone. The
liberty of Romney Marsh has petty and quarter sessions under
its charters.
Kent is remarkable as the only English county which com-
prises two entire bishoprics, Canterbury, the see for East Kent,
having been founded in Sv7t and Rochester, the see for West
Kent, in 600. fa 1 int the archdeaconry of Canterbury was co-
extensive with that diocese and included the deaneries of West-
bere. Bridge, Sandwich, Dover, Elham, Lympne, Charing,
Sutton, Sitttngbourne, Ospringe and Canterbury; the arch*
deaconry of Rochester, also co-extensive with its diocese, in-
cluded the deaneries of Rochester, Dartford, Mailing and Shore-
ham. In 1845 the deaneries of Charing, Siitingbourae and
Sutton were comprised in the new archdeaconry of Maidstone,
which in 1846 received in addition the deaneries of Dartford,
Mailing and Shoreham from the archdeaconry of Rochester. la
1853 the deaneries of Mailing and Charing were subdivided into
North and South Mailing and East and West Charing. Lympne
was subdivided into North and South Lympne in 1857 and Dart-
ford into East and West Dartford in 1864. Gravesend and
Cobham deaneries were created in 1S62 and Greenwich and
Woolwich in 1868, all in the archdeaconry of Rochester. In
1873 East and West Bridge deaneries were created in tbe arch-
deaconry of Canterbury, and Croydon in the archdeaconry til
Maidstone. In 1889 Tunbridge deanery was created in the
archdeaconry of Maidstone. In 1006 the deaneries of East and
West Dartford, North and South Mailing, Greenwich and Wool-
wich were abolished, and Shoreham and Tunbridge were trans-
ferred from Maidstone to Rochester archdeaconry.
Between the Conquest and the 14th century the earldom of
Kent was held successively by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, William
of Ypres and Hubert de Burgh (sheriff of the county in the reign
of Henry IIL), none of whom, however, transmitted the honour,
which was bestowed by Edward I. on his youngest son Edmund
of Woodstock, and subsequently passed to the families of Holland
and Neville (see Kent, Earls and Dukes of). In the Domes-
day Survey only five lay tenants-in-chief are mentioned, all the
chief estates being held by tbe church, and the fart thai the
Kentish gentry are less ancient than in some remoter shires is
further explained by the constant implantation of new stocks
from London. Greenwich is illustrious as the birthplace of
Henry VIII., Mary and Elizabeth. Sir Philip Sidney was bora
at Penshurst, being descended from William de Sidney, chamber-
lain to Henry II. Bocton Malherbc was the seat of the Wot tons,
from whom descended Nicholas Wot ton, privy councillor to
Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary and Elizabeth. The family
of Leiborne of Leiborne Castle, of whom Sir Roger Leiborne took
an active part in the barons' wars, became extinct in the 14th
century. Sir Francis Walsingham was born at Chislehurst,
where his family had long flourished; Hever Castle was the seat
of the Boleyns and the scene of the courtship of Anne Boleyn
by Henry VTLL Allington Castle was the birthplace of Sir
Thomas WyaL.
Kent, from its proximity to London, has been intimately
concerned in every great historical movement which has agitated
the country, while its busy industrial population has steadily
resisted any infringement of its rights and liberties. The chief
events connected with the county under the Norman kings were
the capture of Rochester by William Rufus during the rebellion
of Odo of Bayeux; the capture of Dover and Leeds castles by
Stephen; the murder of Thomas a Becket at Canterbury in
1170; the submission of John to the pope's legate at Dover in
1213, and the capture of Rochester Castle by the king in the same
year. Rochester Castle was in 1 216 captured by the dauphin of
France, to whom nearly all Kent submitted, and during the wars
of Henry III. with his barons was captured by Gilbert de Clare.
In the peasants' rising of 1381 the rebels plundered the arch-
bishop's palace at Canterbury, and 100,000 Kentishmen gathered
round Wat Tyler of Essex. In 1450 Kent took a leading part
in Jack Cade's rebellion; and in 1554 the insurrection of Sir
Thomas Wyat began at Maidstone. On the outbreak of the
Great Rebellion feeling was much divided, but after capturing
Dover Castle the parliament soon subdued the whole county.
In 1648, however, a widespread insurrection was organised oa
behalf of Charles, and was suppressed by Fairfax. The county
was among the first to welcome back Charles II. In 1667 the
Dutch fleet under De Ruytcr advanced up the Medway, levelling
the fort at Sheemcas and burning the ships at rK «'frif!r la
KENTIGERN
739
the Kentish petition of 1701 drawn up at Maidstone the county
protested against the peace policy of the Tory party.
Among the earliest industries of Kent were the iron-mining
in the Weald, traceable at least to Roman times, and the salt
industry, which flourished along the coast in the 10th century.
The Domesday Survey, besides testifying to the agricultural
activity of the country, mentions over one hundred sail-works
and numerous valuable fisheries, vines at Chart Sutton and
Leeds, and cheese at Milton. The Hundred Rolls of the reign of
Edward I. frequently refer to wool, and Flemish weavers settled
in the Weald in the time of Edward III. Tiles were manu-
factured at Wye in the 14th century. Valuable timber was
afforded by the vast forest of the Weald, but the restrictions
imposed on the felling of wood for fuel did serious detriment to
the iron-trade, and after the statute of 155s forbidding the felling
of timber for iron-smelting within fourteen miles of the coast the
industry steadily declined. The discovery of coal in the northern
counties dealt the final blow to its prosperity. Cherries are said
to have been imported from Flanders and first planted in Kent
by Henry VIII., and from this period the culture of fruits
(especially apples and cherries) and of hops spread rapidly over
the county. Thread-making at Maidstone and silk-weaving at
Canterbury existed in the 16th century, and before 1500 one of
the first paper-mills in England was set up at Dartford. The
statute of 1630 forbidding the exportation of wool, followed by
the Plague of 1665, led to a serious trade depression, whale the
former enactment resulted in the vast smuggling trade which
spread along the coast, 40,000 packs of wool being smuggled to
Calais from Kent and Sussex in two years.
In 1200 Kent returned two members to parliament for the
county, and in 1295 Canterbury, Rochester and Tunbridge were
also represented; Tunbridge however made no returns after this
date. In 1552 Maidstone acquired representation, and in 1572
Queenborough. Under the act of 1832 the county returned four
members in two divisions, Chatham was represented by one
member and Greenwich by two, while Queenborough was dis-
franchised. Under the act of 186S the county returned six
members in three divisions and Gravesend returned one member.
By the act of 1885 the county returned eight members in eight
divisions, and the representation of Canterbury, Maidstone and
Rochester was reduced to one member each. By the London
Government Act of 1802 the borough of Greenwich was taken
out of Kent and made one of the twenty-eight metropolitan
boroughs of the county of London.
th
ey
G
1!
iJ
si
fr
him, according to Joeelyn, by St Servanus), a Briton of Strath-
dyde, called by the GoideJsi* Glascku, " the Grey Hound/' was,
according to the legends preserved in the lives which remain, of
royal descent. His mother when with child was thrown down
from a hill called Dunpelder (Traprain Law, Haddingtonshire),
but survived the fall and escaped by sea to Culross on the farther
side of the Firth of Forth, where Kentigern was born. It is
possible that she may have been a nun, as a convent had been
founded in earlier times on Traprain Law. The life (hen
describes the training of the boy by Servanus, but the date of
the Utter renders this impossible. Returning to Strathdyde
Kentigern lived for some time at Glasgow, near a cemetery
ascribed to St Ninian, and was eventually made bishop of that
region by the king and clergy. This story is partially attested
by Welsh documents, in which Kentigern appears as the bishop
of Garthmwl, apparently the ruler of the region about Glasgow.
Subsequently he was opposed by a pagan king called Morken,
whose relatives after his death succeeded in fordng the saint to
retire from Strathdyde. He thereupon took refuge with St
David at Menevia (St David's), and eventually founded a monas-
tery at Ltanelwy (St Asaph's), for which purpose he recdved
grants from Maelgwn. prince of Gwynedd. After the battle of
Ardderyd in 573 in which King Rhydderch, leader of the Chris*
tian party in Strathdyde, was victorious, Kentigern was recalled.
He fixed his see first at Hoddam in Dumfriesshire, but afterwards
■N^
KENTON^ KENTUCKY
- -vs j* Cn*.s**w We fc credited with missionary work in
,: . . v> *»v nv> rf t*e Firth of Forth, but most of the
*^v „ v^ «* Hm • **» sarvive *** n ^ oC lhe Mounih » the
« x-v> x *Ho w *** l*<v The meetingof Kentigern and Columba
KENTON, a city and the county seat of Hardin county,
Oh**, V.S.A.. on the Scioto river, 60 m. N.W. of Columbus.
lVfv ugoo). 6S52. including 493 foreign-born and 271 negroes;
1 1 c t c\ ; 1 $5. It is served by the Erie, the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
Chicago £ St Louis, and the Ohio Central railways. It is
built on the water-parting between Lake Erie and the Gulf of
Mexico, here about 1,000 ft. above sea-lcvei. There are shops
of the Ohio Central railway here, and manufactories of hard-
ware. The municipality owns and operates its waterworks.
Kenton was named in honour of Simon Kenton (1755-1836) a
famous scout and Indian fighter, who took part in the border
warfare, particularly in Kentucky and Ohio, during the War of
American Independence and afterwards. It was platted and ber
came the county scat in 1833, and was chartered as a city in 1885.
KKNTS CAVERN, or Kent's Hole, the largest of English
bone caves, famous as affording evidence of the existence of
Man in Devon (England) contemporaneously with animals now
extinct or no longer indigenous. It is about a mile east of
Torquay harbour and is of a sinuous nature, running deeply
into a hill of Devonian limestone. Although long known locally,
it was not until 1825 that it was scientifically examined by Rev.
J. McEnery. who found worked flints in intimate association with
the bones of extinct mammals. He recognised the fact that
they proved the existence of man in Devonshire while those
animals were alive, but the idea was too novel to be accepted
by bis contemporaries. His discoveries were afterwards
verified by Godwin Austen, and ultimately by the Committee
of the British Association, whose explorations were carried on
under the guidance of Wm. Pcngelly from 1865 to 1880. There
arc four distinct strata in the cave. (1) The surface is com-
posed of dark earth and contains medieval remains, Roman
pottery and articles which prove that it was in use during
the Iron, Bronze and Neolithic Ages. (2) Below this is a
stalagmite floor, varying in thickness from: 1 to 3 f L,, and cover*
jag (3) the red earth which contained bones of the hyaena,
lion, mammoth, rhinoceros and other animals, in association with
flint implements and an engraved antler, which proved man to
have been an inhabitant of the cavern during its deposition.
Above this and below the stalagmite there is in one part of the
cave a black band from 2 to 6 m. thick, formed of soil like No. 2,
containing charcoal, numerous flint implements, and the bones
and teeth of animals, the latter occasionally perforated as if
used for ornament, (a) Filling the bottom of the cave was
a hard breccia, with the remains of bears and flint implements,
the latter in the main ruder than those found above; in some
places it was no less than is ft. thick. The most remarkable
animal remains found in Kent's Cavern are those of the Sabre-
iwt hed tiger, Machairodms latitats of Sir Richard Owen. While
I hr \ alue of McEnery *s discoveries was in dispute the exploration
x t^;he cave of Brixham near Torquay in 1858 proved that man
**« vMCval with the extinct mammalia, and in the following year
*,\<tlu*nAl proof was offered by the implements that ware found
■* VUxvUy Hole, Somerset. Similar remains have been met
%i,\ *a the caves of Wales, and in England as far north as
t\<<t>xhire (Cresswell), proving that over the whole of southern
* , . - nUUc England men, in precisely the same stage of rude
os . . Alton, hunted the rhinoceros, the mammoth and other
SAUtKt animals.
See Sir John Evans, Ancient Stone Implements of Gemot Hi itmn
(London, 1897); Lord Avcbury's Prehistoric Times fiooo); W.
Pcngclly, Address to the British Association (1883) and Life of him
by his daughter (1897) ; Godwin Austen. Proc. Geo. Soc. London, f 1 1.
286; Pengelly, " Literature of Kent's Cavern " in Trans. Devo ns hire
Association (1868); William Boyd Dawkins, Cme~kuntUg and
£oWy If as in Britain.
KENTUCKY, a South Central State of the United States of
America, situated between 36° 3c/ and 39° 6' N. t and 8s° and
8 9 °38 / W. It is bounded N.,N.W., and N.E. by Illinois, Indiana
and Ohio; E. by the Big Sandy river and its E. fork, the Tog,
which separates it from West Virginia, and by Virginia; S.E.
and S. by Virginia and Tennessee; and W. by the Mississippi
river, which separates it from Missouri. It has an area of
40,508 sq. in.; of this, 4x7 sq. m., including the entire breadth oi
the Ohio river, over which it has jurisdiction, are water surface.
Physiography. — From mountain heights along Its eastern border
the surface of Kentucky is a north-western slope across two much
dissected plateaus to a gracefully undulating lowland in the aorta
central part and a longer western slope across the same plateaus to
a lower and more level lowland at the western extremity. The
narrow mountain belt is part of the western edge of the Appalachian
Mountain Province in which parallel ridges of folded mountains,
the Cumberland and the Pine, have crests 2000-3000 ft. high, and
the Big Black Mountain rises to 4000 ft. The highest point in the
state is The Double on the Virginia state line, in the eastern part of
Harlan county with an altitude of over 4100 ft. The entire eastern
Suartcr of the state, coterminous with the Eastern Kentucky coal-
eld, is commonly known as the region of the " mountains,** bat
with the exception of the narrow area jost described it p ropesl y
belongs to the Alleghany Plateau Province. This plateau belt is
exceedingly rugged with sharp ridges alternating with narrow
valleys which have steep sides but are seldom more than 1500 ft.
above the sea. The remainder of the state which lies east of the
Tennessee river is divided into the Highland Rim Plateau and a
lowland basin, eroded in the Highland Kim Plateau and known as
thcBlueGrass Region ; this region is separated from the Highland Rim
Plateau by a semicircular escarpment extending from Portsinomn.
Ohio, at the mouth of the Scioto river, to the month of the Safe
river below Louisville; it is bounded north by the Ohio river.
The Highland Rim Plateau, lying to the south, east and west of
the escarpment, embraces fully one-half of the state, slopes from
elevations of 1000- 1200 ft. or more in the east to about 500 ft. in
the north-west, and is generally much has rugged than the Afle-
ghany Plateau j a peculiar feature of the southern portion of it a the
numerous circular depressions (sink holes) in the surface and the
cavernous region beneath. Kentucky is noted for its caves, the best-
known of which are Mammoth Cave and Colossal Cavern («.*•).
The caves arc cut in the beds of limestone (lying immediately below
the coal-bearing series) by streams that pass beneath the surface m
the " sink holes," and according to Professor N. S. Shakr there are
altogether "doubtless a hundred thousand miles of ways large
enough to permit the easy passage of man." Down the steep slopes
of the escarpment the Highland Kim Plateau drops 200 ft. or snore
to the famous Blue Grass Region, in which erosion has developed
on limestone a gracefully undulating surface. This Blue Gtasa
Region is like a beautiful park, without ragged din's, precipitous
slopes, or Bat marshy bottoms, but maxkedby rounded lulls aad
dales. Especially within a radius of 20 m. around Lexington, the
country is clothed with an unusually luxuriant vegetation. Do '
spring, autumn, and winter in particular, the blue-crass (Poa 4
press*, and Poa pralensis) spreads a mat, green, thick, line and 1
over much of the country, and it is a good winter pasture; about
middle of June it blooms, and, owing to the hue of its seed 1
gives the landscape a bluish hue. Another lowland area en
that small part of the state in the extreme south-east which lies west
of the Tennessee river; this belongs to that part of the Coastal Plain
Region which extends north along the Mississippi river: it has in
Kentucky an average elevation of less than 500 ft. Most of the larger
rivers of the state have their sources among the mountains or on the
Alleghany Plateau and Bow more or less circuitousiy in a general
north-western direction into the Ohio. Although deep river «•*»*«-*»
are common, falls or impassable rapids are rare west of the Alleghany
Plateau, and the state has an extensive mileage of navigable waters.
The Licking. Kentucky. Green and Tradewater are the principal
rivers wholly within the state. The Cumberland, after flowing for a
considerable distance in the south-east aad south centsal pact of the
state, passes into Tennessee at a point nearly south of Louisville, and
in the extreme south-west the Cumberland and the Tennessee, wka
only a short distance between them, cross Kentucky and enter the
Mississippi at Snnthlaad and Paducah respectively. The draias«e
of the region under which the caverns lie is mostly underground.
Fanna and Msrn.— The first white settlers found great nnsnb^..
of buffaloes, deer. elks, geese, ducks, turkeys and partridges, also
many bears, panthers, lynx, wolves, foxes, beavers, otters* minks,
musk-rats, rabbits, j
J 7 :
KENTUCKY
7*i
skunks* an *,
sun-fish, m lin
only a few she
numbers ol its
primeval si of
the middle ow
the doraina tin
both in th A,
chestnut, c ine
and cedar 1 ire
composed I at,
beech, tuli ;W,
cucumber, bo
abound, an .
Climate.- of
the neighbc P.
ontheraou mt
55* F. fori gh
as ioo°or pes
from about tut
46 in. for d Ait
the year an ids
blow from tly
from the sot st.
Soil.— Tl ng
tome of th< en
is derived f m-
phorus) an of
some ao ra. <ea
the Blue G jer
mixture of «tl
as of the k he
most coma ie,
and a san< iss
Region the ith
day and of ny
Plateau, ah
Agricult* he
752.53 » of i ful
Epatimv ^ „ __ ^_ .„ , tal
surface 21,979.423 acres, or 85-9%, were included in farms,
percentage of improved farm land increased from 35*2 in 1850
to 49*9 in 1880 and to 62*5 in 190a The number of farms increased
from 74.777 in 1850 to 166,4*3 in 1880 and to 234,667 in 1900; and
{heir average size decreased from 2267 acres in 1850 to 129*1 acres
in 1880 and to 937 acres in 1900, these changes being largely due
to the breaking up of slave estates, the introduction of a considerable
number of negro farmers, and the increased cultivation of tobacco
and market-garden produce. In the best stock-raising country,
«,g . in Payette county, the opposite tendency prevailed during the
latter part of this period and old farms of a few hundred acres were
combined to form some vast estates of from 2000 to 4000 acres.
Of the 234,667 (arms in 1900, 155*189 contained less than 100 acres,
76450 contained between too and 500 acres, and 558 contained more
than 1000 acres; 152,216 or 64*86% were operated by owners or
part owners, of whom 5320 were negroes; 16,776 by cash tenants,
of whom 789 were negroes; and 60,289 bv share tenants, of whom
4934 were negroes. In 1900 the value of fanra land and improve-
ments was $191,117,430; of buildings on farms, $90,887460; of live-
stock, $73»739.io6. in the year 1899 the value of all farm products
was $123,266,785 (of which $21,128,530 was the value of products
fed to livestock), including the following items: crops, $74,783,365;
animal products, $44,303,940; and forest products, $4,179,840.
The total acreage of all crops in 1899 was 6,582,696. Indian corn
is the largest and most valuable crop. As late as 1849, when it
produced 58,672,591 bu., Kentucky was the second largest Indian-
corn producing state in the Union. In 1899 the crop had increased
to 73.974r220 bu. and the acreage was 3,319,257 (more than half the
acreage of all crops in the state;, but the rank had fallen to ninth in
product and eleventh in acreage? In 1909 (according to the Yearbook
of the United States Department of Agriculture) the crop was
103,472,000 bu. (ninth among the states of the United States), and
the acreage was £,568,000 (twelfth among the states). Among the
cereals wheat is the next largest crop; it increased from 2,142,822 bu.
in 1849 to 11,356,113 bu. in 1879. and to 14,264,500 bu. in 1899; in
1909 it was only 7,906,000 bu. The crop of each of the other cereals
is small and in each case was leas in 1899 than in 1849. The culture
of tobacco, which is the second most valuable crop in the state, was
begun in the north part aboat 1780 and in the west and south early
in the 19th century, but it was late in that century before it was intro-
duced to any coiuaderable extent in the Blue Crass Region, where
it was then in a measure substituted for the culture of hemp. By
1849 Kentucky ranked second only to Virginia in the production of
tobacco, and in 1899 it was far ahead of any other state in both
acreage and yield, there being in that year 384,805 acres, which was
34*9 % of the total acreage in the continental United States, yielding
314,288,050 lb. As compared with the state's Indian corn crop of
that year, the acreage was only a little more than one-ninth, but the
value ($18,541,082) was about 63%. In 1909 the tobacco acreage
in Kentucky was 420,000, the crop was 350,7001000 lb, valued at
th
th
R
It
bt
wl
fo
to
el!
cr
th
W
wl
th
th
to
T<
th
it r , __.
lower grades of the 1906 crop at 16 cents a pound to the American
Tobacco Company and forced the independent buyers out of business ;
and the Burley Society decided in 1907 to grow no more tobacco
until the 1906 and 1907 crops were sold, making the price high enough
to pay for this period of idleness. Members of the pool had used
force to bring planters into the pool ; and now some tobacco growers,
especially in the hills, planted new crops in the hope of immediate
return, and a new " night-riding " war was begun on them. Bands
of masked men rode about the country both in the Black Patch and
in the Burley, burning tobacco houses of the independent planters,
scraping then* newly-planted tobacco patches, demanding that
planters join their organization or leave the country, and whipping
or shooting the recalcitrants. Governor Willson, immediately after
his inauguration, took measures to suppress disorder. In general
the Planters' Protective Association in the Black Patch was more
successful in ks pool than the Burley Tobacco Society in its, and
there was more violence in the " regie " than in the " Burley "
district. In November 1908 the lawlessness subsided in the Burley
after the agreement of the American Tobacco Company to purchase
the remainder of the 1906 crop at a " round " price of 20J cents
and a part of the 1907 crop at an average price of 17 cents, thus
making it profitable to raise a full crop in 1909.
Kentucky is the principal hemp-growing state of the Union; the
crop of 1899, which was grown on 14.107 acres and amounted to
10,303,560 lb, valued at $468,454, was 877% of the hemp crop
of the whole country. But toe competition of cheaper labour in
other countries reduced the profits on this plant and the product of
1899 was a decrease from 78,818,000 lb in 1850. Hay and forage,
the fourth in value of the state's crops in 1899, were grown on
683,139 acres and amounted to 776,534 tons, valued at $6,100,647;
in 1909 the acreage of hay was 480,000 and the crop of 653,000 tons
was valued at $7,771,000. In 1899 the total value of fruit grown
in Kentucky was $2,491 457 (making the state rank thirteenth among
Union in the value of this product), or which
the states of the I
$ 1 ,943,615 was the value of orchard fruits and $435,462 that of small
fruits. Among fruits, apples are produced in greatest abundance,
6,053,717 bu. In 1899, an amount exceeded in only nine states; m
1889 the crop had been 10,679,389 bu. and was exceeded only by the
crop of Ohio and by that of Michigan. Kentucky also grows con-
siderable quantities of cherries, pears, plums and peaches, and, for its
size, ranks high in its crops of strawberries, blackberries and rasp-
berries. Indian corn is grown in all parts of the state but most largely
in the western portion. Wheat is grown both in the Blue Grass
Region and farther west ; and the best country for fruit is along the
Ohio river between Cincinnati and Louisville and in the hilly land sur-
rounding the Blue Grass Region. In the eastern part 01 the state
1 North of the Black Patch is a district in which is grown a heavy-leaf
tobacco, a large part of which is shipped to Great Britain ; and farther
north and east a dark tobacco is grown for the American market.
7+2
KENTUCKY
and cigarette* eaddstnr and harness, patent medicine* and <
pounds, cotton goods, furniture, confectionery, carriage and w
' ils. wooden packing boxes, woollen goods, pottery and terra
ise c4 2$*?% over the value of the city's
Ashland ia the principal centre of the
cotta ware, structural iron-work, and turned and carved wood.
Louisville id the great manufacturingcentre. the value of its products
amountis* in 1905 to $83,204,123, 52-1 % of the product of the entire
state, and showing an increi — * " "- ' ' -"— -— "-
factory product* in 1900.
iron industry.
Muurak.—Thc mineral r eao ur ce s of Kentucky art important and
valuable, though very little developed. The value of all oteao-
factures in 1900- was $194,166^65, and the value of manufactures
based upon products of mines or quarries in the same year was
$25,204,788; the total value of nuneral products waa $19,204,341 ia
1907. Bituminous coal ia the principal mineral, and in 1907 Kentucky
ranked eighth among the coal-producing states of the Union; the
output in 1907 amounted to 10,753,124 short tons, and in 1902 to
6,766,984 short tone a* compared with 2,300,755 tons produced ia
1889, In 1902 the amount was about equally divided between the
eastern coalfield, which ia for the most part in Greenup. Boyd,
Carter, Lawrence, Johnson, Lee, Breathitt, Rockcastle, Pulaski,
Laurel, Knox, Bell and Whitley counties, and has an area of about
11,180 so. m., and the western coalfield, which is in Hendefsoa,
Union, Webster, Daviess. Hancock, McLean, Ohio, Hopkins, Better,
Muhlenberg and Christian counties, and has an area of 5800 sq. m.
In 1907 the output of the western district was 6,295.397 toas; that
of the eastern, 4,457 ,7*7- The largest coal-producing counties ia
1007 were Hopkins (2,064,1 54 short tons) and Muhlenberg (1,882.911
short tons) in the western coalfield, and Bell (1 ,437 T 886shori tens) and
Whitley (762,023 short tons) in the sooth- western part of the eastern
coal6eld. All Kentucky coal is either bituminous or semt-bHununeea,
but of several varieties. Of cannel coal Kentucky is the largest
producer in the Union, its output for 1902 being 65,317 short tons,
and, according to state reports, for 1903, 72,850 toos (of which
46,314 tons were from Morgan county), and for 1904, 68,400 toas
(of which 52492 tons were from Morgan county): according to the
Mineral Resources ef the Unittd States for 1907 (published by the
United States Geological Survey) the production of Kentucky in
1907 of cannel coal (including 4650 tons of semi-cannel coal) was
77*733 tons, and exclusive of semt-cannd cod the output of Kentucky
was much larger than that of any other state. Some of the cod
mined in eastern Kentucky is an excellent steam producer,
the Jellico coal of Whitley county, Kentucky, and of
county, Tennessee. Bat with the exception of that mined in
kins and Bell counties, very little is fit for making coke; ia
the product was 4250 tons of coke (value $12,250), in 1890, 1*343
tons ($22,191) ; in 1900, 95*532 tons ($235,505); in 100a, 136.879 tons
($317,875), the maximum product up to 1906; and in 1907, 67,068
tons ($157,288). Coal was fust mined » Kentucky in Laurel or
Pulaski county in W&27; between 1820 and 1835 the annual owrpnt
was from 2000 to 6000 tons; m 1840 it waa 23,527 tons and in 186s
it was 285,760 tons.
Petroleum was discovered oa Little Renmck's Creek, near Borfces-
ville, in Cumberland county, in 1829,. when a flowing oil well (the
" American well," whose product waa sold as " American oQ "* ta
heal rheumatism, burns. Sic.) waa struck by men boring for a "ask
well," and after a second discovery in the 'sixties at the moeta of
Crocus Creek a email but steady amount of oil was got each year.
Great pipe lines from Parioereburg, West Virginia, to Soenenet,
Pulaski county, and with branches to the Ragland. Barbourvwk
and Prestonburg fields, ha** »« •«» » milf*o* rf 375 m. Tat
principal fields are in the Wayne to Allen
county, including Barren c ok county, and
Floyd and Knott counties ; t sad field in Bath
and Rowan eeuntiea on the I e petroleum pro-
duced in the state amount© ted at $172,8x7.
a. gain in quantity of 81 «4 Icy ia the SW.
extreme of the natural gas n the AppaJachiaa
system r the greatest amount yin the east, ana*
Breckinridge county in thi c of the state's
natural gas output increas 1 to $99,000 ia
1896, $286,243 in 1900. $36; 176 in 1907.
Iron ore has been found an iron furnace
was built in Bath county, it , «ate, an early as
1791, but since i860 this mineral ha* received little attention, la
1002 it was mined only in Bath, Lyon and Trigg counties, of which
the total product was 71,006 long tons, valued at only $86,169; *■
1904 only 35.000 tons were mined, valued at the mines at $35*000.
In 1898 there began an increased activity in the mining of fluor-
spar, and Crittenden, Fayette and Livingston counties produced
in !oo2, 29.030 tons (valued at $143,410) of this mineral, in t< —
30,835 tons (valued at $1 $3,960) and in 1904 19*096 tons (v
at $11 1 ,409). amount* (and values) exceeding those produced fat
any other state for these years; but in 1007 the quantity (21.058
tons) was less than the output of Illinois. Lead and zinc are twined
in small quantities near Marion in Crittenden county and 4
in connexion with mining for fluorspar; in 1007 the output waa
75 tons of lead valued at $7950 and 358 tons of sine valued at
$42,244. Jefferson, jessamine, Warren, Grayson and Cakrwel
counties have valuable quarries of
KENTUCKY 7+3
otlttle limestone, resembffnf the Bedford limestone of Indiana, and
best known under the name of the finest variety, the •• Bowline
Green stone " of Warren county ; and sandstones good for structural
purposes are found in both coal regions, and especially in Rowan
county. In 1907 the total value of limestone Quarried in the state
was $891,500, and of all stone, $1,002,450. Fire and pottery clay
and cement rock also abound within the state. The value of clay
products was $2,406,350 in 1905 (when Kentucky was tenth among
the states) and was $2.61 1,364 in 1907 (when Kentucky was eleventh
among the states). The mannfacture of cement was begun in 1829
at Shippingport, a suburb of Louisville, whence the natural cement
of Kentucky and Indiana, produced within a radius of 15 m. from
Louisville, is called " Louisville cement." In 1905 the value of
natural cement manufactured in the state (according to the United
States Geological Survey) was only $83,000. The manufacture of
Portland cement is of greater importance.
There are mineral springs, especially salt springs, in various parts
of the state, particularly in the Blue Grass Region; these are now of
comparatively little economic importance; no salt was reported among
the state's manufactures for 1905, and in 1907 only 736,920 gallons
of mineral waters were bottled for sale. Historically and geologi-
cally, however, these springs are of considerable interest. According
to Professor N. S. Shaler. state geologist in 1873-1880, " When the
rocks whence they flow were formed on the Silurian sea-floors, a good
deal of the sea-water was imprisoned in the strata, between the grains
of sand or mud and in the cavities of the shells that make up a large
part of these rocks. This confined sea-water is gradually being
displaced by the downward sinking of the rain-water through the
rifts of the strata, and thus finds Its way to the surface, so that
these springs offer to us a share of the ancient seas, hi which perhaps
a hundred million of years ago the rocks of Kentucky were laid
down." To these springs in prehistoric and historic times came
annually great numbers of animals for salt, and in the marshes and
swamps around some of them, especially Big Bone Lick (in Boone
county, about 20 m. S.W. of Cincinnati) have been found many
bones of extinct mammals, such as the mastodon and the long-
legged bison. 1 The early settlers and the Indians came to the
springs to shoot large game for food, and by boiling the waters the
settlers obtained valuable supplies of salt. Several of the Kentucky
springs have been somewhat frequented as summer resorts; among
these are the Blue Lick in Nicholas county (about 48 m. N.E. of
Lexington), Harrodsburg. Crab Orchard in Lincoln county (about
115 m. S.E. of Louisville), Rock Castle springs in Pulaski county
(about 23 m. E.of Somerset) and Paroquet Springs (near Shepherds-
ville, Bullitt county), which was a well-known resort before the
Civil War, and near which, at Bullitt Lick, the first salt works in
Kentucky are said to have been erected.
Pearls are found in the state, especially in the Cumberland River,
and it is supposed that there are diamonds in the kiraberlite deposits
in Elliott county.
Tratuportation.-
Railway building \
first train drawn
Franklin, a distant
to Louisville. Ke
19th century was v
which river navig
railway system wai
increased to only 1
to 2,942, and railw
water craft. The
the Chesapeake A
Southern (Queen A
south-west Trom Ci
state still has a sraa
most of the travel
Blue Grass Region
supply of stone f
property, and in some measure the regulation of railway rates, are
entrusted to a state railway commission.
Population.— The population of Kentucky in 1880* was
1,648,690; in 1890, 1,858,635, an increase within the decade of
12*7%. in 1000 it was 2,147,174; and in 1910 it had reached
2,289,905. Of the total population of iooo, 284,865 were
coloured and 50,249 were foreign-bom; of the coloured, 284,706
were negroes, 102 were Indians, and 57 were Chinese, of the
foreign-born, 27,555 were natives of Germany, 9874 were natives
of Ireland, and 3256 were natives of England. Of the foreign-
born, 21,427, or 426%, were inhabitants of the dty of l^outs*
viile, leaving a population outside of this city of which 98 4%
1 For a full account of the " licks," see vol. I. pt. u. of the Memoirs
of the Kentucky CeolopcoJ Survey (1876).
t * The population 01 the state at the previous censuses was: 73.677
in 1790: 220.955 in 1800; 406.511 in 1810: 564,317 in 1820.687.917
"> 1830; 779828 in 1840; 982405 in 1850; 1,155,684 in i860 and
1 ,321.0 1 1 in 1870.
744 KENTUCKY
Jue,
Hue, and cer-
» the value of
year for each
let passed by
fiationc
ces, hotels or
employ meat
irroent certifi-
iher properly
id and write
upon a birth
|iving height
ificates must
be posted by
a local school
under 16 are
k, or between
e and penal
es appot&ted
oatDanrSe
I43), and aa
at Frankfort
u established
A of the state
i, founded is
became an
HopkinsriQe
rankfort m
EddyviBe ia
for iuvenfe
ttucfcy shows
isfactory. A
was replaced
•day term of
nty-day term
nipplementcd
quently been
>aid from the
rm the richer
e state white
e state makes
) the interest
(2) dividends
t 6% 00 the
1 a perpetual
itercst at 6%
tates; (O the
- real 1
d supervtsaoa
chools. Any
provide for a
Ux winch b
:ts which had
mmon Schcol
biy has also
vide that a9
such districts
:utive weeks,
ust be. and of
trol of a city
h all children
be taufht at
high schools
rsity withou t
every child
first, second,
the full term
re June 1910,
KENTUCKY
745
at
tea
sti-
ich
tnd
the
the
bv
ral.
id
ool
the
there should have been established ii
least one County High School to wbkt
of the county should be admitted wit
tutes (or white and coloured teachers a
county. These institutes are held for
attendance is required of every teache
issuance of three kinds of certificates.
State Board of Examiners is good for lif
the State Board of Examiners is good fc
County certificate* issued by the Com
three classes, valid for one, two and (<
According to a school census then
population of 739.35 2 » of which 587
rural districts. In the school year ioc # .^~ ..«. -~..~. ,»,,. — ion
was 734,617, the actual enrolment in public schools was 44 '.37 7 » the
average attendance was 160,843: there were approximately 339*
male and 5257 female white teachers and 1274 negro teachers; and
the total revenue for school purposes was $3,005,997, of which sum
$2,437,943.56 came from the state treasury.
What was formerly the State Agricultural and Mechanical College
at Lexington became the State University by legislative enactment
(1908); there is no tuition fee except in the School of Law, The
State University has a Department of Education. The state main-
tains for the whites two State Normal Schools, which were established
in 1906— one, for the eastern district, at Richmond, and the other,
(or the western district, at Bowling Green. Under the law estab-
lishing State Normal Schools* each county is entitled to one or more
appointments of scholarships, one annual! v for every 500 white
school children listed in the last school census. A Kentucky
Normal and Industrial School (1886) for negroes is maintained at
Frankfort. Aspong the private and denominational colleges in
Kentucky are Central University (Presbyterian), at Danville -.Tran-
sylvania University, at Lexington; Georgetown College (Baptist) at
Georgetown; Kentucky Wesieyan College (M.E. South), at Win-
chester; and Berea College( non-sectarian) at Berea.
Fmane*.— Kentucky, in common with other states in this part
of the country, suffered from over-speculation in land and railways
during 1830-1850. The funded debt of the state amounted to
four and one-halt millions of dollars in 1850, when the new constitu-
tion limited the power of the legislature to contract further obliga-
tions or to decrease or misapply the sinking funds. From 1850
to 1880 there was a gradual reduction except during the years of
the war. The system of classifying the revenue into separate funds
has frequently produced annual deficits, which are, as a rule only
nominal, since the total receipts exceed the total expenditures. In
1909 the net bonded debt* exclusive of about two millions of dollars
held for educational purposes, was $1,171,394, but this debt was
paid in full in the years immediately following. The sinking fund
commission is composed of the governor, attorney-general, secretary
of state, auditor and treasurer. The first banking currency in
Kentucky was issued in 1802 by a co-operative insurance company
established by Mississippi Valley traders. The Bank of Kentucky,
established at Frankfort in 1806, had a monopoly for several years.
In 1818-1819 the legislature chartered 46 banks, nearly all of which
went into liquidation during the panic of 1819. The Bank of the
Commonwealth was chartered in 1820 as a state institution and the
charter of the Bank of Kentucky was revoked in 1822. A court
decision denying the legal tender quality of the notes 'saucd by the
Bank of the Commonwealth gave rise to a bitter controversy which
had considerable influence upon the political history of the state.
This bank failed in 1820. In 1834 the legislature chartered the
Bank of Kentucky, the Bank of Louisville and the Northern Bank
of Kentucky. These institutions survived the panic of 1837 and
soon came to be recognized as among the most prosperous and the
most conservative banks west of the Allcghanies. The state banking
taws are stringent and most of the business is still controlled by
banks operating under state charters.
History.-— The settlement and the development of that part of
the United States west of the Alleghany Mountains has probably
been the most notable feature of American history since the close
of the Seven Years' War (1 763). Kentucky was the first settle-
ment in this movement, the first state west of the Alleghany
Mountains admitted into the Union. In 1763 the Kentucky
country was claimed by the Cherokees as a part of their hunting
grounds, by the Six Nations (Iroquois) as a part of their western
conquests, and by Virginia as a part of the territory granted to
her by her charter of 1609, although it was actually inhabited
only by a few Chickasaws near the Mississippi river and by a
small tribe of Shawnees in the north, opposite what is now Ports-
mouth, Ohio. The early settlers were often attacked by Indian
raiders from what is now Tennessee or from the country north of
the Ohio, but the work of colonization would have been far more
difficult if those Indians had lived in the Kentucky region itself.
Dr Thomas Walker (171 5-1 704), as an agent and surveyor of
the Loyal Land Company, made an exploration in 1750 into the
present state from the Cumberland Gap, tn search of a suitable
place for settlement but did not get beyond the mountain region.
In the next year Christopher Gift, while on a similar mission for
the Ohio Company, explored the country westward from the
mouth of the Scioto river. In 1753 John Finley, an Indian
trader, descended the Ohio river in a canoe to the site of Louis-
ville. It was Finley's descriptions that attracted Daniel Boone,
and soon after Boone's first visit, in 1767, travellers through
the Kentucky region became numerous. The first permanent
English settlement was established at Harrodsburg in 1774 by
James Harrod, and in October of the same year the Ohio Indians,
having been defeated by Virginia troops in the battle of Point
Pleasant (in what is now West Virginia) , signed a treaty by which
they surrendered their claims south of the Ohio river. In March
1775 Richard Henderson and some North Carolina land specula-
tors met about 1 200 Cherokee Indians in council on the Watauga
river and concluded a treaty with them for the purchase of all
the territory south of the Ohio river and between the Kentucky
and Cumberland rivers. The purchase was named Transyl-
vania, and within less than a month after the treaty was signed,
Boone, under its auspices, founded a settlement at Boones-
borough which became the headquarters of the colony. The
title was declared void by the Virginia government in 1778, but
Henderson and his associates received 200,000 acres in com-
pensation, and all sales made to actual settlers were confirmed.
During the War of Independence the colonists were almost
entirely neglected by Virginia and were compelled to defend them-
selves against the Indians who were often under British leader-
ship. Boonesborough was attacked in April and in July 1777
and in August 1778. Bryant's (or Bryan's) Station, near Lex-
ington, was besieged in August 1782 by about 600 Indians under
the notorious Simon Girty, who after raising the siege drew the
defenders, numbering fewer than 200, into an ambush and in the
battle of Blue Licks which ensued the Kentuckians lost about
67 killed and 7 prisoners. Kentucky county, practically coter-
minous with the present state of Kentucky and embracing
all the territory claimed by Virginia south of the Ohio river and'
west of Big Sandy Creek and the ridge of the Cumberland
Mountains, was one of three counties which was formed out of
Fincaatle county in 1776. Four years later, this in turn was
divided into three counties, Jefferson, Lincoln and Fayette, but
the name Kentucky was revived in 1782 and was given to the
judicial district which was then organised for these three counties.
The War of Independence was followed by an extensive immigra-'
tioo from Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina 1 of a popu-
lation of which fully 05% excluding negro slaves, were of
pure English, Scotch or Scotch- Irish descent. The manners;
customs and institutions of Virginia were transplanted beyond
the mountains. There was the same political rivalry between
the slave-holding farmers of the Blue Grass Region and the
" poor whites " of the mountain districts that there was in
Virginia between the tide-water planters and the mountaineers.
Between these extremes were the small farmers of the" Barrens"*
in Kentucky and of the Piedmont Region in Virginia. The
aristocratic influences in both states have always been on the
Southern and Democratic side, but while they were strongenoogh
in Virginia to lead the state into secession thev were unable to do
so in Kentucky.
1 Most of the early settlers of Kentucky made their way thither
either by the Ohio river (from Fort Pitt) or-^the far larger number-
by way of the Cumberland Gap and the " Wilderness Road." This
latter route began at Inglts's Ferry, on the New river, in what is now
West Virginia, and proceeded west by south to the Cumberland Gap.
The " Wilderness Road," as marked by Daniel Boone in 1775, was a
mere trail, running from the Watauga settlement in east Tennessee
to the Cumberland Gap, and thence by way of what are now Crab
Orchard, Danville and Baidstown, to the Falls of the Ohio, and
was passable only for men and horses until 170c, when the state
made it a wagon road. Consult Thomas Speed. The WUdtrmu
Road (Louisville, Ky.. 1886), and Archer B. Hulbert, Boone'*
Wilderness Road (Cleveland, O., 1003).
* The " Barrens " were in the north part of the state west of the
Blue Grass Region, and were so called merely because the Indians had
burned most of the forests here in order to provide better pasturage
for buffaloes and other game.
7*6
KENTUCKY
At the dote of the War of Independence the Kentucktans
complained because the mother state did not protect them
against their enemies and did not give them an adequate system
af local government. Nine conventions were held at Danville
from 1784 to 1700 to demand separation from Virginia. The
Virgima authorities expressed a willingness to grant the demand
provided Congress would admit the new district into the Union
as a state The delay, together with the proposal of John Jay,
the Secretary for Foreign Affairs and commissioner to negotiate
a commercial treaty with the Spanish envoy, to surrender
navigation rights on the lower Mississippi for twenty-five years
in order to remove the one obstacle to the negotiations, aroused
so much feeling that General James Wilkinson and a few other
leaders began to intrigue not only for a separation from Virginia,
but also from the United States, and for the formation of a close
alliance with the Spanish at New Orleans. Although most of
the settlers were too loyal to be led into any such plot they gen-
erally agreed that it might have a good effect by bringing pressure
to bear upon the Federal government. Congress passed a pre-
liminary act in February 1791. And the state was formally
admitted into the Union on the tst of June 1792. In the Act of
1776 for dividing Fincastle county, Virginia, the ridge of the
Cumberland Mountains was named as a part of the east boundary
of Kentucky, and now that this ridge had become a part of the
booadary between the states of Virginia and Kentucky they, in
1709, appointed a joint commission to run the boundary line on
t^jAiioge. A dispute with Tennesseeover the southern boundary
** stilled in a similar manner in 1820. 1 The constitution of
iTQj provided for manhood suffrage and for the election of the
■BMreor and of senators by an electoral college. General Isaac
cjdbr was the first governor. The people still continued to
Cm troubles with the Iadiaos and with the Spanish at New
EteMs. TheFederalgoverwMntwaaslowtoact,butiuaclion
LLTuaeB was effective. The power of the Indiana was over-
ZL b, Geaeral Anthony Wayne's victory in the battle of
STwiers. fought the aoth of August 1704 near the rapids
L^iaWriverTfew miles above the site of Toledo Oruo;
j ,1* *id permanently by the purchase of Louisiana
**{!. w i*aft-i*» the legislature passed the famous
«* _. .r, |W Antt-Federabsts or Republicans had
r* ^^^£ »jMMtrauoa at Washington had been
t
t
P. r
io\
ah*',
ft
2238.
sn
r —+ «f Kentucky and Virginia.
n*^* * T^Lkr Resolutions of 1708 was prepared
^m*** ~?~ ZL~m. although the fact that he
f . ■. S u— ^^" t *r|"j^ibc public until he acknoW-
— arson** *• ^ >> ^ ufrrni in the House of Repre-
( f « * MC * **y .^^MKnts but with only one
between *
ind f "^
absolute d
drunkennes
^Z „ » »* "^^^ajsoaimously o ^ 041 ™* in by
^^^^■a » *•* _atn** ,rr ^ by Governor James
•^ ir * a*- ** 31c in*** 1 * 011 was a statement of
,t a "^ "'V jtinion of the states to the
— ^a «** .-- resolutions declare the
river was surveved in
Virginia and North
the parallel of latitude
' that parallel. By a
of the Tennessee
% 1 liae along the
^1 Tennessee. In 1820
W 9j4 Tennessee formally
fl m 4 1819 as the boundary
I that the several states
X?W
!**■*
the
alien and sedition laws unconstitutional and therefore ** void and
of no force," principally on the ground that they provided for
an exercise of powers which were reserved to the state. The
resolutions further declare that " this Commonwealth is deter-
mined, as it doubts not its co-states are, tamely to submit tt
undelegated and therefore unlimited powers in no man or body
of men on earth," and that " these and successive acts of the
same character, unless arrested on the threshold, may tend to
drive these states into revolution and blood." Copies of the
resolutions were sent to the governors of the various states, to
be Laid before the different state legislatures, and replies were
received from Connecticut, Delaware, Massachusetts, New
Hampshire, New York, Rhode Island, Vermont and Virginia,
but all except that from Virginia were unfavourable. Neverthe-
less the Kentucky legislature on the 22nd of November 1709
reaffirmed in a new resolution the principles it had laid down is
the first series, asserting in this new resolution tnat the state
** does now unequivocally declare its attachment to the Union,
and to that compact (the Constitution^ agreeably to its obvioos
and real intention, and will be among the last to seek its dissolu-
tion," but that " the principle and construction contended for
by sundry of the state legislatures, that the General Government
is the exclusive judge of the extent of the powers delegated u
it, stop nothing (short] of despolkm-^-smce the discretion of
those who administer the government, and not the Constitutim,
would be the measure of their powers," " that the several states
who formed that instrument, being sovereign and independent,
have the unquestionable right to judge of the infraction," and
" that a nullification by those sovereignties of all unamtktHud acts
done under color of that instrument is the rightful remedy." Tbest
measures show that the state was Democratic-Republican in its
politics and pro-French in its sympathies, and that it was fc>
dined to follow the leadership of that state from which most of
its people had come.
The constitution of 1799 adopted the system of choosing tat
governor and senators by popular vote and deprived the supreme
court of its original jurisdiction in land cases. The Burr con-
spiracy ( 1 804- 1 806) aroused some excitement in the state. Many
would have followed Burr in a filibustering attack upon the
Spanish in' the South- West, but scarcely any would have
approved of a separation of Kentucky from the Federal Union.
No battles were fought in Kentucky during the War of 181 s.
but her troops constituted the greater part of the forces under
General William Henry Harrison. They took part in the opera-
tions at Fort Wayne, Fort Meigs, the river Raisin and the
Thames.
The Democratic-Republicans controlled the politics of the state
without any serious opposition until the conflict in 1820-1821,
arising from the demands for a more adequate system of currency
and other measures for the relief of delinquent debtors divided
the state into what were known as the relief and anti-rdjef
parties. After nearly all the forty-six banks chartered by the
legislature in 1818 had been wrecked in the financial panic of
1 8 19, the legislature in 1820 passed a series of laws designed for
the benefit of the debtor class, among them one making state
bank notes a legal tender for all debts. A decision of the dark
county district court declaring this measure unconstitiitional
was affirmed by the court of appeals. The legislature in 1824
repealed all of the laws creating the existing court of appeals and
then established a new one. This precipitated a bitter c
States and of amendments thereto, they constituted a genera!
government for special purposes, delegated to that govern m«a
certain definite powers, reserving each state to Itself the residuary
mass of right to their own sell-government) and that w h tnm w
the geaeral government assumes undelegated powers its acts ait
unauthoritative, void, and of no force: That to this compact each
state acceded as a state, and is an integral party, its co-stares
forming, as to itself, the other party: That the government created
by this compact was not made the exclusive or 6naJ judge of the
extent of the powers delegated to itself, since that would have made
its discretion, and not the Constitution, the measure of its powers;
but that, as in all other cases of compact among parties luviMoo
common judge, each party has an equal right to judge for itself as
*ll of wfractioas as of the mode and measure of redress.
KENTUCKY
74?
between (he antf-rellei' or " old court w party and the relief or
" new court M party, in which the former was successful. The
old court party followed the lead of Henry Clay and John Quincy
Adams in national politics, and became National Republicans
and later Whigs. The new court party followed Andrew Jackson
and Martin Van Buren and became Democrats. The electoral
vote of the state was cast for Jackson in 1828 and for Clay in
183a. During the next thirty years Clay's conservative iriflu r
ence dominated the politics of the state. 1 Kentucky voted the
Whig ticket in every presidential election from 1832 until the
party made its last campaign in 1852. When the Whigs were
destroyed by the slavery issue some of them immediately ber
came Democrats, but the majority became Americans, or Know-
Nothings. They elected the governor in 185s and almost
succeeded in carrying the state for their presidential ticket in
1856. Tn i860 the people of Kentucky were drawn toward the
South by their interest in slavery and by their social relations, and
toward the North by business ties and by a national sentiment
which was fostered by the Clay traditions. They naturally
assumed the leadership in the Constitutional Union movement
of i860, casting the vote of the state for Bell and Everett.
After the election of President Lincoln they also led in the move-
ment to secure the adoption of the Crittenden Compromise or
some other peaceful solution of the difficulties between the North
and the South.
A large majority of the state legislature, however, were Demo-
crats, and in his message to this body, in January 1861, Governor
Magoffin, also a Democrat, proposed that a convention be called
to determine " the future of Federal and inter-slate relations
of Kentucky," later too, in reply to the president's call for
volunteers, he declared, *' Kentucky will furnish no troops for
the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern States."
Under these conditions the Unionists asked, only for thfe main-
tenance of neutrality, and a resolution to this effect was carried
by a bare majority — 48 to 47. Some of the secessionists took
this as a defeat and left the state immediately to join the. Con-
federate ranks. In the next month there was an election of
congressmen, and an anti-secession candidate was chosen in nine
out of ten districts. An election in August of one-half the Senate
and all of the House of Representatives resulted in a Unionist.
majority in the new legislature of 103 to 35, and in September,
after Confederate troops had begun to invade the state, Ken-
tucky formally declared its allegiance to the Union. From
September 1861 to the fall of Fort Donelson in February 1862
that part of Kentucky which is south and west of the Green River
was occupied by the Confederate army under General A. S.John-
ston, and at Russellville in that district a so-called " sovereignty
convention " assembled on the 18th of November. This body,
composed mostly of Kentucky men who had joined the Con-
federate army, passed an ordinance of secession, elected state
officers, and sent commissioners to the Confederate Congress,
which body voted on the 9th of December to admit Kentucky
into the Confederacy. Throughout the war Kentucky was repre-
sented in the Confederate Congress — representatives and senators
being elected by Confederate soldiers from the state. The
officers of this "provisional government," headed by G. W.
Johnson, who had been elected " governor," left the state when
General A. S. Johnston withdrew; Johnson himself was killed
at Shiloh, but an attempt was subsequently made by General
Bragg to install this government at Frankfort- General Felix
K. Zollicoffcr (181 2-1862) had entered the south-cast part of
the state through Cumberland Gap in September, and later with
a Confederate force of about 7000 men attempted the invasion
of central Kentucky, but in October 1861 he mot with a slight
repulse at Wild Cat Mountain, near London, Laurel county,
and on the 10th of January 1S62, in an engagement near Mill
Springs, Wayne county, with about an equal force under
General George H. Thomas, he was killed and his force was
utterly routed. In 1862 General Braxton Bragg in command of
the Confederates in eastern Tennessee, eluded Genera) Don
1 He died in. 1852, bul the traditions which he represented
survived.
Carlos Buell, in command of the Federal Army of the Ohio
stationed there, and entering Kentucky in August 186s pro-
ceeded slowly toward Louisville, hoping to win the state to the
Confederate cause and gain recruits for the Confederacy in the
state. , H is main army- was preceded by a division of about 1 5,000
men under General Edmund Kirby Smith, who on the 30th of
August defeated a Federal force under General Wm. Nelson near
Richmond and threatened Cincinnati Bragg met with little
opposition on his march, but Buell, also marching from eastern
Tennessee, reached Louisville first (Sept. 24), turned on Bragg,
and forced him to withdraw. On his retreat, Bragg attempted
to set up a Confederate government at Frankfort, and Richard
J. Hawes, who had been chosen as G. W. Johnson's successor, was
actually "inaugurated," but naturally this state " government "
immediately collapsed. On the 8th of October Buell and Bragg
fought an engagement at Perryville which, though tactically
indecisive, was a strategic victory for Buell; and thereafter
Bragg withdrew entirely from the state into Tennessee. This
was the last serious attempt on a large scale by the Confederates
to win Kentucky; but in February 1863 one of General John H.
Morgan's brigades made a raid on Mount Sterling and captured
it; in March General Pegram made a raid into Pulaski county;
in March 1864 General N. B. Forrest assaulted Fort Anderson
at Paducah but failed to capture it; and in June General Morgan
made an unsuccessful attempt to take Lexington.
Although the majority of the people sympathized with the
Union, the emancipation of the slaves without compensation
even to loyal owners* the arming of negro troops, the arbitrary
imprisonment of citizens and the interference of Federal military
officials in purely civil affairs aroused so much feeling that the
state became strongly Democratic, and has remained so almost
uniformly since the war. Owing to the panic of 1803, distrust
of the free silver movement and the expenditure of large 1 cam*
paign funds, the Republicans were successful in the guber-
national election of 1895 and the presidential election of 1896.
The election of 1809 *&* disputed. William S. Taylor, Republi-
can, was inaugurated governor on the mh of December, but
the legislative committee on contests decided in favour of the
Democrats. Governor-elect Goebel was shot by an assassin on
the 30th of January 1000, was sworn into office on his death-
bed, and died on the 3rd of February. Taylor fled the state to
escape trial on the charge of murder. Lieutenant-Governor
Beckham filled out the unexpired term and was re-elected in
1903. In 1907' the Republicans again elected their candidate
for governor.
la
Governors op Kiwtuckt
Democratic- Republican
cting)
[acting)
(acting)
L& M .U9 -
Charier S< Morehead
Berah Magoffin
lames F. Robinson
Thomas E. Bramlette
John L. Helm*
ohn W. Stevenson!
'reston H. Leslie?
tames B. McCreary
.uke P. Blackburn
J. Proctor Knott
Simon B. Bucknec
John Y. Brown
Democrat
Whig
Democrat
American
Democrat
1808-1812
1812-181$
1816
1816- r8ao
1820-1834
1824-1826
1828- 1 83a
1832-1834
igr*
1830-1840
1840-1844
1844-1848
1848-1830
1850-1851
1851-1855
1855-1859
1 859-1862
1862-1863
1863-1867
1867
1 867-1871
1871-1875
x !"-»!z9
1879-1883
1883-1887
1887-1801
1891-1895
KENYA— KENYON
Democrat
i895->899
1899-1900
1900
1900-1907
1907-
■k*. resifacd on the ttst of July to become
dse United States and John U Helm served
ms resigned on the 13th of February 1871 to
«m r£ntncky. PH. Leslie filled out the
a waaesacted in 1871 fern full terra.
\ by GoebeL who received the
C
ol *-
be -*--
'7
thi
w* . *-
179 ». ** »-
gov - • *—
Shci '
have 4 .
Orle; «-.. ♦•-
when
throw v
FaUer \ .
of the . - *.-
and tl
treaty
in 180
Keatuc ' .
acts.
For s
contend*
exercisin,
Congress
that part ,
spirited p
tionspas*
original dr
by Vice-Pi
was the aut
(edged it in
acntatives L
passed by tt
dissenting vc
the Senate or
Garrard on tl
the ultra statt
Federal goven
1 The southern
■779-1780 by c
Carolina, and was
36°jo',butbymi3<
treaty of 1 819 the J
*a» extinguished, a
parallel of 36- 30' fro
connaitstonera reprc
adopted the line ofi 7
^Ylfn the two statei
This resolution read
composing the United
principle of unlimited «ui
that by compact under u
_ dfeaturesand accounts
Zepiris of Uu Kentucky Geological Survey,
-c v Jvmm of Agriculture, Labor and Statistics,
. n ^aBe» Census and various publications of
^3^-jL xmd other nwbucations listed in Bulletin
" "..- -.^ SarikAmtrka* '*-* — ' >5)
^ 1* Survey. Fo >n,
- ^msssriri D*sa rn
m. ~*~ — ^isskVdsd. hn
Zl 1 - and Pieeea
__ . -t» .xscriptioaoi >n,
~~ ~*a* Jnu Rtgioi ,er
Anac nd
• -*. *n»j.
-^ •«* its Exploration and
• .vfc^swiwf Campaitn of
_„ -»*^\ and Lewis Coll ins,
«a -«•»•» Covington, Ky.,
« *»i* of Shaler's work.
n . •*, New York, 2nd ed.,
« » - v»l War history see
- A j, a :«* 7th volume of
in-n *-»■"' (Boston,
.^may (New York,
.^^Oncinnati, 1867),
. >% -^**.Uvio F. Lewis,
* «an of Informa-
nt 1899), and
_ _»- tktet «s much
-* ««*> el the Ken.
"*_ m judications of
. . »lt T. Durrett's
'^ NnWSwed.rj.
• mmt -*m9 4 Kentucky
^^ *%m*er Struggles,
^ ^ tnManary Anuals
^ ^mmm.^ address,
nyand
the axis runs from W.K.W. to S.S.E., ridges radiate oatwanJs,
separated by broad valleys, ending upwards in vast cirques.
The most important ridges centre in the peak Lenaoa (16,500 ft.)
at the eastern end of the central group, and through it runs the
chief water-parting of the mountain, in a generally north to south
direction. Three main valleys, known respectively as Hiade,
Gorges and Hobley valleys, run down from this to the east, and
four— Mackinder, Hausbcrg, Teleki and Hohnel— to the west.
From the central peaks fifteen glaciers, all lying west of the main
divide, descend to the north and south, the two largest being the
Lewis and Gregory glaciers, each about x m. long, which, with
the smaller Kolb glacier, lie immediately west of the main divide.
Most of the glaciers terminate at an altitude of 14,800-14,000 ft.,
but the small Cesar glacier, drained to the Hausberg valley,
reaches to i4r45<>* Chelation was formerly much more extensive,
old moraines being observed down to 12,000 ft. In the upper
parts of the valleys a number of lakes occur, occupying hollows
and rock basins in the agglomerates and ashes, fed by springs,
and feeding many of the streams that drain the mountain slopes.
The largest of these are Lake Hdhnel, lying at an altitude of
14,000 ft., at the head of the valley of the same name, and
measuring 600 by 400 yds.; and Lake Michaelson (1 2,700 ft.?) ia
the Gorges Valley. At a dist ance from the central core the radiat-
ing ridges become less abrupt and descend with a gentle gradient,
finally passing somewhat abruptly, at a height of some 7000 ft.,
into the level plateau. These outer slopes are clothed wit h dense
forest and jungle, composed chiefly of junipers and Podocarfus,
and between 8000 and 9800 ft. of huge bamboos. The forest
zone extends to about 10,500 ft., above which is the steeper alpine
zone, in which pasturages alternate with rocks and crags. Thi
extends to a general height of about 15,000 ft., but in damp,
sheltered valleys the pasturages extend some distance higher.
The only trees or shrubsin this zone are the giant Scnecio (ground-
sel) and Lobelia, and tree-heaths, the Senecio forming groves in
the upper valleys. Of the fauna of the lower slopes, tracks of
elephant, leopard and buffalo have been seen, between 11,500
and 14,500 ft. That of the alpine zone includes two species of
dassy (Procavia), a coney (Hyrax), and a rat (Olomys). The bird
fauna is of considerable interest, the finest species of the upper
zone being an eagle-owl, met with at 14,000 ft. At x 1,000 ft.
was found a brown chat, with a good deal of white in tie tail.
Both the fauna and flora of the higher levels present close affini-
ties with those of Mount Elgon, of other mountains of East Africa
and of Cameroon Mountain. The true native names of the moun-
tain are said to be Kilinyaga, Docnyo Ebor (while mountain)
and Doenyo Egeri (spotted mountain). It was first seen, from a
distance, by the missionary Ludwig Krapf in 1849; approached
from the west by Joseph Thomson in 1883; partially ascended by
Count S. Teleki (1889), J. W. Gregory (1893) and Georg Kolb
(2896); and its summit reached by H. J. Mackinder in 1800-
See J. W. Gregory, The Great Rift -Valley (London, 1896); H. J.
Mackinder, " Journey to the Summit of Mount Kenya," Ceog. Jut.
May 1900. (E. Ha.)
KENTON, LLOYD KENTON, xst Babon (1732-1802), lord
chief- justice of England, was descended by his father's side from
an old Lancashire family; his mother was the daughter of a small
proprietor in Wales. He was born at Grcdington, Flintshire,
on the 5th of October 1732. Educated at Ruthin grammar
school, he was in his fifteenth year articled to an attorney at
Nantwich, Cheshire. In 1750 he entered at Lincoln's Inn,
London, and in 1756 was called to the bar. As for several years
he was almost unemployed, he utilized his leisure in taking notes
of the cases argued in the court of King's Bench, which he after-
wards published. Through answering the cases of his friend
John Dunning, afterwards Lord Ashburton, be gradually became
known to the attorneys, after which his success was so rapid that
in 1780 he was made king's counsel. He showed conspicuous
ability in the cross-examination of the witnesses at the trial of
t ~.a /*~»-» e Gordon, but his speech was so tactless that the
uittal was really due to the brilliant effort of
'ior counsel. This want of tact, indeed, often
1 into striking blunders; as an advocate he was,
KEOKS7K— KEPLER
749
BMMover^-defldtftt in shifty U statement; and hie position vu
achieved chiefly by hard work* a good knowledge* ol law and
several lucky friendships. Through the influence, of Lord
Thuriow, Kcnyon in 1780 entered the Howe o! Commons as
member for Hindon, and in 178 2 he was, through the same friend*
ship, appointed attorney-general in Lord B uckingham's adminis-
tration, an office which he continued to hold under Pitt. In
1784 he received the mastership of the rolls, and was created a
baronet. In 1788 he was appointed lord chief justice as successor
to Lord Mansfield, and the same year was raised to the peerage
asBaranKenyonefGredingtOB. As he had made many enemies,
bis elevation was by no means popular with the bar; but on the
bench, in spite of his capricious and choleric temper, he proved
himself mot only an able lawyer, but a judge of rare and
inflexible impartiality. He died at Bath, on the 4th of April
180a. Kenron was succeeded at snd baron by his son George
(1776-1855), whose great-grandson, Lwyd (b. 1864), became the
4th baron in x$6o«
See Lift by Hoa. G, T. Kenyon, 1873.
JCBOKUK, a city of Lee county, Iowa, U.S.A., on the Missis*
srppi river, at the mouth of the Des Moines, in the S.E. corner of
the state, about soo m. above St Louis. Fop. (1900), 14,641;
(1005), 14.604, including 1534 foreign-born; (1910), 14*008.
It is served by the Chicago, Barlington & Quincy, the Chicago,
Bock Island & Pacific, the Wabash, and the Toledo, Peoria
& Western railways. There is a bridge (about eaoo ft. long)
across the Mississippi, and another (about 1200 ft. long) across
the Des Moines. The city has a public library and St Joseph
and Graham hospitals, and is the seat of the Keokuk Medical
College (1849). There is a national cemetery here. Much of the
city is built on bluffs along the Mississippi. Keokuk is at the
foot of the Des Moines Rapids, round which the Federal Govern*
ment has constructed a navigable canal (opened 1877) about 9 ra.
long, with a draft at extreme low water of 5 ft.; at the foot a
great dam, i| m. long and 38 ft. high, has been constructed.
Keokuk has various manufactures; its factory product in 1005
was valued at $4,225,915, 38*6% more than in 1000. The city
was named after Keokuk, a chief of the Sauk and Foxes (178c-
1848), whose name meant " the watchful " or " he who moves
•krtly." In spite of Black Hawk's War policy in 183a Keokuk
was passive and neutral, and with a portion of his nation re*
mained peaceful while Black Hawk and his warriors fought. His
Kive, surmounted by a monument, is in Rand Park. The first
use on the she of the city was built about x&ao, but further
settlement did not begin until 1836. Keokuk was laid out as a
town in 1837, was chartered as a city in 184B, and in 1007 was one
of five cities of the state governed by a special chatter.
KftONJHAR* a tributary state of India, within the Orissa
division of Bengal; area, 3006 *q» m »; pop- (root), 285,758;
estimated revenue, £10,000. The state is an offshoot from
Mayutbhan j» Part of it consists of rugged hills, rising to more
than 3000 ft. above sea-level. The residence of the raja is at
Keonjhir (pop: 453 *)•
KaONTHAL, a petty hill state in the Punjab, India, with an
area of ir6 sq. m.; pop. (1901); tM99> estimated revenue,
£4400. The chief, a Rajput, received the title of raja in 1857.
After the Gurkha War in i8r5, a portion of Kconthal, which had
been occupied by the Gurkhas, was sold to the maharaja of
Patiala, the remainder being restored to its hereditary chief.
In 1893 the district of Punar was added to the Keonthal state.
The raja exercises rights of lordship over the petty states of
Kothr, Theog, ttadhan and Ratesfc.
KEPLER, JOHANN (1 571-1630), German astronomer, was
born on the 27th of December 1571, at Weil, in the duchy of
WOrttemberg, of which town his grandfather was burgomaster.
He was the eldest child of an ill-assorted union. His father,
Henry Kepler, was a reckless soldier of fortune; his mother,
Catherine Gulden mann, the daughter of the burgomaster of
Ehingen; Was undisciplined and ill-educated. Her husband
found campaigning in Flanders under Alva a welcome relief from
domestic life; and, after having lost all he possessed by a forfeited
security and tried without success the trade of tavern-keeping in
thevil^offihsttndiQgen, be fi^y^ mi $89. deserted hk family.
The misfortune and misconduct of his parents were not the only
troubles of Kepler's childhood. He recovered from small-pox
in bis fourth year with crippled hands and eyesight permanently
impaired; and a constitution enfeebled by premature birth had
to withstand successive shocks of severe illness. His scbootiag
began at Leonberg in 1577— the year, as he himself tells us, of
a great comet; but domestic bankruptcy occasioned his trans*
ference to field-work, in which he was exclusively employed fori
several years. Bodily infirmity, combined with mental aptitude,
were eventually considered to indicate a theological vocation;
he was, in 1584, placed at the seminary of Adelberg, and thence
r emo v ed, two yearn later, to that of Maidbronn. A brilliant
examination for the degree of bachelor procured him, in 1588;
admittance on the foundation to the -university of Tubingen,
where he laid up a copiousstore of classical erudition, and imbibed
Copernican principles from the private instructions of his teacher
and life-long friend, Michael Maestlin. As yet, however, ho
had little knowledge of, and less inclination for, astronomy;
and it was with extreme reluctance that he turned aside from the
more promising, career of the ministry to accept, early in 1504,
the vacant chair of that science at Grata, placed at the disposal
of the Tubingen professors by the Lutheran states of Styria.
The best recognised function of German astronomers in that
day was the construction of prophesying almanacs, greedily
bought by a credulous public. Kepler thus found that the first
duties required of him were of an astrological nature, and set
himself with characteristic alacrity to master the rules of the art
as kid down by Ptolemy and Cardan. He, moreover, sought in
the events of his own life a verification of the theory of planetary
influences; and jt is to this practice that we owe the summary
record of each year's occurrences which, continued almost to his
death, affords for his biography a slight but sure foundation.
But his thoughts were already working in a higher sphere. He
early attained to the settled conviction that for the actual dis-
position of the solar system some abstract intelligible reason
must exist, and this, after much meditation, he believed himself
to have found in an imaginary relation between the " five regular
solids " and the number and distances of the planets. He notes
with exultation the oth of July 1595, as the date of the pseudo-
discovery, the publication of which in Prodnmus DisscrtaHonum
Ctfsmographicarum seu MysUrium Cosmographicum (Tubingen,
1596) procured him much fame, and a friendly correspondence
with the two most eminent astronomers of the time, Tycho Brake
and Galileo.
Soon after his arrival at Gratz, Kepler contracted an engage-
ment with Barbara von Muhleck, a wealthy Styrian heiress, who,
at the age of twenty-three, had already survived one husband
and been divorced from another. Before her relatives could be
brought to countenance his pretensions, Kepler was obliged to
undertake a journey to Wurttembcrg to obtain documentary
evidence of the somewhat obscure nobility of his family, and it
was thus not until the 27th of April 1597 that the marriage was
celebrated. In the following year the archduke Ferdinand, on
assuming the government of his hereditary dominions, issued an
edict of banishment against Protestant preachers and professors.
Kepler immediately fled to the Hungarian frontier, but, by the
favour of the Jesuits, was recalled and reinstated m his post.
The gymnasium, however, was deserted; the nobles of Styria
began to murmur at subsidizing a teacher without pupils; and he
found it prudent to look elsewhere for employment. His refusal
to subscribe unconditionally!© the rigid formula of belief adopted
by the theologians of Tubingen permanently closed against him
the gates of his alma mater. His embarrassment was relieved
however by an offer from Tycho Brahe of the position of assistant
in his observatory near Prague, which, after a preliminary visit
of four months, he accepted. The arrangement was made just
in time; for in August 1600 he received definitive notice to leave
Gratz, and, having leased bis wife's property, he departed with
his family for Prague.
By Tycho's unexpected death (Oct. 24, 1601) a brilliant career
seemed to be thrown open to Kepler. The emperor Rudolph IL
ISO
KEPLER
imsaediately appointed him to succeed Mi patron as imperial
mathemaririaa, although at a reduced salary of 500 florins; the
invaluable treasure of Tycho's observations was placed at his
disposal; and the laborious but congenial task was entrusted to
him of completing the tables to which the grateful Dane bad
already affixed the title of Rudelpkine. The first works executed
by him at Prague were, nevertheless, a homage to the astrological
proclivities of the emperor. In De fundamentis ostrologiae
certioribus (Prague, 1602) he declared his purpose of preserving
and purifying the grain of truth which he believed the science to
contain. Indeed, the doctrine of "aspects" and "influences"
fitted excellently with his mystical conception of the universe,
and enabled him to discharge with a semblance of sincerity the
most lucrative part of his professional duties. Although he
strictly limited his prophetic pretensions to the estimate of
tendencies and probabilities, his forecasts were none the less in
demand. Shrewd sense and considerable knowledge of the world
came to the aid of stellar lore in the preparation of " prognostics "
which, not unf requently hitting off the event, earned him as much
credit with the vulgar as his cosmical speculations with the
learned. He drew the horoscopes of the emperor and Wallenstein,
as well as of a host of lesser magnates; but, though keenly alive
to the unworthy character of such a trade, he made necessity
his excuse for a compromise with superstition. " Nature," he
wrote, " which has conferred upon every animal the means of
subsistence, has given astrology as an adjunct and ally to astro-
nomy." He dedicated to the emperor in 1603 a treatise on the
** great conjunction" of that year (Judicium dt trigone igneo);
and he published his observations on a brilliant star which
appeared suddenly (Sept. 30, 1604), and remained visible for
seventeen months, in De Stella nova in pede Serpentarii (Prague,
1606). While sharing the opinion of Tycho as to the origin of
such bodies by condensation of nebulous matter from the Milky
Way, he attached a mystical signification to the coincidence in
time and place of the sidereal apparition with a triple conjunction
of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn.
The main task of his life was not meanwhile neglected. This
was nothing less than the foundation of a new astronomy, in
which physical cause should replace arbitrary hypothesis. A
preliminary study of optics led to the publication, in 1604, of his
Astronomiae pars optica, containing important discoveries in the
theory of vision, and a notable approximation towards the true
law of refraction. But it was not until 1609 that, the " great
Martian labour " being at length completed, he was able, in his
own figurative language, to lead the captive planet to the foot
of the imperial throne. From the time of his first introduction
to Tycho he had devoted himself to the investigation of the orbit
of Mars, which, on account of its relatively large eccentricity,
had always been especially recalcitrant to theory, and the results
appeared in Astronomia nova cuVtoXoyirrlr, sen Pkysica coelcstis
jrWite cemmentariis de motions stettae Mortis (Prague, 1609).
In this, the most memorable of Kepler's multifarious writings,
two of the cardinal principles of modern astronomy— the laws of
elliptical orbits and of equal ar eas -were established (see Asrso-
aoatt: History); important truths relating to gravity were
inaariiiH and the tides ascribed to the influence of lunar
*tract*oa; while an attempt to explain the planetary revolutions
a ;he then backward condition of mechanical knowledge pro-
uage4 a theory of vortices closely resembling that afterwards
arttwal by Descartes. Having been provided, in August 1610,
, ^-Mt, vchbsthop of Cologne, with one of the new Galilean
> gjcpkr began, with unspeakable delight, to observe
' I by it. He had welcomed with a Ik tie essay
1 Nuncio Sidaro Galileo's first announce-
t swvefcjes; he now, in his Dioptrics (Augsburg,
t the theory of refraction by lenses, and suggested
..^-^ « *j* ** astronomical " or inverting telescope.
, ' ^ ■ mv hrssid to have founded the branch of science
M jaw* 9 TBSS*.
«. . j w warked by Kepler as the most disastrous of
3rd of July carried off by typhus. - Public cakaaftr **» «
to private bereavement. On the ajrd of May 161 1 Matthias,
brother of the emperor, assumed the Bohemian crown hi Prague,
compelling Rudolph to take refuge in the citadel, where he die* 4
on the roth of January following. Kepler's fidelity in resnaimag
with him to the last did not deprive him of the favour of hut
successor. Payments of arrears, now amounting to upwards of
4000 florins, was not, however, in the desperate condition of the
imperial finances, to be hoped for; and he was glad, wide
retaining his position as court astronomer, to accept (in 161 a)
the office of mathematician to the states of Upper Austria. His
residence at Linx was troubled by the harsh conduct of the pastor
Hiuter, in excluding htm from the rites of his church on the
ground of supposed Calvinistic leanings—a decision confirmed,
with the addition. of an insulting reprimand, on bis appeal to
Wurttemberg. In 1613 he appeared with the emperor Matthias
before the diet of Ratisbon as the advocate of the introduction
into Germany of the Gregorian calendar; but the attempt was
for the time frustrated by anti-papal prejudice. The attentioa
devoted by him to chronological subjects is evidenced by the
publication about this period of several essays in which ht
sought to prove that the birth of Christ took place five years
earlier than the commonly accepted date,
Kepler's second courtship forms the subject of a highly char-
acteristic letter addressed by him to Baron Stralendorf , in which
he reviews the qualifications of eleven candidates for his hand,
and explains the reasons which decided his choke in favour of
a portionless orphan girl named Susanna Rentlinger. The
marriage was celebrated at Linx, on the 30th of October 16 x 3, aad
seems to have proved a happy and suitable one. Th^abcrndaat
vintage of that year drew his attention to the defective methods
in use for estimating the cubical contents of vessels, and his
essay on the subject (Nova Stereometric Doliorum y Linx, rois)
entitles him to rank among those who prepared the din <iw ij
of the infinitesimal calculus. His observations on the three*
of 1618 were published in De Cemetis, comemporaneously with
De Harmonice Mundi (Augsburg, 1610), of which the firs* hoea-
ments had been traced twenty years previously at Grata. Thai
extraordinary production is memorable as having announced
the discovery of the" third law "—that of the sesquiplicate talis
between the planetary periods and distances. But the mass
purport of the treatise was the exposition of an elaborate system
of celestial harmonies depending on the various and varying
velocities of the several planets, of which the sentient sod
animating the sun was the solitary auditor. The work **k?ia^
this fantastic emulation of extravagance with genius was dedi-
cated to James L of England, and the compliment was acknow-
ledged with an invitation to that island, conveyed through Sir
Henry Wotton. Notwithstanding the distracted state of ass
own country, he refused to abandon it, as be had previously, ia
161 7, declined the post of successor to G. A. Magini in the snathe*
mattcal chair of Bologna.
The insurmountable difficulties presented by the lunar theory
forced Kepler, after an enormous amount of fruitless labour, to
abandon Ins design of comprehending the whole scheme* of the
heavens in one great work to be called Mipparckms t and he them
threw a portion of his materials into the form of a dialogue
intended for the instruction of general readers. The JSnifrant
Astronomiae Copemicanae (Line and Frankfort, 1616-16*1), a
lucid and attractive textbook of Copernkan science, was remark-
able for the prominence given to M physical astronomy," as wef
as for the extension to the Jovian system of the laws recently
discovered to regulate the motions of the planets. The first
Of a series of ephemerides, calculated on these principles, was
published by him at Una in 161 7; and in that for 1620, dedicated
to Baron Napier, he for the first time employed logarithms. Tan
important invention was eagerly welcomed by him, and its theory
formed the subject of a treatise entitled Chilias Legm itkmm ■■,,
printed in 16&4, but circulated in manuscript three years earner,
which largely contributed to bring the new method into general
KEPPEL, VISCOUNT;
75*
disposition and unbridled tongue of Catherine Kepler, hfe mother,
created /or her numerous enemies in the Utile town of Leonberg;
while her unguarded conduct exposed her to a species of calumny
at that time readily circulated and believed. As early- as 161 s
suspicions of sorcery began to be spread against her, which she,
with more spirit than prudence, met with an action for libeL
The suit was purposely protracted, and at length, in 16^0, the un-
happy woman, then in her seventy-fourth year, was arrested on
a formal charge of witchcraft. Kepler immediately hastened
to Wurttemberg, and owing to his indefatigable exertions she was
acquitted after having suffered thirteen month's imprisonment,
and endured with undaunted courage the formidable ordeal of
" territion," or examination under the imminent threat of torture,
She survived her release only a few months, dying on the ijth of
April 1622.
Kepler's whole attention was now devoted to the production
of the new tables. " Germany," be wrote, " does not long for
peace more anxiously than I do for their publication." But
financial difficulties, combined with civil and religious convul-
sions, long delayed the accomplishment of his desires. From
the 24th of June to the 20th of August 1626, Linz was besieged,
and its inhabitants reduced to the utmost straits by bands of ie-i
surgent peasants. The pursuit of science needed. a more tranquil
shelter; and on the raising of the blockade, Kepler obtained per-
mission to transfer his types to Ulm, where, in September 16*7, the
Rudolphine Tables were at length given to the world. Although
by no means free from errors, their value appears from the fact
that they ranked for a century as the best aid to astronomy.
Appended were tables of logarithms and of refraction, together
with Tycho's catalogue of 777 stars, enlarged by Kepler to 1005,
Kepler's claims upon the insolvent imperial exchequer
•mounted by this time to 12,000 florins. The emperor Ferdi-
nand II., too happy to transfer the burden, countenanced an
arrangement by which Kepler entered the service of the duke of
Friedland (Walienstein), who assumed the full responsibility of
the debt. In July 1628 Kepler accordingly arrived with his family
at Sagan in Silesia, where he applied himself to the printing of his
ephemerides up to the year 1636, and whence he issued, in 1620,
a Notice to the Curious in Things Celestial, warning astronomers of
approaching transits. That of Mercury was actually seen by
Gassendi in Paris on the 7th of November 1631 (being the first
passage of a planet across the sun ever observed) ; that of Venus,
predicted for the 6th of December following, was invisible in
western Europe. Wallenstein's promises to Kepler were but
imperfectly fulfilled. In lieu of the sums due, he offered him n
professorship at Rostock, which Kepler declined. An: expedition
to Ratisbon, undertaken for the purpose; of representing, his case
to the diet, terminated his life. Shaken by the journey, whkh
he had performed entirely on horseback, he was attacked with
fever, and died at Ratisbon, on the 15th of November (N.S.),
1630, in the fifty- ninth year of his age. An inventory of his
effects showed him to have been possessed of no inconsiderable
property at the time of his death. By his first wife he bad five,
and by his second seven children, of whom only two, a son and a
daughter, reached maturity.
The character of Kepler's genius is especially difficult to estimate.
His tendency towards mystical speculation formed a not less funda
truth. Without assigning to each element its doe value, no sound
comprehension of his modes of thought can be attained. His idea
of the universe was essentially Pythagorean and Platonic. He
started with the conviction that the arrangement of its parts must
correspond with certain abstract conceptions of the beautiful and
harmonious. His imagination, thus kindled, animated him to those
severe labours of which his great discoveries were the fruit. His
demonstration that the planes of all the planetary orbits pass through
the centre of the sun, coupled with his clear recognition of the sun as
the moving power of the system, entitles him to rank as the founder
©I* physical astronomy. But the fantastic relations imagined by him
of planetary movements and distances to musical intervals and
geometrical constructions seemed to himself discoveries no less
admirable than the achievements which have secured his lasting
fame. Outside the boundaries of the solar system, the metaphysical
sride of ma genius, no longer held in check by experience, fully
ted itself. The Keplenan like the Pythagorean cosmos waa
eJveeiold, consisting of the centre, or sun, the surface, represented by
Liate space, fiBed witfi
that he regarded the
s opinion of Giordano
his happy conjectures
tation, postulated by
the planets, and soon
1; the suggestion of a
ttic ; arid the explana-
observed to surround
i the colossal amount
terous disadvantages,
d secured for him the
iven to mankind the
he was amiable and
be merits of others
and a life marked by
>led by sentiments of
ased bv the empress
merchants, and long
Pulkowa, were fully
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i8-i»7i. 8 vols. 8vo)
ed and several minor
titled Joh. Keppleri
t mass of his corre-
bunded mainly on his
His correspondence
Anscbutz at Munich,
le A stronomie (Frank-
mischt Ansfhauungrn
momische Wettanstchl
m Kepters Leben mud
Ket>ler und die Hot*
'hickte dcr A stronomie
md J. Kepler in Prat
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\fond (1898; an anno-
Johann Keppter, der
AUtemeine Deutsche
(A. M. C t )
KEPPEL. AUGUSTUS KEPPBL, Viscount (1725-1786),
British admiral, second son of the second earl of Albemarle,
was born on the 25th of April 1725. He went to sea at the age
of ten,"and had already five years of service to his credit when he
was appointed to the " Centurion," and was sent with Anson
round the world in 1740. He had a narrow escape of being
killed in the capture of Paita (Nov. 13, 1741), and was named
acting lieutenant in 174a. In 1744 he was promoted to be com-
mander and post captain. Until the peace of 1748 he was
actively employed. In 1747 he ran his ship the " Maidstone "
(50) ashore near Belieisle while chasing a French vessel, but
was honourably acquitted by a court martial, and reappointed
to another command. After peace had been signed he was sent
into the Mediterranean to persuade the dey of Algiers to restrain
the piratical operations of his subjects. The dey is said to have
complained that the king of England should have sent a beard-
less boy to treat with him, and to have been told that if the beard
was the necessary qualification for an ambassador il would
have been easy to send a " Billy goal." After trying the effect
of bullying without success, the dey made a treaty, and Keppel
returned in 1751. During the Seven Years' War he saw constant
service. He was in North America in 1755, on the coast of
France in 1756, was detached on a cruise to reduce the French
settlements on the west coast of Africa in 1758, and his ship the
" Torbay " (74) was the first to get into action in the battle of
Quiberpn in r 7 59. In 1757 he had formed part of the court
martial which had condemned Admiral Byng, and had been active
among those who had endeavoured to secure a pardon for him;
but neither he nor those who had acted with him could produce
any serious reason why the sentence should not be carried out.
When Spain joined France in 1762 he was sent as second in
command with Sir George Pocock in the expedition which took
Havannah. His health suffered from the fever which carried
off aa immense proportion of the soldiers and sailors, but the
KEPPEL, SIR H.^KER
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-^ni dispute occurred in 1770 he was
^ w be sent against Spain* but a
3C ~ ^ hid do occasion to hoist bis flag.
" *"^ maB t debated period of his life
^— c d the war of American Indepen-
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"f" ^^BfTwrr led by the Marquess of
". * iLchmond. He shared in all the
jT— *jied from power by the resolute
^_— oer of Parliament, in which he had
:BS ^a ,j8o f and then for Surrey, he
"*■ "*^ j, constant hostility with the
^—aa with them he was prepared to
" lad in particular Lord Sand-
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- *^ sppointed to command the
■ T w _ ^ prepared against France
" " S ^f- B i to think that the First Lord
- ~ -J 'V defeated. It was a further
'~ V^bttnagoneofbissubordi-
"**T^H«gh Palliser (17*3-1706),
"^.^ faard, a member of parlia-
* y jja was generally shared,
" PB ^— « 1 for the bad state of the
* ^J^^Twijch Keppel fought with
■ * __£ gded in a highly unsatis-
• - — »*« unintelligent manage*
* «■ ' ^^Sr Hugh Palliser to obey
~ 1 7 ^ bad been deliberately
"* ~~£*± » his public despatch
— ^"^ vbig press, with the
- "• ^^^t^ kef* a campaign of
r . ^s answered in the same
There-
f courts
- ~ \4k0ate treason. 1
■^* * "** J * .— towent and of
^-stred in 1779. and then
. --- " J ~ ^ |tfl of Lord North's
' nl J - r rf parliament. When
- * *'" B S was created Viscount
^ ^* — oftce was not dis-
**■ ^\_ -ai!^* 1 associates by
• * w^*" Hc finaU y
^ **J*|? — Biaistry formed by
^ * "•*_l ia fr > f* 001 public life.
- ^^J^i?* - Burke, who
- ** A "*^bthad" something
-fc **_ ^ stock of pride on
* VLj £c mUdcr virtues."
--»- *|L fcter years. His
^- - **■ V»-r Rey nold$ - The
» ** ^^L in the National
^fcb admiral, son of
^r *- ** Tan*bcth, daughter
^" - **\ jjune J 800 * and
. • ** ^Portsmouth in
■ „ --**2' l apW promotion,
^- <*** S-Twas very slow.
"^ —*^Srini833. His
••^^.inade himself
" " ■>* *!Jjw5 t* HI*" 1 ™
* T£*|t* e
In 1837 he was promoted post capfam, and appointed in 1S41
to the " Dido " for service in China and against the Malay
pirate*, a service which be repeated in 1847, when in command at
H.M.S. " Maeander." The story of hts two commands was told
by himself in two publications, The Expedition to Borne* #f
HMS. " Dido " for the Suppression of Pbacy (1846), and ia
A Visit lotkt Indian Arekipetagoin H.M<S. " Maeander " (1855).
The subsunce of these books was afterwards incorporated into
his autobiography, which was published in 1800 under the ihle
A Sailor's Life under four Sovereigns. In 1853 he was appointed
to the command of the " St Jean d'Acre " of iot guns for service
in the Crimean War. But he had no opportunity to distingash
himself at sea in that struggle. As commander of the naval
brigade landed to co-operate in the siege of Sevastopol, he wis
more fortunate, and he had an honourable share in the latter
days of the siege and reduction of the fortress. After the Crimean
War he was again sent out to China, this time in command of tbe
•* Raleigh," as commodore to serve under Sir M. Seymour. Tbe
" Raleigh ° was lost on an uncharted rock near Hong-Kong,
but three small vessels were named to act as her tenders, and
Commodore Keppel commanded in them, and with the crew
of the " Raleigh," in the action with the Chinese at Fatshaa
Creek (June 1, 1857). He was honourably acquitted for the loss
of the " Raleigh," and was named to the command of the
" Alligator," which he held till his promotion to rear-admiral
For his share in the action at Fatshan Creek he was made K.C.B.
The prevalence of peace gave Sir Henry Keppel no further
chance of active service, but he held successive commands txD
his retirement from the active list in 1879, two years after he
attained the rank of Admiral of the Fleet. He died at the agt
of 05 on the 17th of January 1904.
KER, JOHN (1673-1726), Scottish spy, was born in Ayrshire
on the 8th of August 1673. His true name was Crawford, his
father being Alexander Crawfurd of Crawfurdland; but having
married Anna, younger daughter of Robert Kcr, of Kersland,
Ayrshire, whose only son Daniel Ker was killed at tbe tattk
of Steinkirk in 169?, he assumed the name and arms of Ker ia
1697, after buying the family estates from his wife's elder sister.
Having become a leader among the extreme Covenanters, he
made use of his influence to relieve his pecuniary embarrass-
ments, selling his support at one time to the Jacobites, at another
to the government, and whenever possible to both parties at the
same time. He held a licence from the government in 1707
permitting him to associate with those whose disloyalty was
known or suspected, proving that he Was at that date tbe
government's paid spy; and in his Memoirs Ker asserts thzt
he had a number of other spies and agents working under his
orders in different parts of the country. He entered into corre-
spondence with Catholic priests and Jacobite conspirators,
whose schemes, so far as he could make himself cognisant of
them, he betrayed to the government. But he was known to
be a man of the worst character, and it is improbable that be
succeeded in gaming the confidence of people of any importance.
The duchess of Gordon was for a time, it is true, one oi hh
correspondents, but in 1707 she had discovered him to be
"a knave." He went to London in 1709, where he seems to
have extracted considerable sums of money from politicians
of both parlies by promising or threatening, as the case might
be, to expose Godotphin's relations with the Jacobites. I&
1 7 13, if his own story is to be believed, business of a sercJ-
diplomatic nature took Ker to Vienna, where, although he
failed in' the principal object of his errand, the emperor made
him a present of his portrait set in jewels. Ker also occupied
his time in Vienna, he says, by gathering information, which be
forwarded to the elcctress Sophia; and in the following year
on his way home hc stopped at Hanover to give some jk)v*c*
to the future king of England as to the best way to govern the
English. .Although in his own opinion Ker materially assisted
I in placing George I. on the English throne, his services were
unrewarded, owing, he would have us believe, to the iwoor*
I ruptibUily of his character. Similar ingratitude was taw-
for his revelations of the Jacobite intentions in 1 71 5;
KERAK— KERBELA
753
and as he wu no more successful in making money out of the
East India Company, nor in certain commercial schemes which
engaged his ingenuity during the next few years, he died in a
debtors' prison, on the 8th of July 1726. While in the King's
Bench he sold to Edmund Curll the bookseller, a fellow-prisoner,
who was serving a sentence of five months for publishing obscene
books, the manuscript of (or possibly only the materials on
which were based) the Memoirs of John Ker of Kersiand, which
Curll published In 1726 in three parts, the last of which appeared
after Iter's death. For issuing the first part of the Memoirs,
which purported to make disclosures damaging to the govern-
ment, but which Curll in self-justification described as " vindi-
cating the memory of Queen Anne," the publisher was sentenced
to the pillory at Charing Cross; and he added to the third part
of the Memoirs the indictment on which he had been convicted.
See the above-mentioned Memoirs (London, 1726-1727), and in
? articular the " preface " to part i. ; George Lockhart, The Lockhart
apers (2 vols., London, 1817); Nathaniel Hookc, Correspondence,
edited by W. D. Mac ray (Roxburghe Club, 2 vols., London, 1870),
In which Ker is referred to under several pseudonyms, such as
" Wicks," " Trustie," " The Cameronian Mealmonger," &c
KERAK, a town in eastern Palestine, 10 m. E. of the southern
angle of the Lisan promontory of the Dead Sea, on the top or a
rocky hill about 3000 ft. above sea-level. It stands on a platform
forming an irregular triangle with sides about 5000 ft. in length,
and separated by deep ravines from the ranges around on all
sides but one. The population is estimated at 6000 Moslems
and 1800 Orthodox Greek Christians. Kerak is identified with
the Moabite town of Kir-Hareseth (destroyed by the Hebrew-
Edomite coalition, 2 Kings Hi. 25), and denounced by Isaiah
under the name Kir of Moab (xv. 1), Kir-Hareseth (rvi. 7)
or Kir-Heres (xvi 11): Jeremiah also refers to it by the
last name (xxxix. 31, 36). The modern name, in the form
Xapa£, appears in 2 Mace. xii. 17. Later, Kerak was the
seat of the archbishop of Petra. The Latin kings of Jerusalem,
recognizing its importance as the key of the E. Jordan
region, fortified it in 1142: from 1183 it was attacked
desperately by Saladin, to whom at last it yielded in 1188.
The Arabian Ayyubite princes fortified the town, as did the
Egyptian Mameluke sultans. The fortifications were repaired
by Bibars in the 13th century. For a long time after the
Turkish occupation of Palestine and Egypt it enjoyed a semi-
independence, but in 1893 a Turkish governor with a strong
garrison was established there, which has greatly contributed
to secure the safety of travellers and the general quiet of the
district. The town is an irregular congeries of flat mud -roofed
houses. In the Christian quarter is the church of St George;
the mosque also is a building of Christian origin. The town b
surrounded by a wall with five towers; entrance now is obtained
through breaches in the wall, but formerly it was accessible
only by means of tunnels cut in the rocky substratum. The
castle, now used as the headquarters of the garrison and closed
to visitors, , is a remarkably fine example of a crusaders' fortress.
(R.A. S M)
KERALA* or Chera, the name of one of the three ancient
Dravidian kingdoms of the Tamil country of southern India,
the other two being the Chola and the Pandya. Its original
territory comprised the country now contained in the Malabar
district, with Travancore and Cochin, and later the country
included in the Coimbatore district and a part of Salem. The
boundaries, however, naturally varied much from time to
time. The earliest references to this kingdom appear in the
edicts of Asoka, where it is called Kcralaputra (i.e. son of Kerala),
a name which in a slightly corrupt form is known to Pliny and
the author of the Periplus. There is evidence of a lively trade
carried on by sea with the Roman empire in the early centuries
of the Christian era, but of the political history of the Kerala
kingdom nothing is known beyond a list of rajas compiled from
inscriptions, until in the xoth century the struggle began with
the Cholas, by whom it was conquered and held till their over-
throw by the Mahommedans in 13 10. These in their turn were
driven out by a Hindu confederation headed by the chiefs of
Vijayanagar, and Kerala was absorbed in the Vijayanagar empire
XV 13
until its destruction by the Mahommedans in 1565. For about
80 years it teems to have preserved a precarious independence
under the naiks of Madura, but in 1640 was conquered by the
Adil Shah dynasty of Btjapur and in 1652 seised by the king of
Mysore.
See V. A. Smith, Early Hist, of India, chap. xvi. (2nd ed., Oxford,
1908).
KERASUND (anc Ckoerades, Pharnacia, Census), a town
on the N. coast of Asia Minor, in the Trebixond vilayet, and the
port — an exposed roadstead— of Kara-Hissar Sharki, with which
it is connected by a carriage road. Pop. just under 10,000,
Moslems being in a slight minority. The town? is situated on a
rocky promontory, crowned by a Byzantine fortress, and has a
growing trade. It exports filberts (for which product it is the
centre), walnuts, bides and timber. Ceraxus was the place from
which the wild cherry was introduced into Italy by Lucuilus and
so to Europe (hence Fr. cerise, " cherry ").
KtRATRY, AUGUSTS HILARION, Coicte de (1760-1859);
French writer and politician, was bora at'Rennes on the 28th of
December 1769. Coming to Paris in 1700, he associated himself
with Bernardin de St Pierre. After being twice imprisoned
during the Tenor he retired to Brittany, where he devoted him-
self to literature till 18x4. In 1818 he returned to Paris as
deputy for Finistdre, and sat in the Chamber till 1824, becoming
one of the recognized liberal leaders. He was re-elected in
1827, took an active part' in the establishment of the July
monarchy, was appointed a councillor of state (1830), and m
1837 was made a peer of France. After the coup d'Oat of 1851
he retired from public life. Among his publications were
Conies el IdylUs (1791); Lysus ei Cydippe, a poem (1801);
Inductions morales et physiologiques (181 7); Documents pour
senir d Vhisteire do Prance (1820); Du Beau dans les arts
d' imitation (1822); Le Dernier des Beaumanoir (1824). His
last work, Clerisse (1854), a novel, was written when he was
eighty-five. He died at Port- Marly on the 7th of November 1850!
His son, comte Emile de Keratry ( 183 2- ) , became depu ty
for Finistere in 1869, and strongly supported the war with
Germany in 187a He was in Paris during part of the siege,
but escaped in a balloon, and joined Gambetta. In 1871 Thiers
appointed him to the prefecture, first of the Haute-Garonne,
and subsequently of the Bouches-du-Rh6ne, but he resigned
in the following year. He is the author of La Contre-guiriUa
franchise au Mcxiqus (1868) ; L'&toalion et la chute de I'empereur
MaxitnUien (1867); Le Quatre-septcmbre et le gouvernement de la
defense naiionale (1872); M our ad V. (1878), and some volumes
of memories.
KERBELA, or Meshed-JJosain, a town of Asiatic Turkey,
the capital of a sanjak of the Bagdad vilayet, situated on the
extreme western edge* of the alluvial river plain, about 60 m.
S.S.W. of Bagdad and 20 m. W. of the. Euphrates, from which
a canal extends almost to the town. The surrounding territory
is fertile and well cultivated, especially in fruit gardens and palm*
groves. The newer parts* of the city are built with broad streets
and sidewalks, presenting an almost European appearance.
The inner town, surrounded by a dilapidated brick wall, at the
gates of which octroi duties are still levied, is a dirty Oriental
city, with the usual narrow streets. Kerbela owes its existence
to the fact that tjosain, a son of 'Ali, the fourth caliph, was slain
here by the soldiers of Yazid, the rival aspirant to the caliphate,
on the 10th of October a j>. 680 (see Caliphate, sec. B, § 2). The
most important feature of the town is the great shrine of IJosain,
containing the tomb of the martyr, with its golden dome and
triple minarets, two of which are gilded. Kerbela is a place
of pilgrimage of the Shi'itc Moslems, and is only less sacred to
them than Meshed 'Ah' and Mecca. Some 200,000 pilgrims from
the Shi'ite portions of Islam are said to journey annually to
Kerbela, many of them carrying the bones of Iheir relatives to
be buried in its sacred soil, or bringing their sick and aged to
die there in the odour of sanctity. The mullahs, who fix the
burial fees, derive an enormous revenue from the faithful.
Formerly Kerbela was a self -governing hierarchy and constituted
an inviolable sanctuary for criminals; but in 1843 the Turkish
2a
75+
KERCH— KERGUELEN ISLAND
jrovernmtnt undertook to deprive the city of some of these
liberties and to enforce conscription. The Kerbelese resisted,
and Kernels wu bombarded (hence the ruined condition of the
old walls) and reduced with great slaughter. Since then it has
formed an integral part of the Turkish administration of Irak.
The enormous influx of pilgrims naturally creates a brisk trade
in Kcrbcla and the towns along the route from Persia to that
place and beyond to Nejcf. The population of Kerbcla, neces-
sarily fluctuating, is estimated at something over 60,000, of
whom the principal part are Shi'ites, chiefly Persians, with a
goodly mixture of British Indians. No Jews or Christians arc
allowed to reside there.
See Chodtko, TkWrt *f**M (Paris, 1878); J. P. Peters. Nippur
<i*>7). G. P. p£)
KERCH, or K surest, a seaport of S. Russia, in the govern-
ment of Tauridn, on the Strait of Kerch or Yenikale, 60 m.
E.N.K. of Theodosia. in 45* «i' N. and 36° jo' E. Pop, (1807),
31.70?. It stands on the site of the ancient Paniicapaeum,
and, like most towns' built by the ancient Creek colonists in
this part of the world, occupies a beautiful situation, clustering
round the foot and climbing up the sides of the hill (called after
Mithradates) on which stood the ancient dtadei or acropolis.
The church of St John the Baptist, founded in 717, is a good
jrxample of the early Bysantine style. That of Alexander
Ncvsky was formerly the Kerch museum of antiquities, founded
in tS : 5, The more valuable objects were subsequently removed
to the Hermitage at St Petersburg, while those that remained
at Kerch were scattered during the English occupation in the
Crimean War. The existing museum is a small collection in a
private house. Among the products of local industry are
leather, tobacco, cement, beer, aerated waters, lime, candles
and soap. Fiidung i* carried on, and there are steam saw-mills
and flouNaills. A rich deposit of iron ore was discovered dose
to Kerch in tSot. and since then mining and blasting have been
actively prosecuted. The mineral mud-baths, one of which is
In the town itself and the other beside Lake Chokrak (9 m.
distant), are much frequented. Notwithstanding the deepen-
ing of the strait, so that ships are now able to enter the Sea of
Arov, Kerch retains its importance for the export trade in
wheat, brought thither by coasting vessels. Grain, fish, linseed,
tapeseed, *\v4 ami hides are also exported. About 6 m. N.E.
at* the to«t\ and old Turkish fortress of Yenikale, adrninis-
trMmlx united with Kerch. Two and a half miles to the
txvith are strong fortified works defending the entrance to the
Sea \>l ,\»\\
l>^ t».vck *vVt\v of Paniicapaeum was founded about the
w\MK» W the e-iN century mx., by the town of Miletus. From
• svot *>t *\\ nil the conquest of this region by Milhradates
the vnwtt. k«\* vf IVntus, about 100 B.C., \ he town and territory
tv.os\| tfc* k".v£>Kw of the Bosporus, ruled over by an inde-
jvk^m o>*a*;>. Pnanaces, the son of Mithradates, became
the Ks: kKi w a **« hne under the protection of the Romans,
*Sn\ yw>v ».*nI to cvvM till the middfc of the 4th century A-D.,
«kI <a*v«v\\I rt» |x>wer over the maritime parts of Tauris.
\..^ «hut <W t^*a -nhicn had already begun to be known
*>« &>*♦%«*•* (N»v^vl successively into the hands of the Eastern
<h»sh w w |N* KV^Mrv and of various barbarian tribes. In
» v .\>ktV>:\*^ hid come into po sstsskm i* the previous
x \ n^.n. xw'vd t&* N»wn to the Genoese, who soon raised it
t_* «s* *■»>** %*** a* a ce^nraercial centre. They usually
. *v v vl*.* \V\*n\ a corruption of the Russian name
V. v% v %v.vkv W\V, wbfrn appears in the ttth century
fc^, „ ^ .s », > *«v, * -*lvt v* Russian reineipality at the north
jv % » v ^a'vn. I Nkr the Turks, whose rule dates froen
% .^ * v n > nV«* * > « Kerch was a military port; a»d as
^ * ^ ».«•.. :• W K.»<fc>-Twrkisft wars. Captured by
*2 ^^. ^ ^.. \>k>.s<.*v* »* ,,, "' , • * *** wded to them
. >. v- t»o*c* ct Kuchuk-Kaiaariv awl it
Archacologically Kerch is of particular interest, the hrnu or
sepulchral mounds of the town and vicinity having yielded a rich
variety of the most beautiful works of art. Since 1825 a lam
number of tombs have been opened. In the Altun or Zokrtai-ohi
(QftM+n Mnt, n A\ »a« found a great stone vault similar in style to
an and within, among many objects oi nun
no » adorned with griffins ami beautiful anb*
est , or Mound of Cinders (opened in 1830-1831),
wi which were found what would appear to be
tb he kings of Bosporus, of his queen, nis bone
an vnaments and furniture were of the most
co x>w and buckler were of gold ; his very whip
ini the queen had golden diadems, necklace ana
br t feet lay a golden vasel In the Pavlovskri
ku ) was the tomb of a Greek lady, containing
an dress and decoration a pair of fine leather
bo ry) and a beautiful vase on which is painted
th nc from Hades and the setting out oi In-
pt n a neighbouring tomb was whit is bdtevtd
to mural painting which has com* down 10 us,"
da the 4th century B.C. Among the minor
ob e kurgans perhaps the most noteworthy art
th ved boxwood, the only examples known of
th icYonian painter Pamphilus.
of old Greek art continue to be made in tt«
ae as at Tainan, on the east side of the Str.t
of mbs on the northern slope of Mithradatu
Hi roo have been explored since 1859, pos^
co , „ot only for the relics of old Greek art wK 1,
some of them contain (although most were plundered in earWi
times), but especially as material for the history and ethnogrcpti
of the Cimmerian Bosporus. In 1890 the first Christian cacactn
bearing a distinct date (491 ) was discovered. Its walls were anertJ
with Greek inscriptions and crosses.
Isr!
Le ,H
Ti Li
Ci <fc
18 tr
bu h.-
18 BE
Rt arj
J? b
(S m
Pt *
(s Z
pu i<
18 It
KKRCKHOVEN, JAM POLYAMDSR VAH DEsf (1568-16
Dutch Protestant divine, was born at Metx, in 156S. He bee
French preacher at Dort in 1501, and afterwards sucob
Frana Gomarus as professor of tbeology at I^^^n Be
invited by the Stales General of Holland to revise the I>
translation of the Bible, and it was be who edited. Uac ex
of the synod of Dort (1618-1619).
His many published works include Rrspensio mi, so^xrscd
Ccckdetii dtctmris sur bem mista e (1610). Dispute ctmMrr Crndtv ■ '
rtitqufs des Saimfts btsfuis (i6ti), Exfiicmtw awHae 4rm
(16^5).
KCRGUELEM BIAHD, KiscirELEir's Lasoa, or I>E9r«u
Island, an island in the Southern Ocean, to the SJEL c
Cape of Good Hope, and S.W. of Australia, and oesaxiy hzJ
between them. kergoeJen lies between 4S* jt>' »^j ^-*
and 6S* 41* *ad 70* 35* E. Its extreme length is aObc--t I
but the area b only about 1400 sq. m. Tbeblaxkd is tircj
mountainous, presenting from the sea in some cSrejct.r
appearance of a series of jagsed peaks. The various rsdg
mountain masses are separated by steep-sided w^llerrs.
run down to the sea, forming deep fjords, so that
interior is more than xi ra. from the sea. Use
are Mounts Ross 'm?o ft-\ Richards Uooo\ Cr _
WyvOe Thotcsoa ^i6o>. Hoofcer (2000), Moseley C^coc
coast -line is ertreirely irregT^ar, aad the f »ccds. avi Wa^c
north, cast aad soenh, form a series of wgfi-sbe&c u.i A i »a
As the prrraillng wiads are u tsttilj . the saies* «s>ri j
an the nartb-estst. CKrkxstK H»t+wwtt <*» tk» iwi.i. .
KERGUELEBPS LAND CABBAGE— KERMAN
755
try snowflelds, whence glaciers descend east and west to the sea.
The whole island, exclusive of the snowfields, abounds in fresh*
water lakes and pools in the hills and lower ground. Hidden
deep mudhoks are frequent.
Kerguelcn Island is of undoubted volcanic origin, the prevailing
rock being basaltic lavas, intersected occasionally by dikes, and an
active volcano and hot springs are said to exist in the south-west of
the island. Judging from the abundant fossil remains of trees, the
Island must have been thickly clothed with woods and other vegeta-
tion of which it has no doubt been denuded by volcanic action and
Submergence, and possibly by changes of climate. It presents
evidences of a having been subjected to powerful glaciation, and to
subsequent immersion and immense denudation. The soundings
made by the " Challenger " and " Gazelle " and the affinities which
in certain respects exist between the islands, seem to point to the
i existence at one time of an extensive land area in this quarter, of
> which Kerguelcn, Prince Edward's Islands, theOrosets. St Paul and
i Amsterdam are the remains. The Kerguelen plateau rises in many
t parts to within 1500 fathoms of the surface of the sea. Beds of coal
r and of red earth are found in some places. The summits of the flat-
s topped hills about Betsy Cove, in the south-east of the island, are
9 formed of caps of basalt.
According to Sir J. D. Hooker the vegetation of Kerguelcn Island
t is of great antiquity; and may have originally reached it from the
t American continent; it has no affinities with Africa. The present
is climate is not favourable to permanent vegetation; the island lies
v' within the belt of rain at all seasons of the year, and is reached by
if no drying winds; its temperature is kept down by the surrounding
I ; vast expanse of sea, and it lies within the line of the cold Antarctic
s drift. The temperature, however, b equable. The mean annual
5 te mpe r ature b about 30 ° F., while the summer temperature has been
&; observed to approach 70". Tempests and squalls are frequent, and
the weather b rarely calm. On the lower slopes of the mountains
yt a rank vegeution^xuts, which, from the conditions mentioned, » con-
stantly saturated with moisture. A rank grass, Festuca CookU,
;. crows thickly in pbces up to 300 ft., with AtoreUa, Cotula jAumosa,
ic. Sir J. D. Hooker enumerated twenty-one species of flowering
plants, and seven of ferns, lycopods, and Ckavaeeae, at least seventy-
."- four species of mosses, twenty-five of Hepatime, and sixty-one of
,^ lichens are known, and there are probably many more. Several of
the marine and many species of freshwater algae are peculiar to the
'.j. island. The characteristic feature of the vegetation, the Kerguelen's
Land cabbage, was formerly abundant , but has been greatly reduced
"l< by rabbits introduced on to the bland. Fur-seals are still foand in
Kerguelen, though their numbers have been reduced by reckless
slaughter. The sea-elephant and sea-leopard are characteristic.
. ;-! Penguin* of various kinds are abundant : a teal (Qmerqvedida Eatoni)
; peculiar to Kerguelen and the Croaets b also found in consider-
v - able numbers, and petreb, especially the giant petrel (Ossifrata
t •& ftgaataa). skuas, gulls, sheath-btlb (Chumu minor), albatross, terns,
* > cormorants and Cape pigeons frequent the bland. There is a con-
" l siderable variety of insects, many of them with remarkable pecu-
-/2 * Uarities of structure, and with a predominance of forms incapable
, : - 1 of flying.
"* ! The island was discovered by the French navigator, Yves
-^ * Joseph de Kerguelen-Trcmarec, a Breton noble (1745-1797), on
the 13th of February 1772, and partly surveyed by him in the
•j '^ following year. He was one ol those explorers who had been
" /*, attracted by the belief in a rich southern land, and this island,
the South France of his first dbcovery, was afterwards called
by him Desolation Land in his disappointment. Captain Cook
<^ visited the island in 1776, and, among other expeditions, the
-. '- " Challenger " spent come time here, and its staff visited and
: ;v** surveyed various parts of It in January 1874. It was occupied
: rr'-'from October 1874 to February 1875 by the expeditions sent
- f- 'from England, Germany and the United States to observe the
~: - 'transit of Venus. The German South Polar expedition in 1001-
Z S'- 1002 established a meteorological and magnetic station at Royal
--.-- 'Sound, under Dr Enzensperger, who died there. In January
>: --'"tSoj Kerguelen was annexed by France, and its commercial
..: - Exploitation was assigned to a private company.
V- ~' See Y. J. de Kerguelen-Tremarec, Relation de deux voyages dans
;- .-- es mers austraies (Paris, 1782) ; Narratives of the Voyages of Captain
, . JZook and the M Challenger" Expedition; Phil. Trans., vol. 168,
" r " containing account of the collections made in Kerguelen by the
c -^ British transit of Venus expedition in 1 874-1 875 ;Lieutard," Mission
^ ux ties Kerguelen," &c.» Annates hydrotrapkiques (Paris, 1893).
Zl:* KERGUELEN'S LAND CABBAGE, in botany, Printlea anti-
' ^ ^ 'Tcrbutic* (natural order Cruciferae), a plant resembling in habit,
rf ^ ; ml belonging to the same family as, the common cabbage
,< Braisua oUracea). The cabbage4ike heads of leaves abound in
a pale yellow highly pungent essential oil, which gives the plant
a peculiar flavour but renders it extremely wholesome. It was
discovered by Captain Cook during his first voyage, but the first
account of it was published by (Sir) Joseph Hooker in The
Botany of the Antarctic Voyage of the •' Erebus" and " Terror "
In 1830-1843. During the stay of the latter expedition on the
island, daily use was made of this vegetable either cooked by
itself or boiled with the ship's beef, pork or pea-soup. Hooker
observes of it, " This is perhaps the most interesting plant pro-
cured during the whole of the voyage performed in the Antarctic
Sea, growing as it does upon an island the remotest of any from
a continent, and yielding, besides this esculent, only seventeen
other flowering plants."
KERKUK, or QerqOq, the chief town of a sanfak in the Mosul
vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated among the foot hlHs of the
Kurdistan Mountains at an elevation of about 1 100 ft. on both
banks of the Khassa Chai, a tributary of the Tigris, known in its
lower course as Adhem. Pop. estimated at 12,000 to 15,000,
chiefly Mahommedan Kurds. Owing to its position at the junc-
tion of several routes, Kerkuk has a brisk transit trade in hides,
Persian silks and cottons, colouring materials, fruit and timber;
but it owes its principal importance to its petroleum and naphtha
springs. There are also natural warm springs at Kerkuk, used
to supply baths and reputed to have valuable medical properties.
In the neighbourhood of the city b a burning mountain, locally
famous for many centuries. Kerkuk is evidently an ancient
site, the citadel standing upon an artificial mound 130 ft. high.
It was a metropolitan see of the Chaldean Christians. There is a
Jewish quarter beneath the citadel, and the reputed sarcophagi
of Daniel and the Hebrew children are shown in one of the
mosques. (J. P. Pb.)
KERMADEC, a small group of hilly islands In the Pacific,
about 30 s S., 1 78° W., named from D'Enlrecasteaux J s captain;
Huon Kermadec, in 1701. They are British possessions. The
largest of the group b Raoul or Sunday Island, 20 m. in circum-
ference, 1600 ft. high, and thickly wooded. The flora and fauna
belong for the most part to those of New Zealand, on which
colony the islands are also politically dependent, having been
annexed in 1887.
KERMAN (the ancient K or mama), a province of Persia,
bounded E. by Sebtan and Baluchistan, S. by Baluchistan and
Fan, W. by Fare, and N. by Yezd and Khorasan. It b of very
irregular shape, expanding in the north to Khorasan and gradu-
ally contracting in the south to a narrow wedge between Fart
and Baluchistan; the extreme length between Sebtan and Fars
(E. and W.) b about 400 m., the greatest breadth (N. and S.)
from south of Yexd to the neighbourhood of Bander Abbasi
about 300 in., and the area is estimated at about 60,000 sq. mi
Kerman b generally described as consisting of two porta, ah train*
habitable desert region in the north and a habitable mountainous
region in the south, but recent explorations require this view to
be considerably modifieaV There are mountains and desert
tracts in all parts, while much of what appears on -maps as
forming the western portion of the great Kerman desert consists
of the fertile uplands of Kuhbanan, Raver and others stretching
along the eastern base of the lofty range which runs from Yezd
south-east to Khabb. West of and parallel to this range are
two others, one culminating north-west of Bam in the Kub
Haxar (14,700 ft.), the other continued at about the same
elevation under the name of the Jamal Barix (also Jebcl Barb)
south-eastward to Makran. These chains traverse fertile cuV
tricts dividing them into, several longitudinal valleys of consider-
able length, but not averaging more than 12 m. in width.. Snow
lies on them* for a considerable part of the year, feeding the
springs and canals by means of which large tracts in this almost
rainless region in summer are kept under cultivation. Still
farther west the Kuh Dana range b continued from Fats, also ro
a south-easterly direction to Bashakird beyond Bander Abbasi.
Between the south-western highlands and the Jamal Barix there
b some arid and unproductive land, but the true desert of
Kerman lies mainly in the north and north-east, where it merges
northwards in the great desert " Lut," which stretches into
756
KERMAN— KERMES
Khorasan. 1 These southern deserts differ from trie kavir of
central Persia mainly in three respects: they are far less saline,
are more sandy and drier, and present in some places tracts of
80 to 100 miles almost absolutely destitute of vegetation. Yet
they are crossed by well-known tracks running from Kerman
eastwards and north-eastwards to Seistan and Khorasan and
frequently traversed by caravans. It appears that these sandy
wastes are continually encroaching on the fertile districts, and
this is the case even in Narmashir, which is being invaded by the
sands of the desolate plains extending thence north-westwards
to Bam. There are also some kejek or salt swamps answering
to the kavir in the north, but occurring only in isolated
depressions and nowhere of any great extent. The desert of
Kerman lies about 1000 ft., or less, above the sea, apparently
on nearly the same level as the Lut, from which it cannot
be geographically separated. The climate, which varies
much with the relief of the land, has the reputation of being
unhealthy, because the cool air from the hills is usually attended
by chills and agues. Still many of the upland valleys enjoy a
genial and healthy climate. The chief products are cotton,
gums, dates of unrivalled flavour from the southern parts, and
wool, noted for its extreme softness, and the soft underhair of
goats (**rx), which latter are used in the manufacture of the
Kerman shawls, which in delicacy of texture yield only to those
of Kashmir, while often surpassing them in design, colour and
finish. Besides woollen goods (shawls, carpets, &c.) Kerman
exports mainly cotton, grain and dates, receiving in return from
India cotton goods, tea, indigo, china, glass, sugar, &c Wheat
and barley are scarce. Bander Abbasi is the natural oulport;
but, since shipping has shown a preference for Bushire farther
west, the trade of Kerman has greatly fallen off.
: For administrative purposes the province is divided into nine-
teen districts, one being the capital of the same name with its
immediate neighbourhood (kumeh); the others are Akta and
Urzu; Anar; Bam and Narmashir; Bardsir; Jiruft; Khabis;
Khinaman; Kubenan (Kuhbanan); Kuhpayeh; Paris; Rafsin-
jan; Rahbur; Raver; Rayin; Rudbar and Bashakird; Sardu;
Sirjan; Zerend. The inhabitants number about 700,000, nearly
o ne-thi rd being nomads. (A. H.-S.)
KERHAN. capital of the above province, situated in 30° 1/ N.,
$6° 59' £., at an elevation of 6100 ft. Its population is
estimated at 60,000, including about 2000 Zoroastrians, 100
Jews, and a few Shikarpuri Indians. Kerman has post and
telegraph offices (Indo-European Telegraph Department),
British and Russian consulates, and an agency of the Imperial
bank of Persia. The neighbouring districts produce little grain
and have to get their supplies for four or five months of the year
from districts far away. A traveller has slated that it was
easier to get a mann (6} lb) of saffron at Kerman than a mann
of barley for his horse, and in 1879 Sir A. Hotstum-Schindler was
ordered by the authorities to curtail his excursions in the province
u because bis horses and mules ate un all the stock." Kerman
manufactures great quantities of carpets and felts, and its carpets
are almost unsurpassed for richness of texture- and durability.
The old name of the city was Guvashir. Adjoining the city on
hills rising 400 to 500 ft. above the plain in the east are the ruins
of two ancient forts with walls built of Sun-dried bricks on stone
foundations. Some of the walls are in perfect condition. Among
the mosques in the city two deserve special notice, one the Masjid
i Jama, a foundation of the Muzaffarid ruler Mubaria ed din
Mahommed dating from a.h. 1540, the other the Masjid i Malik
built by Malik Kaverd Seljuk (104*- 107a).
1 KBRMANSHAH, or Kexuamshahan, an important province
of Persia, situated W. of Hamadan, N. of Luristan, and S. of
Kurdistan, and extending in the west to the Turkish frontier.
Its population is about 400,000, and it pays a yearly revenue of
over itofioo. Many of its inhabitants are nomadic Kurds and
Lurs who pay little taxes. The plains are wefl watered and very
fertile, while the hills are covered with rich pastures which sup-
1 The word ltd means bare, void of vegetation, arid, waterless,
and has nothing in common with the Lot of Holy Writ, as many have
port large flocks of sheep and goats. Trie sheep provide a. great
part of the meat supply of Teheran. The province also produces
much wheat and barley, and could supply great quantities for
export if the means of transport were better.
Kekmanshah (Kermisiu of Arab geographers), the capital of
the province, is situated at an elevation of Si 00 ft., in 34° 19' N n
and 46 59' E., about 220 m. from Bagdad, and 250 m. from
Teheran. Although surrounded by fortifications with five gates
and three miles in circuit, it is now practically an open town, for
the walls are in ruins and the moat is choked with rubbish. It
has a population of about 40,000. The town is situated on the
high road between Teheran and Bagdad, and carries on a transit
trade estimated in value at £750,000 per annum.
KERMES (Arab, qirmiz; see Crimson), a crimson dye-stuff,
now superseded by cochineal, obtained from Kermes tikis
( = Coccus Uicis, Lat.«C. vermilio, G. Planchon). The genus
Kermes belongs to the Coccidae or Scale-insects, and its species
are common on oaks wherever they grow. The species from
wh[ch kermes is obtained is common in Spain, Italy and the
South of France and the Mediterranean basin generally, where
it feeds on Quercus cocci/era, a small shrub. As in the case of
other scale-insects, the males are relatively small and are capable
of flight, while the females are wingless. The females of the
genus Kermes are remarkable for their gall-like form, and it was
not until 17 14 that their animal nature was discovered.
In the month of May, when full grown, the females are globose,
6 to 7 millim. in diameter, of a reddish-brown colour, and covwd
with an ash-coloured powder. They are found attached to the t wsss
or buds by a circular lower surface 2 millim. in diameter, and st»>
rounded by a narrow rone of white cottony down. At this time that
are concealed under a cavity, formed by the approach of the
abdominal wall of the insect to the dorsal one, thousands of ens of a
red colour, and smaller than poppy seed, which are protruded aad
ranged regularly beneath the insect. At the end of May or the
beginning of June the young escape by a small orifice, near the poiat
of attachment of the parent. They are then of a fine red < *
elliptic and convex in shape, but rounded at the two cxxj
ana bear two threads half as long as their body at their i_ _
extremity. At this period they are extremely active, and 1 .
with extraordinary rapidity all over the food plant, and in two or
three days attach themselves to fissures in the bark or buds, bat
rarely to the leaves. In warm and dry summers the insects breed
again in the months of August and September, according to Esneric,
and then they are more frequently found attached to the leaves.
Usually they remain immovable and apparently unaltered ontsl the
end of the succeeding March, when their bodies become gi sul—TIi
distended and lose all trace of abdominal rings. They then ayjum
full of a reddish juice resembling discoloured blood, la this state,
or when the eggs are ready to be extruded, the insects are c oH tctnl
In some cases the insects from which the young are ready to escape
are dried in the sun on linen dotbs— -care being taken to p r even t tie
escape of the young from the cloths until they are dead. Theyooag
insects are then sifted from the shells, made into a paste with vinegar,
and dried on skins exposed to the sun, and the paste packed in skrss
is then ready for exportation to the East under the name of " pate
d'ecarbte*"
In the pharmacopoeia of the ancients kermes triturated] with
vinegar was used as an outward application, especially in wounds of
the nerves. From the oth to the 16th century this insect formed aa
ingredient in the " confectio alkermes," a well known med icin e, at
one time official in the London pharmacopoeia as an astringtnt m
doses of 20 to 60 grains or more. Syrup of kermes was also prepared.
Both these preparations have fallen into disuse.
Mineral kermes is trisulphide of antimony, containing a
variable portion of trioxide of antimony both free and combirtrd
with alkali. It was known as poudrt ies Ckartreux Kj^^tt* in
1714 it is said to have sayed the life of a Carthusian monk who
had been given up by the Paris faculty; but the monk Simon who
administered it on that occasion called it Alkermes mineral. Iu
reputation became so great that in 1720 the French government
bought the recipe for its preparation. It still appears its the
pharmacopoeias of many European countries and in that of the
United States. The product varies somewhat according to the
mode of preparation adopted. According to the French direc-
tions the official substance is obtained by adding 60 graxnmes
of powdered antimony trisulphide to a boiling solution of xtAo
grammes of crystallised sodium carbonate in. 12,800 sraansses of
distilled water and boiling for one hoar. The btntid m then
filtered hot, and on being allowed to cool slowly drpmas the
KERMESSE+-KERRY
757
becmea, which is washed and dried at too* C; prepared in this
way R is a brown-red velvety powO^i insoluble in water.
See C. Ptanchon, Le Kermes du chine (Montpelfter, 1864); Lewis,
Materia Mtdua (1784), pp. 71. 365; Aiemonas sobre la grana Kermes
de Espaha (Madrid. 1788); Adam* Paulns Aegineto, iu. i8oj Beck-
maan k History of Inventions.
KERMESSE (also Kermis and Kinross), originally the mass
said on the anniversary of the foundation of a church and in
honour of the patron, the word being equivalent to " Kirk mass."
Such celebrations were regularly held in the Low Countries and
also in northern France, and were accompanied by feasting,
dancing and sports of all kinds. They still survive, but are now
practically nothing more than country fairs and the old alle-
gorical representations are uncommon. The Brussels Kermesse
is, however, still marked by a procession in which the effigies of
the Mannikin and medieval heroes are carried. At Mons the
Kermesse occurs annually on Trinity Sunday and b called the
procession of Lumecon (Walloon for lima^on, a snail): the hero
is Cities de Chin, who slays a terrible monster, captor of a
princess, in the Grand Place. This is the story of George and
the Dragon. At Uasselt the Kermesse (now only septennial)
not Only commemorates the Christian story of the foundation
of the town, but even preserves traces of a pagan festival. The
word Kermesse (generally in the form " Kirmess ") is applied
in the United Slates to any entertainment, especially one organ-
ized in the interest of charity.
See Demetrius C. Boulger, Belgian Life in Town and Country
(1904)-
KERN, JAN HENDRIK (1833- ), Dutch Orientalist, was
born in Java of Dutch parents on the 6th of April 1833. He
studied at Utrecht, Leiden and Berlin, where he was a pupil of
the Sanskrit scholar, Albrecht Weber. After some years spent
as professor of Greek at Macstricht, he became professor of
Sanskrit at Benares in 1863, and in 1865 at Leiden. His studies
included the Malay languages as well as Sanskrit. His chief
work is Gesckiedenis van hel Buddkismt in Indie (Haarlem, ? vols.,
1881-1883); in English he wrote a translation (Oxford, 1884) of
the Saddharma Pundarlka and a Manual of Indian Buddhism
(Slrassburg, 1806) for BUhler Kielhorn's Crundriss dcr iudo-
arischen PUilologi*.
KERNEL (O.E. cyrnel, a diminutive of " com," seed, grain),
the soft and frequently edible part contained within the hard
outer husk of a nut or the stone of a fruit; also used in botany
of the nucleus of a seed, the body within its several integuments
or coats, and generally of the nucleus or coec of any structure;
hence, figuratively, the pith or gist of any matter.
KEENER. JUSTINU5 ANDREAS CHRISTIAN (1786-1862),
German poet and medical writer, was born on the 18th of Sep-
tember 1786 at Ludwigsburg in Wurttembcrg. After attending
the classical schools of' Ludwigsburg and Maulbronn, he was
apprenticed in a cloth factory, but, in 1804, owing to the good
services of Professor Karl PhilippConz (1762-1 8*7) of Tubingen,
was enabled to enter the university there; he studied medicine
but had also time for literary pursuits rn the company of Uhland,
Gustav Schwab and others. He took his doctor's degree in
1808, spent some time in travel, and then settled as a practising
physician in Wildbad. Here he completed his Reisestkatten von
dem SckaUenspider Lucks (181 1), in which his own experiences
are described with caustic humour. He next co-operated with
Uhland and Schwab in producing the Poeiiscber Almanack fur
1811, which was followed by the Deulscker Dicktcrwald (1813),
and in these some of Kcrner's best poems were published. In
1S15 he obtained the official appointment of district medical
officer (Oberamlsanl) in Gaildorf, and in i8t8 was transferred in
a like capacity to Weinsberg, where he spent the rest of his life.
His house, the site^of which at the foot of the historical SchlosS
Wcibertreu was presented by the municipality to their revered
physician, became the Mecca of literary pilgrims. Hospitable
welcome was extended to all. from the journeyman artisan to
crowned heads. Gustavus IV. of Sweden came thither with a
knapsack on his back. The poets Count Christian Friedrich
Alexander von Wttrttemberg (1801 -1844) and Lenau (9.9.) were
constant guests, and thither came also in 1826 Friederike Hauffe
(j8oi-i&2q), the daughter of a forester in Prevorst, a somnambu-
list and clairvoyante, who forms the subject of Kerner's famous
work Die Sekerm von Prevprst t Erojnungen uber das innere
Liben dts Menscken und uber das Hineinragen einer Geisteructt
in die unscre (1829; 6th ed., 1802). In 1826 he published a
collection of Gedkkle which were later supplemented by Der
Utzte BUUenslrauss (1652) and WinterblMen (1850). Among
others of his well-known poems are the charming ballad Der
reichste Furst; a drinking song, Woklauf, nock getruuken, and the
pensive Wanderer in der Sdgemiihle.
In addition to his literary productions, Kerner wrote some
popular medical books of great merit, dealing with animal
magnetism, a treatise on the influence of sebacic acid on animal
organisms. Aw Pcttgift oder die FetlsUnre und ikre Wirkungen
auf den tieriscken Organistnus (1822); a description of Wildbad
and its healing waters. Das Wildbad im Kdnigreick WUrUcmberg
(1&13); while he gave a pretty and vivid account of his youthful
years in Bildcrbuck aus meiner Knabenzeit (1859); and in Die
Besliirmung der wurttembergiscken Stadl Weinsberg im Jakre
153$ (1820), showed considerable skill in historical narrative.
In 1S51 be was compelled, owing to increasing blindness, to retire
from his medical practice, but he lived, carefully tended by his
daughters, at Weinsberg until his death on the 21st of February
1864. He was buried beside his wife, who had predeceased him
in 1854, in the churchyard of Weinsberg, and the grave is marked
by a stone slab with an inscription he himself had chosen:
Friederike Kerner und ihr Justinus. Kerner was one of the most
inspired poets of the Swabian school. His poems, which largely
deal with natural phenomena, are characterized by a deep
melancholy and a leaning towards the supernatural, which,
however, is balanced by a quaint humour, reminiscent of the
Volk&lied.
ed in a vols. (1878);
r, 4 vols. (1905); a
Reclam's uniocrsat-
d by his son in 1897.
S); A. Reinhard. J.
>2; 2nd ed., 1886);
4); M. Niet hammer
ind mein VoUrkans
(London, 1884); T.
Sc
sol
bli
Se
Ki
G.
(K
(I!
K«
KERRY, a county of Ireland in the province of Munster,
bounded W. by the Atlantic Ocean, N. by the estuary of the
Shannon, which separates it from Clare, E. by Limerick and Cork,
and S.E. by Cork. The area is 1,150,356 acres, or 181 1 sq. m.,
I he county being the fifth of the Irish counties in extent. Kerry,
with its combination of mountain, sea and plain, possesses
some of the finest scenery of the British Islands. The portion
of the county south of Dingle Bey consists of mountain masses
intersected by narrow valleys. Formerly the mountains were
covered by a great forest of fir, birch and yew, which was nearly
alt cut down to be used in smelting iron, and the constant pas-
turage of cattle prevents the growth of young trees. In the
north-east towards Killarney the hills rise abruptly into the
ragged range of Macgillicuddy's Recks, the highest summit of
which, Carntual (Carrantuohill), has a height of 3414 ft. The
next highest summit is Caper (3200 ft.), and several others are
over 2500 ft. Lying between the precipitous sides of the Tomies,
t he Purple Mountains and the Reeks is t he famous Gap of Dunloe
In the Dingle promontory Brandon Mountain attains a height
of 31 27 ft. The sea-coast, for the most part wild and mountain-
ous, is much indented by inlet b, the largest of which, Tralee Bay,
Dingle Bay and Kenmare River, lie in synclinal troughs, the
anticlinal folds of the rocks forming extensive promontories.
Between Kenmare River and Dingle Bay the land is separated
by mountain ridges into three valleys. The extremity of the
peninsula between Dingle Bay and Tralee Bay is very precipi-
tous, and Mount Brandon, rising abruptly from the ocean, is
skirted at its base (In part) by a road from which magnificent
views are obtained. From near the village of Ballybnnion to
Kilconey Point near the Shannon there is a remarkable succession
75*
KERRY
of caves, excavated by the set. One of these caves inspired
Teonyson with some lines ia ** Merlin and Vivien," which be
wrote on the spot. The principal islands are the picturesque
Skelligs, Valencia Island and the Biasquet Islands.
The principal rivers are the Blackwater, which, rising in the
Dunkerran Mountains, forms for a few miles the boundary line
between Kerry and Cork, and then passes into the latter county;
the Ruaughty. which with a course resembling the arc of a circle
falls into the head of the Kenmare River; the Inny and Ferta,
which flow westward, the one into BallinskcDig Bay and the
other into Valencia harbour; the Flesk, which flows northward
through the lower Lake of Killarney. after which it takes the name
of Laune. and Hows north-westward to Dingle Bay; the Caragh,
which rises in the mountains of Dunkerran, after forming several
lakes falls into Castlemaine harbour; the Maine, which flows
from Castle Island and south-westward to the sea at Casllemaine
harbour, receiving the northern Fksk, which rises in the moun-
tains that divide Cork from Rem*; and the Fcale, Gale and Brick,
the junction of which forms the Cashin, a short tidal river which
tows into the estuary of the Shannon. The lakes of Kerry are
not numerous, and none is of great sue, but those of Killarncy
(f t\) form one of the most important features in the striking and
picturesque mountain scenery amidst which they are situated.
The other principal bkes are Lough Currane (WatervQIe Lake)
near Ballin*kcllig. and Lough Caragh near Casllemaine harbour.
Salmon and trout fishing with the rod is extensively prosecuted
in all these waters. Near the summit of Mangerton Mountain
an accumulation of water in a deep hollow forms what is known
as the Devil's Punchbowl, the surplus water, after making a
succession of cataracts, flowing into Muckross Lake at the foot
of the mountain. There are chalybeate mineral springs near
KtHarney. near Valencia Island, and near the mouth of the
Inny; sulphurous chalybeate springs near Dingle, Casllemaine
tnd Tralee; and a saline spring at Magherybcg in Corkaguiney,
which bursts out of clear white sand a little below high-water
mark. Killarncy is an inland centre widely celebrated and much
visiicd on account of its scenic attractions; there are also several
well-known coast resorts, among them Dcrrynane, at the moulh
of Kenmare Bay. the residence of Daniel O'Connell the " libera-
tor "; Clenbeigh on Dingle Bay. Parknasilla on Kenmare Bay,
Waterville (an Atlantic telegraph station) between Ballinskellig
Bay and Lough Currane. and Tarbcrt, a small coast town on the
Shannon estuary. Others of the smaller villages have grown
into watering places, such as Bally bun ion. Castlegregory and
Portmagee.
(Wtv —Kerry includes on the north and east a considerable
atea of Carboniferous shales and sandstones, reaching the coal-
measures, with unproductive coals, east of Listowel and on the
GUnniddrry Mounuinv The Carboniferous Limestone forms a
(n«cc to thc« bed*, ind is cut off by the sea at Knockanecn Bay,
T«j»ke and C*<tlcn.a»ne. In aU the great promontories. Old Red
<v>-*Kuw including )ukesV*Clengariff Grits," forms the mountains,
*%^V synclinal hoflu»s of Carboniferous Limestone have become
*,' si«d to (otto marine inlets between them. The Upper -Lake
K- Vtv\ l»cs in a hollow of the Old Red Sandstone, which here
** *o t* erratcs* height in Macgillicuddy's Recks; Lough Leane
I—> «>»h ir» low shores, rests on Carboniferous Limestone.
i\«> promontory the 'Old Red Sandstone is strikingly
.-.- Nv o* the l>x**W beds and the Upper Syrian series; the
, v vv^jn* nxks of Wenlock age. The evidences of
v s. ,* i^«* count v, especially on the wild slopes of the
J! *.* »* *s-t»«* a* in North Wales. A copper-mine was
^v j« Mnv».«w*» near Killarney, in which cobalt ores
Na x- «* <»*rn<d in Valencia Island.
^ v *, '^rvstv and otters and badgers are not un-
* "N •."•» v v-eo*Tcy abundant. The red deer inhabits
„ ^-^ Kifcwwrv The golden eagle, once frequently
^*o n******* WC*^» ** now rarely met. The sea
" x ^ » >. na *•* v«*s» the mountains and the rocky
. ** .. „ \ . vv *>ao«*fcT\ «♦•» and also the peregrine falcon.
"* ** j ,,~J^ *"V w>ws«on owl is indigenous, the long-
" -* ••* ** ^fcuw ••ml owl a regular winter visitor.
** *2T* * * .a* tafc-^^yK and the turtle-dove is an
*** *; ^* * . ^ \ftrn. a**? *•** ■* found in Brandon and
* m. <NiH s» *** *5ctntty of the sea and the
* ~~ ""* ^ . . ^«r * vee* moist and unsuitable
* ' ^^.a^twsn m winter that afffauius
and other trees indigenous to warm climates grow ia can open si*
and levgrai flowering plantar- InnnA whir* ar» ..tl.w*-™ ;„ F^H
In the northern parts the land u generally coarse and poor, except
in the valleys, where a rich soil has been formed by rocky depoats.
I n the Old Red Sandstone valleys there are many very ferule region*,
and several extensive districts now covered by bog admit of ems?
.. : 1 ,__,.,._. ..... _ ... tfactsoi b^JJ
la ur expended an
th is quite bam*.
Tl Ity increased or
fu d. Tbe Kerry
br a- red in colour,
wi ty both of their
nc • the parts sur-
ra » between tat
K U fine qualities.
Li n most common
us n. Goats share
*'i tin ridges, what
ief manufacture
. At Kularory
he arbutus. A
d on at Tralee,
da. The deep-
ire many smaE
res of the t%t>
shing is also aa
• and KirUrary.
... .. — --cstern railway
almost monopolizes the lines in the county. Tbe principal Kae
'he centre of the county, touching Killarney, Tralee and
ind passing ultimately to Limerick. Branches are from
to Kenmare; Farranfore to Killorglin, Cahersiveen and
arbour, Tralee to Fenit and to Castlegregory; and the
ad Ballybuiubn railway. All these are hoes to the coast.
• and Dingle railway connects these two towns. The only
nch is from Tralee to Castleisland.
•n and Administration.— The population (179.156 ■
18. .726 in 1901) decreases to an extent about equal to tat
average of the Irish counties, but the emigration returns are among
the heaviest. The chief towns arc Tralee (the county town, pop.
9867); Killarney (5656). Listowel (3605) and Cahersiveen v
Cahircivecn (2013), while Dingle. Kenmare. Killorglin and Castle*
island are smaller towns. The county comprises 9 baronies, and
contains 85 civil parishes. Assizes are held at Tralee, and quarter
sessions at Cahersiveen, Dingle. Kenmare. Killarney. Listowel ud
Tralee. The headquarters of the constabulary force is at Tralee.
Previous to the Union the county returned eight members ro the
I rish oarfiament. two for the county, and two for each of the boroughs
of Tralee, Dingle and Ardfert. At the Union the number was reduced
to three, two for the county and one for the borough of Tralee* but
the divisions now number four: north, south, east and west, each
returning one member. The county is in the Protestant diocese
of 1 im^ri.^ tK- p,*—.. r. T i^iu^i rm|T f flYny tn<1 ! i tmtki
r7w/<ry.— The comity is said to have derived it* name
from Ciar, who with his tribe, the Ciarraidkc, is slated to have
inhabited about the beginning of the Christian eta the territory
lying between Tralee and tbe Shannon. That portion lying south
of the Maina was al a later period included in the kingdom of
Desmond (?.».). Kerry suffered frequently from invasions of
the Danes in (he 9th and loth centuries, until they were 6oally
overthrown at the battle of Clonlarf in 1014. In 1173 Dermot
MacCarthy, king of Cork and Desmond, made submission to
Henry II. on certain conditions, but was nevertheless gradually
compelled to retire within the limits of Kerry, which is one of the
areas generally considered to have been made shire ground by
King John. An English adventurer, Raymond le Gros. received
from this MacCarthy a large portion of the county round Lis-
naw. In 1 570-1 580 attempts were made by the Spaniards to
invade Ireland, landing at Limerick harbour, near Dingle, mad
a forums was erected here, but was destroyed by the English m
1580. The Irish took advantage of the disturbed state of Eng-
land at the time of the Puritan revolution to attempt the over-
throw of the English rule in Kerry, and ultimately obtained
possession of Tralee. but in 165a the rebellion was com-
pletely subdued, and a large number of estates were aiieruraxds
confiscated.
There are remains of a round tower at Aghadoe, near Kfflanaey.
and another, one of the finest and most perfect specimens ia
Ireland. 92 ft. high, at Rattoe, not Ur from BaUvbuBioca. Oa
KERSAINT— KESHUB CHUNDER SEN
759
the summit of a bill to the north of Kenmare River is the remark-
able stone fortress known as Staigue Fort. There are several
stone cells in the principal Skcllig island, where penance, involv-
ing the scaling of dangerous rocks, was done by pilgrims, and
where there were formerly monastic remains which have been
swept away by the sea. The principal groups of sepulchral
stones are those on the summits of the Tomie Mountains, a
remarkable stone fort at Cahcrsiveen, a circle of stones with
cromlech in the parish of Tuosist, and others with inscriptions
near Dingle. The remote peninsula west of a line from Dingle to
Smerwick harbour is full of remains of various dates. The most
notable monastic ruins are those of Innisfallen, founded by
St Finian, a disciple of St Cohimba, and the fine remains of
Muckross Abbey, founded by the Franciscans, but there are also
monastic remains at Ardfert , Castlemaine, Derrynane, Kilcoleman
and O'Dorney. Among ruined churches of interest are those of
Aghadoe, Kilcrohane, Lough Curranc, Derrynane and Muckross.
The cathedral of Ardfert, founded probably in 1253, was partly
destroyed during the Cromwellian wars, but was restored in 1831.
Some interesting portions remain (see Trai.ee). There is a
large number of feudal castles.
KERSAINT. ARMAND GUY SIMON DE COETNEMPREN,
Cohte de (1742-1793)1 French sailor and politician, was born
at Paris on the 29th of July 1742. He came of an old family,
his father, Guy Francois de Coetnempren, comte de Kcrsaint,
being a distinguished naval officer. He entered the navy in
1755, and in 1757, while serving on his father's ship, was pro-
moted to the rank of ensign for his bravery in action. By 1782
be was a captain, and in this year took part in an expedition to
Guiana. At that time the officers of the French navy were
divided into two parties — the reds or nobles, and the blues or
toluricrs. At the outbreak of the Revolution, Kcrsaint, in spite
of his high birth, took the side of the latter. He adopted the new
ideas, and in a pamphlet entitled Le Bon Sens attacked feudal
privileges; be also submitted to the Constituent Assembly a
scheme for the reorganization of the navy, but it was not
accepted. On the 4th of January 1791 Kcrsaint was appointed
administrator of the department of the Seine by the electoral
assembly of Paris. He was also elected as a dipuU suppliant
to the Legislative Assembly, and was called upon to sit in it in
place of a deputy who had resigned. From this time onward his
chief aim was the realization of the navy scheme which he had
vainly submitted to the Constituent Assembly. He soon saw
that this would be impossible unless there were a general reform
of all institutions, and therefore gave his support to the policy
of the advanced party in the Assembly, denouncing theconduct of
Louis XVI., and on the 10th of August 1792 voting in favour
of his deposition. Shortly after, he was sent on a mission to
the armlc du Centre, visiting in this way Soissons, Reims, Sedan
and the Ardennes. While thus occupied he was arrested by the
municipality of Sedan; he was set free after a few days' detention.
He look an active part in one of the last debates of the Legisla-
tive Assembly, in which it was decided to publish a Bulletin
ojiciel, a report continued by the next Assembly, and known by
the name of the Bulletin de la Convention Nalionale. Kersaint
was sent as a deputy to the Convention by the department of
Scine-et-Oise in September 1792, and on the 1st of January 1793
was appointed vice-admiral. He continued to devote himself
to questions concerning the navy and national defence, prepared
a report on the English political system and the navy, and caused
a decree to be passed for the formation of a committee of general
defence, which after many modifications was to become the
famous Committee of Public Safety. He had also had a decree
passed concerning the navy on the nth of January 1793* He
had, however, entered the ranks of the Girondins, and had voted
in the trial of the king against the death penalty and in favour
of the appeal to the people. He resigned his seat in the Conven-
tion on the 20th of January. After the death of the king his
opposition became more marked; he denounced the September
massacres, but when called upon to justify his attitude confined
himself to attacking Marat, who was at the time all-powerful.
His friends, tried in vain to obtain his appointment as minister
of the marine; and he failed to obtain even a post as officer. Hi
was arrested on the 23rd of September at Ville d'Avray, near
Paris, and taken before the Revolutionary Tribunal, where he
was accused of having conspired for the restoration of the
monarchy, and of having insulted national representation by
resigning his position in the legislature. He was executed 00
the 4U1 of December 1793.
His brother, Guy Pierre (1747-1822), also served in the navy,
and took part in the American war of independence. He did
not accept the principles of the Revolution, but emigrated.
He was restored to his rank in the navy in 1803, and died in
1822, after having been prtfet maritime of Antwerp, and prefect
of the department of Meurthe.
See Kersaint's own works, Le Bon Sens (1789) ; the Rubicon (1789) ;
Considerations sur la force publique et I' institution a\cs gardes national es
(1789); Lettre a Mirabeau (1791); Moyens prtstu&s a r Assemble*
nahonaU pour riiablir la paix et I'ordre dans Us colonies; also E.
Chevalier, Histoire de la Marine francaise sous la premiers RipuHique ;
E. Charavay, L'AssembUe electorate de Paris en 17QO et i?qj (Paris,
1890); and AgeW Bardoux, La Dtuchesse de Duras (Paris, 1898), the
beginning of which deals with Kersaint, whose daughter married
Amodoe de Duras. (R. A.*)
KERVYN DB LETTENHOVB, CONSTANTIKB BRUNO,
Baron, (1817-1891), Belgian historian, was born at Saint-
Michel-les-Bruges in 181 7. He was a member of the Catholic
Constitutional party and sat in the Chamber as member for
Eccloo. In 1870 he was appointed a member of the cabinet
of Anethan as minister of the interior. But his official career
was short. The cabinet appointed as governor of Lille one
Decker, who had been entangled in the financial speculations
of Langand-Dumonccau by which the whole clerical party had
been discredited, and which provoked riots. The cabinet was
forced to resign, and Kervyn de Lettcnhove devoted himself
entirely to literature and history. He had already become known
as the author of a book on Froissart (Brussels, 1855), which was
crowned by the French Academy. He edited a series of chron-
icles — Chroniques relatives A l' histoire de la Bclgique sous h
domination des dues de Bourgogne (Brussels, 1870-1873), and
Relations politiqucs des Pays Bas et de VAngldcrre sous le regni
de Philippe II. (Brussels, 1882-1892). He wrote a history of
Lcs Hugcnots et les Cueux (Bruges, 1883- 1885) in the spirit of a
violent Roman Catholic partisan, but with much industry and
learning. He died at Saint-MichcMcs-Bruges in 1801.
See Notices biographiques et bibliograpkiques de Vacadimie it
Betgique for 1887.
KESHUB CHUNDER SEN (Kesiiava Chandra Sena) (1838-
1684), Indian religious reformer, was born of a high-caste family
at Calcutta in 1838. He was educated at one of the Calcutta
colleges, where he became proficient in English literature and
history. For a short time he was a clerk in the Bank of Bengal,
but resigned his post to devote himself exclusively to literature
and philosophy. At that time Sir William Hamilton, Hugh
Blair, Victor Cousin, J. H. Newman and R. W. Emerson were
among his favourite authors. Their works made the deepest
impression on him, for, as he expressed it, " Philosophy first
taught me insight and reflection, and turned my eyes inward
from the things of the externa) world, so that I began to reflect
on my position, character and destiny/' Like many olhei
educated Hindus, Kcshub Chunder Sen had gradually dissociated
himself from the popular forms of the native religion, without
abandoning what he believed to be its spirit. As early as 1857
he joined the Brahma Samaj, a religious association aiming ai
the reformation of Hinduism. Keshub Chunder Sen threw him*
self with enthusiasm into the work of this society and in 1862
himself undertook the ministry of one of its branches. In the
same year he helped to found the Albert College and started the
Indian Mirror, a weekly journal in which social and moral sub-
jects were discussed. In 1863 he wrote The Brahma Samaj
Vindicated. He also travelled about the country lecturing and
preaching. The steady development of his reforming zeal led
to a split in the society, which broke into two-sections, Chunder
Sen putting himself at the head of the reform movement, which
took the name " Brahma Samaj of India," and tried to propagate
760
its doctrines by missionary enterprise. Its tenets at this time
were the following: (1) The wide universe is the temple of
God. (e) Wisdom is the pure land of pilgrimage. (3) Truth
is the everlasting scripture. (4) Failh is the root of all religions.
(5) Love is the true spiritual culture. (6) The destruction of
selfishness is the true asceticism. In 1866 he delivered an
address on ** Jesus Christ, Europe and Asia," which led to the
false impression that he was about to embrace Christianity.
This helped to call attention to him in Europe, and in 1870 he
paid a visit to England. The Hindu preacher was warmly
welcomed by almost all denominations, particularly by the
Unitarians, with whose creed the new Brahma Samaj had most in
common, and it was the committee of the British and Foreign
Unitarian Association that organized the welcome soiree at
Hanover Square Rooms on the 12th of April. Ministcrspf ten
different denominations were on the platform, and among those
who officially bade him welcome were Lord Lawrence and Dean
Stauley. He remained for six months in England, visiting most
of the chief towns. His eloquence, delivery and command of
the language won universal admiration. His own impression
of England was somewhat disappointing. Christianity in Eng-
land appeared to him too sectarian and narrow, too " muscular
and hard," and • Christian life in England more materialistic
a nd outward than spiritual and inward. " I came here an
Indian, I go back a confirmed Indian; I came here a Theist,
I go back a confirmed Theist. I have learnt to love my own
country more and more." These words spoken at the fare-
well soiree may furnish the key to the change in him which so
greatly puzzled many of his English friends. He developed a
tendency towards mysticism and a greater leaning to the spiritual
teaching of the Indian philosophies, as well as a somewhat
despotic attitude towards the Samaj. He gave bis child
daughter in marriage to the raja of Kuch Behar; he revived
the performance of mystical plays, and himself took part in
one. These changes alienated many followers, who deserted his
tl&ndard and founded the Sadharana (General) Brahma Samaj
(1878). Chundcr Sen did what he could to reinvigorate his
own section by a new infusion of Christian ideas and phrases,
4 ,g. " the New Dispensation," " the Holy Spirit." He also in-
stituted a sacramental meal of rice and water. Two lectures
delivered between 1881 and 1883 throw a good deal of light
on his latest doctrines. They were " The Marvellous Mystery,
the Trinity," ond " Asia's Message to Europe." This latter is
an eloquent plea against the Europeanizing of Asia, as well as
a protest against Western sectarianism.. During the intervals
of his lant illness he wrote The New Samhita, or the Sacred Laws
tf M«? A*w*s f>f the New Dispensation. He died in January 1 884,
leaving many bitter enemies and many warm friends.
S<-c the artkle Brahma Samaj; also P. Mozoomdar, Life and
|\u.A«*p *>! Ktiknb Chundcr Sen (1888).
KiSNARK (Gcr. Kttsmark), a town of Hungary, in the county
vl Nv'jv*. i40 m. N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 5560.
\x ti MtuAlcd on the Poprad, at an altitude of 1950 ft, and is
xj.ivuudcd 04* all sides by mountains. Among its buildings are
lV K*N»utt Catholic parish church, a Gothic edifice of the 15th
\ .»» ..* *ith »»* carved altars; a wooden Protestant church of
\/ * '**i cvatutv; and an old town-hall. About 12 m. W.of
\ ^n.' * W* the umous watering-place TatrafUred (Ger.
-s. v mv\ at lV fwl of the Schlagendorfer peak in the Tatra
. . , >v kc-^tk i* one of the oldest and most important
^ . 1^1^ Uhe north of Hungary, and became a royal
. . . k <*J*rf ibe U tn cent ur y» In M4o it became the
-V ^s>^v< Sjccvs (Ger., Zips), and in 1464 it was
. . ^ . »$ckfe>> King Matthias Corvinus. During the
.y^V* *\th tbe other Saxon towns in the
— - Vs*a >* *?•« both its political and commercial
iT* - - • xd i **> alfrte town until t8;6.
"~ _^ . * - ^ entitle, 0. Fr. Quercerelle and
— .. ,. -»\ tie English name 1 for one of
_~^_ ' ^ - » ^^ V*«cfe in toe form of its bill and
_. .— ^ ■* ., . v^.<* jot tfaodgale (the last often
KESM'ARK— KESTREL
length of its wings one of the true falcons, and by many ornitho-
logists placed among them under its Linnacan name of Fok»
tinnuncuius, is by others referred to a distinct genus Tinnuncat**
as T. alaudarius—lht last being an epithet wholly inappropriate.
We have here a case in which the propriety of the custom which
requires the establishment of a genus on structural characters
may seem open to question. The differences of structure whkh
separate Tinnuncuius from Falco are of the slightest, and, if
insisted upon, must lead to including in the former birds which
obviously differ from kestrels in all but a few characters arbi-
trarily chosen; and yet, if structural characters be set aside, the
kestrels form an assemblage readily distinguishable by several
peculiarities from all other Faiconidae, and an assemblage
separable from the true Falcons of the genus Fako % with its
subsidiary groups Acsalon, Hypotriorchis, and the rest (see Fai-
con). Scarcely any one outside the walls of an ornithological
museum or library would doubt for a moment whether any bird
shown to him was a kestrel or not ; and Gurney bas stated ha
belief (Ibis, 1 881, p. 277) that the aggregation of species placed
by Bowdler Sharpc (Cat. Birds Brit. A/i«. i. 423-448) under
the generic designation of Cerchneis (which should properly
be Tinnuncuius) includes " three natural groups sufficiently
distinct to be treated as at least separate subgenera, bearing the
name of Dissodcctcs, Tinnuncuius and Erylhropus" Of these
the first and last are not kestrels, but are perhaps rather related
to the hobbies (Hypotriorchis).
The ordinary kestrel of Europe, Falco tinnuncuius or Thaam-
culus alaudarius, is by far the commonest bird of prey in tbe
British Islands. It is almost entirely a summer xnigrast,
coming from the south in early spring and departing in autumn,
though examples (which arc nearly always found to be birds of
the year) occasionally occur in winter, some arriving on tbe
eastern coast in autumn. It is most often observed while bang^
ing in the air for a minute or two in tbe same spot, by means of
short and rapid beats of its wings, as, with head pointing to
windward and expanded tail, it is looking out for prey — *bki
consists chiefly of mice, but it will at times take a small bird,
and the remains of frogs, insects and even earthworms have been
found in its crop. It generally breeds in the deserted nest of 1
crow or pic, but frequently in rocks, ruins, or even in hollo*
trees— laying four or five eggs, mottled all over with dad
brownish-red, sometimes tinged with orange and at other times
with purple. Though it may occasionally snatch up a young par-
tridge or pheasant, the kestrel is the most harmless bird of prey,
If it be not, from its destruction of mice and cockchafers, a bene-
ficial species. Its range extends over nearly the whole of Europe
from 68° N. lat., and the greater part of Asia — though tbe form
which inhabits Japan and is abundant in north-eastern China
has been by some writers deemed distinct and called T.japomaa
— it is also found over a great part of Africa, being, however.
unknown beyond Guinea on the west and Mombasa qnJihe east
coast (Ibis, r88i, p. 457). The southern countries of Europe
have also another and smaller species of kestrel, T. tinnuncml^tda
(the T. cenchris and T. nauntanni of some writers), which is
widely spread in Africa and Asia, though specimens from India
and China are distinguished as T. pekinensis.
Three other species are found in Africa— T. rupicola, T. mpi-
eoloides and T. alopex — tbe first a common bird in tbe Cape
while the others occur in the interior. Some of the islands of
the Ethiopian region have peculiar species of kestrel, as the
T. newtoni of Madagascar, T. punctatus of Mauritius and
T. gracilis of the Seychelles; while, on the opposite side, tbe
kestrel of tbe Cape Verde Islands has been separated as
T. neglect**.
The T. sparoerius, commonly known in Canada and the
United States as the " sparrow-hawk," is a beautiful little bird.
Various attempts have been made to recognize several species.
more or less in accordance with locality, but the majority of
ornithologists seem unable to accept the distinctions which have
been elaborated chiefly by Bowdler Sharpe in his GaJafefve and
R. Ridgway (North American Birds, iu. iso-i75>. the former of
whom recognizes six species, while the latter admits but 1
KBSWICK— KBTBNES
761
T. sparnrius, T. leucophrys and T. sporvcriouUs—'wkh&vt geo-
graphical races of the first, viz. the typical T. sparverius from
the continent of North America except the coast of the Gulf of
Mexico; T. australis from the continent of South America
except the North Atlantic and Caribbean coasts; T. isabeU
linus, inhabiting continental America from Florida to Fr.Guiana;
T. dominicensis from the Lesser Antilles as far northwards as
St Thomas; and lastly T. cinncmominus from Chile and western
tyrazil. T. leucophrys is said to be from Haiti and Cuba.;
and T. sparverioides peculiar to Cuba only. This last has been
generally allowed to be a good species, though Dr Gundlach,
the best authority on the birds of that island, in his Contribution
d la Ornitologia Cubana (1876), will not allow its validity. More
recently it was found (Ibis, 188 1, pp. 547-564) that T. australis
and T. cinncmominus cannot be separated, that Ridgway's
r. leucophrys should properly be called T. dominicensis, and his
T. dominicensis T. antitiarum; while Ridgway has recorded the
supposed occurrence of T. sparverioides in Florida. Of other
kestrels T. moluccensis is widely spread throughout the islands
of the Malay Archipelago, while T. ceuchroides seems to inhabit
the whole of Australia, and has occurred in Tasmania (Proe,
Roy. Soc. Tasmania, 1875, PP« 7i 8). No kestrel is found in New
Zealand, but an approach to the form is made by the very
peculiar Hieraeidea(or Harpe)novae-*elandiae(oi which a second'
race of species has been described, H. brunnea or H. ferox), the
" sparrow-hawk," " quail-hawk M and " bush-hawk " of the colo-
nists—a bird of much higher courage than Any kestrel, and per-
haps exhibiting the more generalized and ancestral type from
which both kestrels and falcons may have descended. (A. N.)
KESWICK, a market town m the Penrith parliamentary
division of Cumberland, England, served by the joint line of the
Cockermouth Keswick & Penrith, and London & North-Western
railways. Pop. of urban district (iyot), 4451. It lies in the
northern part of the Lake district, in an open valley on the
banks of the river Greta, with the mountain of Skiddaw to the
north and the lovely lake of Derwentwater to the south. It is
much frequented by visitors as a centre for this famous district
—for boating on Derwentwater and for the easy ascent of
Skiddaw. Many residences are seen in the neighbourhood, and
the town as a whole is modern. Fits Park, opened in 1887, is
s pleasant recreation ground. The town-hall contains a museum
of local geology, natural history, &c In the parish church of
Crosthwaite, \ m. distant, there is a monument to the poet
Southey. His residence, Greta Hall, stands at the end of the
main street, close by the river. Keswick is noted for its
manufacture of lead pencils; and the plumbago (locally wad)
used to be supplied from mines in Borrowdde. Char, caught in
the neighbouring lakes, are potted at Keswick in large quantities
and exported.
KESWICK CONVENTION, an annual summer reunion held
at the above town for the main purpose of " promoting practical
holiness" by meetings for prayer, discussion and personal
intercourse. It has no denominational limits, and is largely
supported by the " Evangelical " section of the Church of
England. The convention, started in a private manner by
Canon Harford-Battersby, then vicar of Keswick, and Mr
Robert Wilson in 1874, met first in 1875, and rapidly grew after
the first few years, both in numbers and influence, in spite of
attacks on the alleged " perfectionism " of some of its leaders
and on the novelty of its methods. Its members take a deep
interest in foreign missions,
In the History of (he C.M.5., vol. iff. (W Eugene Steele), the
missionary influence of the " Keswick men in Cambridge and else-
where may be readily traced. See also The Keswick Convention \ its
Message, tts Method and Us Men, edited by C. F. Harford (1906).
KET (or Rett), ROBERT (d. 1549). English rebel, is usually
called a tanner, but he certainly held the manor of Wymondham
in Norfolk. With bis brother William he led the men of
Wymondham in their quarrel with a certain Flowerden, and
having thus come into prominence, he headed the men of Norfolk
when they rose in rebellion in x 540 owing to the hardships inflicted
by the extensive enclosures of common lands and by the general
policy of the protector Somerset. A feast held at Wymondham
in Jury 1549 developed into a riot and gave the signal for the
outbreak. Leading his followers to Norwich, Ket formed a
camp on Mousebold Heath, where he is said to have commanded
16,000 men, introduced a regular system of discipline, adminis-
tered justice and blockaded the city. He refused the royal
offer of an amnesty on the ground that innocent and just men
had no need of pardon, and on the tst of August 1549 attacked
and took possession of Norwich. John Dudley, earl of Warwick,
marched against the rebels, and after has offer of pardon had
been rejected he forced his way into the city, driving its defenders
before him. Then, strengthened by the arrival of some foreign
mercenaries, he attacked the main body of the rebels at Dussin-
dak on the 37th of August. Ket's men were easily routed by
the trained soldiery, and Robert and William Ket were seised
and taken to London, where they were condemned to death for
treason. On the 7th of December 1549 Robert was executed at
Norwich, and his body was hanged on the top of the castle,
while that of William was hanged on the church tower at
Wymondham.
See F. W. Russell, KetCs Rebellion (1859)* and J. A. Fronde,
History of England, vol. iv. (London, 1898).
KETCH, JOHN (<L 1686), English executioner, who as " Jack
Ketch " gave the nickname for nearly two centuries to his
successors, is believed to have been appointed public hangman
in the year 1663. The first recorded mention of him is in The
Plotters Ballad, being Jack Ketch's incomparable Receipt for the
Cure of Traytorous Recusants and Wholesome Phystck for a
Popish Contagion, a broadside published in December 167 a.
The execution of William, Lord Russell, on the aist of July
1683 was carried out by him in a clumsy way, and a pamphlet
is extant which contains his " Apologie," in which he alleges
that the prisoner, did not "dispose himself as was most suitable"
and that he was interrupted while taking aim. On the scaffold,
on the 15th of July 1685, the duke of Monmouth, addressing
Ketch, referred to his treatment of Lord Russell, the result
being that Ketch was quite unmanned and had to deal at least
five strokes with his axe, and finally use a knife, to sever Mon-
mouth's head from his shoulders. In 1686 Ketch was deposed
and imprisoned at Bridewell, but when his successor, Pascha
Rose, a butcher, was, after four months in the office, hanged at
Tyburn, Ketch was reappointed. He died towards the dose of
x686. .
KETCHUP, also written catsup and hatckup (said to be from
the Chinese koc<kiap or kl~lsiap, brine of pickled fish), a sauce
or relish prepared principally from the juice of mushrooms and
of many other species of edible fungi, salted for preservation and
variously spiced. The juices of various fruits, such as cucum-
bers, tomatoes, and especially green walnuts, are used as a basis
of ketchup, and shell-fish ketchup, from oysters, mussels and
cockles, is also made; but in general the term is rest rict ed to
sauces having the juice of edible fungi as their basis.
KETENES, in chemistry, a group of organic compounds which
may be considered as internal anhydrides of acetic acid and its
substitution derivatives. Two classes may be distinguished:
the aldo-ketcnes, including ketene itself, together with its mono-
alky) derivatives and carbon suboxide, and the keto-ketenes
which comprise the dialkyl ketenes. The aldo-ketenes are
colourless compounds which are not capable of autoxidation,
are polymerized by pyridine or quinoline, and are inert towards
compounds containing the groupings C:N and C:0. The keto-
ketenes are coloured compounds, which undergo autoxidation
readily, form ketene bases on the addition of pyridine and quino-
line, and yield addition compounds with substances containing
the C:N and CO groupings. The ketenes are usually obtained
by the action of zinc on ethereal or ethyl acetate solutions of
halogen substituted acid chlorides or bromides. They are
characterized by their additive reactions: combining with water
to form acids, with alcohols to form esters, and with primacy
amines to form amides.
Ketene, CH«:CO, was discovered by N. T. M. Wiltmore (Jour.
Chem.Soc., 1907, vol. 91, p. 1938) among the gaseous product* formed
762
KETI— KETONES
when a platinum wire Is electrically heated under the surface of
acetic anhvdridc. It is also obtained by the action of cine on
bromacctyl bromide (II. Staudingcr, Ber. 1908, 41. p. 594). At
ordinary temperatures it is a gas, but it may be condensed to a
liquid and finally solidified, the solid melting at -t*>i° C It is
characterized by its penetrating smell. On standing for some
time a brown-coloured liquid is obtained, from which a colourless
liquid boiling at 126-127* C, has been isolated (Wilsmorc, ibid.,
1908, 93, p. 946). Although originally described as acctylkctcn, it
has proved to be a cyclic compound (Btrr., 1909. 42, p. 4908). It
is soluble in water, the solution showing an acid reaction, owing
to the formation of aceto-acctic acid, and with alkalis it yields
acetates. It differs from the simple kctcnes in that it is apparently
unacted upon by phenols and alcohols. Dimethyl ketene, (CI I j)-C :CO,
obtained by the action of zinc on o-brom-isobutyryl bromide, is a
yellowish coloured liquid. At ordinary temperatures it rapidly
polymerizes (probably to a tctramethylcylobutanedrane). It boils
at 34° C. (750 mm.) (Staudingcr, Ber. 1905, 38, p. 173J; 1908, 41,
&2208). Oxygen rapidly converts it into a white explosive solid.
ietkyi kelene, (C,H»),C:CO, is formed on heating diet hylmalonic an-
hydride (Staudingcr, ibid.). Di phenyl ketene, (C f H &)tC :CO. obtained
by the action of cine on diphcnyl-chloracctyl chloride, is an orange-
rod liquid which boils at 146° C. (J2 mm.). It does not polymerize.
Magnesium phenyl bromide gives triphenyl vinyl alcohol.
KETI, a sea-port of British India, in Karachi district, Sind,
situated on the Hajamro branch of the Indus. Pop. (1901),
2127. It is an important scat of trade, where sea-borne goods
are transferred to and from river boats.
KETONES, in chemistry, organic compounds of the type
R-COR', where R, R'»alkyl or aryl groups. If the groups
R and R' arc identical, the ketone is called a simple ketone,
if unlike, a mixed ketone. They may be prepared by the
oxidation of secondary alcohols; by the addition of the
elements of water to hydrocarbons of the acetylene type
RC CH ; by oxidation of primary alcohols of the type
RR'CHCHjOHiRR'CHCHjOH -> RCOR'+HrO+H;CO t ;
by distillation of the calcium salts of the fatty acids, CH^Oj;
by healing the sodium salts of these acids C n H to Oi with the
corresponding acid anhydride to ioo° C. (W. H. Pcrkin, Jour.
Chen. Soc., 1886, 49, p. 322); by the action of anhydrous
ferric chloride on acid chlorides (J. Hamonct, Bull, de la soc.
ekim., 1888, 50, p. 357),
aC,H»COCl -> C 3 Hi- COCH(CHa) COO
->C,H,CO CH(CH,) C0 2 H-»C,H 6 COCH,CHi;
and by the action of zinc alkyls on acid chlorides (M.Frcund,j4nw.,
1861, 1 18, p. x), 2CH a COCl+ZnCHa),-ZnCl a +2CH»COCH,.
In the last reaction complex addition products are formed,
and must be quickly decomposed by water, otherwise tertiary
alcohols are produced (A. M. Butlcrow, Jaltrcsb., 1864, p. 496;
Attn. 1867, 144, p. 1). They may also be prepared by the decom-
position of ketone chlorides with water; by the oxidation of
the tertiary hydroxyactds; by the hydrolysis of the ketonic
acids or their esters with dilute alkalis or baryta water (see
Aceto-acetic Ester); by the hydrolysis of alkyl derivatives
of acetone dicarboxylic acid, H0 2 CCH s CO-CHRCOsH; and
by the action of the Grignard reagent on nitrites (E. Blaise,
Com pies rendus, 1901, 132, p. 38),
RCN + R'M g I -» RR'C:N M g I -» RCOR'+ NH,+MJ OH.
The ketones are of neutral reaction, the lower members of the
series being colourless, volatile, pleasant-smelling liquids. They
do not reduce silver solutions, and are not so readily oxidized
as the aldehydes. On oxidation, the molecule is split at the
carbonyl group and a mixture of acids is obtained. Sodium
amalgam reduces them to secondary alcohols; phosphorus
pentachloride replaces the carbonyl oxygen by chlorine, forming
the ketone chlorides. Only those ketones which contain a
methyl group are capable of forming crystalline addition com-
pounds with the alkaline bisulphites (F. Grimm, Ann., 1871,
157, p. 262). They combine with hydrocyanic add to form
nit riles, which on hydrolysis furnish hydroxyadds,
(CHa),CO -» (CH,),COH CN -» (CH,),COHCOiH;
with phenylhydrazine they yield hydrazones; with hydrazine
they yield in addition ketazines RR'C:NN.-CRR'(T. Curtius),
ana with hydroxylamine ketoximes. The latter readily under-
go the " Beckmann " transformation on treatment with add
chlorides, yielding substituted acid amides.
RR'C:NOH -» RC(NR0OH -» RCO NH*'
(see Oxiues, also A. Hantzsch, iTer.,1891,24, p. 13). The ketones
react with mercaptan to form- mercaptols (E. Baumann, Ber^
1885, 18, p. 883), and with concentrated nitric add Ibcy yield
dinitroparaffins (G. Chancel, Bull, de la soc. chim., 1879, 31,
P- 5°3)> With nitrous add (obtained from amy! nitrite and
gaseous hydrochloric add, the ketone being dissolved in acetic
acid) they form isonitroso-ketoncs, RCO CH:NOH (L. Clausen,
Ber., 1887, 20, pp. 656, 2194). With ammonia they yield
complex condensation products; acetone forming di- and tri-
acctonamtnes (W. Hcintz, Ann. 1875, 178, p. 30s; 1877, 189,
p. 214. They also condense with aldehydes, under the influence
of alkalis or sodium cthylate (L. Claiscn,yin«., 1883, 218, pp. 121,
129, 14s; 1S84, 223, p. 137; S. Koslanccki and G. Rossbach,
Ber., 1896, 29, pp. 1488, 1495, l8 93» & c -)- On treatment with
the Grignard reagent, in absolute ether solution, they yield
addition products which arc decomposed by water with pro-
duction of tertiary alcohols (V. Grignard, Comptes rendus, 1900,
130, p. 1322 ct seq.),
RR'CO-» RR'C(OM ? I)R»-» RR'R'-C(OH) 4- MgI OH.
Ketones do not polymerize in the same way as aldehydes, bat
under the influence of adds and bases yield condensation
products; thus acetone gives mesityl oxide, phoroce and
mesitylcne (see below).
For dimethyl ketone or acetone, see Acetone. Diethyl acfesx,
(CjHOjCO, is a pleasant-smelling liquid boiling at 102-7* C. Wits
concentrated nitric add it forms dinitroethane, and it is oxidized
by chromic acid to acetic and propionic adds. Melhyincnytheiemt,
CHjCOC,H», is the chief constituent of oil of roe. which also con-
tains methylheptylketone, CHiCOGH,*, a liquid of boiling-past
85-90 ° C. (7 mm.), which yields normal caprylic acid on oxidatkn
with hypobromitcs.
Mesttyloxide, (CH,),C.-CHCO CH,. is an aromatic smeniog liquid
of boiling point 129-5-130° C. It is insoluble in water, but readd?
dissolves in alcohol. On heating with dilute sulphuric acid it yields
acetone, but with the concentrated acid it gives mesitylcne, qH»
Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetic acid and hydroxyisc*
butyric acid (A. Pinner, Ber., 1S82, 15, p. 591). It forms hydroxy
hydrocollidinc when heated with acetamidc and anhydrous ztac
chloride (F. Canzoneri and G. Spica, Gaxz. chim. Ital.. 1884. 14.
p.349). PW<me,(CH,),C:CH-CO-CH :C(CH,),,forms yellow crystal
which melt at 28° C. and boil at 197-2° C. When heated with
phosphorus pentoxide it yields acetone, water and some psesdo-
cumene. Dilute nitric acid oxidizes it to acetic and oxalic acta*, whir
potassium permanganate oxidizes it to acetone, carbon dioxide and
oxalic add.
Dikxtones.— The diketones contain two carbonyl groups,
and are distinguished as a or x-2 diketones, $ or 1-3 dtketones,
7 or i«4 diketones, &c, according as they contain the |
-COCO-, -COCH t CO-,-COCHrCHrCO-, to.
acetone in the presence of sodium (L. Claiscn). ft is a liquid of
boiling point 1^6° C. It condenses readily with aniline to give
•T-dimethyl quinoline.
The >-diketoncs are characterized by the readiness with which
they yield furfurane, pyrrol and thiophene derivatives, the fur-
furane derivatives being formed by heating the ketones with a de-
hydrating agent, the thiophenes by heating with phosphorus prnta-
sulphide, and the pyrrols by the action of alcoholic ammonia or
amines. AcetonylaeetimeXHvCO'CHt'CHp'CO'CH*.* liquid boihr*
at 194° C, may be obtained by condensing sodium aceto-acexai*
with soono-chJoracetone (C. Paal. Ber. t 1885, 18, p. 59),
KETTELER— KETTLEDRUM
763
CHsCOCrtXf+NaCHCOCHtfCOOR)
-^ch^:o-ch,<h.coch,(Co6r)
->CHiCO CHrOVCOCH,;
or by the hydrolysis of diaceto>succinic ester, prepared by the
action of iodine on sodium aceto-acetate (L. Knorr, Her., 1889,
aa, pp. 169, 2100).
l'S diketones have been p re pare d by L. Claiaen by condensing
ethoxymethylene aceto>acetic eaters and similar compounds with
0-ketonic eaters and whh 1-3 diketones. The ethoxymethylene
aceto-acetic esters are prepared by condensing accto-acetic ester
with ortho-formic ester in the presence of acetic anhydride (German
Eatents 77354. 79087, 79863). The 1*5 diketones of this type, when
eated with aqucoos ammonia, form pyridine derivatives. Those
in which the keto groups are in combination with phenyl residues
K* tt pyridine derivatives on treatment with hydroxylaminc, thus
ntamaronc, C«H»CH(CH(C»H»)-CO-CeH»J. gives pentaphenylpyri-
dine, NC»(C*H»)«. On the general reactions of the 1-5 diketones,
see E. Knoevenagel {Ann., 1894, 281, p. 2$ ct acq.) and H. Stobbe
{fier., 1902, 35, p. 1445).
Many cyclic ketone* are known, and in most respects they resemble
the ordinary aliphatic ketones (see Poltmbtkylbnes; Terfbnbs).
KETTELER, W1LHELM EMMANUEL, Baron von (1811-
i877)> German theologian and politician, was bora at Harkotten,
to Bavaria, on the 25th of December 181 1. He studied theology
at Gdltingen, Berlin, Heidelberg and Munich, and was ordained
priest in 1844. He resolved to consecrate his life to maintaining
the cause of the freedom of the Church from the control of the
State. This brought him into collision with the civU power, an
attitude which be maintained throughout a stormy and eventful
life. Ketteler was rather a man of action than a scholar, and he
first distinguished himself as one of the deputies of the Frankfort
National Assembly, a position to which he was elected in 1S48,
and in which he soon became noted for his decision, foresight,
energy and eloquence. In i8$o he was made bishop of Mainz,
by order of the Vatican, in preference to the celebrated Professor
Leopold Schmidt, of C lessen, whose Liberal sentiments were not
agreeable to the Papal party. When elected, Ketteler refused
to allow the students of theology in his diocese to attend lectures
at Giessen, and ultimately founded an opposition seminary in the
diocese of Mains itself. He also founded orders of School
Brothers and School Sisters, to work in the various educational
agencies be had called into existence, and he laboured to institute
orphanages and rescue homes. In 1858 he threw down the
gauntlet against the State in his pamphlet on the rights of the
Catholic Church in Germany. In 1863 he adopted Lassalle's
Socialistic views, and published his Die Arbeit/rate und das
ChrisitnUtum. When the question of papal infallibility arose,
he opposed the promulgation of the dogma on the ground that
such promulgation was inopportune. But he was not resolute
in bis opposition. The opponents of the dogma complained
at the very outset that he was wavering, half converted by his
hosts, the members of the German College at Rome, and further
influenced by his own misgivings. He soon deserted his anti-
Infalh'bilist colleagues, and submitted to the decrees in August
1870. He was the warmest opponent of the Slate in the Kullur-
kampf provoked by Prince Bismarck after the publication of the
Vatican decrees, and was largely instrumental in compelling
that statesman to retract the pledge he had rashly given, never
to " go to Canossa." To such an extent did Bishop von Ketteler
carry his opposition, that in 1874 he forbade his clergy to take
part in celebrating the anniversary of the battle of Sedan, and
declared the Rhine to be a " Catholic river." He died at Burg-
hausen, Upper Bavaria, on the 13th of July 1877.
(J* J- 1* )
KETTERING, a market town in the eastern parliamentary
division of Northamptonshire, England, 7s m. N.N.W. from
London by the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district
(1891), 19,454; (1001). 28,653. The church of SS Peter and
Paul, mainly Perpendicular, has a lofty and ornate tower and
spire. The chief manufactures are boots, shoes, brushes, stays,
clothing and agricultural implements. There are iron-works in
the immediate neighbourhood. The privilege of market was
granted in 1227 by a charter of Henry III.
. KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED (1817-1894). English
county court judge, was born at Birmingham on the oth of
January 181 7. His family had for some time been connected
with the glass-staining business. In 1845 he was called to the
bar, and in 1850 he was made judge of the Worcestershire county
courts, becoming also a bencher of the Middle Temple (1882).
He acted as arbitrator in several important strikes, and besides
being the first president of the Midland iron trade wages board,
he was largely responsible for the formation of similar boards in
other staple trades. His name thus became identified with the
organization of a system of arbitration between employers and
employed, and in 1880 he was knighted for his services in this
capacity. In 1851 he married; one of his sons subsequently
became a London police magistrate. Kettle died on the 6th
of Octobe r 1894 at Wolverhampton*.
KETTLEDRUM * (Fr. timbalcs; Gcr. Pa u ken; Ital. timpani;
Sp. limbal), the only kind of drum (g.v.) having a definite
musical pitch. The kettledrum consists of a hemispherical
pan of copper, brass or silver, over which a piece of vellum is
stretched tightly by means of screws working on an iron ring,
which fits closely round the head of the drum. In the bottom
of the pan is a small vent-hole, which prevents the head being
rent by the concussion of air. The vellum head may thus be
slackened or tightened at will to produce any one of the notes
within its compass of half an octave. Each kettledrum gives
but one note at a time, and as it takes some little time to alter
all the screws, two or three kettledrums, sometimes more, each
tuned to a different note, arc used in an orchestra or band.
For centuries kettledrums have been made and used in Europe
in pairs, one large and one small; the relative proportions of the
two instruments being well defined and invariable. Even when
eight pairs of drums, all tuned to different notes, are used, as
by Berlioz in his " Grand Requiem," there are still but the two
sizes of drums to produce all the notes. Various mechanisms
have been tried with the object of facilitating the change of
pitch, but the simple old-fashioned model is still the most
frequently used in England. Two sticks, of which there are
several kinds, are employed to play the kettledrum; the best
of these are made of whalebone for elasticity, and have a small
wooden knob at one end, covered with a thin piece of fine sponge.
Others have the button covered with fell or india-rubber.
The kettledrum is struck at about a quarter of the diameter
from the ring.
The compass of kettledrums collectively is not much more than
an octave, between \& 7~h J: E\*4 r -J^r=~ ; the larger instruments,
which it is inadvisable to tune below F, take any one of the following
notes: —
li^gpIppJE^Il^
m=
and the smaller are tuned to one of the notes completing the
chromatic and enharmonic scale from f§- fcjrr £'£!£— These
limits comprise all the notes of artistic value that can be obtained
from kettledrums. When there arc but two drums— the term
" drum " used by musicians always denotes the kettledrum-— they
are Generally tuned to the tonic and dominant or to the tonic and
subdominant, these notes entering into the composition of most of
the harmonies of the key. Formerly the kettledrums used to be
treated as transposing instruments, the notation, as for the horn,
being in C, the key to which the kettledrums wvre to be tuned being
indicated in the score. Now composers write the real notes.
The tone of a Rood kettledrum is sonorous, rich, and of great power.
When noise rather than music is required uncovered sticks are used.
The drums may be mufiTcd or eoveted by placing a piece of cloth or
silk over the vellum to damp the sound, a device which produces a
lugubrious, mysterious effect and is indicated in the score by the
words timpani eopettt. timpani ten sotdtm, timbales eotnertt$ %
gedamtfftt Pa* ken. Besides the beautiful effects obtained by means
of delicate gradations of tone, numerous rhythmical figures may be
executed on one, two or more notes. German drummers who were
» From "drum " and " kettle/* a covered metal vessel for boiling
water or other liquid, the O. E. word i» uUU cf. Du. ktid, Cer.
Keutl, borrowed from Lat. catUlus, dim. of catmus, bowl.
764
KETTLEDRUM
r uwiul daring the 17th and 18th centuries, borrowing the terms
from the trumpets with which the kettledrums were long associated,
recogoUcd the following beau; —
Single tonguing
{Einjmkt Zungen)
Double tonguing
(Doppet oier gerissene Zki(Oi)
Legato tonguing
(Trogenie Zungen)
Whole double-tonguing
(Cense DoppeLZungen)
Srgr^rsjrut-^w-. s^sS==sJj<rm'-s> ^JLa i -s y=!S
Double cross-beat »
(Doppel KreusschUge)
a'-jr-
The roll
(Wirbd)
The double roll
(Doppd Wirbet)
It is generally stated that Beethoven was the first to treat the
fccctkdrum as a solo instrument, but in Dido, an opera by C. Graupncr
performed at the Hamburg Opera House in 1707, there is a short
^>|o tor the kettledrum.'
The tuning of the kettledrum is an operation requiring time, even
vticA the *crew*hc»ds, as is now usual, are T-shaped; to expedite
,he chan^r* therefore, efforts have been made in all countries to
m>-cnt *ome mevhanism which would enable theperformer to tune
t hc dnim to a hved note by a single movement. The first mechanical
tvuVdnims d*te from the beginning of the 19th century. In
Mo."**! a *wrm was invented by J. C. N. Stumpff*; in France by
labt*y» *» l*Jj; in Germany Eiobiglcr patented a system in
v :* *<
sC
ns was characteristic of the
icr than the musical member
ages and until the end of the
obtainable from the pair of
as a means of marking and
notes entering into the corn-
drums, in fact, approximated
contrast between the purely
above, and the more modern
be well-known solo for four
table, beginning thus—
C S S j >
«n.*4 VVv.r^uX -"*» CWAasair in Bomburfer Op* (167S-
u. . .s^ iv^^ns^ Sammelbajid L 2, p. 378
:-c:
» ***at .Mmfi&U et rnisonntt it timbeies
^ ,>v «uU mcchaaical kettledrums are
Fr
eu
id in lSj7;
or less of a
1 of tuning,
ed in some
cast to the
1 is simple,
balk of the
ter's kettie-
d by screws
the outside
' which are
t performer
he compass
fc note and
Id the cords
he rcp re se a-
us indicator
note having
being of aa
at tends to
The origin of the kettledrum is remote and must be sought
in the East. Its distinctive characteristic is a hemispherical or
convex vessel, closed by means of a single parchment or skin
drawn tightly over the aperture, whereas other drums consist
of a cylinder, having one end or both covered by the parchment,
as in the side-drum and tambourine respectively. The Romans
were acquainted with the kettledrum, including it among the
tympana; the tympanum leoc, like a sieve, was the tambourine
used in the rites of Bacchus and Cybde.* The comparatively
heavy tympanum of bronze mentioned by Catullus was probably
the small kettledrum which appears in pairs on monuments of
the middle ages. 9 Pliny* states that half .pearls having
one side round and the other flat were called tympanic. If
the name tympanic (Gr. rftfrraier, from rvnw, to strike) was
given to pearls of a certain shape because they resembled the
kettledrum, this argues that the instrument was well known
among the Romans. It is doubtful, however, if it was
adopted by them as a military instrument, since it is not
mentioned by Vegctius,* who defines very clearly the duties of
the service instruments buuina, tuba, corn* and lituus.
The Greeks also knew the kettledrum, but as a wrsrl&e
instrument of barbarians. Plutarch 1 * mentions that the
Parthians, in order to frighten their enemies, in offering: battle
used not the horn or tuba, but hollow vessels covered wfth a
skin, on which they beat, making a terrifying noise with these
tympana. Whether the kettledrum penetrated into western
Europe before the fall of the Roman Empire and continwed
to be included during the middle ages among the tympana has
not been definitely ascertained. Isidore of Seville gives a some
what vague description of tympanum, conveying the impressioa
that his information has been obtained second-hand: M Tym-
panum est pdlis vel corium ligno ex una parte extent urn.
Est entm pars media sympboniae in simflitudinem cribri.
Tympanum autem dictum qnod medium est. Unde, et max-
garilum medium tympanum dicitnr, et ipsum ut sympfaonia ad
virgulam percutitur." u It is dear that in this passage Isidore
is referring to Pliny.
The names given during the middle ages to the kettledrum awe
derived from the East. We have aUambal or attabai in Spain,
'See Gustav Schilling's Encyklop&iie ier resammten mnutkot.
Wissenschaflen (Stuttgart, 1840), vol. v., art. '* Pauke."
'See Manual* pel Timpanista (Milan, 1842), where Boracchi
describes and illustrates his invention.
'Catullus, lxiii. 6-10; Claud. Da eons. Stdick. UL 365; Lucre*. S.
618; Virg. Aen. ut. 619. Ac.
* John Carter, Specimens of A
of choir of Worcester cathedral
, Ancient Sculpture, bas-relief from seats
ral and of collegiate church of St Kath-
erinc near the Tower of London (plates, voL i. following p. 53 and
vol. ii. following p. 22).
• NaL Hist. ix. 35. 23.
• De re miiitari. n. 22 : Hi. 5. Ac
» Crassus, xxiii. 10. See also Justin xIL 2, and Porydorws, Uhv. U
cap. xv.
u See Isidore of SevihY. Etymologiarum. lib. UL cap, 21, Ut : Mtgnc,
Fair. curs, computus. Isxau. io*«
KETTLEDRUM
765
from the Persian tambal, whence is derived the modern French
timbaks; nacaire, naquaire or nakmt* (English spelling), from
the Arabic nakkarah or naqqarich (Bengali, ndgard), and the
German Paukc, M.H.G. B&ke or P&Me, which is probably derived
from byk, the Assyrian name of the instrument.
A line in the chronicles of Joinvillc definitely establishes the
identity of the nakcrts as a kind of drum: " Lor il fist sonner
(Geo Potter & Co of AJdcnhot )
FiO. I. — Mechanical Kettledrum, showing the system
of cords inside the head.
This regiment ts now the 21st (Empress of India) Lancers.
les labours que Ton appelle nacaires.*' The nacaire is among
the instruments mentioned by Froissart as having been used
on the occasion of Edward III 's triumphal entry into Calais
in 1347: " trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies, muses." *
Chaucer mentions them in the description of the tournament
in the Knight's Tale (line 2514):—
'* Pipes, trompes, natures and clanonncs
That in the batailte blowen blody sonnes."
The earliest European illustration showing kettledrums is the
scene depicting Pharaoh's banquet in the fine illuminated MS.
book of Genesis of the 5th or 6th century, preserved in Vienna.
There are two pairs of shallow metal bowls on a table, on which
a woman is performing with two sticks, as an accompaniment
to the double pipes.* As a companion illumination may be
cited the picture of an Eastern banquet given in a 14th century
MS. at the British Museum (Add. MS. 27,695), illuminated by a
skilled Genoese. The potentate is enjoying the music of various
instruments, among which are two kettledrums strapped to the
back of a Nubian slave. This was the earlier manner of using
1 PaniJUon lUUratre (Paris, 1837), J A. Buchon, vol. i. cap. 322,
p. 273.
1 Reproduced by Franz Wickhoff, " Die Wienor Genesis " supple-
ment to the 15th and 16th volumes of the Jakrb d kunslkistoriscken
Sammiungen <L aUerkdchsten KaucrkauHS (Vienna, 1893); see frontis-
piece in colours and plate illustration XXA.1V.
the instrument before it became inseparably associated with the
trumpet, sharing its position as the service instrument of the
cavalry. Jost Amman ' gives a picture of a pair of kettledrums
with banners being played by an armed knight on horseback.
(torn Baild'u. tfidthoTs "Die Wiener Geoesi*
Sammlnstn iet alUrUclulm KaiMrkuuti.)
Fig. 2. — Kettledrums in an early Christian MS.
As in the case of the trumpet, the use of the kettledrum was
placed under great restrictions in Germany and France and
to some extent in England, but it was used in churches with
the trumpet. 4 No French or German regiment was allowed
Fig. 3. — Medieval Kettledrums, 14th century. (Brit. Museum.)
kettledrums unless they had been captured from the enemy,
and the timbalier or the Hurpcukcr on parade, in reviews
and marches generally, rode at the bead of the squadron; in
battle his position was in the wings. In England, before the
Restoration, only the Guards were allowed kettledrums, but
after the accession of James II. every regiment of horse was
provided with them. 1 Before the Royal Regiment of Artillery
was established, the master-general of ordnance was responsible
for the raising of trains of artillery. Among his retinue in time
of war were a trumpeter and kettledrummer. The kettledrums
were mounted on a chariot drawn by six white horses. They
appeared in the field for the first time in a train of artillery
during the Irish rebellion of 1689, and the charges for ordnance
• Arltiche u. kunstrcicke Figure* an der RtuUerey (Frankfort-on-
Main, 1584).
• See Michael Praetonus, Syntagma Musicwn_pa& UbnaUhefU /.
Musikgescktchte, lahrgang x. 51.
• See Georges Kastner, op. cit., pp. TO and 1 1 : Johann Ernst Alten-
burg, Versuck etner AnUitung s. keroxuh-musikalischcn Trompeler u.
Paukerkunst (Halle, 1795). P- ^S; and H. G. Farmer, Memow of
the Royal ArldUry Band, p. 23, note 1 (London, 1904).
766
KEUFER— KEW
indvde the item, " Urge kettledrums mounted on a carriage
with deaths marked l.R. and cost £158, 9s." 1 A model
el the kettledrums with their carriage which accompanied the
duke of Marlborough to Holland in 1702 is preserved in the
Rotunda Museum at Woolwich. The kettledrums accompanied
the Royal Artillery train in the Vigo expedition and during the
campaign in Flanders in 1748. Macbean* states that they
were mounted on a triumphal car ornamented and gilt, bearing
the ordnance nag and drawn by six white horses. The position
of the car on march was in front of the flag gun, and in camp in
front of the quarters of tbe dukeof Cumberland with the artillery
guns packed round them. The ketlledrumraer had by order
" to mount the kettledrum carriage every night half an hour
before the sun sett and beat till gun fircing." In 1759 the
kettledrums ceased to form part of the establishment of the
Royal Artillery, and they were deposited, together with their
carriage, in the Tower, at the same time as a pair captured at
Malplaquet in 1709. These Tower drums were frequently
borrowed by Handel for performances of his oratorios.
• The kettledrums still form part of tbe bands of the Life Guards
and other cavalry regiments. (K. S.)
KEUPER. in geology the third or uppermost subdivision of
the Triassic system. The name is a local miners' term of German
origin; it corresponds to the French monies irisies. The forma-
tion is well exposed in Swabia, Franconia, Alsace and Lorraine
and Luxemburg; it extends from Basel on the east side of the
Rhine into Hanover, and northwards it spreads into Sweden and
through England into Scotland and north-east Ireland; it
appears flanking the central plateau of France and in the Pyrenees
and Sardinia. In tbe German region it is usual to divide the
Keupcr into three groups, the Rhactic or upper Kcuper, the
middle, Hauptkcuper or gyps kcuper, and the lower, Kohlcnkcupcr
or Lettenkohle. In Germany the lower division consists mainly
of grey clays and scldeferletten with white, grey and brightly
coloured sandstone and dolomilic limestone. The upper part
of this division is often a grey dolomite known as the Grenz
dolomite; the impure coal beds— UlUnkohlc— are aggregated
towards the base. The middle division is thicker than cither
of the others (at Cdttingen, 450 metres); it consists of a marly
scries below, grey, red and green mark with gypsum and dolo-
mite — this is the gypskeupcr in its restricted sense. The higher
part of the scries is sandy, hence called the Steinmergd, it is
comparatively free from gypsum. To this division belong the
Myophoria beds {M. Raibliana) with galena in places, the
Esther! a beds (£. laxilesta), the Schclfsandstcin, used as a
building-stone; the Lehrbcrg and Berg-gyps beds; Scmionotus
beds (5 Bergen) with building-stone of Coburg, and the Burg-
and Stubensandslcin. The salt .which is associated with gypsum,
is exploited in south Germany at Drcuze, Pettoncourt, Vie in
Lorraine and Wimpfcn on the Ncckar. A (-metre coal is found
on this horizon in the Erzgebirge, and another, 2 metres thick,
has been mined in Upper Silesia. The upper Keupcr, Rhaetic
or Avicula contoria zone in Germany iz mainly sandy with dark
grey shales and marls; it is seldom more than 25 metres thick.
The sandstones are used for building purposes at Bayreuth,
Culmbach and Bamberg. In Swabia and the Wcsergebirge are
several ° bone-beds," thicker than those in the middle Keupcr,
which contain a rich assemblage of fossil remains of fish, reptiles
and the mammalian teeth of Mlcroleslts atUiquus and Triglyptus
Praasi. The name Rhaetic is derived from the Rhaetic Alps
where the beds are well developed; they occur also in central
France, the Pyrenees and England. In S.Tirol and the Judic-
arian Mountains the Rhaetic is represented by the Kossener
beds. In the Alpine region the presence of coral beds gives rise
to the so-called " Lithodcndron Kalk."
In Great Britain the Keupcr contains the following tub-
divisions: Rhaetic or Penarth beds, grey, red and green marls,
black shales and so-called "white lias" (10-150 ft.). Upper
Kt*P*r mot/, red and grey marls and shales with gypsum and
» Miner's Artillery Regimental History; see also H. G. Farmer,
## i-r p u: iHu»l ration 1702, p. 26.
• Utmwt if the Rtyol Artillery.
rock salt (800-3000 ft.). Lower Ken per sandstone, marls and
thin sandstones at the top, red and white sandstones (including
the so-called " waterstones ") below, with breccias and con-
glomerates at tbe base (150-250 ft.). The basal or " dobmiik
conglomerate " is a shore or scree breccia derived from local
materials; it is well developed in the Mendip district. Tbe rock-
salt beds vary from 1 in. to 100 ft. in thickness; they are exten-
sively worked (mined and pumped) in Cheshire, Middlesbrough
and Antrim. The Keuper covers a large area in the midlands
and around the flanks of the Pennine range; it reaches southward
to the Devonshire coast, eastward into Yorkshire and north-
westward into north Ireland and south Scotland. As in Germany,
there are one or more " bone beds " in the English Rhaetic with
a similar assemblage of fossils. In the " white lias " tbe upper
hard limestone is known as the " sun bed " or " Jew stone ";
at the base is the Cot ham or landscape marble.
Representatives of the Rhaetic are found in south Swedes,
where the lower portion contains workable coals, in tbe Hima-
layas, Japan, Tibet, Burma, eastern Siberia and in Spitsbergen.
The upper portion of the Karroo beds of South Africa and part
of the Otapiri series of New Zealand are probably of Rhaetic
age.
The Kcuper is not rich in fossils; the principal plants are cypress-
like conifers (Walchia, Volttia) and a few catamite* with such fonm
as Equiselum arenaceum and Pteropkyhum Jaegeri, AwicmU
contoria, Protocardium rhaeluum, Terebratula gregorm, ifyopkvnm
costata, M. Coldfassi and Lingula tenuessima, Anoplopkorta leak*
may be mentioned among the invertebrates. Fishes include
Ceratodus, Hybodus and Ltpidotus. Labyrinthodonts represented
by the footprints of Chetrotherium and the bones of Labyrinlhodom,
Mastodonsaurus and Capitosaurus. Among the reptiles are Hy-
perodapedon,- Palaeosaurus, Zanclodon. Nothosaurus and BtUdan.
Microtesles, the earliest known mammalian genus, has already been
mentioned.
See also tbe article Triassic System. (J. A. H.)
KEW, a township in the Kingston parliamentary division of
Surrey, England, situated on the south bank of the Thanes,
6 m. W.S.W. of Hyde Park Corner, London. Pop. (1001), 2600.
A stone bridge of seven arches, erected in 1789, connecting Kew
with Brentford on the other side of the river, was replaced by
a bridge of three arches opened by Edward VII. in 1903 and
named after him. Kew has increased greatly as a residential
suburb of London, the old village consisted chiefly of a row of
houses with gardens attached, situated on the north side of a
green, to the south of which is the church and churchyard and
at the west the principal entrance to Kew Gardens. From
remains found in the bed of the river near Kew bridge it has been
conjectured that the village marks the site of an old British
settlement. The name first occurs in a document of the reign
of Henry VII., where it is spelt Kayhough. The church of
St Anne (1714) has a mausoleum containing the tomb of thednke
of Cambridge (d. 1850) son of George III., and is also the burial-
place of Thomas Gainsborough the artist, Jeremiah Meyer the
painter of miniatures (d.i 780), John Zoffany the artist (d. 1810),
Joshua Kirby the architect (d. 1774), and William Aiton the
botanist and director of Kew Gardens (d. 1793).
The free school originally endowed by Lady Capet in 1731
received special benefactions from George IV., and the title of
" the king's free school."
The estate of Kew House about the end of the 17th century
came into the possession of Lord Capel of Tewkesbury, and is
1 72 1 of Samuel Molyoeux, secretary to the prince of Wales,
afterwards George II. After his death it was leased by Frederick
prince of Wales, son of George II., and was purchased about 1789
by George III., who devoted his leisure to its improvement. The
old house was pulled down in 1802, and a new mansion was begun
from the designs of James Wyatl, but the king's death prevented
its completion, and in 1827 the portion built was removed.
Dutch House, close to Kew House, was sold by Robert Dudley,
earl of Leicester, to Sir Hugh Portman, a Dutch merchant, late
in the 16th century, and in 1781 was purchased by George IIL
as a nursery for tbe royal children. It is a plain brick structure,
now known as Kew Palace.
KEWANEE— KEY
767
The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew originated hi the exotic
garden formed by Lord Capel and greatly extended by the
princess dowager, widow of Frederick, prince of Wales, and by
George III , aided by the skill of WiUiara Alton and of Sir
Joseph Banks In 1840 the gardens were adopted as a national
establishment, and transferred to the department of woods
and forests. The gardens proper, which originally contained
only about 11 acres, were subsequently increased to 75 acres,
and the pleasure grounds or arboretum adjoining extend to
370 acres. There are extensive conservatories, botanical
museums, including the magnificent herbarium and a library.
A lofty Chinese pagoda was erected in 176 1. A flagstaff 159 ft
high is made out of the fine single trunk of a Douglas pine
In the neighbouring Richmond Old Park is the important Kcw
Observatory.
* KEWANEE, a a'ty of Henry county, Illinois, U S.A., in the
N W. part of the state, about 55 m N. by W of Peoria.
Pop 6000), 8382, of whom 2006 were foreign-born; (toio
census), 0J07 It is served by the Chicago Burlington &
Quincy railroad and by the Galcsburj: & Kcwanee Electric
railway. Among its manufactures are foundry and machmc-
shop products, boilers, carnages and wagons, agricultural
implements, pipe and fittings, working-men's gloves, &c. In
1905 the total factory product was valued at $6,729,381,
or 615% more than in 1000. Kcwanee was settled in 1836
by people from Wcthersfield, Connecticut, and was first chartered
as a city in 1897
KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888), English admiral,
was born in London in 1821, and entered the navy in 1833
His father was Charles Aston Key (1793-1849), a well-known
surgeon, the pupil of Sir Astley Cooper, and his mother was
the latter 's niece. After distinguishing himself in active
service abroad, on the South American station (1 844-1 846), In
the Baltic during the CrimeanWar (C.B. 1855) and China (1857),
Key was appointed in 1858 a member of the royal commission
on national defence, in i860 captain of the steam reserve at
Devonport, and in 1863 captain of H.M.S. " Excellent " and
superintendent of the Royal Naval College. He had a con-
siderable share in advising as to the reorganization of adminis-
tration, and in 1866, having become rear-admiral, was made
director of naval ordnance. Between 1869 and 1872 he held
the offices of superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard, super-
intendent of Malta dockyard, and second in command in the
Mediterranean. In 1872 he was made president of the projected
Royal Naval College at Greenwich, which was organized by htm,
and after its opening in 1S73 he was made a K.C.B and a vice-
admiral. In 1876 he was appointed commander-in-chief on the
North American and West Indian station. Having become full
admiral in 1878, he was appointed in 1879 principal A.D C , and
soon afterwards first naval lord of the admiralty, retaining
this post till 1885. In 1882 he was made G C B He died at
Maidenhead on the 3rd of March, 1888.
See Memoirs of Sir Astley Cooper Key, by Vice- Admiral Colomb
(1898).
KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875). English classical
scholar, was born in London on the 20th of March, 1799. He
was educated at St John's and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge,
and graduated 19th wrangler in 1821. From 1825 to 1827 he
was professor of mathematics in the university of Virginia, and
after his return to England was appointed (1828) professor of
Latin in the newly founded university of London. In 1832
he became joint headmaster of the school founded in connexion
with that institution; in 1842 he resigned the professorship
of Latin, and look up that of comparative grammar together
with the undivided head mastership of the school. These two
posts he held till his death on the 29th of November 1875
Key is best known for his introduction of the crude-form (the
uninfected form or stem of words) system, in general use among
Sanskrit grammarians.intothc teaching of the classical languages.
This system was embodied in his Latin Grammar (1846). In
Language, ils Origin and Development (1874). he upholds the
onomatopoeic theory. Key was prejudiced against the German
'* Sanskritists," and the etymological portion of his Latm
Dictionary, published in 1888, was severely criticized on this
account He was a member of the Royal Society and president
of the Philological Society, to the Transactions of which he
contributed largely.
See Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol xxiv. (1876); R Ellis
in the Academy (Dec. 4. 1875); J. P. Hicks, T Hewitt Key (1893),
where a full list of his works and contributions is given.
KEY (in O Eng. caig; the ultimate origin of the word is
unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian kei of other Teutonic
languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation
was kay, as in other words In O. Eng. ending in alg, cf.
daig, day; daig, clay; the New English Dictionary takes the
change to kee to be due to northern influence), an instrument of
metal used for the opening and closing of a lock (see Lock).
Until the 14th century bronze and not iron was most commonly
used. The terminals of the stem of the keys were frequently
decorated, the " bow " or loop taking the form sometimes of a
trefoil, with figures Inscribed within it; this decoration increased
in the 16th century, the terminals being made in the shape of
animals and other figures. Still more elaborate ceremonial
keys were used by court officials; a series of chamberlains* keys
used during the 18th and 19th centuries in several courts in
Europe is in the British Museum. The terminals are decorated
whh crowns, royal monograms and ciphers. The word " key "
is by analogy applied to things regarded as means for the opening
or closing of anything, for the making dear that which is hidden.
Thus it is used of an interpretation as to the arrangement of the
letters or words of a cipher, of a solution of mathematical or other
problems, or of a translation of exercises or books, &c, from a
foreign Language. The term is also used figuratively of a place
of commanding strategic position. Thus Gibraltar, the " Key
of the Mediterranean," was granted in 1462 by Henry IV. of
Castile, the arms, gules, a castle proper, with key pendant to
the gate, or, these arms form the badge of the 50th regiment
of foot (now 2nd Batt Essex Regiment) in the British army, in
memory of the part which it took in the siege of 1782. The
word is also frequently applied to many mechanical contrivances
for unfastening or loosening a valve, nut, bolt, &c, such as a
spanner or wrench, and to the instruments used in tuning a piano-
forte or -harp or in winding clocks or watches. A farther
extension of the word is to appliances or devices which serve to
lock or fasten together distinct parts of a structure, as the
" key-stone " of an arch, the wedge or piece of wood, metal, &c,
which fixes a joint, or a small metal instrument, shaped like
a U, used to secure the bands in the process of sewing in book-
binding.
In musical instruments the term " key " is applied in certain
wind instruments, particularly of the wood -wind type, to the
levers which open and close valves in order to produce various
notes, and in keyboard instruments, such as the organ or the
pianoforte, to the exterior white or black parts of the levers
which either open or shut the valves to admit the wind from
the bellows to the pipes or to release the hammers against the
strings (sec Keyboard). It is from this application of the word
to these levers in musical instruments that the term is also
used of the parts pressed by the finger in typewriters and in
telegraphic instruments.
A key is the insignia of the office of chamberlain in a royal
household (see Chamberlain and Lord Chamberlain). The
" power of the keys " (eluvium potcslas) in ecclesiastical usage
.represents the authority given by Christ to Peter, by the words,
'• I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven "
(Matt xvi. 19). This is claimed by the Roman Church to have
been transmitted to the popes as the successors of St Peter.
* Key " was formerly the common spelling of " quay," a
wharf, and is still found in America for "cay," an island reef
or sandbank off the coast of Florida (see Quay).
The origin of the name Keys or House of Keys, the lower branch
of the legislature, the court of Tynwald. of the Isle of Man, has been
much discussed, but it u generally accepted that it is a particular
application of the word " key " by English- and not Maiut-speakiog
768
KEYBOARD
people. According to A. i".
i. 160 aqq. (1900), in the 1 he
house was in 1417 Clares nd
Keys of the Law .but the j till
1585 seems to have been >m
1585 to 1734 the name w< or
simply "the Keys." Mo >ly
originally due to an EnglL he
house being called in to r."
There is no evidence for 1 dt-
ruption of Kiart-as, the & es-
tion is that it is from a Sc
KEYBOARD, or Manual (Fr. clavier; Ger. Klaviaiur-, Ital.
lastaiura), a succession of keys for unlocking sound in stringed,
wind or percussion musical instruments, together with the case
or board on which they are arranged. The two principal types
of keyboard instruments are the organ and the piano; their
keyboards, although similarly constructed, differ widely in
scope and capabilities. The keyboard of the organ, a purely
mechanical contrivance, is the external means of communicating
with the valves or pallets that open and close the entrances to
the pipes. As its action is incapable of variation at the will
of the performer, the keyboard of the organ remains without
influence on the quality and intensity of the sound. The key-
board of the piano, on the contrary, besides its purely mechanical
function, also forms a sympathetic vehicle of transmission for
the performer's rhythmical and emotional feeling, in consequence
of the faithfulness with which it passes on the impulses communi-
cated by the fingers. The keyboard proper does not, in instru-
ments of the organ and piano types, contain the complete
mechanical apparatus for directly unlocking the sound, but
only that external part of it which is accessible to the performer.
The first instrument provided with a keyboard 1 in;
we must therefore seek lor the prototype of the mo ird
in connexion with the primitive instrument which nv si-
tion between the mere syrinx provided with bellows, i he
pipes sounded at once unless stopped by the finger rst
organ in which sound was elicited from a pipe only :cd
by means of some mechanical contrivance. The ri-
vance was the simple slider, unprovided with a key or nd
working in a groove like the lid of a box, which was _., , jed
in or drawn out to open or close the hole that formed the communica-
tion between the wind chest and the hole in the foot of the pipe.
These sliders fulfilled in a simple manner the function of the modern
keys, and preceded the groove and pallet system of the modern
organ. We have no clear or trustworthy information concerning
the primitive organ with sliders. Athanastus Kircher 1 gives a
drawing of a small mouth-blown instrument under the name o(
Magraketka {Mashroqiiha ,D*n. iii. 5), and Ugolini describes a similar
one, but with a pair of bellows, as the magrephah of the treatise
'Ar&khln* By analogy with the evolution of the organ in central
and western Europe from the 8th to the 15th century, of which we
are able to study the various stages, we may conclude that in
rinciple both drawings were probably fairly representative, even
nothing better than efforts of the imagination to illustrate a text.
The invention of the keyboard with balanced keys has been placed
by some writers as late as the itth or 14th century, in spite of its
having been described by both Hero of Alexandria and Vitruvius
and mentioned by poets and writers. The misconception probably
•rose from the easy assumption that the organ was the product of
Western skill and that the primitive instruments with sliders found
in nth century documents 4 represent the sum of the progress made
in the evolution ; in rcalitythey were the result of a laborious effort
- -------.. *r>^- -- • •— ' - »--' -» •— -•--- -j
of horn, regaining its natural bent by its own elasticity, polls the
slider out so that the perforation of the slider overlaps and the pipe
is silenced.* The description of the keyboard by vitnivins Poltio.
a variant of that of Hero, is less accurate and less complete.* Fran
evidence discussed m the article Organ, it is clear that the principle
of a balanced keyboard was well understood both in the 2nd and is
the 5th century a.d After this all trace of this important develop-
ment disappears, sliders of all kinds with and without handles doing
duty for keys until the 12th or 13th century, when we find the small
portative organs furnished with narrow keys which appear to be
balanced; the single bellows were manipulated by one hand while
the other fingered the keys. As this little instrument was mainly
used to accompany the voice in simple chaunts, it needed few keys,
at most nine or twelve The pipes were flue-pipes. A amuar
little instrument, having tiny invisible pipes furnished with beating
reeds and a pair of bellows (therefore requiring two performers)
was known as the regal. There are representations of these medieval
balanced keyboards with keys of various shapes, the most common
being the rectangular with or without rounded comers ami the
T-shaped. Until the 14th century all the keys were in one row and
of the same level, and although the B flat was used lor snodulaiiom,
it was merely placed between A and B natural in the sequence of
notes. During the 14th century small square additional keys made
their appearance, one or two to the octave, inserted between the
others in the position of our black keys but not raised. An example
of this keyboard is reproduced by J. F. Riano 1 from a fresco in the
Cistercian monastery of Nuestra Scfiora de Piedra in Aragon, dated
the organ. The only
st i were the orgamnsirum
ai wood manipulated by
hj ic fingers in stopping
th they did not influence
th ?nt of the immediate
pi In the Wunderbud*
(1 at Weimar, are repre-
sc amed. Among then
arrow additional keys
le , p >up of t»»o large keys.
The same arrangement prevailed in a clamcymbalum figured in aa
anonymous MS. attributed to the 14th century, preserved in the
public library at Ghent* ; from the lettering over the jacksand strings,
of which there arc but eight, it would seem as though the draughts-
man had left the accidentals out of the scheme of notation. Theses**
the earliest known representations of instruments with keyboard*
The exact date at which our chromatic keyboard came into use has
not been discovered, but it existed in the 15th century and may be
yt)e
studied in the picture of St Cecilia playing the organ on the Ghent
altarpiece painted by the brothers Hubert and Ian van Eyck.
Practorius distinctly states that the large Halberstadt organ had the
keyboard which he figures (plates xxiv and xxv.) from the outset,
and reproduces the inscription asserting that the organ was boih
in 1361 by the priest Nicolas Fabri and was renovated in 1495 bv
Grcgorius Kleng. The keyboard of this organ has the arrangement
of the present day with raised black notes; it is not improbable
that Praetorius's statement was correct, for Germany and the Nether-
lands led the van io organ-building during the middle ages.
At the beginning of the 16th century, to facilitate the playing of
co lusic having a drone bass or fteiut d orgue, the arrange-
pea of organs and of the strings of spinets and harp-
Itered, with the result that the lowest octave of ds*
made in what is known as short measure, or mi, re\ ul.
x.t with B flat included, but grouped in the space of a
si) >f appearing as a full octave. In order to carry oat
th i note below F was C, instead of E. the missing D and
E at being substituted for the three sharps of F. G and
A, ng as black notes, thus:—
DEBb
C F G A B C,
or if the lowest note appeared to be B, it sounded as C and the
arrangement was as follows: —
A B
G C D E F G.
This was the most common scheme for the short octave during the
16th and 17th centuries, although others are occasionally found.
Practorius also gives examples in which the black notes of the short
octave were divided into two halves, or separate keys, the forward
kc
1 See the original Greek with translation by Charles Maclean ia
" The Principle of the Hydraulic Organ," J mien. MmnhgtM. vi. 1.
210-220 (Leipzig 1005).
'See Clement Loret's account in Revue arckeolotigue, pp. 76-103
(Paris. 1800). ^
' £or/y Hist, of Spanish Music (London. 1807).
• Reproduced by Dr Alwin Schuht in Deutsche* Leben im XIV a.
XV Jhdt.. figs. 523 seq. (Vienna, 1892).
» " De divcrsis monocordis, pentacordis, etc, ex qutbus diversa
forma ntur instrument a musica," reproduced by Earn, van der
Straeten in Hist, de la mmsiaue oux Pays~Bas, L 27S,
KEY9TONE-^KHAIRP12R
769
UK foe the foot note, the back half tot the chromatic semitone*
thus:—
t £ Bfr
C F G A B C
Thi* arrangement, which accomplishes its object without sacrifice,
was to be found early in the 17th century in the organs of the
monasteries of Riddageshausen and of Bayreuth in Vogtland.
See A. J. Hipkins, History of the PiancforU (London, 1896), and
the older works of Glrolamo uiruta (1597). Praetoriui (1618), and
Mersenne (1636). <K. S.)
KEYSTONE, the central voussoir of an arch (?.».). The
Etruscans and the Romans emphasized its importance by
decorating it with figures and busts, and, in their triumphal
arches, projected it forward and utilized it as an additional
support to the architrave above. Throughout the Italian
period it forms an important element in the design, and serves
to connect the arch with the horizontal mouldings running
above it. In Gothic architecture there is no keystone, but
the junction of pointed ribs at their summit is sometimes
decorated with a boss to mask the intersection.
KEY WEST (from the Spanish Cayo Hucso, " Bone Reef "), a
city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Monroe county,
Florida, U.S.A., situated on a small coral island Ulm. long
and about 1 m. wide) of the same name, 60 m. S. W. of Cape Sable,
the most southerly point of the mainland. It is connected by
lines of steamers with Miami and Port Tampa, with Galveston,
Texas, with Mobile, Alabama, with Philadelphia and New York
City, and with West Indian ports, and by regular schooner lines
with New York City, the Bahamas, British Honduras, &c There
is now an extension of the Florida East Coast railway from
Miami to Key West (155 m.). Pop. (1880), 9800; (1890), 18,080;
(1900), 17,114, of whom 7266 were foreign-born and 5562 were
negroes; (1910 census), 19.045- The island is notable for its
tropical vegetation and climate. The jasmine, almond, banana,
cork and coco-nut palm are among the trees. The oleander
grows here to be a tree, and there is a banyan tree, said to be the
only one growing out of doors in the United States. There are
many species of plants in Key West not found elsewhere in North
America. The mean annual temperature is 76 F., and the mean
of the hottest months is 82-2° F.; that of the coldest months is
69° F.; thus the mean range of temperature is only 13°. The
precipitation is 35 in.; most of the rain falls in the " rainy season"
from May to November, and is preserved in cisterns by the in-
habitants as the only supply of drinking water. The number of
cloudy days per annum averages 60. The city occupies the
highest portion of the island. The harbour accommodates
vessels drawing 27 ft.; vessels of 27-30 ft- draft can enter by
either the " Main Ship " channel or the south-west channel; the
south-east channel admits vessels of 25 ft. draft or less; and
four other channels may be used by vessels of 15-19 ft. draft.
The harbour is defended by Fort Taylor, built on the island of
Key West in 1846, and greatly improved and modernized after
the Spanish- American War of 1898. Among the buildings are
the United States custom house, the city hall, a convent, and a
public library.
In 1869 the insignificant population of Key West was greatly
increased by Cubans who left their native island after an attempt
at revolution; they engaged in the manufacture of tobacco, and
Key West cigars were soon widely known. Towards the close of
the 19th century this industry suffered from labour troubles,
from the competition of Tampa, Florida, and from the commercial
improvement of Havana, Cuba; but soon after 1900 the tobacco
business of Key West began to recover. Immigrants from the
Bahama Islands form another important element in the popu-
lation. They are known as " Conchs," and engage in sponge
fishing. In 1905 the value of factory products was $4,254,024
(an increase of 37-7% over the value in 1900); the exports
in 1907 were valued at $852,457; the imports were valued at
$994,473, the excess over the exports being due to the fact that
the food supply of the city is derived from other Florida ports
and from the West Indies.
According to tradition the native Indian tribes of Key West,
alter being almost annihilated, by the Caloosas* fleo>lo Cuba,
There are relics of early European occupation of the island which
suggest that it was once the resort of pirates. The city was settled
about 1822. The Seminole War and the war of the United
States with Mexico gave it some military importance. In 186 1
Confederate forces attempted to seize Fort Taylor, but they were
successfully resisted by General William H. French.
KHABAROVSK (known as Khamrovka until 1805), * town
of Asiatic Russia, capital of the Amur region and of the Maritime.
Province. Pop. (1897), 14.93*. & was founded in 185& and
is situated on a high cliff 00 the right bank of the Amur, at its
confluence with the Usuri, in 48° 28' N. and 135 6' E. It is
connected by rail with Vladivostok (480 m.), and is an important
entrepot for goods coming down the Usuri and its tributary the
Sungacha, as well as a centre of trade, especially in sables. The
town is built of wood, and has a large cathedral, a monument
(1891) to Count Muraviev-Amurskiy, a cadet corps (new building
1904), a branch of the Russian Geographical Society, with
museum, and a technical railway school.
KHAIRAGARH, a feudatory state in the Central Provinces,
India. Area, 931 sq. m.; pop. (1001), 137, 554. showing a decrease
of 24% in the decade due to the effects of famine; estimated
revenue, £20,000; tribute £4600. The chici, who is descended
from the old Gond royal family, received the title of raja as an
hereditary distinction in 1898. The state includes a fertile plain,
yielding rice and cotton. Its prosperity has been promoted by
the Bengal-Nagpur railway, which has a station at Dongargarh,
the largest town (pop. 5856), connected by road with Khairagarh
town, the residence of the raja.
KHA1KEDDW (KI,air-€d-Din - "Joy of Religion ') (<L
1890), Turkish statesman, was of Circassian race, but nothing is
known about his birth and parentage. In early boyhood he was
in the hands of a Tunisian slave-dealer, by whom he was sold to
Hamuda Pasha, then bey of Tunis, who gave him his freedom and
a French education. When Khaireddin left school the bey made '
him steward of his estates, and from this position he rose to be
minister of finance. When the prime minister, Mahmud ben
Ayad, absconded to France with the treasure-chest of the bcylic,
Hamuda despatched Khaireddin to obtain the extradition of the
fugitive. The mission failed; but the six years it occupied enabled
Khaireddin to make, himself widely known in France, to become
acquainted with French political ideas and administrative
methods, and, on his return to Tunisia, to render himself more
than ever useful to his government. Hamuda died while Khair-
eddin was in France, but he was highly appreciated by the three
beys— Ahmet (1837), Mohammed (1855), and Sadok (1859) —
who in tum followed Hamuda, and to his influence was due the
sequence of liberal measures which distinguished their successive
reigns. Khaireddin also secured for the reigning family the con-
firmation from the sultan of Turkey of their right of succession
to the beylic. But although Khaireddin's protracted residence
in France had imbued him with liberal ideas, it had not made him
a French partisan, and he strenuously opposed the French scheme
of establishing a protectorate over Tunisia upon which France
embarked in the early 'seventies. This rendered him obnoxious
to Sadok 's prime minister — an apostate Jew named Mustapha
ben Ismael — who succeeded in completely undermining the bey's
confidence in him. His position thus became untenable in
Tunisia, and shortly after the accession of Abdul Hamid he
acquainted the sultan with his desire, to enter the Turkish service*
In 1877 the sultan bade him come to Constantinople, and on his
arrival gave him a seat on the Reform Commission then sitting
at Tophane. Early in 1879 the sultan appointed him grand vizier,
and shortly afterwards he prepared a scheme of constitutional
government, but Abdul Hamid refused to have anything to do
with it. Thereupon Khaireddin resigned office, on the 28th of
July 1879. More than once the sultan offered him anew the
grand vizierate, but Khaireddin persistently refused it, and thus
incurred disfavour. He died on the 30th of January 1890,
practically a prisoner in his own house.
KHAIRPUR, or Kuyepooi, a native state of India, in the
Sind province of Bombay. Area, 6050 sq. m.; pop. (zqoi),
77»
KHARKOV— KHARPUT
It* aaac of the oasis appears hi hieroglyphics as Kcnem, and
that of fts capital as Htbt (toe plough). In Pharaonic times it
supp o r te d a large population, but the numerous ruins are mostly
«l later date. The principal ruin, a temple of Atnmon, built
under Darius, is of sandstone, 142 ft. long by 63 ft. broad and
jo ft. in height. South-east, is another temple, a square stone
building with the name of Antoninus Pius over one of the en-
trances. On the eastern escarpment of the oasis on the way to
Girga are the remains of a large Roman fort with twelve bastions.
On the rood to Asshit is a fine Roman columbarium or dove-cote.
Next to the great temple the most interesting ruin in the oasis is,
however, the necropolis, a burial-place of the early Christians,
placed on a hill 3 m. N. of the town of Kharga. There are some
two hundred rectangular tomb buildings in unburn t brick with
ornamented fronts. In most of the tombs is a chamber in which
the mummy was placed, the Egyptian Christians at first con-
tinuing this method of preserving the bodies of their dead. In
aeveral of the tombs and in the chapel of the cemetery is painted
the Egyptian sign of life, which was confounded with the Chris-
tian cross. The chapel is basilican; in it and in another building
in the necropolis are crude frescoes of biblical subjects.
Kharga town (pop. 1007 census, 5362) is picturesquely situated
amid palm groves. TRe houses are of sun-dried bricks, the streets
narrow and winding and for the most part roofed over, the roofs
carrying upper storeys. Some of the streets are cut through the
solid rock. South of the town are the villages of Genua, Guehda
(with a temple dedicated to Ammon, Mot and Khonsu), Bulak
(pop. lot 2), Dakakin, Beris (pop. 1564), Dush (with remains of
a fine temple bearing the names of Doraitian and Hadrian), &c
Kharga is usually identified with the city of Oasis mentioned
by Herodotus as being seven days' journey from Thebes and
called in Greek the Island of the Blessed. The oasis was tra-
versed by the army of Cambyses when on its way to the oasis of
Ammon (Siwa), the army perishing in the desert before reaching
its destination. During the Roman period, as it had also been
in Pharaonic times, Kharga was used as a place of banishment,
the most notable exile being Nestorius, sent thither after his
condemnation by the council of Ephesus. Later it became a
halting place for the caravans of slaves brought from Darfur to
Egypt
About roo m. W. of Kharga is the oasis of Dakhla, the mner
or receding oasis, so named in contrast to Kharga as being farther
from the Nile. Dakhla has a population (1007) of 18,36*. Its
chief town. El Kasr, has 3602 inhabitants. The principal ruin, of
Roman origin and now called Deir el Hagar (the stone convent),
is of considerable size. The Theban triad were the chief deities
worshipped here. Some 120 m. N.W. of Dakhla is the oasis of
Farafra, population about 1000, said to be' the first of the oases
conquered by the Moslems from the Christians. It is noted for
the fine quality of its olives. The Bahana, or Little Oasis
{pop. about 6000), lies 80 m. N.N.E. of Farafra. Many of its
inhabitants, who are of Berber race, are Senussitea. Baharia is
about 2so m. E.S.E. of the oasis of Siwa (see Egypt: The Oases;
and Siwa).
See H. Brugsch. Reise nach dem grossen Oase el-Khargeh in der
libysiken Wuste (Leipzig. 1878). H- J- L. Bcadnell, An Egyptian
{ton's (London, 1909), Murray's Handbook for Egypt, nth ed.
(London. I907); Geological and Topographical Report on Kharga
Oam O&BQ), on farafra Oasis (1890), on Dakhla Oasis (tooo), on
Baharia Oasts (1903). all issued by the Public Works Department,
Cairo. (F.R.C.)
KHARKOV, a government of Little Russia, surrounded by
those of Kursk, Poltava, Ekaterinoslav, territory of the Don
Cossacks, and Voronezh, and belonging partly to the basin of
tfce Don and partly to that of the Dnieper. The area is 21,03s
♦q. at In general the government is a table-land, *uh an eieva-
•■ « of $00 to 4 so It., traversed Jiy deep-cut river valleys. The
**- •> tor the moat part of high terlibty, about 57% of the surface
**,n* ftittbte land and »4% natural pasture; and though the
**m«t •» rathe* sevete, the summer beat is sufficient for the
.— m ine ot ajijui and melons in the open air. The bulk of
>hi tt cujpMPd fa agricultural pursuits and the
breeding of sheep, cattle and horses, though various manufactur-
ing industries have developed rapidly, more especially since the
middle of the 10th century. Horses are bred for the army, and
the yield of wool is of special importance. The ordinary cereals,
make, buckwheat, millet, hemp, flax, tobacco, poppies, potatoes
and beetroot are all grown, and bee-keeping and silkworm-rearing
are of considerable importance. Sixty-three per cent, of the bad
is owned by the peasants, 25% by the nobility, 6% by owners
of other classes, and 6% by the crown and public institutions.
Beetroot sugar factories, cotton-mills, distilleries, flour-mils,
tobacco factories, brickworks, breweries, woollen factories, iron-
works, pottery-kilns and tanneries are the leading industrial
establishments. Gardening is actively prosecuted Salt u
extracted at Slavyansk. The mass of the people are Lktk
Russians, but there are also Great Russians, Kalmucks, Germans,
Jews and Gypsies. In 1867 the total population was 1 ,6St ,486
and in 1807 2,507,277, of whom 1,242,892 were women and
367,602 lived in towns. The estimated population in 1906 wa«
2,083,000, The government b divided into eleven districts.
The chief town is Kharkov (?.».). The other district towns,
with their populations in 1807, are Akhtyrka (25,965 in 1900),
Bogodukhov (11,928), Izynm (12,959), Kupyansk (7256),
Lebcdin (16,684), Starobyelsk (13,128), Sumy (28,519 in 1900),
Valki (8842), Vokhansk (11,322), and Zmiyev (4652).
KHARKOV, a town of southern Russia, capital of the above
government, in 56 37' N. and 25 5* E., in the valley of the
Donets, r$2 m. by rail S.S.E. of Kursk. Oak forests bound it
on two sides. Pop. (1867), 59,968; (1900), 197,40s. Kharkov is
an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church, and the
headquarters of the X. army corps. The four annual fairs are
among the busiest in Russia, more especially the KreshcheB-
skaya or Epiphany fair, which is opened on the 6th (19th) of
January, and the Pokrovsky fair in the autumn. The turnover
at the former is estimated at £3,000,000 to £4,000,000. Thou-
sands of horses are bought and sold. At the Trinity (Trottsa)
fair in June an extensive business (£800,000) is done in wool A
great variety of manufactured goods are produced in the t o w n
linen, felt, beetroot sugar, tobacco, brandy, soap, candles, cast-
iron. Kharkov is an educational centre for the higher and
middle classes. Besides a flourishing university, instituted in
1805, and attended by from 1600 to 1700 students, it possesses a
technological institute (400 students), a railway engineering
school, an observatory, a veterinary college, a botanical garden,
a theological seminary, and a commercial school. The univer-
sity building was formerly a royal palace. The library contains
170,000 volumes; and the eoologteal collections are espeoaUr
rich in the birds and fishes of southern Russia. Public gardens
occupy the site of the ancient military works; and the govern-
ment has a model farm in the neighbourhood. Of the Orthodox
churches one has the rank of cathedral (1781). Among the
public institutions are a people's palace (1903) and an industrial
museum.
The foundation of Kharkov is assigned to 1650, bar there b
archaeological evidence of a much earlier occupation of the district,
if not of the site. The Cossacks of Kharkov remained fait hf ol to the
Jsar during the rebellions of the latter part of the 17th century;
in return they received numerous privileges, and continued to be a
strong advance-guard of the Russian power, till the final subjugation
of all the southern region. With other military settlements Kharkov
was placed on a new footing in 1765, and at the same time it became
the administrative centre 01 the Ukraine.
KHARPUT. the most important town in the Kharpot (or
Mamuret el-Aziz) vilayet of Asia Minor, situated at an altitude of
4350 ft. , a few miles south of the Murad Su or Eastern Euphrates,
and almost as near the source of the Tigris, on the Samson-
Sivas-Diarbckr road. Pop. about 20,000. The town is built on
a bill terrace aoout 1000 It. above a wilt-watered plain of excep-
tional fertility which lies to the south and suppurU a large popu-
lation. Rharput probably stands on or near the site of Cartatht*-
ctrUs in Sophene, reached by Corbulo in aj>. 65. The carry
Moslem geographers knew it as Hisn Ziyad, but the Armenian
name was Khartabirt or Kharbirt, whence Rharput Cedrcnas
(nth century) writes Xapaorc There is a story that in xsaa
KHARSAWAN— KHASI
773
Joscelin (Jocdyn) of Courtenay, and Baldwin II., king of Jeru-
salem, both prisoners of the Amir Balak in its castle, were mur-
dered by being cast from its cliffs after an attempted rescue.
The story is told by William of Tyre, who calls the place Quart
Piert or Pierre, but it is a mere romance. Kharput is an impor-
tant station of the American missionaries, who have built a
college, a theological seminary, and boys' and girls' schools.
In November 2805 Kurds looted and burned the Armenian
villages on the plain; and in the same month Kharput was at-
tacked and the American schools were burned down. A large
number of the Gregorian and Protestant Armenian clergy and
people were massacred, and churches,. monasteries and houses
were looted. The vilayet Kharput was founded in 1888, being
the result of a provincial rearrangement, designed to ensure
better control over the disturbed districts of Kurdistan. It has
much mineral wealth, a healthy climate and a fertile soil. The
seat of government is Mezere, on the plain 3 m. S. of Kharput.
(D. G. H.)
KHARSAWAN, a feudatory state of India, within the Chota
Nagpur division of Bengal; area 153 sq. m.; pop. (1001), 36,540;
estimated revenue £2600. Since the opening of the main line
Of the Bengal-Nagpur railway through the state trade has been
stimulated, and it is believed that both iron and copper can be
worked profitably.
KHARTUM, the capital of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, on the
left bank of the Blue Nile immediately above its junction with
the White Nile in 15° 36' N., 32 34' E., and 1252 ft. above the
sea. It is 43a ra. by rail S.W. of Port Sudan, on the Red Sea,
and 1345 m. S. of Cairo by rail and steamer. Pop. (1007) with
suburbs, but excluding Omdurman, 60,340.
The city, laid out on a plan drawn up by Lord Kitchener in
1898, has a picturesque aspect with its numerous handsome
stone and brick buildings surrounded by gardens and its groves
of palms and other trees. The river esplanade, 2 m. long, con-
tains the chief buildings. Parallel with it is Khedive Avenue,
of equal length. The rest of the city Is in squares, the streets
forming the design of the union jack. In the centre of the
esplanade is the governor-general's palace, occupying the site
of the palace destroyed by the Mahdists In 1885. It is a three-
storeyed building with arcaded verandas and a fine staircase
leading to a loggia on the first floor. Here a tablet indicates
the spot in the old palace where General Gordon fell. In the
gardens, which cover six acres, is a colossal stone "lamb"
brought from the ruins of Soba, an andent Christian city on the
Blue Nile. The " lamb " is in reality a ram of Amnion, and
has an inscription in Ethiopian hieroglyphs. In front of the
southern facade, which looks on to Khedive Avenue, is a bronze
statue of General Gordon seated on a camel, a copy of the
statue by Onslow Ford at Chatham, England. Government
offices and private villas are on cither side of the palace, and
beyond, on the east, are the Sudan Club, the military hospital,*
and the . Gordon Memorial College. The college, the chief
educational centre in the Sudan, is a large, many-windowed
building with accommodation for several hundred scholars
and research laboratories and an economic museum. At the
western end of the esplanade are the zoological gardens, the
chief hotel, the Coptic church and the Mudiria House
(residence of the governor of Khartum). Running south from
Khedive Avenue at the spot where the Gordon statue stands, is
Victoria Avenue, leading to Abbas Square, in the centre of
which is the great mosque with two minarets. On the north-
east side of the square are the public markets. The Anglican
church, dedicated to All Saints, the principal banks and business
houses, are in Khedive Avenue. There are Maronite and Greek
Churches, an Austrian Roman Catholic mission, a large and
well-equipped civil hospital and a museum for Sudan archaeo-
logy. Outside the city arc a number of model villages (each
of the principal tribes of the Sudan having its own settlement)
in which the dwellings are built after the tribal fashion. Adja-
cent are the parade ground and racecourse and the golf-links.
A line of fortifications extends south of the city from the Blue to
the White Nile. The buildings are used as barracks. Barracks
for British troops occupy the end of the line facing the Blue
Nile.
On the light (northern) bank of the Blue Nile is the suburb of
Khartum North, formerly called Halfaya, 1 where is the principal
railway station. It is joined to the city by a bridge (completed
1910) containing a roadway and the railway, Khartum itself
being served by steam trams and rickshaws. The steamers for
the White and the Blue Nile start from the quay along the
esplanade. West of the zoological gardens is the point of
junction of the Blue and White Niles and here is a ferry across
to Omdarmaa (q.v.) on the west bank of the White Nile a mile
or two below Khartum. In the river immediately below
Khartum is TutS Island, on which is an old fort and an Arab
village.
From its geographical position Khartum is admirably adapted
as a commercial and political centre. It is the great entrepot
for the trade of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. By the Nile water-
ways there is easy transport from the southern and western
equatorial provinces and from Sennar and other eastern dis-
tricts. Through Omdurman come the exports of Kordofan
and Darfur, while by the Red Sea railway there is ready access
to the markets of the world. The only important manufacture
is the making of bricks.
The population is heterogeneous. The official class is com-
posed chiefly of British and Egyptians; the traders are mostly
Greeks, Syrians and Copts, while nearly all the tribes of the Sudan
are represented in the negro and Arab inhabitants. .
At the time of the occupation of the Sudan by the Egyptians a
small fishing village existed on the site of the present city. In 182a
the Egyptians established a permanent camp here and out of this
grew the city, which in 1830 was chosen as the capital of the Sudanese
possessions of Egypt. It got its name from the resemblance of the
promontory at the confluence of the two Niles to an elephant's
trunk, the meaning of khartum in the dialect of Arabic spoken in
the locality. The city rapidly acquired importance as the Sudan
was opened up by travellers and traders, becoming, besides the scat
of much legitimate commerce, a great slave mart. It was chosen
as the headquarters of Protestant and Roman Catholic missions,
and had a population of 50,000 or more. Despite its size it contained
few buildings of any architectural merit; the most important were
KHASI AND JAINTIA RILLS, a district of British India, in
the Hills division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It occupies
the central plateau between the valleys of the Brahmaputra
and thcSurma. Area, 6027 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 202,250, showing
an increase of 2% in the decade.
The district consists of a succession of steep ridges running
east and west, with elevated table-lands between. On the
southern side, towards Sylhet, the mountains rise precipitously
from the valley of the B&r&k or Surma. The first plateau is
about 4000 ft. above sea-level. Farther north is another
plateau, on which is situated the station of Shillong, 4000 ft.
above the sea; behind lies the Shillong range, of which the
highest peak rises to 6450 ft. On the north side, towards
Kamrup, are two similar plateaus of .lower elevation. The
l The village of Halfaya, a place of come importance before the
foundation of Khartum, is 4 ra. to the N., on the eastern bank of the
Nile. From the 1 5th century up to 1 82 1 it was the capital of a small
state, tributary to Sennar, regarded as a continuation of the Christian
kingdom of Aloa (see Doncola).
776
KHEDIVE— KHEVENHULLER
Modern: Klapfoth, "Mta. sur les Khaeart," in Jew*. As.
1st series, voi. iii.; id.. Tableaux hist, de I' Asie (Paris, 1823); id.,
Tabl. hist, de Caucasts (1827) ; memoirs on the Khazars by Harkavy
and by Howorth {Congres imUm. des Orientalises, vol ii.); Latham,
Russian and Turk, pp. 200-217: Vivien St Martin, Eludes de fSog.
antienne (Paris, 1850); id., Reckerckes sur Us populations du
Qsucase (1847); id., "Sur les Khazars," in Nouveties ami. des
voyajes (1857); D'Ohssoo, Peuples du Caucase (Paris, 1828);
S. Kratas, " Zur Geschichte der Chazaren," in Revue orientate pour
les exudes Ourals^allaigues (1900). (P. L. G. ; C. El.)
KHEDIVE* a Persian word meaning prince or sovereign,
granted as a tide by the sultan of Turkey in 1867 to his viceroy
- in Egypt, Ismail, in place of that of " vali."
KHERI, a district of British India, in the Lucknow division
of the United Provinces, which takes its name from a small town
with a railway station 81 m. N.W. of Lucknow. The area, of the
district is 2963 sq. m., and its population in xoox was 905,138.
It consists of a series of fairly elevated plateaus, separated by
rivers flowing from the north-west, each bordered by alluvial
land. North of the river Ul, the country is considered very un-
healthy. Through this tract, probably the bed of a lake, flow
two rivers, the Kauriala and Chauka, changing their courses
constantly, so that the surface is seamed with deserted river beds
much below the level of the surrounding country. The vegeta-
tion is very dense, and the stagnant waters are the cause of
endemic fevers. The people reside in the neighbourhood of the
low ground, as the soil is more fertile and less expensive to culti-
vate than the forest-covered uplands. South of the Ul, the
scene changes. Between every two rivers or tributaries stretches
a plain, considerably less elevated than the tract to the north.
There is very little slope in any of these plains for many miles,
and marshes are formed, from which emerge the headwaters
of many secondary streams, which in the rains become dangerous
torrents, and frequently cause devastating floods. The general
drainage of the country is from north-west to south-east.
Several large lakes exist, some formed by the ancient channels
of the northern rivers, being fine sheets of water, from xo to 20 ft.
deep and from 3 to 4 m. long; in places they are fringed with
magnificent groves. The whole north of the district is covered
with vast forests, of which a considerable portion are govern-
ment reserves. Sil occupies about two-thirds of the forest
area. The district Is traversed by a branch of the Oudh &
RohQkhand railway from Lucknow to Bareilly.
I KHERSON, a government of south Russia, on the N. coast of
the Black Sea, bounded W. by the governments of Bessarabia
and Podolia, N. by Kiev and Poltava, S. by Ekaterinoslav and
Taurida. The area is 27,497 *q* m - The aspect of the country,
especially in the south, is that of an open steppe, and almost
the whole government is destitute of forest. The Dniester marks
the western and the Dnieper the south-eastern boundary; the
Bug, the Ingul and several minor streams drain the intermediate
territory. Along the shore stretch extensive lagoons. Iron,
kaolin and salt are the principal minerals. Nearly 45% of
the land is owned by the peasants, 31% by the nobility, 12% by
other classes, and 12% by the crown, municipalities and public
institutions. The peasants rent 1,730,000 acres more from the
landlords. Agriculture is well developed and 9,000,000 acres
(5 1 • J %) are under crops. Agricultural machinery is extensively
used. The vine is widely grown, and yields 1,220,000 gallons
of wine annually. Some tobacco b grown and manufactured.
Besides the ordinary cereals, maize, hemp, flax, tobacco and
mustard are commonly grown; the fruit trees in general culti-
vation include the cherry, plum, peach, apricot and mulberry;
and gardening receives considerable attention. Agriculture
has been greatly improved by some seventy German colonies.
Cattle-breeding, horse-breeding and sheep-farming are pursued
on a. large scale. Some sheep farmers own 30,000 or 40,000
merinos each. Fishing is an important occupation. There are
manufactures of wool, hemp and leather; also iron- works, machi-
nery and especially agricultural machinery works, sugar factories,
steam flour-mills and chemical works. The ports of Kherson,
Ochakov, Nikolayev, and especially Odessa, are among the
principal outlets of Russian commerce; Bcrislav, Alexandriya
Elisavetgrad, Voznesenask, CHviopol and Tiraspol play an impor-
tant part in the inland traffic. In 1871 the total population was
1,661,892, and in 1897 2,744,040, of whom 1,332,175 were women
and 7 8 5.094 lived in towns. The estimated pop. in 1906 was
3,257,60a Besides Great and Little Russians, it comprises
Rumanians, Greeks, Germans (123,453), Bulgarians, Bohemians,
Swedes, and Jews (30 % of the total), and some Gypsies. About
84% belong to the Orthodox Greek Church; there are also nu-
merous Stundists. The government is divided into six districts,
the chief towns of which are: Kherson {q.v.) t Alexandriya
(14,002 in 1897), Ananiev (16,713), Elisavetgrad (66,182 in 1900),
Odessa (449*673 in 1900), and Tiraspol (29,323 in 1000). This
region was long subject to the sway of the Tatar khans of the
Crimea, and owes its rapid growth to the colonizing activity of
Catherine II., who between 1778 and 1792 founded the cities of
Kherson, Odessa and Nikolayev. Down to 1803 this government
was called Nikolayev.
KHERSON, a town of south Russia, capital of the Above
government, on a hill above the right bank of the Dnieper, about
19 m. from its mouth. Founded by the courtier Potemkin in
1778 as a naval station and seaport, it had become by 1786 a
place of 10,000 inhabitants, and, although its progress was
checked by the rise of Odessa and the removal (in 1704) of the
naval establishments to Nikolayev, it had in 1900 a population
°f 73.185. The Dnieper at this point breaks into several arms,
forming islands overgrown with reeds and bushes; and vessels
of burden must anchor at Stanislavskoe-selo, a good way down
the stream. Of the traffic on the river the largest share is doe
to the timber, wool, cereals, cattle and hides trade; wool-dressing,
soap-boiling, tallow-melting, brewing, flour-milling and Use
manufacture of tobacco are the chief industries. Kherson is a
substantially built and regular town. The cathedral Is the
burial-place of Potemkin, and near Kherson De the remains of
John Howard, the English philanthropist, who died here in
1790. The fortifications have fallen into decay. The name
Kherson was given to the town from the supposition that the
site was formerly that of Chersonesus Heradeotica, the Greek
city founded by the Dorians of Heraclea.
KHEVENHttUKR. LUDWIQ ANDREAS (1683-1744), Aus-
trian field-marshal, Count of Aschelberg-Frankenburg, came of a
noble family, which, originally Franconian, settled in Carinthia
in the nth century. He first saw active service under Prince
Eugene in the War of the Spanish Succession, and by 17x6 bad
risen to the command of Prince Engine's own regiment of
dragoons. He distinguished himself greatly at the battles of
Peterwardein and Belgrade, and became in 1723 major-genexal
of cavalry (General-Wacktmeister), in 1726 proprietary colonel
of a regiment and in 1733 lieutenant field marshal In 1734
the War of the Polish Succession brought him into the field * g*»*
He was present at the battle of Parma (June 29), where Coot
Mercy, the Austrian commander, was killed, «nd after Mercy**
death he held the chief command of the army in Italy till Field
Marshal KSnigsegg's arrival Under Kfinigsegg he again dis-
tinguished himself at the battle of Guastalla (September 10V
He was once more in command during the operations which
followed the battle, and his skilful generalship won for him the
grade of general of cavalry. He continued in military and
diplomatic employment in Italy to the close of the war. In
1737 be was made field marshal, Prince Eugene recommending
him to his sovereign as the best general in the service. His chief
exploit in the Turkish War, which soon followed his promotion,
was at Radojevata (September ±8,1737), where he cut Iris way
through a greatly superior Turkish army. It was in the Austrian
Succession War that his most brilliant work was done. As com-
mander-in-chief of the army on the Danube he not only drove oat
the French and Bavarian invaders of Austria m a few days at
rapid marching and sharp engagements (January, 1742), bot
overran southern Bavaria, captured Munich, and forced a large
French corps in Linz to surrender. Later in the summer ai
1741, owing to the inadequate forces at his disposal, he had to
evacuate his conquests, but in the following campaign, though
now subordinated to Prince Charles of Lorraine, KhevenhitQer
KHEVSURS— KHIVA 777
reconquered southern Bavaria, .and forced the emperor in June
to conclude the unfavourable convention of Nieder-Schonfeld.
He disapproved the advance beyond the Rhine which followed
these successes, and the event justified his fears, for the Austrian*
had to fall back from the Rhine -through Franconia and. the
Bfctsgau, Khevenhuiler himself conducting the retreat with
admirable skill. On his return to Vienna, Maria Theresa
decorated the field marshal with the order of the Golden
Fleece. He died suddenly at Vienna on the 26th of January
1744.
He was the author of various instructional works for officers and
soldiers (fits C. F. U. Crafcn 9. Kke*c*k*lUr Otuenati**spu*kte J0r
setn Dragoner-regimeni (1734 and 1748) and a reglement for the
infantry (1737). and of an important work on war in general, Kurzer
BetnJfatUr mtlilarisehen 0p< rational (Vienna, 1796; French version,
Maxtmes de guerre, Paris, 1771).
KHEVSURS, a people of the Caucasus, kinsfolk of the Georgians.
They live in scattered groups in East Georgia to the north and
north-west of Mount Borbalo. Their name is Georgian and
means " People of the Valleys." For the most part nomadic,
they are still in a semi-barbarous state. They have not the
beauty of the Georgian race. They are gaunt and thin to almost
a ghastly extent, their generally repulsive aspect being accentu-
ated by their large hands and feet and their ferocious expression.
In complexion and colour of hair and eyes they vary greatly.
They are very muscular and capable of bearing extraordinary
fatigue. They are fond of fighting, and still wear armour of
the true medieval type. This panoply is worn when the law of
vendetta, which is sacred among them as among most Caucasian
peoples, compels them to seek or avoid their enemy. They carry
a spiked gauntlet, the terrible marks of which are borne by a
large proportion of the Khevsur faces.
Many curious customs still prevail among the Khevsurs, as for
instance the imprisonment of the woman during childbirth in a
lonely hut, round which the husband parades, firing off his musket
at intervals. After delivery, food b surreptitiously brought the
mother, who is kept in her prison a month, after which the hut is
burnt. The boys are usually named after some wild animal, e.g.
bear or wolf, while the girls' names are romantic, such as Daughter
of the Sun, Sun of my mart. Marriages are arranged by parents
when the bride and bridegroom are still in long clothes. The chief
ceremony is a forcible abduction of the girl. Divorce is very com-
mon, and some Khevsurs are polygamous. Formerly no Knevsur
might die in a house, but was alwavs carried out under the sun or
stars. The Khevsurs like to call themselves Christians, but their
religion is a mixture of Christianity, Mahommedanism and heathen
rites. They keep the Sabbath of the Christian church, the Friday
of the Moslems and the Saturday of the Jews. They worship sacred
trees and offer sacrifices to the spirits of the earth and air. Their
priests arc a combination of medicine-men and divines.
See G. F. R. Radde. Die Chevs'ureH und ihr Land (Cassel, 1878);
Ernest Chantre, Reckerckes anthropolcgiques dam U Caucase (Lyons,
1885-18*7).
KHILCHIPUR, a mediatized chiefship in Central India, under
the Bhopal agency; area, 273 sq. rn.; pop. (1001), 31,143; esti-
mated revenue, £7000; tribute payable to Sindhia, £700. The
residence of the chief, who is a Khicbi Rajput of the Cbauhan
clan, is at Khilchipur (pop. 5121).
KHINGAN, two ranges of mountains in eastern Asia.
(1) Great Khincan is the eastern border ridge of the immense
plateau which may be traced from the Himalaya to Bering
Strait and from the Tian-shan Mountains to the Khingan
Mountains. It is well known from 50 N. to Kalgan (41° N.,
1 1 5 E.), where it is crossed by the highway from Urga to Peking.
As a border ridge of the Mongolian plateau, it possesses very
great orographic*! importance, in that it is an important climatic
boundary, and constitutes the western limits of the Manchurian
flora. The base of its western slope, which is very gentle, lies at
altitudes of 3000 to 3500 ft. Its crest rises to 4800 to 6500 ft.,
but its eastern slope sinks very precipitately to the plains
of Manchuria, which have only 1500 to 2000 ft. of altitude.
On this stretch one or two subordinate ridges, parallel to the
main range and separated from it by longitudinal valleys, fringe
its eastern slope, thus marking two different terraces and giving
to the whole system a width of from 80 to 100 m. Basalts,
trachytes and other volcanic formations are found in the main
778
KHIVA— KHOI
The population it composed of four divisions: Uzbegs (150,000
to 200,000), the dominating race among the settled inhabitants
of the oasis, from whom the officials are recruited, Sarts and
Tajiks, agriculturists and tradespeople of mixed race; Turkomans
(c. 170,000), who live in the steppes, south and west of the oasis,
and formerly plundered the settled inhabitants by their raids;
and the Kara-kalpaks, or Black BonnetsT a Turki tribe some
50,000 in number. They live south of Lake Aral, and in the
towns of Kungrad, RhodsheiU and Kipchak form the prevailing
clement. They cultivate the soil, breed cattle, and their women
make carpets. There are also about 10,000 Kirghiz, and when
the Russians took Khiva in 1873 there were 29,300 Persian slaves,
stolen by Turkoman raiders, and over 6500 liberated slaves,
mostly Kizil-bashes. The former were set free and the slave
trade abolished. Of domestic industries, the embroidering of
doth, silks and leather is worthy of notice. The trade of Khiva
is considerable: cotton, wool, rough woollen cloth and silk
cocoons are exported to Russia, and various animal products to
Bokhara. Cottons, velveteen, hardware and pepper are imported
from Russia, and silks, cotton, china and tea from Bokhara.
Khivan merchants habitually attend the Orenburg and Nizhniy-
Novgorod fairs.
, History.— The present khanate is only a meagre relic of the
great kingdom which under the name of Chorasmia, Kharezm
(Khwarizm) and Urgenj (Jurjanlya, Gurganj) held the keys of
the mightiest river in Central Asia. Its possession has con-
sequently been much disputed from early times, but the country
has undergone great changes, geographical as well as political,
which have lessened its importance. The Oxus (Amu-darya) has
changed its outlet, and no longer forms a water-way to the
Caspian and thence to Europe, while Khiva is entirely surrounded
by territory either directly administered or protected by Russia.
Chorasmia is mentioned by Herodotus, it being then one of the
Persian provinces, over which Darius placed satraps, but nothing
material of it is known till it was seized by the Arabs in a.d. 680.
When the power of the caliphs declined the governor of the pro-
vince probably became independent; but the first king known
to history is Mamun-ibn-Mahommed in 00 S- Khwarizm fell
under the power of Mahmud of Ghazni in 1017, and subsequently
under that of the Seljuk Turks. In 1007 the governor Kutb-ud-
din assumed the title of king, and one of his descendants, 'Ala-
ud-din-Mahommed, conquered Persia, and was the greatest prince
in Central Asia when Jenghiz Khan appeared in 1219. Khiva
was conquered again by Timur in 1379; and finally fell under
the rule of the Uzbegs in 15:11, who are still the dominant race
under the protection of the Russians.
Russia established relations with Khiva in the 17th century.
The Cossacks of the Yaik during their raids across the Caspian
learnt of the existence of this rich territory and made more
than one plundering expedition to the chief town Urgenj. In
17 17 Peter the Great, having heard of the presence of auriferous
sand in the bed of the Oxus, desiring also to " open mercantile
relations with India through Turan " and to release from slavery
some Russian subjects, sent a military force to Khiva. When
within 100 miles of the capital they encountered the troops of the
khan. The battle lasted three days, and ended in victory for
the Russian arms. The Khivans, however, induced the victors
to break up their army into small detachments and treacher-
ously annihilated them in detail. It was not until the third
decade of the 19th century that the attention of the Muscovite
government was again directed to the khanate. In 1839 a force
under General Perovsky moved from Orenburg across the Ust-Urt
plateau to the Khivan frontiers, to occupy the khanate, liberate
the captives and open the way for trade. This expedition like-
wise terminated in disaster. In 1847 the Russians founded a fort
at the mouth of the Jaxartes or Syr-darya, This advance de-
prived the Khivans not only of territory, but of a large number
of tax-paying Kirghiz, and also gave the Russians a base for
further operations. For the next few years, however, the
attention of the Russians was taken up with Khokand. their
operations on that sidexutminating in the capture of Tashkent
in 1865. Free in this quarter, they directed ♦heir thoughts once
more to Khiva. In 1869 Krasnovodsk on the east shore of the
Caspian was founded, and in 1871-1872 the country leading to
Khiva from different parts of Russian Turkestan was thoroughly
explored and surveyed. In 1873 an expedition to Khiva was
carefully organized on a large scale. The army of 10,000 men
placed at the disposal of General Kaufmann started from three
different bases of operation— Krasnovodsk, Orenburg and
Tashkent. Khiva was occupied almost without opp o siti on.
All the territory (35,700 sq. m. and 110,000 souls) on the right
bank of the Oxus was annexed to Russia, while a heavy war
indemnity was imposed upon the khanate. The Russians
thereby so crippled the finances of the state that the khan is is
complete subjection to his more powerful neighbour.
(J.T. Bk.:CEl.)
KHIVA, capital of the khanate of Khiva, in Western Asia,
25 m. W. of the Amu-darya and 240 m. W.N.W. of Bokhara.
Pop. about 10,000. It is surrounded by a low eartoen wafl, and
has a citadel, the residence of the khan and the higher officials.
There are a score of mosques, of which the one containing the
tomb of Polvan, the patron saint of Khiva, is the best, and four
large madrasas (Mahommedan colleges). Large gardens exist
in the western part of the town. A small Russian quarter has
grown up. The inhabitants make carpets, silks and cottons.
KHNOPFP, PBRNAND EDMOND JEAN MARIE (1858- ),
Belgian painter and etcher, was born at the chateau de Grenv
bergen (Termonde), on the 12th of September 1858, and studied
under X. Mellery. He developed a very original talent, his
work being characterized by great delicacy of colour, tone and
harmony, as subtle in spiritual and intellectual as in its materia)
qualities. " A Crisis " (1881) was followed by " Listening to
Schumann," 4 * St Anthony ** and " The Queen of Sheba M (1S83),
and then came one of his best known works, " The Small Sphinx"
(1884). His " Memories " (1889) and " While, Black and Gold "
(1001) are in the Brussels Museum; " Portrait of MUe R."
(1889) in the Venice Museum; " A Stream at Fosset "(1897) at
Budapest Museum; " The Empress "(1899) in the collection of
the emperor of Austria, and " A Musician " in that of the kiag
of the Belgians. " I lock my Door upon Myself " (1891), which
was exhibited at the New Gallery, London, in 1901 and there
attracted much attention, was acquired by the Pinakotbek at
Munich. Other works are " Silence " (t8oo), " The Idea of
Justice " (1905) and " Isolde " (1906), together with a oory-
chrome bust " Sibyl " (1894) and an ivory mask (1897). la
quiet intensity of feeling Khnopff was influenced by Rossetri,
and in simplicity of line by B urn e- J ones, but the poetry and the
delicately mystic and enigmatic note of his work are entirely
individual. He did good work also as an etcher and dry-
pointist.
See L. Duraont-Wilden, Fernand Khnopff (Brussels, 1907). .
KHOI, a district and town in the province of Azerbaijan,
Persia, towards the extreme north-west frontier, between the
Urmia Lake and the river Aras. The district contains many
flourishing villages, and consists of an elevated plateau 60 m.
by 10 to 15, highly cultivated by a skilful system of drainage and
irrigation, producing fertile meadows, gardens and fields yielding
rich crops of wheat and barley, cotton, rice and many kinds of
fruit. In the northern part and bounding on Maku lies the piaia
of Chaldaran (Kalderan), where in August 1 514 the Turks under
Sultan Sciim I. fought the Persians under Shah Ismail and gained
a great victory.
The town of Khoi lies In 38° 37' N., 45* 15' B-> 77 nu (go by
road) N.W. of Tabriz, at an elevation of 3300 ft., on the great
trade route between Trcbizond and Tabriz, and about t m.
from the left bank of the Kotur Cbai (river from Kotur) which is
crossed there by a seven-arched bridge and is known lower
down as the Kizil Chai, which flows Into the Aras. The walkd
part of the town is a quadrilateral with faces of about taoo yds.
in length and fortifications consisting of two lines of bastions,
ditches, &c, much out of repair. The population numbers about
35,000, a third living inside the walls. The Armenian quarter,
with about 300 families and an old church, to outside the walls,
The city within the walls forms one of the bast laid oat towns in
KHOJENT— KHORASAN
Persia, cool itrearas and lines of willows running along the broad
and regular streets. There are some good buildings, including
the governor's residence, several mosques, a large brick bazaar
and a fine caravanserai. There is a large transit trade, and con-
siderable local traffic across the Turkish border. The city, sur-
rendered to the Russians in 1827 without fighting and after the
treaty of peace {Turkman Chai, Feb. 1828) was held for some
time by a garrison of 3000 Russian troops as a guarantee for
the payment of the war indemnity. In September 1881 Khoi
suffered much from a violent earthquake. It has post and
telegraph offices.
KHOJENT, or Kbojend, a town of the province of Syr-darya,
in Russian Turkestan, on the left bank of the Syr-darya or
Jaxartes, 144 m. by rail S S E from Tashkent, in 40 17' N. and
6o° 30' E., and on the direct road from Bokhara to Khokand.
Pop. (1000), 3 1 ,881. The Russian quarter lies between the river
and the native town. Near the river is the old citadel, on the top
of an artificial square mound, about zoo ft. high. The banks
of the river are so high as to make its water useless to the town
in the absence of pumping gear Formerly the entire commerce
between the khanates of Bokhara and Khokand passed through
this town, but since the Russian occupation (1866) much of it
has been diverted. Silkworms are reared, and silk and cotton
goods are manufactured. A coarse ware is made in imitation
of Chinese porcelain. The district immediately around the town
is taken up with cotton plantations, fruit gardens and vineyards.
The majority of the inhabitants are Tajiks.
Khojent has always been a bone of contention between Kho-
kand and Bokhara. When the amir of Bokhara assisted
Khudayar Khan to regain his throne in 1864, he kept posses-
sion of Khojent. In 1866 the town was stormed by the
Russians; and during their war with Khokand in 1875 it played
an important part.
KHOKAND, cr Kokan, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the pro-
vince of Ferghana, on the railway from Samarkand to Andijan,
85 m. by rail S.W. of the latter, and 20 m. S. of the Syr-darya.
Pop. (iqoo), 86,704. Situated at an altitude of 137$ ft., it has
a severe climate, the average temperatures being — year, 56*;
January, 22°, July, 65*. Yearly rainfall, 3-6 in. It is the centre
of a fertile irrigated oasis, and consists of a citadel, enclosed
by a wall nearly 12 m in circuit, and of suburbs containing
luxuriant gardens. The town is modernized, has broad streets
and large squares, and a particularly handsome bazaar. The
former palace of the khans, which recalls by its architecture the
mosques of Samarkand, is the best building in the town. Kho-
kand is one of the most important centres of trade in Turkestan.
Raw cotton and silk are the principal exports, while manufac-
tured goods are imported from Russia. Coins bearing the
inscription " Khokand the Charming/* and known as khokands,
have or had a wide currency
The khanate of Khokand was a powerful state which grew up
in the 18th century Its early history is not well known, but the
town was founded in 1732 by Abd-ur-Rahim under the name of
Iski-kurgan. or Kali-i-Rahimbai. This must relate, however,
to the fort only, because Arab travellers of the 10th century
mention Hovakend or Hokand. the position of which has been
identified with that of Khokand Many other populous and
wealthy towns existed in this region at the time of the Arab con-
quest of Ferghana. In 1738-1750 the Chinese conquered Dzun-
garia and East Turkestan, and the begs or rulers of Ferghana
recognized Chinese suzerainty In 1807 or 1808 Allro, son of
Narbuta. brought all the begs of Ferghana under his authority,
and conquered Tashkent and Chimkent. His attacks on the
Bokharan fortress of Ura-tyube were however unsuccessful,
and the country rose against him He was killed in 1817 by the
adherents of his brother Omar Omar was a poet and patron
of learning, but continued to enlarge his kingdom, taking the
sacred town of Azret (Turkestan), and to protect Ferghana from
the raids of the nomad Kirghiz built fortresses on the Syr-darya,
which became a basis for raids of the Khokand people into
Kirghiz land. This was the origin of a conflict with Russia.
Several petty wars were undertaken by the Russians after 1847
779
to destroy the Khokand forts, and to secure possession, first, of
the lli (and so of Dzungaria), and next of the Syr-darya region,
the result being that in 1866, after the occupation of Ura-tyube
and Jizakh,the khanate of Khokand was separated from Bokhara.
During the forty-five years after the death of Omar (he died in
1823) the khanate of Khokand was the seat of continuous wars
between the settled Sarts and the nomad Krpchaks, the two
parties securing the upper hand in turns, Khokand falling under
the dominion or the suzerainty of Bokhara, which supported
Khudayar-khan, the representative of the Kipchak party, in
§858-1866, while Alinvkul, the representative of the Sarts, put
himself at the head of the gaxatoat (Holy War) proclaimed in
i860, and fought bravely against the Russians until killed at
Tashkent in 1865. In 1868 Khudayar-khan, having secured
independence from Bokhara, concluded a commercial treaty with
the Russians, but was compelled to flee in 1875, when a new
Holy War against Russia was proclaimed. It endt d in the cap-
ture of the strong fort of Makhram, the occupation of Khokand
and Marghelan (1875), and the recognition of Russian superiority
by the amir of Bokhara, who conceded to Russia all the territory
north of the Naryn river. War, however, was renewed in the
following year. It ended, in February 1876, by the capture of
Andijan and Khokand and the annexation of the Khokand
khanate to Russia. Out of ft was made the Russian province of
Ferghana.
AuTHoarriBS.— The following publications are all in Russian:
Kuhn. Sketch of the Khanate of Khokand (1876); V. Nahvkin, Short
History of Khokand (French trans., Paris, 1880), Niazi Mohammed,
Tarihi Shahrohi. or History of the Rulers of Ferghana, edited by
Pantusov (Kazan. 1885); Maksh&v, Historical Sketch of Turkestan
and the Advance of the Russians (St Petersburg, 1890) ; N. Pctrovskiy,
Old Arabian Journals of Travel (Tashkent, 1804); Russian Ency*
ciopaedu dictionary, voL xv. (1895). (P. A. K.; J. T. Be.)
KHOLM (Polish Cheim), a town of Russian Poland, in the
government of Lublin, 4$ m. by rail E.S.E. of the town of
Lublin. Pop. (1807), 19,236. It is a very old city and the
see of a bishop, and has an archaeological museum for church
antiquities.
KHONDS, or Kandrs, an aboriginal tribe of India, inhabiting
the tributary states of Orissa and the Can jam district of Madras.
At the census of root they numbered 701,198. Their main
divisions are into Kutia or hill Khonds and plain-dwelling
Khonds; the landowners are known as Raj Khonds. Their
religion is animistic, and their pantheon includes eighty-four
gods. They have given their name to the Khondmals, a sub-
division of Angul district in Orissa: area, 800 sq. m. , pop. (1901),
64,7 14. The Khond language, Kui, spoken in 1001 by more than
half a million persons, is much more closely related to Telugu
than is Condi. The Khonds are a finer type than the Gonds.
They are as tall as the average Hindu and not much darker, while
in features they are very Aryan They are undoubtedly a mixed
Dra vidian race, with much Aryan blood.
The Khonds became notorious, on the British occupation of
their district about 1835, from the prevalence and cruelty of the
human sacrifices they practised. These " Meriah " sacrifices,
as they were called, were intended to further the fertilization of
the earth. It was incumbent on the Khonds to purchase their
victims. Unless bought with a price they were not deemed
acceptable. They seldom sacrificed Khonds. though in hard
times Khonds were obliged to sell their children and they could
then be purchased as Meriahs. Persons of any race, age or sex,
were acceptable if purchased. Numbers were bought and kept
and well treated, and Meriah women were encouraged to become
mothers. Ten or twelve days before the sacrifice the victim's
hair was cut off, and the villagers having bathed, went with the
priest to the sacred grove to forewarn the goddess. The festival
lasted three days, and the wildest orgies were indulged in.
See Major Macpherson. Religious Doctrines of the Khonds; his
account of their religion in Jour R. Astatic Soc xiii 220-221 and
his Report upon the Khonds ofCanjam and Cuttcch (Calcutta, 1841;;
aho District Gazetteer of Angul (Calcutta. 1908).
KHORASAN, or Khorassan (i.e. " land of the sun '*), a
geographical term originally applied to the eastern of the four
780
KHORREMABAD— KHORSABAD
ouarters (named from the cardinal points) into which the ancient
monarchy of the Sassanians was divided. After the Arab con*
Quest the name was retained both as the designation of a definite
province and in a looser sense. Under the new Persian empire
t he expression has gradually become restricted to the north*
eastern portion of Persia which forms one of the five great
provinces of that country. The province is conterminous E.
with Afghanistan, N. with Russian Transcaspian territory, W.
with Astarabad and Shahrud-Bostam, and S. with Kerraan and
Yezd. It lies mainly within 20 45-38° 15' N. and 56°-6i° E ,
extending about 320 m. east and west and 570 m north and
south, with a total area of about 1 50,000 sq. m. The surface is
mountainous. The ranges generally run in parallel ridges,
Inclosing extensive valleys, with a normal direction from N.W.
to S.E. The whole of the north is occupied by an extensive
jiighlartd system composed of a part of the Elburz and its con-
tinuation extending to the Paropamisus. This system, sometimes
spoken of collectively as the Kurcn Dagh, or Kopct Dagh from
|t$ chief sections, forms in the east three ranges, the Hazar
jtlasjed, Binalud Kuh and- Jagatai, enclosing the Meshed-
Xuchan valley and the Jovain plain. The former is watered by
Zue Kashaf-rud (Tortoise River), or river of Meshed, flowing east
J^P the Hari-rud, their junction forming the Tcjcn, which sweeps
^!,und the Daman-i-Kuh, or northern skirt of the outer range,
*I,urards the Caspian but loses itself in the desert long before
* -ching it. The Jovain plain is watered by the Kali-i-mura,
** unimportant river which flows south to the Great Kavir or
P^fAxd depression. In the west the northern highlands develop
C* branches: (1) the Kuren Dagh, stretching through the Great
t** * kittle Balkans to the Caspian at Krasnovodsk Bay, (2) the
sU 1 ** r)agh, forming a continuation of the Binalud Kuh and joining
A** mountains between Bujnurd and Astarabad, which form
*J* e ~*f t he Elbura system. The Kuren Dagh and Ala Dagh
V^^£. the valley of the Atrek River, which flows west and south-
J^cJ^to the Caspian at Hassan Kuli Bay. The western off-
^c$l **** the Ala Dagh in the north and the mountains of Astara-
A gpo** ine south enclose the valley of the Gurgan River, which
fj^d & l we stwards and parallel to the Atrek to the south-
S* *° corner of the Caspian. The outer range has probably
*^-** Uitude of 8000 ft., the highest known summits being
^ JUr tfasjed (10,500) and the Kara Dagh (0800). The
****** «~ *~ higher, culminating with the Shah-
tie Ala Dagh ( 1 1 ,500) . The southern
much lower, have the highest point
: Shah Kuh (13,000) between Shahrud
of this northern highland several
lly across the province in a N.W.-S.E.
1 other rivers watering the northern
id intermittent rivers lose themselves
occupies the central and western parts
*"**\vetw« character of the kavir, which forms the
JV„- d east Persia, has scarcely been determined,
^^a tkbed of a dried-up sea, others as developed
"ft** ioiaiag to it from the surrounding high-
^ ^T^ctstral depressions, which have a mean
%*
+ *
k
tr
to
ou.
dec
gOVv
undi
plate
thec.
wiset-
at the
prived
of tax- J
further
attcntioj
opcralio
in 1865.
produce rice and other cereals, cotton, tobacco, opfcun ad
fruits in profusion. Other products are manna, saffron, asafae-
tida and other gums. The chief manufactures are swoids, stone-
ware, carpets and rugs, woollens, cottons, silks and sheepskin
pelisses (Justin, Afghan pasfdin).
The administrative divisions of the province are: I, Nbhapur;
2, Sabsevar; 3, Jovain; a, Asfarain; 5, Bujnurd; 6, Kuchan; 7.
Derrehges;8, KeUt;o, Chinaran; 10, Meshed; 11, Jam; is.Bakharz;
13, Radkan; 14, Scrrakhs; 15. Sar-i-jam; 16, Bam and Sana tad;
17, Turbct i Haidari; 18, Turshiz; 19, Khaf; 30, Tun and Tabbas;
21, Kain; 22. Setstan.
The population consists of Iranians (Tajiks, Kurds, BaJudm),
Mongols, Tatars and Arabs, and b estimated at about a oalbon.
The Persians proper have always represented the settled, industrial
and trading elements, and to them the Kurds and the Arabs have
become largely assimilated. Even many of the original Tatar,
Mongol and other nomad tribes (Mat), instead of leading their former
roving and unsettled life of the sahara-niskin (dwellers in the desert)!
arc settled and peaceful skakr-niskin (dwellers in towns). In religion
all except some Tatars and Mongols and the Baluchis have con-
formed to the national Shiah faith. The revenues (cash and kind)
of the province amount to about £180,000 a year, but very little of
this amount reaches the Teheran treasury. The value of the
exports and imports from and into the whole province is a little
under a million sterling a year. The province produces about
10,000 tons of wool and a third of this quantity, or rather more,
valued at £70,000 to £80,000, b exported via Russia to the markets
of western Europe, notably to Marseilles, Russia keeping only a
small part. Other important articles of export, all to Russia, are
cotton, carpets, shawls and turquoises, the last from the mines near
Nishapur. (A. H.-S.)
KHORREMABAD, a town of Persia, capital of the province of
Luristan, in 33 32' N., 48 15' E., and at an elevation of 4250 ft.
Pop. about 6000. It b situated 138 m. W.N.W. of Isfahan and
117 m. S.E. of Kermanshah, on the right bank of the broad but
shallow Khorremabad river, also called Ab-i-btaneh, and, lower
down, Kashgan Rud. On an isolated rock between the town
and the river stands a ruined castle, the Diz-i-siyab (black castk),
the residence of the governor of the district (then called Saraha)
in the middle ages, and, with some modern additions, one of then
consisting of rooms on the summit, called Felek ul aflak (heaven
of heavens), the residence of the governors of Luristan in the
beginning of the 10th century. At the foot of the castle stands
the modern residence of the governor, built c. 1830, with several
spacious courts and gardens. On the left bank of the river
opposite the town are the ruins of the old city of Samha. There
are a minaret 60 ft. high, parts of a mosque, an aqueduct, a
number of walls of other buildings and a four-sided monolith,
measuring 9} ft. in height, by 3 ft. long and 2J broad, with aa
inscription partly illegible, commemorating Mahmud, a grand-
son of the Seljuk king Malik Shah, and dated A.n. 517, or 520
(aj>. x 148-1 150). There also remain ten arches of a bridge
which led over the river from Samha on to the road to Shapur-
khast, a city situated some distance wesL
KHORSABAD. a Turkish village in the vilayet of Mosul
i*l m N.E. of that town, and almost 20 m. N. of ancient Nine-
veh, on the left bank of the little river Kosar. Here, in 1&43,
P. E. Botla, then French consul at Mosul, discovered the re-
mains of an Assyrian palace and town, at which excavations were
conducted by him and Flandin in 1843-1844, and again by Victor
Place in 1851-1855. The ruins proved to be those of the town
of Dur-Sharrukin, " Sargon's Castle," built by Sargpn, king of
Assyria, as a royal residence. The town, in the shape of a rect-
angular parallelogram, with the corners pointing approximately
toward the cardinal points of the compass, covered 74 1 acres of
ground. On the north-west side, half within and half without
the circuit of the walls, protruding into the plain like a great
bastion, stood the royal palace, on a terrace, '4 5 ft in height,
covering about 25 acres. The palace proper was divided into
three sections, built around three sides of a large court on tat
south-east or city side, into which opened the great outer gates,
guarded by winged stone bulls, each section containing suites of
rooms built around several smaller inner courts. In the centre
was the serai, occupied by the king and hb retinue, with aa
extension towards the north, opening on a large inner court, con-
taining the public reception rooms, elaborately decorated with
KHOTAN— KHURJA
7 8i
sculptures and historical inscriptions, representing scenes of
hunting, worship, (easts, battles, and the like. The harem, with
separate provisions for four wives, occupied the south corner, the
domestic quarters, including stables, kitchen, bakery, wine cellar,
&c r being at the east corner, to the north-east of the great
entrance court. In the west corner str^d a temple, with a stage*
tower (li&gural) adjoining. The walls of the rooms, which stood
only to the height of one storey, were from 9 to 25 ft. in thickness,
of clay, faced with brick, in the reception rooms wainscoted with
stone slabs or tiles, elsewhere plastered, or, in the harem* adorned
with fresco paintings and arabesques. Here and there the Boors
were formed of tiles or alabaster blocks, but in general they were
of stamped day, on which were spread at the time of occupancy
mats and rugs. The exterior of the palace wall exhibited a
system of groups of half columns and stepped recesses, an orna-
ment familiar in Babylonian architecture. The palace and chy
were completed in 707 B.C., and in 706 Sargon took up his resi-
dence there. He died the following year, and palace and city
seem to have been abandoned shortly thereafter. Up to 1000
this was the only Assyrian palace which had ever been explored
systematically, in its entirety, and fortunately it was found on
the whole in an admirable state of preservation. An immense
number of statues and bas-reliefs, excavated by Botta, were
transported to Paris, and formed the first Assyrian museum
opened to the world. The objects excavated by Place, together
with the objects found by Fresnel's expedition in Babylonia and
a part of the results of Rawlinson's excavations at Nineveh, were
unfortunately lost in the Tigris, on transport from Bagdad to
Basra. Flandin had, however, made careful drawings and copies
of all objects of importance from Khorsabad. The whole
material was published by the French government in two
monumental publications.
See P. E. Botta and E. Flandtn, Monument de Ninwt (Paris, 1849.
1850; $ vols. 400 plates); Victor Place, Ninive el VAssyrie t avecdes
assais de restauration par F. Thomas (Paris, 1866-1869 ; 3 vols.).
(J. P. P8-)
KHOTAN (locally Ilchi), a town and oasis of East Turkestan,
on the Khotan-darya, between the N. foot of the Kuenlun and
the edge of the Takla-makan desert, nearly 200 m. by caravan
road S.E. from Yarkand. Pop., about 500a The town con*
sists of a labyrinth of narrow, winding, dirty streets, with poor,
square, flat-roofed houses, half a dozen madrasas (Mahommcdan
colleges), a score of mosques, and some masars (tombs of Mahom-
medan saints). Dotted about the town are open squares, with
tanks or ponds overhung by trees. For centuries Khotan was
famous for jade or nephrite, a semi-precious stone greatly
esteemed by the Chinese for making small fancy boxes, bottles
and cups, mouthpieces for pipes, bracelets, &c The stone is
still exported to China. Other local products are carpets (silk
and felt), silk goods, hides, grapes, rice and other cereals, fruits,
tobacco, opium and cotton. There is an active trade in these
goods and in wool with India, West Turkestan and China. The
oasis contains two small towns, Kara-kash and Yurun-kash, and
over 300 villages, its total population being about 150,000.
Khotan, known in Sanskrit as Kustana and in Chinese as
Yu-than, Yu-tien, Kiu-sa-tan-na, and Khio-tan, is mentioned in
Chinese chronicles in the 2nd century B.C. In a.d. 73 it was
conquered by the Chinese, and ever since has been generally
dependent upon the Chinese empire. During the early centuries
of the Christian era, and long before that, it was an important
and flourishing place, the capital of a kingdom to which the
Chinese sent embassies, and famous for its glass-wares, copper
tankards and textiles. About the year a.d. 400 it was a city of
some magnificence, and the scat of a flourishing cult of Buddha,
with temples rich in paintings and ornaments of the precious
metals; but from the 5th century it seems to have declined.
In the 8th century it was conquered, after a struggle of 25 years,
by the Arab chieftain Kotaiba ibn Moslim, from West Turkestan,
who imposed Islam upon the people. In 1220 Khotan was
destroyed by the Mongols under Jcnghiz Khan. Marco Polo,
who passed through the town in 1 274, says that " Everything
is to be had there [at Cotan, i.#. Khotan] in plenty, including
abundance of cotton, with flax, hemp, wheat, wine, and the Irke.
The people have vineyards and gardens and estates. They live
by commerce and manufactures, and are no soldiers." 1 The
place suffered severely during the Dungan revolt against China
in 1 864- 1 87 5, and again a few years later when Yakub Beg of
Kashgar made himself master of East Turkestan.
The Khotan-oahya rises in the Kuenlun Mountains in two
headstrcams, the Kara-kash and the Yurun-kash, which unite
towards the middle of the desert, some 00 m. N« of the town of
Khotan. The conjoint stream then flows 180 m. northwards
across the desert of Takla-makan, though it carries water only
in the early summer, and empties itself into the Ta rim a few miles
below the confluence of the Ak-su with the Yarkand-darya
(Tarim). In crossing the desert it falls 1150 ft. in a distance of
270 m. Its total length is about 300 m. and the area it drains
probably nearly 40,000 sq. m.
Sec J. P. A. Rdmusat, Histoirt ie ta vilk de Khotan (Paris, 182©) ;
and SvcnHcdin, Through Asia (Eng. trans., London, 1898;, chs. tx.
and Ixii., and Scientific Results of a Journey tn Central Asia, 1899-
1902, voL U. (Stockholm, 1906). (J- T. Be.)
KHOTIR, or Khotecn (variously written K hoc him, Choczim,
and Chocim), a fortified town of South Russia, in the government
of Bessarabia, in 48° 30' N. and 26° 30* E., on the right bank of
the Dniester, near the Austrian (Calician) frontier, and opposite
Podolian Kamcnets. Pop. (1897), 18,126. It possesses a few
manufactures (leather, candles, beer, shoes, bricks), and carries on
a considerable trade, but has always been of importance mainly
as a military post, defending one of the most frequented passages
of the Dniester. In the middle ages it was the seat of a Genoese
colony ; and it has been in Polish, Turkish and Austrian possession.
The chief events in its annals are the defeat of the Turks in 1621
by Ladislaus IV., of Poland, in 1673 by John Sobieski, of Poland,
and in 1739 by the Russians under Mlinnich; the defeat of the
Russians by the Turks in 1768; the capture by the Russians in
1769, and by the Austrians in 1788; and the occupation by the
Russians in 1806. It finally passed to Russia with Bessarabia in
181 2 by the peace of Bucharest.
KHULNA, a town and district of British India, in the Presi-
dency division of Bengal. The town stands on the river Bhairab,
and is the terminus of the Bengal Central railway, 109 m. E. of
Calcutta. Pop. (1901), 10,426. It is the most important centre
of river-borne trade in the delta.
The District of Khwlna lies In the middle of the delta of
the Ganges, including a portion of the Sundarbans or seaward
fringe of swamps. It was formed out of Jcssorc in 1882. Area
(excluding the Sundarbans), 2077 *q* m » Besides the Sundar-
bans, the north-east part of the district is swampy; the north*
west is more elevated and drier, while the central part, though
low-lying, is cultivated. The whole is alluvial. In 1901 the
population was 1,253,043, showing an increase of 6% in
the decade. Rice is the principal crop; mustard, jute and
tobacco arc also grown, and the fisheries are important. Sugar
is manufactured from the date palm. The district is entered
by the Bengal Central railway, but by far the greater part of
the traffic is carried by water.
See District Gazetteer (Calcutta, 1908).
KHUNSAR, a town of Persia, sometimes belonging to the
province of Isfahan, at others to Irak, 96 m. N.W. of Isfahan,
»n 33° 9' N-» 5°° *3 # E.» at an elevation of 7600 ft. Pop., about
10,000. It Is picturesquely situated on both sides of a narrow
valley through which the Khunsar River, a stream about 12 ft*
wide, flows in a north-east direction to Kuom. The town and its
fine gardens and orchards straggle some 6 m. along the valley
with a mean breadth of scarcely half a mile. There is a great
profusion of fruit, the apples yielding a kind of cider which,
however, does not keep longer than a month. The climate is
cool in summer and cold in winter. There are five caravanserais,
three mosques and a post office.
KHURJA, a town of British India, in the Bulandshahr district
of the United Provinces, 27 m. N.W. of Aligarh, near the main
• Sir H. Yule, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, bk. i. ch. xxxvi. (3rd
ed., London, 1903).
'ii
KHT3EBL PASS— KIANG-SI
v.UV --- -=.^_-i
Y
e>
so -» - -
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and L
AlaD.
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also flow
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a mean aJ
the Hazar
central ra;
Jehan Kuh
ridges, alth
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and Astara
parallel ridge
direction as f
Beyond th
valleys a few
in the Great K
of the province
distinctive feat
some regarding,
by the saline stt
land*. Collect^
elevation of scan
water of these str
thin hard crust, bt
siderable time, tht
mires which in win
treacherous incrust
central depressions ,
The surface of K
saline, swampy deser
watered. Of the last
are the longitudinal
frontier through Mesh
Derrehgca district, wfe
range projecting 1
territory, a " '
south of 1
•« -*... *«* « "jjc«* West
projecting into*
la. :a^— l ft s «' the paws of Afghanistan. After leaving Landi Kotal the great
or rrau m. am us Kabul k-aefcway passes between low hills, until it debouches
r a acm Join m the Kabul River and leads to Dakka. The whole of the
Rinrbcr Pass from end to end bes within the country of the
Ainls. and is now recognized as under British control. From
Shadi ftagiar on the east to Landi Kotal on the west is abost
aa m. in a straight line.
The Khyber has been adopted by the British as the main road
o» K*fcwi. but its difficulties (before they were overcome by
■ <*3er3aa&ui Brush enginee r s ) were such that it was never so regarded by
r *r !«a» m J tccmcr rulers of India. The oki road to India left the Kabul
*e xuvs m. [ Rrrrr near its junction with the Kunar, and crossed the great
drwSde between the Kunar valley and Bajour; then it turned
southwards to the plains. During the first Afghan War the
Khjbcr was the scene of many skirmishes with the Afridis and
some disasters to t he B rit ish l roops. In July 1 8 jo Colonel Wade
captured the fortress of Ali Masjid. In 1842, when Jalalabad
was blockaded, Golonei Moselcy was sent to occupy t he same fort,
but was compelled to evacuate it after a few days owing to
scarcity of provisions. In April of the same year it was recce*
pied by General Pollock in his advance to Kabul. It was at
Alt Masjid that Sir Neville Chamberlain's friendly mission to the
amir Sfcere Ah was stopped in 1878, thus causing the second
Afcjfran War; and on the outbreak of that war Ali Masjid was
captured by Sir Samuel Browne. The treaty which closed the war
m May 1870 left the Khyber tribes under British control. Froa
that time the pass was protected by jeaailchis drawn from the
Afridi tribe, who were paid a subsidy by the British government
For 18 years, from 1879 onward, Colonel R. Warburton controlled
the Khyber, and for the greater part of that time secured its
safety; but bis term of office came to an end synchronously
with the wave of fanaticism which swept along the north-west
border of India during 1897. The Afridis were persuaded by
ihek mullahs to attack, the pass, wbich they themselves had
guaranteed. The British government were warned of the
intended movement, but only withdrew the British officers
befengtng to the Khyber Rifles, and left the pass to its fate.
The Khyber Rifles, deserted by their officers, made a batf-
hearted resistance to their fellow-tribesmen, and the pass Ml
into the hands of the Afridis, and remained in their possrswos
for some months. This was the chief cause of the Tirah Ex-
pedition of 1807. The Khyber Rifles were afterwards strength-
cued* and divided into two battalions commanded by four
British officers.
Sec Ei'tafor* Yemrs in the Khyber. by Sir Robert Warburton (1000);
;Wuw BtrdeHamd, by Sir T. Holdich (1901). (T. H. H.*)
•XIAKHTA, a town of Siberia, one of the chief centres of
trade between Russia and China, on the Kiakhta, an affluent
of the Selenga, and on an elevated plain surrounded by moan-
taws in the Russian government of Transbaikalia, 320 m. S.W.
*< Chita, the capital, and close to the Chinese frontier, in 50 *>'
X.» too* 40' E. Besides the lower town or Kiakhta proper, tht
municipal jurisdiction comprises the fortified upper town of
rtojtskosavak, about 2 m. N., and the settlement of Ust-
Ktakhta, to m. farther distant. The lower town stands directly
opposite to the Chinese emporium of Maimacbin, is surrounded
by walla, and consists principally of one broad street and a
Ur*e exchange courtyard. From 1689 to 1727 the trade of
kiakhta was a government monopoly, but in the latter year h
*as thrown open to private merchants, and continued to
wwprove until 1860, when the right of commercial intercourse
was extended along the whole Russian-Chinese frontier. The
annual December fairs for which Kiakhta was formerly famous,
ami also the regular traffic passing through the town, havecoa-
^nkrably fallen off since that dale. The Russians exchange
here leather, sheepskins, furs, horns, woollen cloths, coarse
twens and cattle for teas (in value 95% of the entire imports),
1^™*^ fb^barb. manufactured silks, nankeens and other
"duce. The population, including Ust- Kiakhta
Uakosavsk (9*13 in 1897), is nearly ao,eco.
t eastern province of China, bounded N. by
m-hui, S. by Kwaag-tung, £. by Fu-kkm and
*C OHOt
KIANG-SU— KIDD
7»3
W. by Hu-nan. It has an area of 72.176 sq. ra„ and * popula-
tion returned at 22,000^000. It is divided into fourteen pre-
fectures. The provincial capital is Naa*ch'ang Fu, on the Kan
Kiang, about 35 m. from the Po-yang Lake. The whole province
is traversed in a south-westerly and north-easterly direction
by the Nan-shan ranges. The largest river is the Kan Kiang,
which rises in the mountains in the south of the province and
Bows north-east to the Po-yang Lake. It was over the Meiling
Pass and down this river that, in old days, embassies landing at
Canton proceeded to Peking. During the summer time it has
water of sufficient depth for steamers of light draft as far as
Nan-ch'ang, and it is navigable by native craft for a considerable
distance beyond thai city. Another river of note is the Chang
Kiang, which has its source in the province of Ngan-hui and
flows into the Po-yang Lake, connecting in its course the Wu-
yucn district, whence come the celebrated " Moyune " green
teas, and the city of King-te-chen, celebrated for its pottery,
with Jao-chow Fu on the lake. The black " Kaisow" teas are
brought from the Ho-kow district, where they are grown, down
the river Kin to Juy-hung on the lake, and the Siu-ho connects
by a navigable stream I-ning Chow, in the neighbourhood of
which city the best black teas of this part of China are produced,
with Wu-ching, the principal mart of trade on the lake. The
principal products of the province are tea, China ware, grass*
doth, hemp, paper, tobacco and tallow. Kiu-kiang, the treaty
port of the province, opened to foreign trade in 1861, is on the
Yangtsse-kiang, a short distance above the junction, of the
Po-yang Lake with that river.
KIANG-SU, a maritime province of China, bounded N. by
Shan-tung, S. by Cheh-kiang, W. by Ngan-hui, and E. by the
sea. It has an area of 45.000 sq. m., and a population estimated
at 2 1 ,000,000. Kiang-su forms part of the great plain of northern
China. There are no mountains within its limits, and few hills.
It is watered as no other province in China is watered. The
Grand Canal runs through it from south to north; the Yangtszc-
kiang crosses its soot hern portion from west to cast; it possesses
several lakes, of which the T'ai-hu is the most noteworthy, and
numberless streams connect the canal with the sea. Its coast
is studded with low islands and sandbanks, the results of the
deposits brought down by the Hwang-ho. Kiang-su is rich in
places of interest. Nanking, " the Southern Capital," was the
seat of the Chinese court until the beginning of the 1 5th century,
tnd it was the headquarters of the T'ai-p'ing rebels from 1853,
when they took the city by assault, to 1864, when its garrison
yielded to Colonel Gordon's army. Hang-chow Fu and Su-chow
Fu, situated on the T'ai-hu. are reckoned the most beautiful
Cities in China. " Above there is Paradise, below are Su and
Hang," says a Chinese proverb. Shang-hai is the chief port In
the province. In 1009 it was connected by railway (270 m.
long) via Su-Chow and Chin-kiang with Nanking. Tea and silk
are the principal ankles of commerce produced in Kiang-su,
and neit in importance are cotton, sugar and medicines. The
silk manufactured in the looms of Su-chow is famous all over the
empire. In the mountains near Nanking, coal, plumbago, iron
ore and marble are found. Shang-hai, Chin-kiang, Nanking
and Su-chow are the treaty ports of the province.
K1A0CH0W BAY, a large inlet on the south side of the
promontory of Shantung, in China. It was seized in November
1807 by the German fleet, nominally to secure reparation for the,
murder of two German missionaries in the province of Shantung.
In the negotiations which followed, it was arranged that the bay
and the land on both sides of the entrance within certain denned
lines should be leased to Germany for 99 years. During the
continuance of the lease Germany exercises all the rights of
territorial sovereignty, including the right to erect fortifications.
The area leased is about 1x7 sq. m., and over a further area,
comprising a zone of some 32 in., measured from any point on
the shore of the bay, the Chinese government may not issue any
ordinances without the consent of Germany. .The native popu-
lation in the ceded area, is about 60,000. The German govern-
ment in 180? declared Kiaochow a free port. By arrangement
with the Chinese government a branch of the Imperial maritime
customs has been established there for the collection of duties
upon goods coming from or going to the interior, in accordance
with the general treaty tariff. Trade centres at Ts'ingtao, a
town within the bay. The country in the neighbourhood is
mou n tain o us and bare, but the lowlands are well cultivated.
Ts'ingtao is connected by railway with Chinan Fu, the capital
of the province; a continuation of the same line provides for
a junction with the main Lu-Han (Peking-Hankow) railway.
The value of the trade of the port during 1004 was £1,713,145
(£1,808,113 imports and £004*032 exports).
KICKAPOO (" he moves about "), the name of a tribe of
North American Indians of Algonquian stock. When first met
by the French they were in central Wisconsin. They sub-
sequently removed to the Ohio valley. They fought on the
English side in the War of Independence and that of 181 2.
In 185 a a large band went to Texas and Mexico and gave much
trouble to the settlers; but in 1873 the bulk of the tribe was
settled on its present reservation in Oklahoma. They number
some 800, of whom about a third are still in Mexico.
KIDD. JOHN (1775-185O, English physician, chemist and
geologist, bora at Westminster on the 10th of September 1775,
was the son of a naval officer, Captain John Kidd. He was
educated at Bury St Edmunds and Westminster, and after-
wards at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in
1 797 (MJ). in 1804). He also studied at Guy's Hospital, London
(1797-1801), where he was a pupil of Sir Astley Cooper. He
became reader in chemistry at Oxford in 1801, and in 1803 was
elected the first Aldrichian professor of chemistry. He then
voluntarily gave courses of lectures on mineralogy and geology:
these were delivered in the dark chambers under the Ashmolean
Museum, and there J. J. and W. D. Conybeare, W. Buckland,
C. G. B. Daubeny and others gained their first lessons in geology.
Kidd was a popular and instructive lecturer, and through bis
efforts the geological chair, first held by Buckland, was established.
In 1818 he became a F. R. C. P.; in 1822 reghis professor of medi-
cine in succession to Sir Christopher Pegge; and in 1834 he was
appointed keeper of the Radcliffe Library. He delivered the
Harveian oration before the Royal College of Physicians in
1834. He died at Oxford on the 7th of September 1851.
Publications. — Ou&bus of Mineralogy (2 vols., 1809) ; A Geologi-
cal Essay on the Imperfect Evidence in Support of • Theory of the
Earth (1815); On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Physical
Condition of Man, 1833 (Bridgewater Treatise).
KIDD, THOMAS (1770-1850), English classical scholar and
schoolmaster, was born in Yorkshire. He was educated at
Giggleswick School and Trinity College, Cambridge. He held
numerous scholastic and clerical appointments, the last being
the rectory of Croxton, near Cambridge, where he died on the
27th of August 1850. Kidd was an intimate friend of Poison
and Charles Burney the younger. He contributed largely to
periodicals, chiefly on classical subjects, but his reputation
mainly rests upon his editions of the works of ether scholars:
Opusatla Ruhnkeniana (1807), the minor works of the great
Dutch scholar David Ruhnken; Miscellanea Critica of Richard
Dawes (2nd ed., 1827); Tracts and Miscellaneous Criticisms of
Richard Poison (1815). He also published an edition of the
works of Horace (181 7) based upon Bent ley's recension.
KIDD, WILLIAM [Captain Kidd] (c. 1645-1701), privateer
and pirate, was born, perhaps, in Greenock, Scotland, but
his origin is quite obscure. He told Paul Lorraine, the ordinary
of Newgate, that he was " about 56 " at the time of his con-
demnation for piracy in 1701. In 1691 an award from the
council of New York of £150 was given him for his services
during the disturbances in the colony after the revolution of
1688. He was commissioned later to chase a hostile privateer
off the coast, is described as an owner of ships, and b known
to have served with credit against the French in the West Indies.
In 1695 he came to London with a sloop of his own to trade.
Colonel R. Livingston (1654-1 724), a well-known New York land-
owper, recommended him to the newly appointed colonial
governor Lord Bellomont, as a fit man to command a vessel to
cruise against the pirates in the Eastern seas (see Pirate).
7 8 4
KIDDERMINSTER— KIDNEY DISEASES
Accordingly the " Adventure Galley," a vessel of 30 guns and
875 ton *» w «* privately fitted out, and the command given to
Captain Kidd, who received the king's commission to arrest
and bring to trial all pirates, and a commission of reprisals
against the French. Kidd sailed from Plymouth in May 1606
for New York, where he filled up his crew, and in 1697 reached
Madagascar, the pirates' principal rendezvous. He made no
effort whatever to hunt them down. On the contrary he
associated himself with a notorious pirate named Culliford.
The fact would seem to be that Kidd meant only to capture
French ships. When he found none he captured native trading
vessels, under pretence that they were provided with French
passes and were fair prize, and he plundered on the coast of
Malabar. During 1698-1600 complaints reached the British
government as to the character of his proceedings. Lord
Bclkunoot was instructed to apprehend him if he should return
to America. Kidd deserted the "Adventure " in Madagascar,
and sailed for America in one of his prizes, the "Quedab Mer-
chant," which he also left in the West Indies. He reached New
England in a small sloop with several of his crew and wrote
to Bellomont, professing his ability to justify himself and sending
the governor booty. He was arrested in July 1609, was sent
to England and tried, first for the murder of one of his crew, and
then with others for piracy. He was found guilty on both
charges, and hanged at Execution Dock, London, on the 23rd of
May 170s. The evidence against him was that of two members
of his crew, the surgeon and a sailor who turned king's evidence,
but no other witnesses could be got in such circumstances, as
the judge told him when be protested. "Captain KJdd's
Treasure " has been sought by various expeditions and about
£14,000 was recovered from Kidd's ship and from Gardiner's
Island (off the E. end of Long Island); but its magnitude was
palpably exaggerated. He left a wife and child at New York.
The so-called ballad about him is a poor imitation of the
authentic chant of Admiral Benbow.
Much has been written about Kidd, less because of the intrinsic
interest of his career than because the agreement made with him by
Bellomont was the subject of violent political controversy. The
best popular account is in An Historical Sketch of Robin Hood and
Captain Kidd by W. W. Campbell (New York. 1853), « *hich the
essentia! documents arc quoted. But see Pirate.
KIDDERMINSTER, a market town and municipal and parlia-
mentary borough of Worcestershire, England, 135! m. N.W. by
W. from London and 15 m. N. of Worcester by the Great
Western railway, on the river Stoar and the Staffordshire and
Worcestershire canaL Pop. (1001), 24,692. The parish church
of All Saints, well placed above the river, is a fine Early English
snd Decorated building, with Perpendicular additions. Of other
bttildimgs the principal are the town hall (1876), the corporation
buildings, and the school of science and art and free library.
There is a free grammar school founded in 1637. A public
recreation ground, Br in ton Park, was opened in 1887. Richard
Baxter, who was elected by the townsfolk as their minister in
toai, was instrumental in saving the town from a reputation
of ignorance and depravity caused by the laxity of their clergy.
U» k commemorated hv a statue. a& is Sir Rowland Hill, the
born here in 1705.
ts carpets. The per-
inguished is attributed
, which is impregnated
inning and dyeing are
dries, tinplate works,
ntary borough returns
a mayor, 6 aldermen
Ded Stour in Usmere,
ite of Kidderminster
>crght by King jttbel-
astery was ever built,
ch of Worcester, and
the gift of Coenwutf,
bop of Worcester, but
6 for other property.
At the Domesday Survey, Kidderminster was stffl tn the hands
of the king and remained a royal manor until Henry II. granted
it to Manser Biset. The poet Edmund Waller was one of the
17th century lords of the manor. The town was possibly a
borough in 1187 when the men paid £4 to an aid. As a royal
possession it appears to have enjoyed various privileges in the
12th century, among them the right of choosing a baffrff to
collect the toll and render it to the king, and to elect six burgesses
and send them to the view of frankpledge twice a year. The
first charter of incorporation, granted in 1636, appointed a
bailiff and 12 capital burgesses forming a common council
The town was governed under this charter until the Municipal
Reform Act of 183 s* Kidderminster sent two members to the
parliament of 1295, but was not again represented until the
privilege of sending one member was conferred by the Reform
Act of 1832. The first mention of the doth trade for which
Kidderminster was formerly noted occurs in 1334, when it was
enacted that no one should make woollen doth in the borough
without the bailiff's seal At the end of the 18th century the
trade was still important, but it began to decline after the in-
vention of machinery, probably owing to the poverty of the
manufacturers. The manufacture of woollen goods was however
replaced by that of carpets, introduced in 1735. At first only
the " Kidderminster " carpets were made, but in 1749 a Brussels
loom was set up in the town and Brussels carpets were soon
produced in large quantities.
See Victoria, County History: Worcestershire', J. R. Barton, A
History of Kidderminster, with Short Accounts of some Ndgnbourmg
Parishes (1890).
KIDNAPPING (from kid, a slang term for a child, and nap
or nab, to steal), originally the stealing and carrying away
of children and others to serve as servants or labourers in the
American plantations; it was denned by Blackstooe as the
forcible abduction or stealing away of a man, woman or child
from their own country and sending them into another. The
difference between kidnapping, abduction (?.».) and false im-
prisonment is not very great; indeed, kjdnapping may be said
to be a form of assault and false imprisonment, aggravated by
the carrying of the person to some other place. The term hv,
however, more commonly applied in England to the offence of
taking away children from the possession of their parents. By
the Offences against the Person Act 1861, " whosoever shafl
unlawfully, by force or fraud, lead or take away or decoy or
entice away or detain any child under the age of fourteen years
with intent to deprive any parent, guardian or other person
having the lawful care or charge of such child of the pomesswa
of such child, or with intent to steal any article upon or about
the person of such child, to whomsoever such article may belong,
and whosoever shall with any such intent receive or harbour
any such child, &c," shall be guilty of felony, and is liable 10
penal servitude for not more than seven' years, or to imprison-
ment for any term not more than two years with or wit
hard labour. The abduction or unlawfully taking away
unmarried girl under sixteen out of the possession and
the will of her father or mother, or any other person hawiac the
lawful care or charge of ber, is a misdemeanour under the same
act. The term is used in much the same sense in the United
States.
The kidnapping or forcible taking away of persons to serve at sea
is treated under lUraESSMXNT.
KIDNEY DISEASES. 1 (For the anatomy of the kidneys,
see Ukxnaxy System,) The results of morbid processes in the
kidney may be grouped under three beads: the actual lesions
produced, the effects of these on the composition of the urine,
1 The word " kidney " first appears in the early part of the 14th
century in the form hidenei, with plural kideneirm, ttde-nens,
ktdmeers. Ac It has been assumed that the second part of the word
is " aeer " or " near " (cf. Or. tfiere), the common dialect word lor
"kidney **in northern, north midland and eastern counties of England
(see J. Wright. English Dialect Dictionary, 1903. *.*. Near), andtkat
the first part represents the O.E. ctrtff. belly, womb; this the JV«s
English Dictionary considers improbable ; there is only one doubtful
instance of singular hidnere and the ordinary form ended in -W or ey.
Possibly this represents M.E. ry. plur. eyrra. egg. the name being
I given from the resemblance in shape. The first part a uncertain.
KIDNEY DISEASES
78S
3!
and the effects of the kidney-lesion on 1
tions of the kidney are congenital or a<
they may be the result of a pathologic;
kidney, in which case they are spok
accompaniment of disease in other pari
may be spoken of as secondary.
Congenita! Affections.— -The principal
anomalies in the number or position of th
atrophy; cystic disease and growths,
mality is the existence of a nngte ktdne
kidney may be present. The presence <
due to failure of development, or to atropl
be dependent on the fusion of originally
way as to lead to the formation of a
organs being connected at their lower en
shoe kidney the organs are united mere]
sionally the two kidneys are fused end
A third variety is that where the fusion n
g disk-like mass with two ureters. The
abnormal positions; thus they may be
articulation, in the pelvis, or in the iliac
such displacements lies in the fact that t
for tumours. In some cases atrophy is ai
ment, so that only the medullary portion
in others it is associated with arterial ob
may be dependent upon obstruction of
cystic disease the organ is transformed in
enlargement of the kidney* may be so gn
in birth. The cystic degeneration is ca
uriniferous tubules or by anomalies in de
of portions of the Wolffian body. In sor
is accompanied by anomalies in the t
supply. Growths of the kidney are someti
are usually malignant, and may consist ol
which has been spoken of as rhabdo-sarc
in the mass of involuntary muscular fibi
tumours is dependent on anomalies of de
forms the primitive kidney belongs to tl
gives rise to the muscular system (me
excretory duels: in some cases the ureti
-reatly dilated ; in others the pelvis of
lilated. with or without dilatation of th
Acquired Affections. Movable Kidn
kidneys in the adult may be preternatun
is more common in women, and is usi
shaking or other form of injury, ot
becoming lax as a sequel to abdomiiu
or pregnancy, or to the effects of tight
forms of movable kidney are dependei
in the arrangement of the peritoneum
Krtial mesentery; and to this condit
moved freely from one part of the ab
/Tearing kidney is applied. But more
under the peritoneum, and not efficientl
Movable kidney produces a variety of
the loin and back, faintness, nausea and
of the organ may be seriously interfere
becoming kinked. In thb way hydrc
the kidney with urine, may be pradt
through the renal vein may also be hind<
engorgement of the kidney, with hacma
In some cases the movable kidney n
its place by a pad and belt, but in other
undertaken. This consists in cxposini
right) through an incision below the I
proper position by several permanent su
The operation is neither difficult nor d
excellent.
Embolism. — The arrangement of the
is peculiarly favourable to the producti
necrosis, the result of a blocking by c
detached from the interior of the hear
of the circulation in the part of the kid
artery. In other cases, the plug is infee
septic micro-organisms, and this is liki
of small pyaeimc abscesses. It is excel
of the renal artery to be blocked, so Uu
the ordinary cases are only the tempo
albumen in the urine. Blocking of the
of disease of the walls of the vessels m
the kidneys. Blot-king of the veins. Ic
of the kidney, also occurs. It is seen i
and wasting, sometimes in septic condit
where a clot, formed first in one of the
the vena cava and secondarily block t
of the renal vein also occurs in maligna
in certain forms of chronic Bright 's ok
XV 13*
Hon of the kidneys occurs in heart-diseases and
lere the return of venous blood is interfered with.
produced by tumours pressing on the vena cava,
dneys become brownish red. enlarged and fibroid,
a scanty, high-coloured urine.
m is produced by the excretion in the urine of such
sentine and cant ha rides and the toxins of various
irritants produce engorgement and inflammation
uch as they would that of any other structures with
• in contact. Renal disturbance is often the result
of microbic poisons. Extreme congestion of the
> produced by exposure to cold, owing to some
iship existing between the cutaneous and the renal
st net ion of the one .being accompanied by the
other. Infective diseases, such as typhoid fever,
-let fever, in fact, most acute specific diseases,
their height a temporary nephritis, not usually
manent alteration in the kidney; but some acute
lephritin which may lay the foundation of permanent
Una is most common as a result of scarlet fever,
ir is the term applied to certain varieties of acute
1 m mat ion of the kidney. Three forms are usually
te, chronic and the granular or cirrhotic kidney,
nvmon form of granular kidney the renal lesion is
widespread affection involving the whole arterial
not actually related to Bright'* disease. Chronic
is sometimes the sequel to acute Bright s disease,
number of cases the malady is chronic from the
> lesions of the kidney are probably produced by
kidney-structure* owing to the excretion of toxic
r ingested or formed in the body; it is thought by
nalady may arise as a result of exposure to ecld.
mses of Bright* disease arc alcoholism, gout, preg*
ction of such poisons as lead ; it may also occur as a
diseases, such as hcaflet fever. Persons following
ions are peculiarly liable to Blight's disease, e.g.
work in hot shops and pass out into the cold air
; and painters, in whom the malady is dependent on
id on the kidney. In the case of alcohol and lead
(ested; in the case of scarlet fever, pneumonia, and
ncy, the toxic agent causing the renal affection is
body. In Bright 's disease all the elements of the
meruit, the tubular epithelium, and the interstitial
;ted. When the disease follows scarlet fever, the
ictures are mostly affected, the capsules being
irous tissue, and the glomerular tuft compressed and
V epithelium of the convoluted tubules undergoes
onstderable quantities of it are shed, and form the
s in the urine. The tubules become blocked by the
distended with the pent-up urine; this is one cause
in sire thaj the kidneys undergo in certain forms of
>. The lesions in the tubules and in the glomeruli
y uniform. The interstitial tissue is always affected,
proliferation and formation of fibrous tissue occur,
and contracted kidney the lesion in the interstitial
1 high degree of development, little renal secreting
ft. Such tubules as remain are dilated, and the
lg them is altered, the cells becoming hyaline and
cture. The vessels arc narrowed owing to thickening
helial layer, and the muscular coat undergoes hyper-
oid changes, so that the vessels are abnormally rigid,
growth of fibrous tissue is considerable, the surface
comes uneven, and it is for this reason that the term
has been applied to the condition. In acute Bright s
acy is increased in size and engorged with blood, the
Ka above being in active progress. In the chronic
ry may be large or small, and is usually white or
rge. the cortex is thickened, pale and waxy, and the
ongested ; if small, the fibrous change has advanced
c is diminished. Bright s disease, both acute and
ntially a disease of the cortical secreting portion of
lie true granular kidney, classified by some as a third
illy part of a general arterial degeneration, the over-
us tissue in the kidney and the lesions in the arteries
Iced.
I degenerations affecting the kidney arc the fatty and
I. Fatly degeneration often reaches a high degree in
ire fatty degeneration of the heart and liver are also
minoid disease is frequently associated with some
ight s disease, and is also seen as a result of chronic
r of long-continued suppuration involving other parts
r of syphilis. It is due to irritation of the kidneys
cts.
the Kidney.— The principal growths are tubercle,
oma and carcinoma. In addition, fatty and fibrous
odules of glanders and the gummata of syphilis, may
Tuberculous disease is sometimes primary; more
, secondary to tubercle in other portions of the genito-
itus. The genito-urinary tract may be infected by
786
KIDNEY DISEASES
tubercle in two ways; ascending in which the primary lesion is in
the testicle, epididymis, or urinary bladder, the lesion travelling up
by the ureter or the lymphatics to the kidney : descending, where the
tubercle bacillus reaches the kidney through the blood-vessels. In
the latter case, miliary tubercles, as scattered granules, are seen,
especially in the cortex of the kidney; the lesion is likely to be
bilateral. In primary tuberculosis, and in ascending tuberculosis,
the lesion is at first unilateral. Malignant disease of the kidney
takes the form of sarcoma or carcinoma. Sometimes it is dependent
on the malignant growths starting in what are spoken of as " adrenal
rests " in the cortex of the kidney. Sarcoma is most often seen in
the young; carcinoma in the middle-aged and elderly. Carcinoma
may be primary or secondary, but the kidney b not so prone to
malignant disease as other organs, such as the stomach, bowel or liver.
Cystic Kidneys. — Cysts may be single — sometimes of large sire.
Scattered small cysts are met with in chronic Bright's disease and
in granular contracted kidney, where the dilatation of tubules reaches
a high degree. Certain growths, such as adenomata, are liable to
cystic degeneration, and cysts are also found in malignant disease.
Finally, there b a rare condition of general cystic disease somewhat
similar to the congenital affection. • In thb form the kidneys, greatly
enlarged, consist of a congeries of cysts separated by the remains of
renal tissue.
common parasites affecting the
the urinary tract, and causing
he cysticercus form of the taenia
ssence of fitaria in the thoracic
y determine the presence of chyle
a and young forms of the filaria.
e of a lympnatic vessel into some
i b the common cause of chyluria
occasionally seen in the United
ia, especially in Egypt and South
cysticercus form of the taenia
n of hydatid cysts in the kidney ;
a affected as the liver.
"y
"K
lly
he
Stone in the ATttfnev.— Calculi at
consisting usually of uric acid, so
of phosphates. Calculous disease
the sequel to the formation of a st
down, becomes coated by the salts
formed in the pelvis of the kidney,
either on the excessive amounts oi
urine, or on an alteration in the <
increased acidity, or on uric acid or
abnormal amount. The formation <
the presence of some colloid, such a
secretion, modifying the crystallir
has been formeo. its subsequent |
to the deposition on it of the urinar
formed in the pelvis of the kidne;
very large size, forming, indeed,
the expanded kidney. At other
varying size. They may give rise
hand may cause distressing rena
small and loose and arc passed or us
complications may result from the , ,'y.
such as hydronephrosis, from the urinary secretion being pent up
behind the obstruction, or complete suppression, which is apparently
produced reflcxly through the nervous system. In such cases the
surgical removal of the stone b often followed by the restoration of
the renal secretion.
The symptoms of renal calculus may be very slight, or they may
be entirely absent if the stone is moulding itself into the interior of
the kidney: but if the stone is movable, neavy and rough, it may
cause great distress, especially durine exercise. .There will probably
be blood in the urine; and there will be pain in the loin and thigh
and down into the testicle. The testicle also may be drawn up by
its suspensory muscle, and there may be irritability of the bladder.
With stone in one kidney the pains may be actually referred to the
kidney of the other side. Generally, but not always, there is tender-
ness in the loin. If the stone is composed of lime it may throw a
shadow on the Rontgcn plate, but other stones may give no shadow.
Renal colic is the acute pain felt when a small stone is travelling
down the ureter to the bladder. The pain b at times so acute that
fomentations, morphia and hot baths fail to case i(, and nothing
short of chloroform gives relief.
For the operative treatment of renal calculus an incision is made a
tittle below the last rib. and. the muscles having been traversed,
the kidney is reached on the surface which is not covered by peri-
toneum. Most likely the stone b then felt, so it is cut down upon
and removed. If it b not discoverable on gently pinching the
kidney between the finger and thumb, the kidney had better be
opened in its convex border and explorrd hv the finger. Often it
has happened that when a man has presented moM of the symptoms
of renal calculus and has been operated on with a negative result
as regards finding a stone, all the symptoms have nevertheless
disappeared as the direct result of the blank operation.
Pyelitis. — Inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney b generally
produced by the extension of gonorrhoeaJ or c r
tion upwards from the bladder and lower urinary tract, or by the
presence of stone or of tubercle in the pelvb of the kidney. Pyo-
nephrosis, or dbtension of the kidney with pus, may result as a sequel
to pyelitb or as a complication of hydronephrosis; in many cases
the inflammation spreads to the capsule of the kidney, and leads
to the formation of an abscess outside the kidney — a perrnepknhc
abscess. In some cases a perinephritic abscess results from a septic
plug in a blood-vessel of the kidney, or it may occur as the result
of an injury to the loose cellular tissue surrounding the kidney,
without lesion of the kidney.
Hydronephrosis, or dbtension of the kidney with pent-up urine,
result* from obstruction of the ureter, although all obstructions of
the ureter are not followed by it, calculous obstruction, as already
noted, often causing complete suppression of urine. Obstruction of
the ureter, causing hydronephrosis, b likely to be due to the impac-
tion of a stone, or to pressure on the ureter from a tumour in the
pelvis — as, for instance, a cancer of the uterus — or to some abnor-
mality of the ureter. Sometimes a kink of the ureter of a movable
kidney causes hydronephrosis. The hydronephrosb produced by
obstruction of the ureter may be intermittent ; and when a certain
degree of dbtension is produced, either as a result of the shifting of
the calculus or of some other cause, the obstruction is temporarily
relieved in a great outflow of urine, and the urinary discharge b re-
established. When the hydronephrosb has long existed the kidney
is converted into a sac, the remains of the renal tissues being spread
out as a thin layer.
Effects on the Urine. — Diseases of the kidney produce alterations
in the composition of the urine; either the proportion of the normal
constituents being altered, or substances not normally present being
excreted. In most diseases the quantity of urinary water U dimin-
ished, especially in those in which the activity of the circulation b
impaired. There are diseases, however, more especially the granular
kianey and certain forms of chronic Bright 's disease, in which the
quantity of urinary water b considerably increased, notwithstanding
the profound anatomical changes that have occurred in the kidney.
There are two forms of suppression of the urine: one b obstruttme
suppression, seen where the ureter b blocked by stone or other
morbid process; the other is non-obstructive suppression, which b
apt to occur in advanced diseases of the kidney. In other cases
complete suppression may occur as the result of injuries to distant
parts of the body, as alter severe surgical operations, la some
diseases in which the quantity of urinary water excreted b normal.
or even greater than normal, the efficiency of the renal activity b
really diminbhed, inasmuch as the urine contains few solids, la
estimating the efficiency of the kidneys, it b necessary to take into
consideration the so-called " solid urine," that is to say, the quantity
of solid matter daily excreted, as shown by the specific gravity of
the urine. The nitrogenous constituents — urea, uric acid, creatinin.
&c. — vary greatly in amount in different diseases. In most renal
diseases the quantities of these substances are diminished because
of the physiological impairment of the kidney. The chief abnormal
constituents of the urine are serum-albumen, serum-globulin, alba-
moses (albuminuria), blood (haematuria), blood pigment (haecno-
globinuria). pus (pyuria), chyle (chyluria) and pigments such a*
melanuria and urobtlinuria.
Effects on the Body at forge.— These may be divided into the persis-
tent and the intermittent or transitory. The most important
persistent effects produced by disease of the kidney are. arst.
nutritional changes leading to general ill health, wast ins; and
cachexia; and. secondly, certain cardio-vascuiar phenomena, sort
as enlargement (hypertrophy) of the heart, and thickening of the
inner, and degeneration of the middle, coat of the smaller arteries.
Amongst the intermittent or transitory effects are dropsy, se condary
inflammations of certain organs and serous cavities, and uraemia.
Some of these effects are seen in every form of severe kidney- disease.
and uraemia may occur in any advanced kidney disease. Renal
dropsy is chiefly seen in certain forms of Bright's disease, and the
cardiac and arterial changes are commonest in cases of granular or
contracted kidney, but may be absent in other diseases which destroy
the kidney tissue, such as hydronephrosb. Uraemia is a toxic
condition, and three varieties of it are recognized— the acute, the
chronic and the latent. Many Of these effects are dependent <
the action of poisons retained in the body owing to the detV
action of the kidneys. It b also probable that abnormal substances
having a toxic action are produced as a result of a pe r ver t ed meta-
bolism. Uraemia is of toxic origin, and it is probable that the
dropsy of renal disease b due to effects produceo in the capillaries
by the presence of abnormal substances in the blood. High arterial
tension, cardiac hypertrophy and arterial degeneration may also
be of toxic origin, or they may be produced by an attempt of the
body to maintain an active circulation through the greatly dimin-
ished amount of kidney tissue available.
Rupture of the kidney may result from a kick or other direct: injury.
Vomiting and collapse are likely to ensue, and most likely blood w/iB
likely blood win
I and urine may
appear in the urine, or a tumour composed of blood and urine i
form in the renal region. An incision made into the swell ina; from
the loin may enable the surgeon to see the torn kidney. An attempt
should be made to save the kidney by suturing and draining :
KIDWELLY— KIELCE
787
„ .. ..___ . idney «
removed without giving nature a chance. (J. R- B.; E. O.*)
KIDWELLY (Cydwfi), a decayed market-town and municipal
borough of Carmarthenshire, Wales, situated (as its name
implies) near the junction of two streams, the Owendracth Fawr
and the Gwcndraclh Fach, a short distance from the shores of
Carmarthen Bay. Pop. (root), 2265. It has a station on the
Great Western railway. The chief attraction of Kidwelly is its
magnificent and well-preserved castle, one of the finest in South
Wales, dating chiefly from the 13th century and admirably
situated on a knoll above the Gwendracth Fach. The parish
church of St Mary, of the 14th century, possesses a lofty tower
with a spire. The quiet little town has had a stirring history. It
was a place of some importance when William de Londres, a
companion of Fitz Hamon end his conquering knights, first
erected a castle here. In r 135 Kidwelly was furiously attacked
by Gwenllian, wife of Griffith ap Rhys, prince of South Wales,
and a battle, fought close to the town at a place still known as
Maes Gwenllian, ended in the total defeat and subsequent exe-
cution of the Welsh princess. Later, the extensive lordship of
Kidwelly became the property through marriage of Henry, earl of
Lancaster, and to this circumstance is due the exclusive juris-
diction of the town. Kidwelly received its first charter of
incorporation from Henry VI.; its present charter dating
from 1618. The decline of Kidwelly is due to the accumula-
tion of sand at the mouth of the river, and to the consequent
prosperity of the neighbouring Llanelly.
KIEF, Kef or Keif (a colloquial form of the Arabic kaif,
pleasure or enjoyment), the state of drowsy contentment pro-
duced by the use of narcotics. To " do kef," or to " make kef,"
is to pass the time m such a state. The word is used in northern
Africa, especially in Morocco, for the drug used for the purpose.
KIEL, the chief naval port of Germany on the Baltic, a town
of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Hoistein. Pop. (1000),
107.938; (1005), 163,7 ro, including the incorporated suburbs.
It is beautifully situated at the southern end on the Kieler
Busen (bay or harbour of Kiel), 70 m. by rail N. from Hamburg.
It consists of a somewhat cramped old town, lying between the
harbour and a sheet of water called Kleiner Kiel, and a better
built and more spacious new town, which has been increased
by the incorporation of the garden suburbs of Brunswick and
Dusternbrook. In the old town stands the palace, built in the
13th century, enlarged in the 18th and restored after a fire in
1838. It was once the seat of the dukes of Holstein-Gottorp,
who resided here from 1721 to 1773. and became the residence
of Prince Henry of Prussia. Other buildings are the church of
St Nicholas (restored in 1877-1884), dating from 1240, with a
lofty steeple; the old town-hall on the market square; the church
of the Holy Ghost; three fine modern churches, those of St James,
and St Jtirgen and of St Ansgar; and the theatre. Further to the
north and facing the bay is the university, founded in 1665 by
Christian Albert, duke of Schleswig, and named after him
"Christian Albcrtina." The new buildings were erected in
1876, and connected with them are a library of 240,000 volumes,
a zoological museum, a hospital, a botanical garden and a school
of forestry. The university, which is celebrated as a medical
school, is attended by nearly 1000 students, and has a teaching
staff of over 100 professors and docents. Among other scientific
and educational institutions arc the Schleswig-Hoistein museum
of national antiquities m the old university buildings, the
Thaulow museum (rich in Schleswig-Hoistein wood-carving of
the 16th and 17th centuries), the naval academy, the naval
school and the school for engineers.
The pride of Kiel is its magnificent harbour, which has a
comparatively uniform depth of water, averaging 40 ft., and close
to the shores 20 ft. Its length is 1 1 m, and its breadth varies from
I m. at the southern end to 4} m. at the mouth. Its defences,
which include two forts on the west and four on the east side,
all situated about 5 m. from the head of the harbour at the
place (Friedrichsort) where its shores approach one another,
make it a place of great strategic stength. The imperial docks
(five in all) and ship-building yards are on the east side facing
the town/between Gaarden and EHerbeck, and comprise basins
capable of containing the largest war-ships afloat. The imperial
yard employs 7000 hands, and another 7000 are employed in
two large private ship-building works, the Germania (Krupp's)
and Howalds'. The Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, commonly called
the Kiel Canal, connecting the Baltic with the North Sea at
BrunsbUttd, has its eastern entrance at Wik, i} m. N. of Kiel
(see Germany: Waterways). Hie town and adjacent villages,
e.g. Wik, Heikendorf and Laboe, are resorted to for sea-bathing,
and in June of each year a regatta, attended by yachts from all
countries, is held. The Kieler Wocke is one of the principal,
social events in Germany, and corresponds to the " Cowes
week " in England. Kiel is connected by day and night services
with Korsor in Denmark by express passenger boats. The
harbour yields sprats which are in great repute. The principal
industries are those connected with the imperial navy and ship-'
building, but embrace also flour-mills, oil-works, iron-foundries,'
printing-works, saw-mills, breweries, brick-works, soap-making
and fish-curing. There is an important trade in coal, timber,*
cereals, fish, butter and cheese.
The name of Kiel appears as early as the 10th century in the*
form Kyi (probably from the Anglo-Saxon Kilie - a safe place!
for ships). Kiel is mentioned as a city in the next century; in
1242 it received the Ltibeck rights ; in the 14th century it
acquired various trading privileges, having in 1284 entered the
HanseaUc League. In recent times Kiel has been associated
with the peace concluded in January 1814 between Great
Britain, Denmark and Sweden, by which Norway was ceded to
Sweden. In 1773 Kiel became part of Denmark, and in 1866
it passed with the rest of Schleswig-Hoistein to Prussia. Since
being made a great naval arsenal, Kiel has rapidly developed
in prosperity and population.
Sec Prahl, Chroniia der Stadt Kiel (Kiel. 1856) : Erichsen, Topo-
eraphie des Landkreises Kiel (Kiel, 1898): H. Eckardt. Alt-Kief in
Wort und Bild (Kiel. 1699): P. Hatse. Das Kieler Stadtbuck, 1264-
1289 (Kiel. 187$); Das aUeste Kieler Reniebuck 1300, .487, edited
by C. Rcuter (Kiel. 1893); Das tweiie Kieler Reniehuck 1487, i$86,
edited by W. Stern (Kiel. 1904) ; and the MiUeilungen de* Getellschaft
f&r Kieler StadtgeschichU (Kiel, 1877, 1904).
KIELCE, a government in the south-west of Russian Poland,
surrounded by the governments of Piotrkow and Radom and by
Austrian Galicia. Area, 3896 sq. m. Its surface is an elevated
plateau 800 to 1000 ft. in altitude, intersected in the north-east
by a range of hills reaching 1350 ft. and deeply trenched in the
south. It is drained by the Vistula on its south-east border,
and by its tributaries, the Nida and the Pilica, which have a very
rapid fall and give rise to inundations. Silurian and Devonian
quartzites, dolomite, limestones and sandstones prevail in the
north, and contain rich iron ores, lead and copper ores. Carbon-
iferous deposits containing rich coal seams occur chiefly in the
south, and extend into the government of Piotrkow. Permian
limestones and sandstones exist in the south. The Triassic
deposits contain very rich zinc ores of considerable thickness
and lead. The Jurassic deposits consist of iron-clays and lime-
stones, containing large caves. The Cretaceous deposits yield
gypsum, chalk and sulphur. White and bfack marble are also
extracted. The soil is of great variety and fertile in parts, but
owing to the proximity of the Carpathians, the climate is more
severe than might be expected. Rye, wheat, oats, barley and
buckwheat are grown; modern intensive culture is spreading,
and land fetches high prices, the more so as the peasants' allot-
ments were small at the outset and are steadily decreasing.
Out of a total of 2,193,300 acres suitable for cultivation 53-4 %
are actually cultivated. Grain is exported. Gardening is a
thriving industry in the south; beet is grown for sugar in the
south-east. Industries are considerably developed: zinc ores
are extracted, as well as some iron and a little sulphur. Tiles,
metallic goods, leather, timber goods and flour are the chief
products of the manufactures. Pop. (1897), 765,212, for the
most part Poles, with 11% Jews; (1006, estimated), 910,000.
By religion 88% of the people are Roman Catholics. Kielce is
divided into seven districts, the chief towns of which, with
- t &
K1ELCE— KIEV
., ljiiun»in 18^7, art KSdct(^UadroJow(Rus*Aiwirey*v,
* .) Muihow (4i i 6) l oiluu(i40»).Pu»ctAfrlSog$),Stopniai
%*l*tt«. % w>«* vM Ku«u» IViUttl capital of ll* above
. . % \.> * *-^. . ^* .v x .W4wt- rw »,mx$ a<*i
. * *
t -**^V** X-* VUvl
^ mm . „»-%.**•<: *v* ^*^
N . s v .^-^* x «** part
.V 1<C f>Wlf
.\<s !*> Ukrbmck
v. »^ ■> v Uuftde* der
.s vt^uJ* (A Manual
. vvi .\ateng Kiepert's
<»w-* «*» the excellent
^> ci seq.). and he
x . ^ N . - * wt educational maps.
* v^ v -vnhi particular interest.
v .xvn fc Ki bb, first map (1843-
— *<u4*« Reickts in Asien
s ^ v » wvhv*ny for the geography
t x ,v^»»h ol geography in the
x.. Mv JhkJ at Berlin on the 21st
, . v^K\i considerable material in
. v »s^<- and with the assistance of
t, > . ».w followed his father's career,
.. Vua Minor in 24 sheets, on a scale
1 vki 10 carry on the issue of Format
VV ^. VS VS ***** **•* (1813-1855), Danish philo-
. vs , *»)«-iknd hosier, was born in Copen
tdi> As a boy he was delicate,
, cajperamenL He studied theology
.N^^a^eiV where he graduated in 1840
• . ». For two years he travelled in
*>s >\*\ finally in Copenhagen, where he
. v .~^r 1855. He had lived in studious
.», w^*l suffering and mental depression.
., * SiUt Lmnt Man (1838), a charac-
v «,u, wii a failure, and he was for some
, V i*jbfc«hed EuUn—Eiler (Either— or)
^ .s* thich his reputation mainly rests;
K .vV.il and aesthetic ideas of life. In
xV >j * feverish agitation against the
, V, *ut* church, on the ground that
, , . ,. wA and is to be separated abso-
v «^M. In general his philosophy
v v*v% ,Jlllv * thinkers— Stefiens (a*.) t
N v ' «*J Ftederik Christian Sibbern
... ,V sbiolute dualism of Faith and
. .vl ««s Rasmus Nielsen (1800-1884)
- > s^* WU*»des. who wrote a brilliant
*«v v. V* a dialectician be has been
^ ^ r\ht«k and his influence on the
v . „. v»*>4t bath in style and in matter.
To him Ibsen owed his character Brand in the drama of that
See hit posthumous autobiographical sketch, Syus pmmkuf* am
fer/«l*mrft»«W (" Sundpoint of my Uterary Work ): Geori
Brandn. Sortm Ktcr kefflari (Copenhagen. 1877): A. BarthoM.
.Vam a K.s LtbensHtukuhu (Halle. 1876). the Bedeutmmg 4a
csMurfev Sckrtfkm 5. Kierkepwde (HaUe. 1879) and S. X.'f
Hi iiihElfcrt « ato VervtHthckMMt ier JisaU (Coterslok. 1 886);
F. rV««r^ 5L *1« Ckrt * m d n Mtf »ky»dd~ (Christiaiua, 1877).
W Krtr«axnf » trtenoo 10 recent Danish thought, see H6fl<Uaj*
- «^^ ~~ a- pw-^k. (1888). voL u.
rVtmr^ 5L tL'% Ckrt M e ud t Msf erkyndeU* I
larioo ro rtornt 1
KSm l-in, m Kiyeff, a government ol south-westera
<«&»«k C*«vX
with those of Minsk, Poltava, Chernigov,
and Volhynia; area 19,686 sq.rn.lt
a Jreply trenched plateau, 600 to 800 ft. in altitude,
>^ ^ ^ ^50 to 1050 ft. in the west, assuming a steep china a
* s, jtvkile, and sloping gently northwards to the marshy
^V*oa of the Pripet, while on the east it falls abruptly to the
*-*J*0 of the Dnieper, which lies only 250 to 300 ft. above the
:*ntv General A. Tillo ha* shown that neither geologically not
tuvtonkally can " spurs of the Carpathians " penetrate into
Kiev. Many useful minerals are extracted, such as granites,
gabbro, labradorites of a rare beauty, syenites and gneiss,
marble, grinding stones, pottery clay, phosphorites, iron ore
and mineral colours. Towards the southern and central pans
the surface is covered by deep rich " black earth.** Nearly the
whole of the government belongs to the basin of the Dnieper,
that river forming part of its eastern boundary. In the south-
west are a few small tributaries of the Bug. Besides the Dnieper
the only navigable stream is its confluent the Pripet. The
climate is more moderate than in middle Russia, the average
temperatures at the city of Kiev being— year, 44-5*; January,
21 ; July, 68°; yearly rainfall, 22 inches. The lowlands of
the north are covered with woods; they have the flora of
the Polyesie, or marshy woodlands of Minsk, and are peopkd
with animals belonging to higher latitudes. 1 The population,
which was 2,017,262 in 1863, reached 3,575457 in 1897, of whom
1,701.503 were women, and 147,878 lived in towns; and in
1004 it reached 4,042,526, of whom 2,030,744 were women.
The estimated population in 1006 was 4,206,100. In 1&07 there
were 2,738,977 Orthodox Greeks, 14,888 Nonconformists, 91,821
Roman Catholics, 423,875 Jews, and 6820 Protestants.
No less than 41% of the land is in large holdings, and 4$%
belongs to the peasants. Out of an area of 12,600,000 acres,
11,100,000 acres are available for cultivation, 4,758,000 acres
are under crops, 650,000 acres under meadows, and i»SSo,ooo
acres under woods. About 200,000 acres are under beetroot,
for sugar. The crops principally grown are wheat, rye, oats,
millet, barley and buckwheat, with, in smaller quantities*
hemp, flax, vegetables, fruit and tobacco. Camels have bees
used for agricultural work. Bee-keeping and gardening are
general The chief factories are sugar works and distilleries.
The former produce 850,000 to 1,150,000 tons ol sugar and
over 50.000 tons of molasses annually. The factories incmoe
machinery works and iron foundries, tanneries, steam flour-
mills, petroleum refineries and tobacco factories. Two maia
railways, starting from Kiev and Cherkasy respectively, croft
the government from N.E. to S.W., and two lines tra. verse as
southern part from N.W. to S.E., parallel to the Dnieper.
Steamers ply on the Dnieper and some of its tributaries. Wheal,
rye, oats, barley and flour are exported. There are two great
fairs, at Kiev and Berdichev respectively, and many ol sninor
importance. Trade is very brisk, the river traffic alone beisg
valued at over one million sterling annually. The government a
divided into twelve districts. The chief town is Kiev (?.».)ajid the
district towns, with their populations in 1897, Berdichev (55,738!.
Cherkasy (29,619), Chigirin (9870), Kanev (8892), Lipovets
(6068), Radomysl (11,154). Skvira (16,265), Tarashchn (1 1,4 $2).
Uman (28,628), Vasilkov (17.824) and Zvenigorodkn (16,07 a).
The plains on the Dnieper have been inhabited since probably
the Palaeolithic period, and the burial-grounds used since the
« Schmahthausen's FUn of Snttk-Wtst RussU <Ka*v.
con t a in * a good des cr i pt io n of the flora of the province.
KIEV
789
Stone Age. The burial mounds (kurgans) of both the Scythians
tad the* Slavs, traces of old forts (gorodiskche), stone statues, and
more recent caves offer abundant material for anthropological
and ethnographical study.
KIEV* a city of Russia, capital of the above government, on
the right or west bank of the Dnieper, in 50 27' 12' N. and
30° 30* 18* E., 638 m. by rail S.W. of Moscow and 406 m. by rail
N.N,E. of Odessa. The site of the greater part of the town
consists of hills or bluffs separated by ravines and hollows, the
elevation of the central portions being about 300 ft. above the
ordinary level of the Dnieper. On the opposite side of the river
Che country spreads out low and level like a sea. Having
received aH its important tributaries, the Dnieper is here a broad
(400 to 580 yds.) and navigable stream; but as it approaches the
town it divides into two arms and forms a low grassy Island
of considerable extent called Tukhanov. During the spring
floods there is a rise of 16 or even 20 ft., and not only the island
but the country along the left bank and the lower grounds on the
right bank are laid under water. The bed of the river is sandy
and shifting, and it is only by costly engineering works that the
main stream has been kept from returning to the more eastern
channel, along which it formerly flowed. Opposite the southern
part of the town, where the currents have again united, the
river is crossed by a suspension bridge, which at the time of its
erection (1848-1853) was the largest enterprise of the kind in
Europe. It is about half a mile in length and 52) ft. In breadth,
and the four principal spans are each 440 ft. The bridge was
designed by Vignoles, and cost about £400,000. Steamers ply
in summer to Kremenchug, Ekaterinoslav, Mogilev, Pinsk and
Chernigov. Altogether Kiev is one of the most beautiful cities
in Russia, and the vicinity too is picturesque.
Until 1837 the town proper consisted of the Old Town,
Pechersk and Podoli; but in that year three districts were
added, and in 1870 the limits were extended to include Kure-
nevka, Lukyanovka, Shulyavka and Sofomenka. The admini-
strative area of the town is 13,500 acres.
The Old Town, or Old Kiev quarter (Starokievskaya Chast),
occupies the highest of the range of hills. Here the houses are
most closely built, and stone structures most abundant. In
some of the principal streets are buildings of three to five
storeys, a comparatively rare thing in Russia, indeed in the
main street (Kreshchatik) fine structures have been erected
since 1896. In the nth century the area was enclosed by
earthen ramparts, with bastions and gateways; but of these
the only surviving remnant is the Golden Gate. In the centre
of the Old Town stands the cathedral of St Sophia, the oldest
cathedral in the Russian empire. Its external walls arc of a
pale green and white colour, and it has ten cupolas, four spangled
with stars and six surmounted each with a cross. The golden
cupola of the four-storeyed campanile is visible for many miles
across the steppes. The statement frequently made that the
church was a copy of St Sophia's in Constantinople has been
shown to be a mistake. The building measures in length 1 77 ft.,
while its breadth is 118 ft. But though the plan shows no
imitation of the great Byzantine church, the decorations of the
interior (mosaics, frescoes, &c.) do indicate direct Byzantine
influence. During the occupation of the church by the Uniats
or United Greek Church in the 17th century these were covered
with whitewash, and were only discovered in 1842, after which
the cathedral was internally restored, but the chapel of the
Three Pontiffs has been left untouched to show how carefully
the old style has been preserved or copied. Among the mosaics
Is a colossal representation of the Virgin, 15 ft. in height, which,
like the so-called " indestructible wall " in which it is inlaid,
dates from the time (1010-1054) of Prince Yaroslav. This prince
founded the church in 1037 in gratitude for his victory over the
Petchenegs, a Turkish race then settled in the Dnieper valley.
His sarcophagus, curiously sculptured with palms, fishes, &c,
is preserved. The church of St Andrew the Apostle occupies
the spot where, according to Russian tradition, that apostle
stood when as yet Kiev was not, and declared that the hill
would become the site of a great city. The present building,
m florid rococo style, dates from 1 744-1 767. The church of the
Tithes, rebuilt in 1828-1842, was founded in the close of the 10th
century by Prince Vladimir in honour of two martyrs whom
he had put to death; and the monastery of St Michael (or of
the Golden Heads— so called from the fifteen gilded cupolas
of the original church) claims to have been built in 1108 by
Svyatopolk II., and was restored in 1655 by the Cossack chieftain
Bogdan Chmielnicki. On a plateau above the river, the favour-
ite promenade of the citizens, stands the Vladimir monument
(1853) in bronze. In this quarter, some distance back from the
river, is the new and richly decorated Vladimir cathedral (1862-
1806), in the Byzantine style, distinguished for the beauty and
richness of its paintings.
Until 1820 the south-eastern district of Pechersk was the
industrial and commercial quarter; but it has been greatly
altered in carrying out fortifications commenced in that year
by Tsar Nicholas L Most of the houses are small and old-
fashioned. The monastery— the Kievo-Pechcrskaya— is the
chief establishment of its kind in Russia; it is visited every
year by about 250,000 pilgrims. Of its ten or twelve conventual
churches the chief is that of the Assumption. There are four
distinct quarters in the monastery, each under a superior;
subject to the archimandrite: the -Laura proper or New Monas-
tery, that of the Infirmary, and those of the Nearer and the
Further Caves. These caves or catacombs are the most striking
characteristic of the place; the name Pechersk, indeed, is con-
nected with the Russian peskchera, " a cave." The first series
of caves, dedicated to St Anthony, contains eighty saints*
tombs; the second, dedicated to St Theodosius, a saint greatly
venerated in Russia, about forty-five. The bodies were formerly
exposed to view; but the pilgrims who now pass through the
galleries see nothing but the draperies and the inscriptions.
Among the more notable names are those of Nestor the chroni-
cler, and Hiya of Murom, the Old Cossack of the Russian epics.
The foundation of the monastery is ascribed to two saints of
the nth century — Anthony and Hilarion, the latter metropolitan
of Kiev. By the middle of the 12th century it had become
wealthy and beautiful. Completely ruined by the Mongol
prince Batu in 1240, it remained deserted for more than two
centuries. Prince Simeon Oblkovich was the first to begin the
restoration. A conflagration laid the buildings waste in 1716,
and their present^spect is largely due to Peter the Great. The
cathedral of the Assumption, with seven gilded cupolas, was
dedicated in 1089, destroyed by the Mongols in 1240, and
restored in 1729; the wall-paintings of the interior arc by
V. Vereshchagin. The monastery contains a school of picture-
makers of ancient origin, whose productions are widely
diffused throughout the empire, and a printing press, from
which have issued liturgical and religious works, the oldest
known examples bearing the date 16 16. It possesses a wonder-
working ikon or image of the " Death of the Virgin," said to
have been brought from Constantinople in 1073, and the second
highest bell-tower in Russia.
The Podol quarter lies on the low ground at the foot of the
bluffs. It is the industrial and trading quarter of the city,
and the seat of the great fair of the " Contracts," the transference
of which from Dubno in 1797 largely stimulated the commercial
prosperity of Kiev. The present regular arrangement of its
streets arose after the great fire of 1811. Lipki district (from
the lipki or lime trees, destroyed in 1833) is of recent Origin,
and is mainly inhabited by the well-to-do classes. It is some-
times called the palace quarter, from the royal palace erected
between 1868 and 1870, on the site of the older structure dating
from the time of Tsaritsa Elizabeth. Gardens and parks
abound; the palace garden is exceptionally fine, and in the same
neighbourhood are the public gardens with the place of amuse-
ment known as the Chateau des FIcurs.
In the New Buildings, or the Lybed quarter, are the university
and the botanical gardens. The Ploskaya Chast (Flat quarter)
or Obolon contains the lunatic asylum; the Lukyanovka Chast,
the penitentiary and the camp and barracks; and the Burvar-
naya Chast, the military gymnasium of St Vladimir and the
79*
KILIA— KILIN
wrote many pamphlets, often anonymoas, and frequently not
In the best of taste. For this he was arraigned before the
Conference of 1706 and expelled, and he then founded the
Methodist New Connexion (1 70S, merged since 1006 in the United
Methodist Church). He died in 1708, and the success of the
church he founded is a tribute to his personality and to the
principles for which be strove. Kilham's wife (Hannah Spurr,
1774-1832), whom he married only a few months before his
death, became a Quaker, and worked as a missionary in the
Gambia and at Sierra Leone; she reduced to writing several West
African vernaculars.
KJUA, a town of S. Russia, in the government of Bessarabia,
100 m. S.W. of Odessa, on the Kilia branch of the Danube, 20 m.
from its mouth. Pop. (1897), 11,703. It has steam flour-mills
and a rapidly increasing trade. The town, anciently known as
Chil«, Chcfe, and Lycosiomium, was a place of banishment for
poluieat dignitaries of Byzantium in the I2th-i3th centuries.
After bringing to the Genoese from 1381-1403 it was occupied
successively by Walachia and Moldavia, until in 1484 it fell into
Ihe hands of the Ottoman Turks. It was taken from them by
the Russians in 1790. After being bombarded by the Anglo-
French 8eet in July 1854, it was given to Rumania on the con-
clusion of the war; but in 1878 was transferred to Russia with
Bc&suabia.
KlUAN (Chilian, Kiluan), ST, British missionary bishop
»nd the apostle of eastern Franoonia, where he began his
labours towards the end of the 7th century. There are several
bwgfaphies of him, the first of which dates back to the oth
century ( BibliotktcQ hagiographica latino, Nos. 4060-4663). The
owest texts which refer to him are an 8th century necrology at
Wurabtitg and the notice by Hrabanus Maurus in his martyr-
ology. According to Maurus Kilian was a native of Ireland,
whence with his companions he went to eastern Franconia. After
having preached the gospel in Wiiraburg, the whole party were
put to death by the orders of an unjust judge named Gozbert.
It is difficult to fix the period with precision, as the judge
tor uuke) Goxbert is not known through other sources. Kilian'*
comrades, Coloman and Totroan, were, according to the Wttre-
burg necrology, respectively priest and deacon. The elevation of
UW whes of the three martyrs was performed by Burchard. the
first bishop of Wurzburg, and they are venerated in the cathedral
of that town. His festival is celebrated on the 8th of July.
r*£?. A i™. S V Ul * r * m * J u, "» «• 599-619: F. Emmerich, Der heilite
*, . \ J m c ft ,f »' ,8o6 > i J- Orfcnion, Lives of the Irtsk Semis, vfi
t' 7. VJ^f •• i 8 75-»904); A. Hauck, KirckengeuhuhU Deutsche
\ndi % 3rd ed., 1. 382 seq. (H. Db.)
KILIMANJARO, a great mountain in East Africa, its centre
tying in 3 5 S.and37°a 3 'E. It is the highest known summit of
the continent, rising as a volcanic cone from a plateau of about
3000 ft. to 10,321 ft. Though completely isolated it is but one
aJ several summits which crown the eastern edge of the great
plateau of equatorial Africa. About 20© m. almost due north,
across the wide expanse of the Kapte and Kikuyu uplands, lies
UoUftl Kenya, somewhat inferior in height and mass to Kiliman-
jaro, *nd *ome 25 m. due west rises the noble mass of Mount
The major axis of Kilimanjaro runs almost east and west, and
on it fi»* the two principal summits, Kibo in the west, Mawenzi
(kl m»** n **) m the east. Kibo, the higher, is a truncated cone
with * n** f ty perfect extinct crater, and marks a comparatively
recent r***** °* volcanic activity; while Mawenzi (16,802 ft.) is
the very tncienl core of a former summit, of which the crater
m |U have been removed by denudation. The two peaks, about
I ni »P* rt « %tt connected by a saddle or plateau, about 14.000 ft.
ui altitude, below which the vast mass slopes with great regularity
in a t)l m *l volcanic curve, especially in the south, to the plains
b*h>w the stilts ate furrowed on the south and east by a large
number of narrow ravines, down which flow streams which feed
the l*an9*»i >n0> ***** J*P* in the south and the Tsavo tributary
q! 1 ^ SuUaki tn 1 he east. South-west of Kibo, the Shira ridge
item* 10 be of Independent origin, while in the northwest a
pi gged group ol cone*, oi comparatively recent origin, has poured
forth vast lava-flows. In the south-east the regularity of tie
outline is likewise broken by a ridge running down from
Mawenzi.
The lava slopes of the Kibo peak are covered to a depth of
some 200 ft. with an ice-cap, which, where ravines occur, takes
the form of genuine glaciers. The crater wails arc highest oa
the south, three small peaks, uncovered by ice, rising from the
rim on this side. To the central and highest of these, the culmi-
nating point of the mountain, the name Kaiser Wiihelm Sprite
has been given. The rim here sinks precipitously some 600 fL
to the interior of the crater, which measures rather over 2000
yds. in diameter, and is in part covered by ice, in part by a bare
cone of ashes. On the west the rim is breached, allowing the
passage of an important glacier formed from the snow which
falls within the crater. Lower down this cleft, which owed iu
origin to dislocation, is occupied by two glaciers, one of which
reaches a lower level (13,800 ft.) than any other on Kilimanjaro.
On the north-west three large glaciers reach down to 16,000 ft.
Mawenzi peak has no permanent ice-cap, though at times snow
lies in patches. The rock of which it is composed has became
very jagged by denudation, forming stupendous walls and preci-
pices. On the east the peak falls with great abruptness seme
6500 ft. to a vast ravine, due apparently to dislocation aad
sinking of the ground. Below this the slope is more gradual aad
more symmetrical. Like the other high mountains of casters
Africa, Kilimanjaro presents well-defined zones of vegetation.
The lowest slopes are arid and scantily covered with scrub, bet
between 4000 and 6000 ft. on the south side the slopes are scJ
watered and cultivated. The forest zone begins, cm the smith,
at about 6500 ft., and extends to 9500, but in the north it is
narrower, and in the north-west, the driest quarter of the moun-
tain, almost disappears. In the alpine zone, marked especklj
by tree lobelias and Scnecio, flowering plants extend up te
15,700 ft. on the sheltered south-west flank of Mawenzi, bet
elsewhere vegetation grows only in dwarfed patches beyraai
13,000 ft. The special fauna and flora of the upper zone are
akin to those of other high African mountains, including Came-
roon. The southern slopes, between 4000 and 6000 ft., form the
well-peopled country of Chaga, divided into small districts.
As the natives believe that the summit of Kilimanjaro Is c
of silver, it is conjectured that Aristotle's reference to " the so-caflcd
Silver Mountain " from which the Nile flows was- based on
about this mountain. It is possible, however, that the
Mountain " was Ruwenzori (q.v.), from whose snow-clad heigfca
several hcadst reams of the Nile do descend. It is also postluc
though improbable, that Ruwenzori and not Kilimanjaro nor Kenya
may be the range known to Ptolemy and to the Arab geographers
oi the middle ages as the Mountains of the Moon. Reports of the
existence of mountains covered with snow were brought to 7 ^n^hax
about 1845 hy Arab traders. Attracted by these reports Johan*s
Rebmann of the Church Missionary Society journeyed inland froo
Mombasa in 1848 and discovered Kilimanjaro, which is some 200 m,
inland. Rebmann's account, though fully borne out by his colkatue
Dr Ludwig Krapf, was at first received with great incredulity bj
professional geographers. The matter was finally set at rest by tie
visits paid to the mountain by Baron Karl von dcr Dccken (1861
and 1862; and Charles New (1867), the latter of whom reached the
lower edge of the snow. Kilimanjaro has since been explored br
Joseph Thomson (1883), Sir H. H. Johnston (18&4), and others.
It has been the special study of Dr Hans Meyer, who made four «-
seditions to it. accomplishing the first ascent to the summit in 1SS9.
in the partition of Africa between the powers of western Europe,
Kilimanjaro was secured by Germany (1886) though the first treat**
concluded with native chiefs in that region had been made in 1S&4
by Sir H H. Johnston on behalf of a British company. On the
southern side of the mountain at Moshi is a German governme nt
station.
See R. Thornton (the geologist of von der Decken'a party) ta
Proc. of Roy. Geog Soe, (1861-186*); Ludwig Krapf, Trmvek in East
Africa ( 1 860) . Charles New, Life . . . in East Africa ( 1 873) ; Sir J . D-
Hooker in Journal of Linnean Society (1875); Sir H. H. Johnston,
The Kilimanjaro Expedition (1886); Hans Meyer, A cross East A frit**
Glaciers (1891); Der Kilimanjaro (Berlin, 1000). Except the last-
named all these works were published in London. (E. HfcJ
KlUN, or Ch'-i-un, one of the four symbolical creatures
which in Chinese mythology are believed to keep watch a«d
ward over the Celestial Empire. It is a unicorn, portrayed in
Chinese art as having the body and legs of a deer and as orV
KILKEE— KILKENNY
793
tafl. Its advent on earth heralds an age of enlightened govern*
mcnt and civic prosperity. It is regarded as the noblest of the
animal creation and as the incarnation of fire, water, wood,
metal and earth. It lives for a thousand years, and is believed
to step so softly as to leave no footprints and to crush no living
thing. ^
KILKEE, a seaside resort of county Care, Ireland, the ter-
minus of a branch of the West Clare railway. Pop. (1001),
1 66:. It lies on a small and picturesque inlet of the Atlantic
named Moore Bay, with a beautiful sweep of sandy beach. The
coast, fully exposed to the open ocean, abounds in fine cliff
scenery, including numerous caves and natural arches, but is
notoriously dangerous to shipping. Moore Bay is safe and
attractive for bathers. Bishop's Island, a bold isolated rock
in the vicinity, has remains of an oratory and house ascribed
to the recluse St Senan.
KILKENNY, a county of Ireland, in the province of Leinster,
bounded N. by Queen's County, E. by Carlow and Wexford, S.
by Waterford, and W. by Waterford and Tipperary. The area
is sii,77S acres, or about 8oo sq. m. The greater part of Kil-
kenny forms the south-eastern extremity of the great central
plain of Ireland, but in the south-east occurs an extension of the
mountains of Wicklow and Carlow, and the plain is interrupted
in the north by a hilly region forming part of the Castlecomer
coal-field, which extends also into Queen's County and Tipperary.
The principal rivers, the Suir, the Barrow and the Norc, have their
origin in the Slieve Bloom Mountains (county Tipperary and
Queen's County), and after widely divergent courses southward
discharge their waters into Waterford Harbour. The Suir forms
the boundary of the county with Waterford, and is navigable
for small vessels to Carrick. The Norc, which is navigable to
Innistioge, enters the county at its north-western boundary,
and flows by Kilkenny to the Barrow, 9 m. above Ross, having
received the King's River at Jerpoint and the Argula near Innis-
tioge. The Barrow, which is navigable beyond the limits of
Kilkenny into Kildare, forms the eastern boundary of the county
from near New Bridge. There are no lakes of any extent, but
turloughs or temporary lakes are occasionally formed by the
bursting up of underground streams.
The coal of the Castlecomer basin is anthracite, and the most
productive portions of the bed are in the centre of the basin at
Castlecomer. Hcmatitic iron of a rich quality is found in the
Cambro-Silurian rocks at several places; and tradition asserts
that silver shields were made about 850 B.C. at Argetros or
Silverwood on the Nore. Manganese is obtained in some of the
limestone quarries, and also near the Barrow. Marl is abundant
in various districts. Pipeclay and potter's clay are found, and
also yellow ochre. Copper occurs near Knocktopber.
The high synclinal coat-field forms the most important feature of
the north of the county. A prolongation of the field runs out south-
west by Tullaroan. The lower ground is occupied by Carboniferous
limestone. The Old Red Sandstone, with a Silurian core, forms the
high ridge of Slievenaman in the south ; and its upper laminated beds
contain Archanddon, the earliest known freshwater mollusc, and
plant-remains, at Kiltoran near Ballyhafe. The Leinster granite
appears mainly as inliers in the Silurian of the south-east. The
Carboniferous sandstones furnish the hard pavement-slabs sold as
" Carlow flags." The black limestone with white shells in it at
Kilkenny is quarried as an ornamental marble. Good slates are
quarried at rulmoganny, in the Silurian inlier on the Slievenaman
range.
. On account of the slope of the country, and the nature of the
soil, the surface occupied by bog or wet land is very small, and
the air is dry and healthy. So temperate is it In winter that the
myrtle and arbutus grow in the open air. There Is less rain
than at Dublin, and vegetation is earlier than in the adjacent
counties. Along the banks of the Suir, Nore and Barrow a very
rich soil has been formed by alluvial deposits. Above the Coal-
measures in the northern part of the county there is a moorland
t ract devoted chiefly to pasturage. The soil above the Kmestone
is for the most part a deep and rich loam admirably adapted for
the growth of wheat. The heath-covered hills afford honey
with a flavour of peculiar excellence. Proportionately to its
area, Kilkenny has an exceptionally large cultivable area. The
proportion of tflkge to pasturage b roughly as 1 to 2$. Oats,
barley, turnips and potatoes are all grown; the cultivation of
wheat has very largely lapsed. Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry
are extensively reared, the Kerry cattle being in considerable
request.
The linen manufacture introduced into the county in the 17th
century by the duke of Ormonde to supersede the woollen manu-
facture gradually became extinct, and the woollen manu-
facture now carried on is also very small. There are, however,
breweries, distilleries, tanneries and flour-mills, as well as marble
polishing works. The county is traversed from N. to S. by the
Maryborough, Kilkenny and Waterford branch of the Great
Southern & Western railway, with a connexion from Kilkenny
to Bagenalstown on the Kildare and Carlow fine; and the Water-
ford and Limerick line of the same company runs for a short
distance through the southern part of the county.
The population (87,406 in 1891; 70,150 in xoox) includes
about 04% of Roman Catholics. The decrease of population
is a little above the average, though emigration is distinctly
below it. The chief towns and villages are Kilkenny (7.*),
Callan (1840), Castlecomer, Thomastown and Graigue. The
county comprises 10 baronies and contains 134 civil parishes.
The county includes the parliamentary borough of Kilkenny,
and is divided into north and south parliamentary divisions,
each returning one member. Kilkenny returned 16 members
to the Irish parliament, two representing the county. Assizes
are held at Kilkenny, and quarter sessions at Kilkenny, Pilltown,
Urlingford, Castlecomer, Callan, Grace's Old Castle and Thomas-
town. The county is in the Protestant diocese of Ossory and
the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ossory and Kildare and
Leighlin.
Kilkenny is one of the counties generally considered to have
been created by King John. It had previously formed part
of the kingdom of Ossory, and was one of the liberties granted
to the heiresses of Strongbow wkh palatinate rights. Circular
groups of stones of very ancient origin are on the summits of
Slieve Grian and the hill of Qoghmanta. There are a large
number of cromlechs as well as raths (or encampments) in various
parts of the county. Besides numerous forts and mounds there
are five round towers, one adjoining the Protestant cathedral of
Kilkenny, and others at Tulloherin, Kilree, Fertagh and Agba-
viller. Ail, except that at Agbaviller, are nearly perfect.
There are remains of a Cistercian monastery at Jerpoint, said
to have been founded by Dunnough, King of Ossory, and of
another belonging to the same order at Graigue, founded by the
earl of Pembroke in 1 m. The Dominicans had an abbey at
Rosbercon founded in 1267, and another at Thomastown, of
which there are some remains. The Carmelites had a monastery
at Knocktopber. There were an Augustinian monastery at
Inistioge, and priories at Callan and Kells, of all of which there
are remains. There are also ruins of several old castles, such
as those of Callan, Legan, Grenan and Clonamery, besides the*
ancient portions of Kilkenny Castle.
KILKENNY, a city and municipal and parliamentary borough
(returning one member), the capital of county Kilkenny,
Ireland, finely situated on the Nore, and on the Great Southern-
and Western railway, 81 ro. S.W. of Dublin. Pop. (1001),
10,600. It consists of EngKsbtown (or Kilkenny proper) and
Irishtown, which are separated by a small rivulet, but although
Irishtown retains its name, it is now included in the borough
of Kilkenny. The city is irregularly built, possesses several
spacious streets with many good houses, while its beautiful
environs and imposing ancient buildings give it an unusual
interest and picturesque appearance. The Nore is cr ossed by
two handsome bridges. The cathedral of St Canice, from whom
the town takes its name, dates in its present form from about
1355. The see of Ossory, which originated in the monastery of
Agbaboe founded by St Canice in the 6th century, and took Ha
name from the early kingdom Of Ossory, was moved to Kilkenny
(according to conjecture) about the year 1200. In 183$ the
diocese of Ferns and Leighlin was united to it. With the excep-
tion of St Patrick's, Dublin, the cathedral is the largest
79*
ettJasiastlcal building in Ireland, hern* s length faun east to
west of 226 ft., and a breadth along the transepts Cram north to
south of 123 ft. Jt occupies an eminence at the western extre-
mity of Irishtown. It is a cruciform structare mainly in Early
English style, with a low massive lower supported on clustered
columns of the black marble peculiar to the district. The
building was extensively restored m 1865. It contains many
old sepulchral monuments and other ancient memorials. The
north transept incorporates the parish church. The adjacent
library of St Canice contains bwibckms ancient books of great
value, A short distance from the sooth transept is a round
tower 100 fL high; the original cap b wanting. The episcopal
palace near the east end of the cathedral was erected in the time
of Edward III. and enlarged in 1735. Besides the cathedral
the principal churches are the Protestant church of St Mary, a
plain cruciform structure of earlier foundation than the present
cathedral; that of St John, including a portion of the hospital
of St John founded about 1220; and the Roman Catholic
cathedral, of the diocese of Qssory, dedicated to St Mary (1843-
1857), a cruciform stnactare in the Early Pointed style, with a
massive central lower. There are important remains of two
rrionasterics — the Dominican abbey founded in 1225, and now
used as a Roman Cathohc church; and the Franciscan abbey
on the banks of the Nore, founded about 1230. But next in
importance to the cathedral is the castle, the seat of the marquess
of Ormonde, on the summit of a precipice above the Nore. It
iras originally built by Strongbow, but rebuilt by William
>UrshaQ after the destruction of the first castle in 1175; and
jpaay additions and restorations by members of the Ormonde
family have maintained it as a princely residence. The Protes-
tant college of St John, originally founded by Pierce Butler,
5lh earl of Ormonde, in the roth century, and re-endowed in 1684
by James, rst dak* of Ormonde, stands on the banks of the
fiver opposite the castle. In it Swift, Farquhar, Congreve and
jUshop Berkeley received part of their education. On the out-
$*irt* of the city is the Roman Catholic college of St Kyran
lK>eraa\ a Gothk building completed about 1840. The other
ptiacifial bttuVhafs are the modern court-house, the tholset or
tv court It 7**), the dty and county prison, the barracks and
^coaotYiaarmary. In the neighbourhood are collieries as well
*» to»C~estabbshed quarries for marble, the manufactures con-
nected with which are an important industry of the town. The
c ^iy *bo possesses corn-mills, breweries and tanneries. Not far
fox* the cit v are the remarkable limestone caverns of Dunmore,
»>t^4 have vw^itd numerous human remains. The corporation of
K tc«ay consist* of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors.
k •aeany proper owes its origin to an English settlement in
w i^aw *t Stroagbow, and it received a charter from William
-u-ifrf a - **» "wrird St rongbow's daughter. This charter was
^.v .*rd by Edward III., and from Edward IV. Irishtown
"„v^<4 the nrivkge of choosing a portreeve independent of
v ^ ov> $v hhssbeth the boroughs, while retaining their
. ^ ^. .^Vx were constituted one corporation, winch in 1609
* " ^^ A :?CY pjuw^h by James I., and in the following year a
*** * ri>» James IL the dlixens received a new charter,
*"** ; * fcwB ^ ^ s -^, *«d liberties a distinct county, to be styled
**'"*'. V-- > w tVc oty of Kilkenny, the burgesses of Irishtown
** *./\ v>*ewf» to ekct a portreeve until the passing of the
"*** ^ V *k<vm» Avt. Frequent parliaments were held at
* v * t ^^ ^ J 4t h to the 16th century, and so late as the
v * *"* ^^ y m * was tbe occasional residence of the lord-
*-* * t» *♦♦> * was d* meeting-place of the assembly
"* *"** ^ vVhcacs. In *°** Cromwell, in the hope of
*' ^*"*'^« il i« of the town by means of a plot, advanced
v v ^ v^j,, his arrival the plot was discovered. In
■- * T* m (^^ptikd to surrender after a long and
"■*•* ^ 4 very early period Kilkenny and Irishtown
, .. * N - k * »«wjbefs to the Irish parliament, but since
" * *"" T^** *^T •** becn returoe<1 *° Westminster
,^*m» - to fitht like Knkenny cats." which,
KILKENNY— KIIXALA
been the subject of many oonfecrnrea. It Is said to be aa dhenry
on the disastrous mu n ici p al quarrels of Kilkenny aadlriahtowa which
lasted from the end of the 14th to the end of tbe I7th cemories
(Notts and Queries, 1st series, voL u. p. 71). It is referred ah* to
the brutal sport of some Hessian soldiers, quartered ia Kilkeaay
during the rebellions of 1798 or 1803. who tied two cats together
by their tails, hung them over a line and left them to fight. A soldier
is said to have freed them by cutting off their tails to escape censure
from the officers (ibid. 3rd series, vol. v. p. 433). Lastly, it is attri-
buted to the invention of J. P. Curran. As a sarcastic protest
against cock-fighting in England, he declared that he had wita
in Sligo (?) fights between trained cats, and that once they had
fought so fiercely that only their tails were left (ibid. 7th series, voL i.
P. 394).
KILKENNY, STATUTE OF, the name given to a body of laws
promulgated in 1366 with the object of strengthening the
English authority in Ireland. In 1361, when Edward III. was
on the English throne, he sent one of his younger sons, Lionel,
duke of Clarence, who was already married to an Irish heiress,
to represent him in Ireland. From the English point of view
the country was in a most unsatisfactory condition. Lawless
and predatory, the English settlers were hardly distinguishable
from the native Irish, and the authority of the English king over
both had been reduced to vanishing point. In their efforts to
cope with the prevailing disorder Lionel and his advisers sum-
moned a parliament to meet at Kilkenny early in 1366 and here
the statute of Kilkenny was passed into law. This statute was
written in Norman- French, and nineteen of its clauses are merely
repetitions of some ordinances which had been drawn up at
Kilkenny fifteen years earlier. It began by relating how the
existing state of lawlessness was due to the malign influence
exercised by the Irish over the English, and, like Magna Carta,
its first positive provision declared that the church should be
free. As a prime remedy for the prevailing evils all marriages
between the two races were forbidden. Englishmen must no:
speak the Irish tongue, nor receive Irish minstrels into their
dwellings, nor even ride in the Irish fashion; while to give or seS
horses or armour to the Irish was made a treasonable offence.
Moreover English and not Breton law was to be employed, and
no Irishman could legally be receivd into a religious house, nor
presented to a benefice. The statute also contained clauses for
compelling the English settlers to keep the laws. For each
county four wardens of the peace were to be appointed, while the
sheriffs were to hold their tourns twice a year and were not to
oppress the people by their exactions. An attempt was made
to prevent the emigration of labourers, and finally the spiritual
arm was invoked to secure obedience to these laws by threats of
excommunication. The statute, although marking an inter*
csting stage in the history of Ireland, had very little practical
effect.-
The full text is published in the Statutes and Ordinances of Imtamd.
John to Henry V., by H. F. Berry (1907).
KILLALA (pron. Kittdllc), a small town on the north coast of
county Mayo, Ireland, in the northern parliamentary division,
on the western shore of a fine bay to which it gives name. Pop.
(1901)1 510. It is a terminus of a branch of the Midland Great
Western railway. Its trade is almost wholly diverted to h*iKm
on the river Moy, which enters the bay, but KiUala is of high
antiquarian and historical interest. It was for many centuries
a bishop's see, tbe foundation being attributed to St Patrick ia
the 5th century, but the diocese was joined with Achonxy early
in the 17th century and with Tuam in 1833. Tbe catnednl
church of St Patrick is a plain structure of the 17U& cent ur y.
There is a fine sOuterrain, evidently connected with a rath, or
encampment, in the graveyard. A round tower, 04 ft. in height,
stands boldly on an isolated eminence. Close to Killala the
French under Humbert landed in 1798, being diverted by con-
trary winds from the Donegal coast. Near the Moy river, south
of KiUala, are the abbeys of Moyne and Roserk or Rosacrick,
both Decorated in style, and both possessing fme cloisters.
At Rathfran, a m. N., is a Dominican abbey (1274), and in the
neighbourhood are camps, cromlechs, and an inscribed ogfrf
stone, ix ft. in height. Killala gives name to a Roman CaUao&c
diocese, the seat of which, however, ia at BaUina.
KILLALOE— KILLIGREW, SIR H.
795
KILLALOB, a town of county Clare, Ireland, in the east
parliamentary division, at the lower extremity of Lough Derg
on the river Shannon, at the foot of the Slieve Bernagh moun-
tains. Pop. (iooi), 885. It is connected, so as to form one
town, with Ballina (county Tipperary) by a bridge of 13 arches.
Ballina is the termiau9 of a branch of the Great Southern and
Western railway, 15 m. N.E. of Limerick. Slate is quarried
In the vicinity, and there were formerly woollen manufactures.
The cathedral of St Flannan occupies the site of a church
founded by St Dalua in the 6th century. The present building
Is mainly of the 12th century, a good cruciform example of the
period, preserving, however, a magnificent Romanesque doorway.
It was probably completed by Donall O'Brien, king of Munster,
but part of the fabric dates from a century before his time.
In the churchyard is an ancient oratory said to date from the
period of St Dalua. Near Killaloe stood Brian Bom's palace of
Kincora, celebrated in verse by Moore; for this was the capital
of the kings of Munster. Killaloe is frequented by anglers for
the Shannon salmon-fishing and for trout-fishing in Lough
Derg. Killaloe gives name to Protestant and Roman Catholic
dioceses.
KILLARNET, a market town of county Kerry, Ireland, in
the east parliamentary division, on a branch line of the Great
Southern & Western railway, 185 J m. S.W. from Dublin. Pop.
of urban district (1901), 5656. On account of the beautiful
scenery in the neighbourhood the town is much frequented by
tourists. The principal buildings are the Roman Catholic
cathedral and bishop's palace of the diocese of Kerry, designed
by A. W. Pugin, a large Protectant church and several hotels.
Adjoining the town is the mansion of the earl of Kenmare.
There is a school of arts and crafts, where carving and inlaying
are prosecuted. The only manufacture of importance now
carrietl on at Killarney is that of fancy articles from arbutus
Brood; but it owed its origin to iron-smelting works, for which
abundant fuel was obtained from the neighbouring forests.
The lakes of Killarney, about 1$ m. from the town, lie in a
basin between several lofty mountain groups, some of which rise
abruptly from the water's edge, and all clothed with trees and
shrubbery almost to their summits. The lower lake, or Lough
Leane (area 5001 acres), is studded with finely wooded islands,
on the largest of which, Ross Island, are the ruins of Ross Castle,
an old fortress of the O'Donoghues; and on another island, the
" sweet Innisfallcn " of Moore, are the picturesque ruins of an
abbey founded by St Finian the leper at the close of the 6th
century. Between the lower lake and the middle or Tore lake
(63o acres in extent) stands Muckross Abbey, built by Francis-
cans about 1440. With the upper lake (430 acres), thickly
studded with islands, and close shut in by mountains, the lower
« and middle lakes are connected by the Long Range, a winding
and finely wooded channel, i\ m. in length, and commanding
magnificent views of the mountains. Midway in its course 'is a
famous echo caused by the Eagle's Nest, a lofty pyramidal
rock.
Besides the lakes of Killarney themselves, the immediate
neighbourhood includes many features of natural beauty and of
historic interest. Among the first are Macgillicuddy's Reeks
and the Tore and Purple Mountains, the famous pass known as
the Gap of Dunloe, Mount Mangerton, with a curious depression
(the Devil's punchbowl) near its summit, the waterfalls of Tore
and Derrycunihy, and Lough Guitane, above Lough Leane.
Notable ruins and remains, besides Muckross and Innisfallen,
include Aghadoe, with its ruined church of the 12th century
(formerly a cathedral) and remains of a round tower; and the
Ogham Cave of Dunloe, a souterrain containing inscribed stones.
The waters of the neighbourhood provide trout and salmon, and
the flora is of high interest to the botanist. Innumerable
legends centre round the traditional hero O'Donoghue.
, N KILLDEER. a common American plover, so called in imitation
' of its whistling cry, the Charadrius vaciferus of Linnaeus, and
' the AegialUis vocifera of modern ornithologists. About the
1 size of a snipe, it is mostly sooty-brown above, but showing a
1 bright buff on the tail coverts, and in flight a white bar on the
wings; beneath it is pure white -except two pectoral bands
of deep black. It is one of the finest as well as the largest of
the group commonly known as ringed plovers or ring dotterels, 1
forming the genus AegialUis of Boie. Mostly wintering in the
south or only on the sea-shore of the more northern states, in
spring it spreads widely over the interior, breeding on the
newly ploughed lands or on open grass-fields. The nest is
made in a slight hollow, and is often surrounded with small
pebbles and fragments of shells. Here the hen lays her pear-
shaped, stone-coloured eggs, four in number, and always
arranged with their pointed ends touching each other, as is
the custom of most Iimicoline birds. The parents exhibit the
greatest anxiety for their offspring on the approach of an in-
truder. It is the best-known bird of its family in the United
States, where it is less abundant in the north-east than farther
south or west. In Canada it does not range farther northward
than 56° N.; it is not known in Greenland, atd hardly in
Labrador, though it is a passenger in Newfoundland every
spring and autumn. 1 In winter it finds its way to Bermuda
and to some of the Antilles, but it is not recorded from any
of the islands to the windward of Porto Rico. In the other
direction, however, it travels down the Isthmus of Panama
and the west coast of South America to Peru. The killdeer
has several other congeners in America, among which may be
noticed Ac semipalmata, curiously resembling the ordinary
ringed plover of the Old World, Ae. hiaticula, except that it
has its toes connected by a web at the base; and Ac. nivosa,
8 bird inhabiting the western parts of both the American
continents, which in the opinion of some authors is only a
local form of the widely spread Ae. alezandrina or canliana,
best known as Kentish plover, from its discovery near Sandwich
towards the end of the J 8th century, though it is far more
abundant in many other parts of the Old World. The common
ringed plover, Ae. hiaticula, has many of the habits of the
killdeer, but is much less often found away from the sea-
shore, though a few colonies may be found in dry warrens in
certain parts of England many miles from the coast, and in
Lapland at a still greater distance. In such localities it
paves its nest with small stones (whence it is locally known as
' Stone hatch "), a habit almost unaccountable unless regarded
as an inherited instinct from shingle-haunting ancestors.
(A.N.)
KILUB€RANKJB, a pass of Perthshire, Scotland, 3! m.
N.N.W. of Pitlochry by the Highland railway. Beginning
close to Kitliecrankie station it extends southwards to the
bridge of Garry for nearly t\ m. through the narrow, extremely
beautiful, densely wooded glen in the channel of which flows
the Garry. A -road constructed by General Wade in 1731
runs up the pass, and between this and the river is the
railway, built in 1863. The battle of the 27th of July 1680,
between some 3000 Jacobites under Viscount Dundee and
the royal force, about 4000- strong, led by General Hugh
Mackay, though named from the ravine, was not actually
fought in the pass. When Mackay emerged from the gorge he
found the Highlanders already in battle array on the high
ground on the right bank of the Girnaig, a tributary of the
Garry, within half a mile of where the railway station now is.
Before he had time to form on the more open table-land, the
clansmen charged impetuously with their claymores and swept
his troops back into the pass and the Garry. Mackay lost
nearly half his force, the Jacobites about 000, including their
leader. Urrard House adjoins the spot where Viscount Dundee
received his death-wound.
KILUGREW. SIR HENRY (d. 1603), English diplomatist,
belonged to an old Cornish family and became member of
parliament for Launceston in 1553. Having lived abroad
1 The word dotterel seems properly applicable to a single specks
only, the Charadrius morineilus of Linnaeus, which, from some of its
osteological characters, may be fitly regarded as the type of a dis-
tinct genus, Eudromias. Whether any other species agree with it in
the peculiarity alluded to is at present uncertain.
• A single example is said to have been shot near Christchnrch, in
Hampshire, England, in April 1857 (Ibu, 1862, p. 276).
796
KILLIGREW, T.— KILLYBEG8
during the whole or part of Mary's reign, he returned to England
when Elizabeth came to the throne and at once began to serve
the new queen as a diplomatist. He was employed on amission
to Germany, and in conducting negotiations in Scotland, where
he had several interviews with Mary Queen of Scots. He
was knighted in 1591, and after other diplomatic missions in
various parts of Europe he died early in 1603. Many of Sir
Henry's letters on public matters are in the Record Office,
London, and in the British Museum. His first wife, Catherine
(c. 1 530-1 583), daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke (1504-1576),
tutor to Edward VI., was a lady of talent.
Another celebrated member of this family was Sir Robebt
Killicrew (c. 1 579-1 633), who was knighted by James I. in
the same year (1603) as his father, Sir William Killigrew. Sir
William was an officer in Queen Elisabeth's household and
a member of parliament; he died in November 163*. Sir
Robert was a member of all the parliaments between 1603 and
his death, but he came more into prominence owing to his
alleged connexion with the death of Sir Thomas Overbury.
A man of some scientific knowledge, he had been in the habit
of supplying powders to Robeit Carr, earl of Somerset, but it
is not certain that the fatal powder came from the hands of
KUligrew. He died early in 1633, leaving five sons, three of
whom attained some reputation (see below).
KILLIGREW. THOMAS (161 2-1683), English dramatist and
wit, son of Sir Robert Killigrew, was born in Lothbury, London,
on the 7th of February 1612. Pepys says that as a boy he
satisfied his love of the stage by volunteering at the Red Bull
to take the part of a devil, thus seeing the play for nothing.
In 1633 he became page to Charles I., and was faithfully attached
to the royal house throughout his life. In 1635 he was in
France, and has left an account (printed in the European Maga-
zine, 1803) of the exorcizing of an evil spirit from some nuns at
Loudun. In 1641 he published two tragi-comedies, The Prisoners
and Claracilla, both of which had probably been produced
before 1636. In 1647 he followed Prince Charles into exile.
His wit, easy morals and accommodating temper recommended
him to Charles, who sent him to Venice in 1651 as his repre-
sentative. Early in the following year he was recalled at the
request of the Venetian ambassador in Paris. At the Restora-
tion he became groom of the bedchamber to Charles II., and
later chamberlain to the queen. He received in 1660, with
Sir William Davenant, a patent to erect a new playhouse, the
performances in which were to be independent of the censorship
of the master of the revels. This infringement of his prerogative
caused a dispute with Sir Henry Herbert, then holder of the
office, but Killigrew settled the matter by generous concessions.
He acted independently of Davenant, his company being known
as the King's Servants. They played at the Red Bull, until in
1663 he built for them the original Theatre Royal In Drury
Lane. Pepys writes in 1664 that Killigrew intended to have
four opera seasons of six weeks each during the year, and with
this end in view paid several visits to Rome to secure singers
and scene decorators. In 1664 his plays were published as
Comedies and Tragedies. Written by Thomas KiUigrew. They
are Claradila; The Princess, or Love at First Sight; The
Parson's Wedding; The Pilgrim; Cicilia and Clorinda, or Lorn
in Arms; Thomaso, or tie Wanderer; and BeUamira, her
Dream, or Love of Shadows. The Parson's Wedding (acted
c. 1640, reprinted in the various editions of Dodsley's Old
Plays and in the Ancient British Drama) is an unsavoury play,
which displays nevertheless considerable wu>snd some of its
jokes were appropriated by Congreve. It was revived after
the Restoration in 1664 and 1072 or 1673, all the pans being
in both cases taken by women. Killigrew succeeded Sir Henry
Herbert as master of the revels in 1673. He died at Whitehall
on the 19th of March 1683. Be was twice married, first to
Cecilia Crofts, maid of honour to Queen Henrietta Maria, and
secondly to Charlotte de Hesse, by whom he had a son Thomas
(1657-1710). who was the author of a successful little piece,
Chit-Chat, played at Drury Lane on the 14th of February 17 19,
with Mrs Oldfield in the part of Florinda.
Kiltigrew enjoyed a greater repu t a t io n
Sir John Denhara said of him: —
as a wit than as ad
Had Cowley ne'er spoke, KOfigrew ne'er writ.
Combined in one, they'd made a matchless wit.
Many stories are related of his bold speeches to Charles T. r^prs
(Feb. 12, 1668) records that he was said to hold the title of King's
Fool or Jester, with a cap and bells at the expense of the kms/i
wardrobe, and that he might therefore revile or jeer anybody, even
the greatest, without offence.
His elder brother, Sir William Killigrew (1606-1695), was
a court official under Charles I. and Charles II. He attempted
to drain the Lincolnshire fens, and was the author of four
plays (printed 1665 and 1666) of some merit.
A younger brother, Dr Henky Kilugbew (1613-1700),
was chaplain and almoner to the duke of York, and master
of the Savoy after the Restoration. A juvenile play of his,
The Conspiracy, was printed surreptitiously in 163S, and in an
authenticated version in 1653 as Pallantus and Ettdera. He
had two sons, Henry Killigrew (d. 1713), an admiral, and
James Killigrew, also a naval officer, who was killed in aa
encounter with the French in January 1695; and a daughter,
Anne (1660-1665), poet and painter, who was maid of honour
to the duchess of York, and was the subject of an ode by
Dryden, which Samuel Johnson thought the noblest in the
language.
A sister, Elizabeth Killicrew, married Francis Boyle,
1 st Viscount Shannon, and became a mistress of Charles II.
KILLIN, a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland, at the
south-western extremity of Loch Tay, 4 m. N.E. of KUta
Junction on a branch line of the Callander & Oban railway.
Pop. of parish (1901), 1423. It is situated near the conflurart
of the rivers and glens of the Dochart and Lochay, and b a
popular tourist centre, having communication by steamef with
Kenmore at the other end of the lake, and thence by coach to
Aberfeldy, the terminus of a branch of the Highland railway.
It has manufactures of tweeds. In a field near the vffiaae
a stone marks the site of what is known as Fingal's Grove,
An island in the Dochart (which is crossed at KQlin by a bridge
of five arches) is the ancient burial-place of the dan Macnab.
Finlarig Castle, a picturesque mass of ivy-dad ruins, was a
stronghold of the Campbells of Glenorcay, and several earls
of Breadalbane were buried in ground adjoining it, where the
modern mausoleum of the family stands. Three miles up the
Lochay, which rises in the hills beyond the forest of Mansion
and has a course of 15 m., the river forms a graceful '••f**'*
The Dochart, issuing from Loch Dochart, flows for xj m. in a
north-easterly direction and falls into Loch lay. The ruined
castle oh an islet in the loch once belonged to the Campbefls
of Lochawe.
KILLIS, a town of N. Syria, in the vilayet of Aleppo, 60 m. K.
of Aleppo city. It is situated in an extremely fertile plain, and
is completely surrounded with olive groves, the- pi o duc e of
which is reckoned the finest oil of all Syria; and its positian
on the carriage-road from Aleppo to Aintab and Birejik gives
it importance. The population (30,000) consists largely of
Circassians, Turkomans and Arabs, the town lying just on the
northern rim of the Arab territory. As Killis lies also very
near the proposed junction of the Bagdad and the Beirut-Aleppo
railways (at Tell Habesh), it is likely to increase in importance.
KILLYBEGS, a seaport and market town of county Donegal,
Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, on the aorta coast
on Donegal Bay, the terminus of the Donegal railway. Fop.
(1001), 607. It derives some importance from its fine land-
locked harbour, which, affording accommodation to large ▼eascfe,
is used as a naval station, and is the centre of an important
fishery. There is a large pier for the fishing vessels. The
manufacture of carpets occu pi e s a part of the population,
employing both male and female labour— the productions being
known as Donegal carpets. There are slight remains of a castle
and ancient church; and a mineral spring is still used, .lac
town received a -charter from James I., and was a paruamentary
borough, returning two members, until the Union
KILLYLEAGH— KILPATRICK.
797
RIU»YlI4€lf v a smel seaport mud market town of county
Down, Ireland, in the east parliamentary division, on the western
shore of Strangford Lough. Pop. (iooi), 141a Linen manu-
facture is the principal industry, and agricultural produce b
exported. Kfllyleagh was an important stronghold in early
times, and the modern castle preserves the towers of the old
building. Sir John de Courcy erected this among many other
fortresses in the neighbourhood; it was besieged by Shane
O'Neill (1567), destroyed by Monk (1648), and subsequently
rebuilt. The town was incorporated by James L, and returned
two members to the Irish parliament.
KIUIAJMEp CHARLES EDWARD (1751-1709), French
general, was born at Dublin on the toth of October 1751.
At the age of eleven he went with his father, whose surname
was Jennings, to France, where he changed his name to Kil-
maine, after a village in Mayo. He entered the French army
as an officer in a dragoon regiment in 1774, and afterwards
served as a volunteer in the Navy (1778), during which period
he was engaged in the fighting in Senegal. From 1780 to 1783
he took part in the War of American Independence under
Rochambeau, rejoining the army on his return to France. In
1791, as a retired captain, he took the civic oath and was recalled
to active service, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1792, and
colonel, brigadier-general, and lieutenant-general in 1793. In
this last capacity he distinguished himself in the wars on the
northern and eastern frontiers. But he became an object of
suspicion on account of his foreign birth and his relations with
England. He was suspended on the 41b of August 1793, and
was not recalled to active service till 1795. He then took part
in the Italian campaigns of 1796 and 1797, and was made
commandant of Lombardy. He afterwards received the
command of the cavalry in Bonaparte's " army of England,"
of which, during the absence of Desaix, he was temporarily
commander-in-chief (1798}. He died on the 15th of December
*799
See J. G. Alger, EntUskmen t» the Frenek Revolution (1889);
Eugdnc Ficff6, Histoire des troupes ttranghres au unite de Francs
(1854) ; Etienne Charavay, Correspondence de Cornoi, tome iii.
KILMALLOCK, a market town of county Limerick, Ireland,
in the east parliamentary division, 1*41 m. S.W. of Dublin by
the Great Southern & Western main line. Pop. (1901), 1206.
It commands a natural route (now followed by the railway)
through the hills to the south and south-west, and is a site of
great historical interest. It received a charter m the reign of
Edward HI., at which time it was walled and fortified, and
entered by four gates, two of which remain. It was a military
post of importance in Elizabeth's reign, but its fortifications
were for the most part demolished by order of CromwelL
Two castellated mansions are still to be seen. The church of
St Peter and St Paul belonged to a former abbey, and has a
tower at the north-west corner which is a converted round tower.
The Dominican Abbey, of the 13th century, has Early English
remains of great beauty and a tomb to Edmund, the last of the
White Knights, a branch of the family of Desmond intimately
connected with Kilmallock, who received their title from
Edward HL at the battle of Halidon HiO. The foundation of
Kilmallock, however, is attributed to the Geraldines, who had
several towns in this vicinity. Eight miles from the town is
Lough Gut, near which are numerous stone circles and other
remains. Kilmallock returned two members to the Irish
parliament
KILMARNOCK, a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire,
Scotland, on Kilmarnock Water, a tributary of the Irvine, 24 m.
S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Weitera railway.
Pop. (1001), 35,091. Among the chief buildings are the town
haU, court-house, corn-exchange (with the Albert Tower, no ft.
high), observatory, acaoemy, corporation art gallery, institute
(containing a free library and a museum), Kay schools, School
of Science and Art, Athenaeum, theatre, infirmary. Agricultural
Hall, and Philosophical Institution. The grounds of Kilmarnock
House, presented to the town tb 1893, were laid out as a public
park. In Kay Park (48I acres), purchased from the duke of
Portland for £9000, stands the Burns Memorial, consisting of two
storeys and a tower, and containing a museum in which have been
placed many important MSS. of the poet and the McKie library
of Burns'! books. The marble statue of the poet, by W. G.
Stevenson, standson a terrace on the southern face. A Reformers'
monument was unveaed in Kay Park in 1885. Kilmarnock rose
into importance in the 17th century by Its production of striped
woollen " Kilmarnock cowls " and broad blue bonnets, and
afterwards acquired a great name for its Brussels, Turkey and
Scottish carpets. Tweeds, blankets, shawls, tartans, lace
curtains, cottons and winceys are also produced. The boot and
shoe trade is prosperous, and there are extensive engineering and
hydraulic machinery works. But the iron Industry is prominent,
the town being situated in the midst of a rich mineral region.
Here, too, are the workshops of the Glasgow ft South-Western
railway company. Kilmarnock is famous for its dairy produce,
and every October holds the largest cheese-show in Scotland.
The neighbourhood abounds in freestone and coal. The burgh,
which is governed by a provost and council, unites with Dum-
barton, Port Glasgow, Renfrew and Rutherglen in returning one
member to parliament. Alexander Smith, the poet ( 1830-1867K
whose father was a lace-pattern designer, and Sir James Shaw
(1764-1843), lord mayor of London in 1806, to whom a statue
was erected in the town in 1848, were natives of Kilmarnock. It
dates from the 15th century, and in 1591 was made a burgh of
barony under dm Boyds, the ruling house of the district. The
last Boyd who bote the title of Lord Kilmarnock was beheaded
on Tower Hill, London, in 1746, for his share m the Jacobite
rising. The fiat edition of Robert Burns** poems was published
here in 1786.
K1LM AURS, a town in the Cunningham division of Ayrshire,
Scotland, on the Carmel, 21$ m. S. by W. of Glasgow by the
Glasgow k South- Western railway. Bop. (1901), 1803. Once
noted for its cutlery, the chief industries now are shoe and
bonnet factories, and there are iron and coal mines in the neigh-
bourhood. The parish church dates from 1170, and was dedi-
cated either to the Virgin or to a Scottish saint of theoth century
called Maure. It was emerged in 1403 and in great part rebuilt
in 1888. Adjoining it is the burial-place of the earJs of Glencairn,
the leading personages in the district during several centuries,
some of whom bore the style of Lord KJhnaurs. Their family
name was Cunningham, adopted probably from the manor which
they acquired in the 1 2th century. The town was made a burgh
of barony in 1597 by the earl of that date. Burns'* patron, the
thirteenth earl, on whose death the -poet wrote his touching
" Lament," sold the Kilmarrrs estate in 1786 to the marchioness
of Titchfield*
KILN (O. E. cylene, from the Lat cuUne, a kitchen, cooking,
stove), a place for burning, baking or drying. Kilns may be
divided into two classes— thote in which the materials come into
actual contact with the flames, and those in which the furnace it
beneath or surrounding the oven. Lime-kilns are el the first
class, and brick-kilns, pottery-kilna, &c, of the second, which
also includes places for merely drying materials, sack as
hop-kilns, usually called "oasts" or "oast-houses."
KILPATRICK, MEW, or BAST, also called Beaesdin, a town of
Dumbartonshire, Scotland, 5} m. N. W. of Glasgow by road, with
a station on the North British railway company's branch line
from Glasgow to Milngavio. Pop. (1901), S705. The town is
largely inhabited by business men from Glasgow. The public
buildings include the Shaw convalescent home, Buchanan
Retreat, house of refuge for girls, library, and St Peter's College*
a fine struct ore, presented to the Roman Catholic Church in 189s
by the archbishop of Glasgow. There is some coal-mining, and
lime is manufactured. Remains of the Wafl of Antoninus are
close to the town. At Gasscube and Carscadden, both within
1 1 m. of New Kilpatriek, are extensive iron-works, and at the
former place coal is mined and atone quarried.
KILPATRICK. OLD. a town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland, on
the right bank of the Clyde, 10$ m. N.W. of Glasgow by rail, with
stations on the North British and Caledonian railways. Pop,
(1901), 1533. It is traditionally the birthplace of St Ps trick.
79*
KILRUSB— KIMBERLEY, EARL OF
whose father b said t» kwicrf these « • ^-f^ ■***»*«•
Roman remains occur m U* ***** *ed *****" «« Antoninus
ran through the ptnskv I* the »•*»» ewapjrmg an area of
about 6n.{roiBaAt««atiMl5Kv from north to south
run the Kilpatrkk Hdn, of **** the highest points are
Puncomb and Fynkxh Hill teach UU kJ.
KILRUSH, a seaport and wa*erinsvptnce of county Clare,
Ireland, in the west pa rt is an foa a r y division, on the north shore
of the Shannon estuary 4$ »v hemw Umcrkk. Pop. of urban
district (rooi). 41 70. It is the terminus of a branch of the West
Clare railway. The onry seaport of isspoctance in the county,
it has a considerable export rate m peat fuel, extensive fisheries,
and flagstone quarries; wh*V general feairs, horse fairs and annual
agricultural shows aw heal The inner harbour admits only
small vessels, but these is a good pier a mile south of the town.
Off the harbour wet Scattcry Island (Ims Calkmtto, where
St Senan (d. 5*4) f iw n a ri a Monastery. There are the remains
of his oratory and hmii and of seven rude churches or chapels,
together with a rwwad te-wer and a holy well still in repute. The
island aba received the epithet of Holy, and was a favourite
burial ^rooa d «a*d modern times.
KIUTnL a notice burgh of Stirlingshire, Scotland, on the
Kelvin, 14 av N\N J^ of Glasgow by the North British railway,
and doe* t* the Forth and Clyde canaL Pop. (1001), 729a.
The pruK^rol fc«)«dtags are the town and public halls, and the
acadcatr. The chief industries are coal-mining and iron-works;
there are aba saaauf actures of paper and cotton, besides quarry-
ing of whiastoae and sandstone. There are considerable remains
of the Wal of Antoninus south of the town, and to the north
the ruins of the old castle. Kilsyth dates from the middle of the
a?U century and became- a burgh of barony in 1826. It was
the acwae of Montrose's defeat of the Covenanters 00 the
ajth ol August 1645. The town was the centre of remarkable
rftuSwss revivals in 1742-3 and 1830, the latter conducted by
wV£J*J Cfcabwera Burns (x8is-i868>, the missionary to China.
KUJ; properly the short loose skirt or petticoat, reaching
C* the knees and usually made of tartan, forming part of the
area of a Scottish Highlander (see Costume). The word
^cam that which is " girded or tucked up," and is apparently
^Scw«hn*v»norigiii,cf.Daiifa*«iae,totuckup. Theeariy
£jU was not a separate garment but was merely the lower part
O* ^ P T?V l ^ wWch ^ Highkiider wrapped mmsclf, hanging
^im in folds below the belt. ^^
KHWA (<>uloa), a seaport of German East Africa, about
^oo »-^i ^ ^jnabar. There are two Kilwas. one on the main-
is^^trT* ^vinje; the other, the ancient city, on an island—
j^wa hJMwani Kilwa Kivinje, on the northern side of Kilwa
j3*y* * "WWly mid out, the houses in the European quarter
^^uuTCWsubataiitial. The governmentJiouseand barracks
•**.
fortified and
are surrounded by fine public gardens. The
jjacent country b knife and thickly populated, and the trade
t the port * considerable. Muchofitisin the handsof Banyans.
£U„a is a stArtingwpoint for caravans to Lake Nyaaa. Pop.
^out S°°o. Moat of the inhabitants are Swr v .ilL
•■^jlwa Kiawaoi, 18 m. to the south of the modem town,
oaS »esses 4 deep harbour sheltered from all winds by projecting
P^rai reefs. The island on which it is built is separated from the
~^;ahnd by a shallow and narrow channel. The ruins of the
^[y include massive walls and bastions, remains of a palace
*£J of two large mo sques, of which the domed roofs are in fair
•^ervarioa, besides several Arab forts. The new quarter
**t**ias « customs house and a few Arab buildings. Pop. about
0* the island of Sosga Manara, at the southern end of
*?5^n Bay* hidden in dense vegetation, are the ruins of another
•jL unknown to history. Fragmenu of palaces and mosques
^V^t^ed amestone exist, and on the beach are the remains of a
* . -^«am. Chinese coins and pieces of porcelain have been
«a\ the seashore, washed up from the reefs.
^% m jultaaarr of K3va is Routed to have been foundetfaboot
\r*>« ** *** Hasan, a Persian prince from Shirar, upon the site
• «'*»««* Creek colony of ^ — -^w state, at em
•Jl«*»*aa saw* of Kilwa * along the
from Zanzibar to Sofala, and the city came to be regarded at the
capital of the Zcnj " empire " (see Zanzibar : " Sultanate **). An Arab
chronicle gives a list of over forty sovereigns who reigned at Kil*a
in a period of five hundred years (cf. A. M. R J. Scokvis, Monmd
d'kuimrti Leiden, 1888, L 558). Pedro Alvarcs Cabral. the Porta-
guese navigator, was the first European to visit it. His fleet, oa ks
way to India, anchored in Kilwa Bay in 1300. Kilwa was thea a
large and wealthy city, possessing, it b stated, three hundred moaqaes.
In 1502 Kilwa submitted to Vasco da Gama, but the sultan neglect-
ing to pay the tribute imposed upon him, the city in 150$ was occa-
pied by the Portuguese. They built a/ort there; the first erectes!
by them on the east coast of Africa. Fi)
Arabs and the Portuguese, the city was
ting ensued between the
* and in 1512 the
Portuguese, whose ranks had been decimated by fever, temporarily
abandoned the place. Subsequently Kilwa became one of the chief
centres of the slave trade. Towards the end of the 17th oeatury
it fell under the dominion of the imams of Muscat, and on the
separation in 1856 of their Arabian and African possessions became
subject to the sultan of Zanzibar. With the rest of the sonthera
part of the sultan's continental dominions Kilwa was acquired by
Germany in 1890 (see Africa, § 5; and Gbrmaji Ea&x Africa).
FJLWARDBT, ROBERT (d, 1279), archbishop of Canterbury
and cardinal, studied at the university of Paris, where he soon
became famous as a teacher of grammar and logic Afterwards
joining the order of St Dominic and turning his at tent inn te
theology, he was chosen provincial prior of his order in England
in 1261, and in October 127a Pope Gregory X. terminated
a dispute over the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury by
appointing Kilwardby. Although the new archbishop crowned
Edward L and his queen Eleanor in August 1274, he took link
part in business of state, but was energetic in discharging the
spiritual duties of his office. He was charitable to the peer,
and showed liberality to the Dominicans, In 1278 Pope
Nicholas III. made him cardinal-bishop of Porto arid Santa
Rufina; he resigned his archbishopric and left England, carrying
with him the registers and other valuable property belonging
to the see of Canterbury. He died in Italy on the nth of
September 1279. Kflwardby was the first member of a men-
dicant order to attain a high position in the English Chorea.
Among his numerous writings, which became very popular
among students, are De orlu scuntianm, De tempore, De Vn-
versali, and some commentaries on Aristotle.
See N. Trevet, Annates sex tegnm Antliat, edited by T. Hog
(London, 1845) ; W. F. Hook, Lists of the Archbishops of CanUrhmrj.
vol. i'u. (London, i860- 1876); J. Quetif and J. £chard, Scripurts
ordinis Prcdicaiorum (Paris, 1719-1721).
KILWINNING, a municipal and police burgh of Ayrshire
Scotland, on the right bank of the Garnock, 24 m. S.W. of
Glasgow by the Caledonian railway, and 26} m. by the Glasgow
& South- Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4440. The chief
buildings include the public library, the Masonic hall and the
district hospital. The centre of interest, however, is the ruined
abbey, originally one of the richest in Scotland. Founded
about 1x40 by Hugh de MorviDe, lord of Cajimnghazne, for
Tyronensian monks of the Benedictine order, it was dedicated
to St Winnin, who lived on the spot in the 8th century au»d has
given his name to the town. This beautiful specimen of Early
English architecture was partly destroyed in 1561, a\nd its
lands were granted to the earl of Eglinton and others. Kil-
winning is the traditional birthplace of Scottish freematsoBxy,
the lodge, believed to have been founded by the foreign archi-
tects and masons who came to build the abbey, being regarded
as the mother lodge in Scotland. The royal company of archers
of Kilwinning— dating, it is said, as far back as X4S&V— meet
every July to shoot at the popinjay. The industry in weaving
shawls and lighter fabrics has died out; and the large? iron,
coal and fire-clay works at Eglinton, and worsted «p*^"^^f ,
employ most of the inhabitants. About a mile from Kilwinning
is Eglinton Castle, the seat of the earls of Eglinton, built ia
1798 in the English castellated style,
rOMBERLEY. JOHN W0DKH0USB, ist Eaju of (1826-1902),
English statesman, was born on the 7th of January 1826* being
the eldest son of the Hon. Henry Wodehouse and grandson of
the and Baron Wodeboase (the barony dating from a 797).
whom be succeeded in 1S46. He was educated at Eton and
Christ Church, Oxford, where he took a first-daas degree m
KIMBERLEY— KINfERIDGIAN
799
dudes in 1847; In the tame year married Lady Florence
Fitxgibbon (d. 1895), daughter of the last earl of Clare. He
Wat by inheritance a Liberal in politics, and in 1853-1856 and
1850-1861 he was under secretary of state for foreign affairs in
Lord Aberdeen's and Lord Palmerston's ministries. In the
interval (1856-1858) he had been envoy-extraordinary to Russia;
and in 1863 he was sent on a special mission to Copenhagen on
the forlorn hope of finding a peaceful solution of the Schleswig-
tfolstein question. The mission was a failure, but probably
nothing else was possible. In 1864 he became under secretary
for India, but towards the end of the year was made Lord-
Lieutenant of Ireland. In that capacity be had to grapple
with the first manifestations of Fenianism, and in recognition
of his vigour and success he was created (1866) earl of Kimberley.
In July 1866 he vacated his office with the fall of Lord Russell's
ministry, but in 1868 he became Lord Privy Seal in Mr Glad-
stone's cabinet, and in July 1870 was transferred from that
post to be secretary of state for the colonies. It was the
moment of the great diamond discoveries in South Africa, and
the new town of Kimberley was named after the colonial secre-
tary of the day. After an interval of opposition from 1874 to
1880, Lord Kimberley returned to the Colonial Office in Mr
Gladstone's next ministry; but at the end of 1882 he exchanged
this office first for that of chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and
then for the secretaryship of state for India, a post he retained
during the remainder of Mr Gladstone's tenure of power
(1882-1886, 1893-1894), though in 1892-1894 he combined with
it that of the lord presidency of the council. In Lord Rosebcry's
cabinet (1894-1895) he was foreign secretary. Lord Kimberley
was an admirable departmental chief, but it is difficult to asso-
ciate his own personality with any ministerial act during his
occupation of all these posts. He was at the colonial office
when responsible government was granted to Cape Colony,
when British Columbia was added to the Dominion of Canada,
and during the Boer War of 1880-81, with its conclusion at
Majuba; and he was foreign secretary when the misunderstand-
ing arose with Germany over the proposed lease of territory from
the Congo Free State for the Cape to Cairo route. He was
essentially a loyal Gladstonian party man. His moderation,
common sense, and patriotism had their influence, nevertheless,
on his colleagues. As leader of the Liberal party in the House
of Lords he acted with un deviating dignity; and in opposition
he was a courteous antagonist and a critic of weight and
experience. He took considerable interest in education, and
after being for many years a member of the senate of London
University, be became its chancellor in 1899. He died in
London on the 8th of April 1002, being succeeded in the earldom
by his eldest and only surviving son, Lord Wodehouse (b. 1848).
KIMBERLEY, a town of the Cape province, South Africa,
the centre of the Griqualand West diamond industry, 647 m.
N.E. of Cape Town and 310 m. S.W. of Johannesburg by rail.
Pop. (1004), 34,331, of whom 13,556 were whites. The town is
built on the bare veld midway between the Modder and Vaal
Rivers and is 4013 ft. above the sea. Having grown out of
camps formed round the diamond mines, its plan is very irregular
and in striking contrast with the rectangular outline common
to South African towns. Grouped round market square are
the law courts, with a fine clock tower, the post and telegraph
offices and the town-halL The public library and the hospital
are in DuToits Pan Road. In the district of Newton, laid out
during the siege of 1899-1900, a monument to those who fell
during the operations has been erected where four roads meet.
Siege Avenue, in the suburb of Kenil worth, 350 ft. wide, a mile
and a quarter long, and planted with 16 rows of trees, was also
laid out during the siege. In the public gardens are statues
of Queen Victoria and Cecil Rhodes. The diamond mines form,
however, the chief attraction of the town (see Diamond). Of
these the Kimberley is within a few minutes' walk of market
square. The De Beers mine is one mile east of the Kimberley
mine. The other principal mines, Bultfontein, Du Toits Pan
and Wesselton, are still farther distant from the town. Barbed
wire fencing surrounds the mines, which cover about 180 acres.
The Kaffirs who work in the mines are housed in large com*
pounds. Wire netting is spread over these enclosures, and
every precaution taken to prevent the illicit disposal of diamonds.
Ample provision is made for the comfort of the inmates, who in
addition to food and lodging earn from 17s. to 34s. a week.
Most of the white workmen employed live at Kenilworth, laid
out by the De Beers company as a " model village." Beacons-
field, near Du Toits Pan Mine, is also dependent on the
diamond industry.
Kimberley was founded in 1870 by diggers who discovered
diamonds on the farms of Du Toits Pan and Bultfontein. In
1871 richer diamonds were found on the neighbouring farm of
Vooruitzight at places named De Beers and Colesberg Kopje.
There were at first three distinct mining camps, one at Du
Toits Pan, another at De Beers (called De Beers Rush or Old
De Beers) and the third at the Colesberg Kopje (called De
Beers New Rush, or New Rush simply). The Colesberg Kopje
mine was in July 1873 renamed Kimberley in honour of the
then secretary of state for the colonies, the 1st earl of Kimberley,
by whose direction the mines were — in 1871 — taken under the
protection of Great Britain. Kimberley was also chosen as
the name of the town into which the mining camps developed.
Doubt having arisen as to the rights of the crown to the minerals
on Vooruitzight farm, litigation ensued, ending in the purchase
of the farm by the state for £100,000 in 1875. In '88o the town
was incorporated in Cape Colony (see Griqualand). In 1874 a
great part of the population left for the newly discovered gold
diggings in the Lydenburg district of the Transvaal, but others
took their place. Among those early attracted to Kimberley
were Cecil Rhodes' and " Barney " Barnato, who in time came
to represent two groups of financiers controlling the mines.
The amalgamation of their interests in 1889 — when the D6
Beers group purchased the Kimberley mine for £51338,650 —
put the whole diamond production of the Kimberley fields in the
hands of one company, the De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd.,
so named after the former owners of the farms on which are
situated the chief mines. Kimberley in consequence became
largely dependent on the good-will of the De Beers corporation,
the town having practically no industries other than diamond
mining. Horse-breeding is carried on to a limited extent.
The value of the annual output of diamonds averages about
£4,500,000. The importance of the industry led to the building
of a railway from Cape Town, opened in 1885. On the outbreak
of war between the British and the Boers in 1899 Kimberley was
invested by a Boer force. The siege began on the 12 th of
October and lasted until the 15th of February 1000, when the
town was relieved by General Sir John French^ Among the
besieged was Cecil Rhodes, who placed the resources of the
De Beers company at the disposal of the defenders. In 1906
the town was put in direct railway communication with Johan-
nesburg, and in 1908 the completion of the line from Bloem-
fontein gave Natal direct access to Kimberley, which thus
became an important railway centre.
KIMERIDGIAN, in geology, the basal division of the Upper
Oolites in the Jurassic system. The name is derived from the
hamlet of Kiroeridge or Kimmeridge near the coast of Dorset-
shire, England. It appears to have been first suggested by
T. Webster in 181s; in 1818, in the form Kimeridge Clay, it was
used by Buckland. From the Dorsetshire coast, where it is
splendidly exposed in the fine cliffs from St Alban's Head to
Gad Cliff, it follows the line of Jurassic outcrop through Wilt-
shire, where there is a broad expanse between Westbury and
Devizes, as far as Yorkshire, there it appears in the vale of
Pickering and on the coast in Filey Bay. It generally occupied
broad valleys, of which the vale of Aylesbury may be taken as
typical. Good exposures occur at Scend, Calne, Swindon,
Wootton Bassett, Faringdon, Abingdon, Culham, Shotover Hill,
Brill, Ely and Market Rasen. Traces of the formation are found
as far north as the east coast of Cromarty and Sutherland *\
Eathie and Helmsdale.
In England the Kimeridgian it usually divisible into an Upper
Scries, 600-650 ft. in the south, dark Diturainous shales, paper
8oo
KIMtfl— KIN
&t\« a«A ^ U\% %lth Uvw and nodutat of cttnentHitone* and sep-
r;,,, \ Um* \hs»i tunsr cudually into the overlying Portlanduui
},m ,(m«i««h I h* I own Series, vith a maximum thickness of 400 ft.,
ivrtiuu \4 sUv «nd dark shales with septaria. cement-stones and
««U«i*wa 'Shrar«, M These litbotafical character* are very
l*4»t«iM*t Vhe- T'lHwr Kimtridgian is distinguished aa the xone
(\| /\'*.M *<***»> t«M#A, with the »ub-ionc 0/ Discina latissima in the
»uh« t^M < ivut*. C WiMfnsi ottomans it the zonal ammonite ename-
ls u»k nl the K>w*c division, with the sub-sone of Ostroa ddtoidea in
lh«t Uiww poniun. Exofyra firgula b common in the upper part of
}h? kiwer Uulsion, and the lower part of the Upper Kimendgian.
k Irti^e number of ammonites are peculiar to this formation, in-
cluding Knmr<kia ftfrfoxtM, R. Tkurmanni, Aspidoeeras lontispinus,
Ac taree dinosaurian reptiles are abundant, Cttwsaums, Gtgonto-
t*urua % Mttalotaurus, also pleatoamurs and ichthyoaaura; croco-
dilian and chelonian remains are also found. Procardia striatula,
Tkratia dffreuo, BtlemniUs abreviatus, B. Btoinvillei, Lingula ovalis,
Rkynchonwa inconstant and Exotyra nana are characteristic fossils.
Alum has been obtained from the Kimeridge Clay, and the cement-
stones have been employed in Purbeck; coprolitea are found in small
quantities. Bricks, tiles, flower-poo, &c, are made from the clay
at Swindon. Gillingham, Brill. Ely, Horncastle, and other places.
The so-called " Kimeridge coal " is a highly bituminous shale cap-
able of being used as fuel, which has been worked on the cliff At
Little Kimeridge.
The " Kimendgien " of continental geologists is usually made to
contain the three sub-divisions of A. Oppel and W. Waagen. viz..* —
{Upper fVirgulian) with Exotyra virpda
Middle (Pteroceran) with PUrottn* octant
Lower (Astartian)' with Astarte supracaraUina;
but the upper portion of this continental Kimeridgian is equivalent
to some of the British Portlandian; while most of the Astartian cor-
responds to the Corallian, A. de Lapparent now recognizes onlv
the Virgulian and Pteroceran in the Kimeridgien. Clays and marls
with occasional limestones and sandstones represent the Kime-
ridgien 0/ most of northern Europe, including Russia. In Swabia
and some other parts of Germany the curious ruiniform marble
Fetsenkatk occurs on this horizon, and most of the Kimeridgien of
southern Europe, including the Alps, is calcareous. Representatives
of the formation occur in Caucasia, Algeria. Abyssinia, Madagascar;
in South America with volcanic rocks, and possibly in California
(Maripan beds). Alaska and King Charles's Land.
• See " Jurassic Rocks of Britain." vols. v. and i., Memoirs of On
Coolorkal Survey (vol. v. contain* references to literature up to 1805).
(J.A.H.)
R1M0L or Qm$U the family name of three Jewish grammar-
Una and biblical scholars who worked at Narbonne in the 1 2th
century aod the beginning of the ijih, and exercised great
influence on the study of the Hebrew language. The name, as is
shown by manuscript testimony, was also pronounced $ambi
and further mention is made of the French surname Petit.
Joseph &IM91 was a native of southern Spain, and settled
in Provence, where he was one of the first to set forth in the
Hebrew language the results of Hebraic philology as expounded
by the Spanish Jews in their Arabic treatises. He was acquainted
moreover with Latin grammar, under the influence of which he
resorted to the innovation of dividing the Hebrew vowels into
five long vowels and five short, previous grammarians having
simply spoken of seven vowels without distinction of quantity.
His grammatical textbook, Seftr Ha-ZUkorwn, "Book of
Remembrance " (ed. W. Backer, Berlin, iSSS), was marked by
methodical comprehensiveness, and introduced into the theory
of the verbs a new classification of the stems which has been
retained by later scholars. In the far more ample Sejer Ha-
Galmy, " Book of Demonstration n (ed. Matthews, Berlin, 18S7),
Joseph &imhi at tacks the philological work of the greatest French
Talmud scholar of that day, R. Jacob Tarn, who espoused the
antiquated system of Menabem b.Saruq, and this be supplements
by aa independent critique of Menahem. This work is a mine
of varied exegetkal and philological details. He also wrote
commentaries — the majority of which are lost— on a great
number of the scriptural books. Those on Proverbs and Job have
been published. He composed an apologetic work under the
title Scfer H*-B<rUM {** Book of the Bond "), a fragment of which
is extant, and translated into Hebrew the ethico-philosophical
work of Bahya ibn Paquda (" Duties of the Heart "). In his
commentaries he also made contributions to the comparative
philolocy of Hebrew and Arabic
Mosrs tyrant! was the author of a Hebrew grammar. known —
after lac first three mords— as Mam+Uk SkcbiU Ha-dsat.ot briefly
as Mahalak. It it an elementary Introduction to the study *i
Hebrew, the first of its kind, in which only the most indispensable
definitions and rules have a place, the remainder being almost
wholly occupied by paradigms. Moses KimfeJ was the first who
made the verb poqadh a model for conjugation, aad the fast
also who introduced the now usual sequence in the enumeration
of stem-forms. His handbook was of great historical importance
as in the first half of the 16th century it became the favourite
manual for the study of Hebrew among non-Judaic scholars
( 1st ed., Pesaro> 1 508). Elias Levita (q.9.) wrote Hebrew explana-
tions, and Sebastian M Ouster translated it into Latin. Moses
Eimhi also composed commentaries to the biblical books; those
on Proverbs, Ezra and Nehemiah are in the great rabbinical
bibles falsely ascribed to Abraham ibn Ezra.
David &nqu (r. 1 160-1255), also known as Rtdaq («R. David
Simhj), eclipsed the fame both of his father and his brother.
From the writings of the former he quotes a great number oi
explanations, some of which are known only from this source.
His magnum opus is the Sejer Miklol, " Book of Completeness."
This falls into two divisions: the grammar, to which the title
of the whole, Miklol, is usually applied (first printed in Constanti-
nople, 1532-1534, then, with the notes of Elias Levita, at Venice,
1545)* and the lexicon, Sejer HoskorasMm, "Book of Roots, *
which was first printed in Italy before 1480, then at Naples ia
1490, and at Venice in 1 546 with the annotations of Elias. The
model and the principal source for this work of David £imhi's
was the book of R. Jonah (Abulwalid), which was cast in a
similar bipartite form; and it was chiefly due to tUmb^'s grammar
and lexicon that, while the contents of Abulwalid's works were
common knowledge, they themselves remained in oblivion for
centuries. In spite of this dependence on his predecessors his
work shows originality, especially in the arrangement of his
material. In the grammar he combined the paradigmatic
method of his brother Moses with the procedure of the older
scholars who devoted a close attention to details. In his
dictionary, again, be recast the lexicological materials inde-
pendently, and enriched lexicography itself, especially by ha
numerous etymological explanations. Under the title El Sifcr,
" Pen of the Writer " (Lyk, 1S64), David &imbi composed a sort
of grammatical compendium as a guide to the correct punctua-
tion of the biblical manuscripts; it consists, for the most part*
of extracts from the Mi Idol. After the completion of his great
work he began to write commentaries on portions of the Scrip-
tures. The first was on Chronicles, then followed one on the
Psalms, and finally his exegetical masterpiece — the coxnmextury
on the prophets. His annotations on the Psalms are especial;
interesting for the polemical excursuses directed »gai»^ the
Christian interpretation. He was also responsible for a commen-
tary on Genesis (ed. A. COnsburg, Pressburg, 1842), in which he
followed Moses Maimonides in explaining biblical aarra tires as
visions. He was an enthusiastic adherent of Maimonides, aad,
though far advanced in years, took an active part in the bank
which raged in southern France and Spain round his prukaopcuro-
religious writings. The popularity of his biblical exegesis ■
demonstrated by the fact that the first printed texts of the
Hebrew Bible were accompanied by his commentary: the 1
M77. perhaps at Bologna; the early Prophets, 14S5, I
the later Prophets, ibid. i486.
His commentaries have been frequently reprinted, assay of 1
in Latin translations. A new edition of that oa the ~ '
begun bv SchOler-Srinessy {Ftrst Book of Psalms, Cambrktge. 1W3V
Abr. Gc.^er wrote of the three Kimhis in the Hebrew pesSodxal
Ofar #4mad (vol. iL. 1 857 • A. Geiger. C+tm tirftr ScAw f Jaw.
v.t-47). See further the Jewish Emcj tltptdit. (W, tV*s>
KOI (0. E. cyn\ a word represented in nearly all Teui c cJc
languages, cf. Du. kmnnc, Dan. and Swed. *#*, Goth **■». trite
the Teutonic base is tuny*; the equivalent Aryan root f*w~ **
beget, produce, is seen in Gr. ^ooj, Lat. feasts. cL "\^ad* ,\
a collective word for persons related by blood, as descended froa
a common ancestor. In law. the term " next of kin " b a^urd
to the person or persons who, as being in the nearest d ahlia, of
blood relationship to a person dying intestate, share accordxaf »
KINCARDINESHIRE
801
degree in his personal estate (see Intestacy, and Inheritance),
" Kin " is frequently associated with " kith " in the phrase
14 kith and kin," now used as an emphasized form of " kin " for
family relatives. It properly means one's " country and kin,"
or one's M friends and kin." Kith (O.E. ey&Se and cyG, native
land, acquaintances) comes from the stem of cunrtin, to know,
and thus means the land or people one knows familiarly.
' The suffix -kin, chiefly surviving in English surnames, seems to have
been early used as a diminutive ending to certain Christian names in
Flanders and Holland. The termination is represented by the dimi-
nutive 'dun in German, as in Kinidun, Hauschen, etc Many
English words, such as " pumpkin," '* firkin," seem to have, no
diminutive significance, and may have been assimilated from earlier
forms, «.f. " pumpkin " from " pumpion."
KINCARDINESHIRE, or The M earns, an eastern county
Of Scotland, bounded £. by the North Sea, S. and S.W. by
Forfarshire, and N.W. and N. by Aberdeenshire. Area, 243,974
acres, or 381 sq. m. In the west and north-west the Grampians
are the predominant feature. The highest of their peaks is
Mount Battock (2555 ft.), where the counties of Aberdeen,
Forfar and Kincardine meet, but there are a score of hills
exceeding 1500 ft. in height. In the extreme north, on the
confines of Aberdeenshire, the Hill of Fare, famous for its sheep
walks, attains an altitude of 1545 ft. In the north the county
slopes from the Grampians to the picturesque and finely- wooded
valley of the Dee, and in the south it falls to the Howe (Hollow)
of the Mearns, which is a continuation north-eastwards of
St rath more. The principal rivers are Bervie Water (20 m. long),
flowing south-eastwards to the North Sea; the Water of Fcugh
(20 m.) taking a north-easterly direction and falling into the
Dee at Banchory, and forming near its mouth a beautiful
cascade; the Dye (15 m.) rising in Mount Battock and ending
its course in the Feugh; Luther Water (14 m.) springing not
far from the castle of Drumtochty and meandering pleasantly
to its junction with the North Esk; the Cowic (13 m.) and the
Carron (8$ m.) entering the sea at Stonehaven. The Dec and
North Esk serve as boundary streams during part of their
course, the one of Aberdeenshire, the other of Forfarshire.
Loch Loirston, in the parish of Nigg. and Loch Lumgair, In
Dunnottar parish, both small, are the only lakes in the shire.
Of the glens Glen Dye in the north centre of the county is
remarkable for its beauty, and the small Den Fenella, to the
south-east of Laurencekirk, contains a picturesque waterfall.
Its name perpetuates the memory of Fenella, daughter of a
thane of Angus, who was slain here after betraying Kenneth II.
to his enemies, who (according to local tradition) made away
with him in Kincardine Castle. Excepting In the vicinity of
St Cyrus, the coast from below Johnshaven to Girdle Ness
presents a bold front of rugged cliffs, with an average height of
from 100 to 250 ft., interrupted only by occasional creeks and
bays, as at Johnshaven, Gourdon, Bervie, Stonehaven, Port-
let hen, Findon, Cove and Nigg.
Geology.— The great fault which traverses Scotland from shore to
shore passes through this county from Craigeven Bay, about a mile
north of Stonehaven, by Feoclta Hill to Edxell. On the northern
side of this line are the old crystalline schists of the Dalradian group;
on the southern side Old Red Sandstone occupies all the remaining
space. Good exposures of the schists are seen, repeatedly folded,
in the cliffs between Aberdeen and Stonehaven. They consist of a
lower series of greenish slates and a higher, more micaceous and
schistose series with grits; bands of limestone occur in these rocks
near Bunchory. Besides the numerous minor flexures the schists
are bent into a broad synclinal fold which crosses the county,
its axis lying in a souih-wcsterty-north<eastcrly direction. Rising
through the schists are several granite masses, the largest being that
forming the high ground around Mt Battock; south of the Dee are
several smaller masses, some of which have been extensively quarried.
The lower part of the Old Red Sandstone consists of flags, red sand-
stones and purple clays in great thickness; these are followed by
coarse conglomerates, well seen in the cliff at Dunnottar Castle,
with ashy grits and some thin sheets of diabase. The diabase forms
the Bruxie and Leys Hills and some minor elevations. Above the
volcanic series more red sandstones, conglomerates and marls appear.
The Old Red Sandstone is folded synclinally in a direction con-
tinuing the vale of Strathtnore; south of this is an anticline, at may
be 4cen on the coast between St Cyrus and Kinneff. Glacial striae
on the higher ground and debris on the lower ground show that the
direction taken by the ice flow was south-eastward on the hllb but
as the si 1
finally a
Otmal
owing to
the year
annual ra [
bygrouw t
coast, u.s
is richer i
tile regio 1
resting 01
and cold,
but the <
is under wood. Turnips form the main green crop, but potatoes
are extensively raised. A little more than half the holdings consist
of 50 acres and under. Great attention is paid to livestock. Short*
horns are the moat common breed, but the principal home-bred
The Deeside railway runs through the portion of the county
on the northern bank of the Dee. The Caledonian and North
British railways run to Aberdeen via Laurencekirk to Stonehaven,
using the same metals, and there is a branch line of the N.B.R. from
Montrose to Bervie. There are also coaches between Blair* *ad
Aberdeen, Bervie and Stonehaven, Fettercairn and EdsaU, Banchory
and Birse, and other points.
Population and Government.— The population was 35,492 in
1891, and 40,023 in toot, when 103 persons spoke Gaelic and
English. The chief town is Stonehaven (pop. in 1001, 4577)
with Laurencekirk (1512) and Banchory (1475), hut part of
the dty of Aberdeen, with a population of 9386, is within the
county. The county returns one member to parliament, and
Bervie, the only royal burgh, belongs to the Montrose group of
parliamentary burghs. Kincardine is united in one sheriffdom
with the shires of Aberdeen and Banff, and one of the Aberdeen
sheriffs-substitute sits at Stonehaven. The county is under
school-board jurisdiction. The academy at Stonehaven and a
few of the public schools earn grants for higher education.
The county council hands over the " residue " grant to the
county secondary education committee, which expends H
in technical education grants. At Blairs, in the north-east of
the shire near the Dee, is a Roman Catholic college for the train-
ing of young men for the priesthood.
History, — The annals of Kincardineshire as a whole are
almost blank. The county belonged of old to -the district ol
Pictavta and apparently was overrun for a brief period by the
Romans. In the parish of Fetteresso are the remains of the
camp of Raedykes, fn which, according to tradition, the Cale-
donians tinder Galgacus were lodged befoie their battle with
Agricon. It is also alleged that in the same district Malcolm I.
was killed (954) whilst endeavouring to reduce the unruly tribes
of this region. Mearns, the alternative name for the county, is
believed to have been derived from Mernia, a Scottish king, to
whom the land was granted, and whose brother, Angus, bad
obtained the adjoining shire of Forfar. The antiquities consist
mostly of stone circles, cairns, tumuli, standing stones and a
structure in the parish of Dunnottar vaguely known as a " Picts*
kiln." By an extraordinary reversion of fortune the town which
gave the shire Its name has practically vanished. It stood about
2 tn. N.E. of Fettercairn, and by the end of the 16th century
had declined to a mere hamlet, being represented now only by
802
KINCHINJUNGA— KING, C. W.
the ruins of the royal castle and an ancient burial-ground. The
Braces, earls of Elgin, also bear the title of earl of Kincardine.
See A. Jet viae. History and Traditions of Ike Lands of the Lindsays
(1853), History and Antiquities of the Mearns (1856), Mewtorials of
Angus and the Mearns (1861); I. Anderson, The Black Book of Kin-
cardineshire (Stonehaven, 1879); C. A. Mollyson. The Parish of For*
damn (Aberdeen, 1893) • A. C. Cameron, The History of Fetlercaim
(Paisley, 1899). v
KINCHlHJUrfQA, or Ranchanjanga, the third (or second;
sie Ka) highest mountain in the world. It is a peak of the
eastern Himalayas, situated on the boundary between Sikkim
and Nepal, with an elevation of 28, 146 ft. Kinchinjunga is best
seen from the Indian hill-station of Daxjeeling, where the view
of this stupendous mountain, dominating all intervening ranges
and rising from regions of tropical undergrowth to the altitude
of eternal snows, is one of the grandest in the world.
KIND (0. E. ge-cynde, from the same root as is seen in " kin,"
supra), a word in origin meaning birth, nature, or as an adjective,
natural. From the application of the term to the natural
disposition or characteristic which marks the class to which an
object belongs, the general and most common meaning of " class,"
genus or species easily develops; that of race, natural order or
group, is particularly seen in such expressions as " mankind."
The phrase " payment in kind," i.e. in goods ot produce as
distinguished from money, is used as equivalent to the Latin
tit specie; in ecclesiastical usage " communion in both kinds "
or " in one kind " refers to the elements of bread and wine
(Lat. species) in the Eucharist. The present main sense of the
adjective " kind," i.e. gentle, friendly, benevolent, has developed
from the meaning " born," " natural," through " of good birth,
disposition or nature," " naturally well-disposed."
KINDERGARTEN, a German word meaning "garden of
children," the name given by Friedrich Froebcl to a kind of
" play-school " invented by him for furthering the physical,
moral and intellectual growth of children between the ages
of three and seven. For the theories on which this type of
school was based see Froebel. Towards the end of the 18th
century Pestalozzi planned, and Oberlin formed, day-asylums
for young children. Schools of this kind took in the Netherlands
the name of " play school," and in England, where they have
especially thriven, of " infant schools " (?.«.). But Froebcl's
idea of the " Kindergarten " differed essentially from that of the
infant schools. The child required to be prepared for society by
being early associated with its equals; and young children thus
brought together might have their employments, especially
their chief employment, play, so organized as to draw out their
capacities of feeling and thinking, and even of inventing and
creating.
Froebel therefore invented a course of occupations, most of
which are social games. Many of the games are connected
with the " gifts," as he called the simple playthings provided
for the children. These "gifts" are, in order, six coloured
balls, a wooden ball, a cylinder and a cube, a cube cut to form
eight smaller cubes, another cube cut to form eight parallelo-
grams, square and triangular tablets of coloured wood, and strips
of lath, rings and circles for pattern-making. In modern
kindergartens much stress has been laid on such occupations
as sand-drawing, modelling in clay and paper, pattern-making,
plaiting, &c. The artistic faculty was much thought of by
Froebel, and, as in the education of the ancients, the sense of
rhythm in sound and motion was cultivated by music and poetry
introduced in the games. Much care was to be given to the
training of the senses, especially those of sight, sound and touch.
Intuition or first-hand experience (Anschauuug) was to be
recognized as the true basis of knowledge, and though stories
were to be told, instruction of the imparting and " learning-up "
kind was to be excluded. Froebel sought to teach the children
not what to think but how to think, in this following in the
Steps of Pestalozzi, who had done for the child what Bacon
nearly two hundred years before had done for the philosopher.
Where possible the children were to be much in the open air,
and were each to cultivate a little. garden.
The first kindergarten was opened at Blaokenburg. nearRiidnUfadt,
in 1 837, but after a needy cxt&tcnce of eight years was closed for want
of funds. In !8si the Prussian government declared that "schools
founded on Froebcl's principles or principles like them could not be
allowed." As early aa 1854 it was introduced into England, aad
Henry Barnard reported on it that it was " by far the roost original,
attractive and philosophical form of infant development the world
has yet seen " (Report to Governor of Connecticut, 1854). The great
propagandist of Froebel ism, the Baroness Bcrta von Mareahokx-
Bulow (181 1-1893). drew the attention of the French to the kinder-
garten from the year i8j«, and Mkhdct declared that Froebel had
" solved the problem of human education." In Italy the kinder-
garten was introduced by Madame Salia-Schwabe. In Au«*ria it a
recognized and regulated by the government, though the Volk>-
Kindergirten arc not numerous. But by far the greatest develop-
ments of the kindergarten system are in the United States and is
Belgium. The movement was begun in the United States by Mi*
Elizabeth Pcabody in 1867, aided by Mrs Horace Mann and Dr
Henry Barnard. The first permanent kindergarten was established
in St Louis in 1873 by Miss Susan Blow and Dr W. T. Harris, la
Belgium the mistresses of the " £coles gardiennes " are instructed
in the " idea of the kindergarten " and Froebcl's method." and is
1880 the minister of public instruction issued a programme for the
" £colcs Gardiennes Communalcs," which is both in fact and is
profession a kindergarten manual.
For the position of the kindergarten system in the principal
countries of the world see Report of a Consultative Committee upon the
School Attendance of Children below the Age of Five, English Board
of Education Reports (Cd. 425O, 1908); and "The Kindergarten."
by Laura Fisher. Report of the United Stales Commissioner for Educa-
tion for J 903, vol. i. ch. xvi. (Washington, 1905).
KINDl [AbO YOsup Ya'qCb ibn Ishaq ul-KindT, sometimes
called pre-eminently" The Philosopher of the Arabs **] flourished
in the 9th century, the exact dates of his birth and death beug
unknown. He was born in Kufa, where his father was governor
under the Caliphs Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid. His studies
were made in Basra and Bagdad, and in the latter place be
remained, occupying according to. some a government position.
In the orthodox reaction under Motawakkil, when all philosophy
was suspect, his library was confiscated, but he himself seems
to have escaped. His writings— like those of other Arabia*
philosophers— are encyclopaedic and are concerned with raos:
of the sciences; they are said to have numbered over two
hundred, but fewer than twenty are extant. Some of these
were known in the middle ages, for Kindi is placed by Roger
Bacon in the first rank after Ptolemy as a writer on optics.
His work De Somniorum Visione was translated by Gerard of
Cremona (q.v.) and another was published as De medicincrsn
compositarum gradibus investigandis Libcllus (Slrassburg, isjiK
He, was one of the earliest translators and commentators of
Aristotle, but like F$r&bl (q.v.) appears to have been superseded
by Avicenna.
See G. FlugeL At Kindi tenannl der Philosoph der Araber (Leanrig,
1837), and T. J. de Boer. Ceschichte der Philosophic im Islam (Sian-
gan, 1901), pp. 90 sqq. ; also Arabian Philosophy. (G. W. T.)
KINEMATICS (from Gr. tdrnna, a motion), the branch of
mechanics which discusses the phenomena of motion without
reference to force Or mass (see Mechanics).
KINETICS (from Gr. Kivur, to move), the branch of mechanics
which discusses the phenomena of motion as afTccted by force;
it is the modern equivalent of dynamics in the restricted sense
(see Mechanics).
KINO, CHARLES WILLIAM (1818-1888), English writer
on ancient gems, was born at Newport (Mon.) on the 5th of
September 1818. Ho entered Trinity College, Cambridge, im
1836; graduated in 1&40, and obtained a fellowship in 1*4*;
he was senior fellow at the time of his death in London em the
25th of March 1888. He took holy orders, but never held any
cure. He spent much time in Italy, where he laid the founda-
tion of his collection of gems, which, increased by subsequent
purchases in London, was sold by him in consequence of his
failing eyesight and was presented in 188 1 to the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York. King was recognized universally
as one of the greatest authorities in this department of art.
His chief works on the subject arc: Antique Gems, their Origin,
Uses and Value (1S60), a complete and exhaustive treatise; The
Gnostia and their Remains (2nd ed. by J. Jacobs, 1887, which
KING; CLARENCE— KING, RUFUS
803
led to an animated correspondence in (he Atkenaeum); The
' Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems and of the Precious
\ Metals (1865); The Handbook of Engraved Gems (and e<L, 1885);
, Early Christian Numismatics (1875). King was thoroughly
1 familiar with the works of Greek and Latin authors, especially
I Pausanias and the elder Pliny, which bore upon the subject in
J which he was most interested; but be bad little taste for the
, minutiae of verbal criticism. In 1869 he brought out an edition
1 of Horace, illustrated from antique gems; he also translated
1 Plutarch's M or alt a (i88a) and the theosophkal works o( the
* Emperor Julian (1888) for Bonn's Classical Library.
, KINO, CLABENCE (1841-1901), American geologist, was
1 born at Newport, Rhode Island, U.S.A., on the 6th of January
1 1842. He graduated at Yale in 1862. His most important
1 work was the geological exploration of the fortieth parallel, of
[ which the main reports (1876 and 1877) comprised the geological
1 and topographical atlas of the Rocky Mountains, the Green River
i and Utah basins, and the Nevada plateau and basin. When the
1 United States Geological Survey was consolidated in 1879 King
' was chosen director, and he vigorously conducted investigations
. in Colorado, and in the Eureka district and on the Comstock
t lode in Nevada, He held office for a year only; in later years
[ hs only noteworthy contribution to geology was an essay on the
I age of the earth, whkh appeared in the annual report of the
Smithsonian Institution for 1803. He died at Phoenix, Arizona,
on the 24th of December ioor.
r i KIN6, EDWARD (161 2-1637), the subject of Wlion's Lycidas,
I was born in Ireland in 161 2, the son of Sir John King, a member
1 of a Yorkshire family which had migrated to Ireland. Edward
t King was admitted a pensioner of Christ's College, Cambridge,
1 on the 9th of June 1626, and four years later was elected a fellow.
} Milton, though two years his senior and himself anxious to
i secure a fellowship, remained throughout on terms of the closest
i friendship with his rival, whose amiable character seems to have
i endeared him to the whole college. King served from 1633 to
1634 as praelector and tutor of his college, and was to have
1 entered the church. His career, however, was cut short by the
r tragedy which inspired Milton's verse. In 1637 he set out for
Ireland to visit his family, but on the 10th of August the ship in
t which he was sailing struck on a rock near the Welsh coast, and
1 King was drowned. Of his own writings many Latin poems
i contributed to different collections of Cambridge verse survive,
1 but they are not of sufficient merit to explain the esteem in
l which he was held.
I - A collection of Latin, Greek and English verse written in«his
• memory by his Cambridge friends was printed at Cambridge in 1638,
' with the title Juste Edouardo King naufrago ob amicis moerentibus
omoris ct tatUt xApt**' The second part of this collection has a
separate title-page. Obsequies to Ike Memorie of Mr Edward Kint,
Anno Don. I0j8, and contains thirteen English poems, of which
Lycidas > (signed J. M.) is the last.
f KING, EDWARD (1820-1910), English bishop, was the second
son of the Rev. Walter King, archdeacon of Rochester and
rector of Stone, Kent. Graduating from Oriel College, Oxford,
he was ordained in 1854, and four years later became chaplain
and lecturer at Cuddesdon Theological College. He was principal
at Cuddesdon from 1863 to 1873, when he became regius professor
of pastoral theology at Oxford and canon of Christ Church. To
the world outside he was only known at this time as one of
Dr Pusey's most intimate friends and as a leading member of the
English Church Union. But in Oxford, and especially among the
younger men, he exercised an exceptional influence, due, not to
special profundity of intellect, but to his remarkable charm in
personal intercourse, and his abounding sincerity and goodness.
In 1885 Dr King was made bishop of Lincoln. The most
eventful episode of his episcopate was his prosecution (1888-1890)
I '* J. W. Hales, in the Athenaeum for the 1st of August 1801, sag-
Bists that in writing King's elegy Milton had in his mind, besides the
ylls of Theocritus, a Latin eclogue of Giovanni Baptists Amalteo
entitled Lycidas, in which Lycidas bids farewell to the land he loves
and prays for gentle breeses on his voyage. He was familiar with the
Italian Latin poets of the Renaissance, and be may also have been
influenced in nis choke of the name by the shepherd Lycidas in
Sannararo's eclogue Phillis.
for ritualistic practices before the archbishop of Canfeesbaxy,
Dr Benson, and, 00 appeal, before the judicial committee of the
Privy Council (see Lincoln Judgment). Dr King, who loyally
conformed his practices to the archbishop's judgment, devoted
himself unsparingly to the work of his diocese; and, irrespective
Of his High Church views, he won the affection and reverence
of al classes by his real s a m t Kn ess of character. The bishop,
who never married, died at Lincoln on the 81b of March jqio. .
See the obituary notice In The Times, March 9, 1910.
KINO, HENRY (1591-1669), English bishop and poet, eldest
son of John King, afterwards bishop of London, was baptized
on the 16th of January 1591. With his younger brother John
he proceeded from Westminster School to Christ Church, Oxford,
where both matriculated on the 20th of January 1609. Henry
King entered the church, and after receiving various ecclesiastical
preferments he was made bishop of Chichester in 1642, receiving
at the same time the rich living of Pctworth, Sussex. On the
29th of December of that year Chichester surrendered to the
Parliamentary army, and King was among the prisoners. After
his release he found an asylum with his brother-in-law, Sir
Richard Hobart of Langicy, Buckinghamshire, and afterwards
at Ricbkings near by, with Lady Salter, said to have been a
sister of Dr Brian Duppa (1 588-1662). King was a close friend
of Duppa and personally acquainted with Charles I. In one of
hi3 poems dated 1649 he speaks of the Eikon Basilike as the
king's own work. Restored to bis benefice at the Restoration,
King died at Chichester on the 30th of September 1660. His
works include Poems % Elegies, Paradoxes and Sonets (1657), The
Psalmes of David from the New Translation of the Bible, turned
into Meter (1651), and several sermons. He was one of the
executors of John Donne, and prefixed an elegy to the 1663
edition of his friend's poems.
King's Poems and Psalms were edited* with a biographical sketch*'
by the Rev. J. Hannah (1843).
KIslO, RUFUS (1755-1847), American political leader, was
born on the 24th of March 1755 at Scarborough, Maine, then
a part of Massachusetts. He graduated at Harvard in 1777,
read law at Newburyport, Mass., with Theophflus Parsons, and
was admitted to the bar in 1780. He served in the Massachu-
setts General Court in 1783-1784 and in the Confederation Con-
gress in 1 784-1 787. During these critical years he adopted the
44 states' rights " attitude. It was largely through his efforts-
that the General Court in 1784 rejected the amendment to the
Articles of Confederation authorising Congress to levy a 5%
impost. He was one of the three Massachusetts delegates in
Congress in 1785 who refused to present the resolution of the
General Court proposing a convention to amend the articles.
He was also out of sympathy with the meeting at Annapolis in
1786. He did good service, however, in opposing the extension
of slavery. Early fn 1787 King was moved by the Shays
Rebellion and by toe influence of Alexander Hamilton to take a
broader view of the general situation, and it was he who intro-
duced the resolution in Congress, on the 31 st of February 1787,
sanctioning the call for the Philadelphia constitutional con-
vention. In the convention he supported the large-state party,
favoured a strong executive, advocated the suppression of the
slave trade, and opposed the counting of slaves in determining
the apportionment of representatives. In 1788 he was one of
the most influential members of the Massachusetts convention
which ratified the Federal Constitution. He married Mary
Abop (1760-1819) of New York in 1786 and removed to that
city in 1788. He was elected a member of toe New York
Assembly In the spring of 1789, and at a special session of the
legislature held in July of that year was chosen one of the first
representatives of New York in the United States Senate. In
this body he served in 1789-1796, supported Hamilton's financial
measures, Washington's neutrality proclamation and the Jay
Treaty, and became one of the recognized leaders of the Federal-
ist party. He was minister to Great Britain in 1 796-1803 and
again in 1835-1816, and was the Federalist candidate for vice-
president in 1804 and 1808, and for president in 1 8x6, when he
804
KING, THOMAS— KING, WILLIAM
received 34 electoral votes to 183 cast for Monroe. He was
again returned to the Senate in 1813, and was re-elected io 1810
as the result of a struggle between the Van Buren and Clinton
factions of the Democratic-Republican party. la the Missouri
Compromise debates he supported the anti-slavery programme in
the main, but for constitutional reasons voted against the second
clause of the Tallmadge Amendment providing that all slaves
born in the state after its admission into the Union should be
free at the age of twenty-five years. He died at Jamaica,
Long Island, on the 29th of April 1827.
The Life and Correspondence of Rufus King, begun about 1850
by his son, Charles King, was completed by his grandson, Charles
R. King, and published in six volumes (New York, 1894-1900).
Rufus King's son, John Alsop King (1 788-1867), was edu-
cated at Harrow and in Paris, served in the war of 18 12 as a
lieutenant of a cavalry company, and was a member of the New
York Assembly in 1810-1821 and of the New York Senate in
1823. When his father was sent as minister to Great Britain in
1825 he accompanied him as secretary of the American legation,
and when his father returned home on account of ill health he
remained as charge" d'affaires until August 1826. He was a
member of the New York Assembly again in 1832 and in 1840,
was a Whig representative in Congress in 1849-1851, and in
1857-1859 was governor of New York State. He was a prominent
member of the Republican party, and in 1861 was a delegate to
the Peace Conference in Washington.
Another son, Charles King (1780-1867), was aho educated
abroad, was captain of a volunteer regiment in the early part of
the war of 1812, and served in 1814 in the New York Assembly,
and after working for some years as a journalist was president of
Columbia College in 1 840-1864.
A third son, James Gore Kmc (1791-1853), was an assistant
adjutant-general in the war of 181 2, was a banker in Liverpool
and afterwards in New York, and was president of the New
York & Erie railroad until 1837, when by his visit to London he
secured the loan to American bankers of £1,000,000 from the
governors of the Bank of England. In 1840-1851 he was a
representative in Congress from New Jersey.
Charles King's son, Rurus Kino (1814-1876), graduated at
the U.S. Military Academy in 1833, served for three years in
the engineer corps, and, after resigning from the army, became
assistant engineer of the New York 8c Erie railroad. He was
adjutant-general of New York state in 1830-1843, and became
* brigadier-general of volunteers in the Union army in 1861,
commanded a division in Virginia in 1862-1863, and, being com-
pelled by ill health to resign from the army, was U.S. minister
to the Papal States in 1863-1867.
His son, Charles Kinc (b. 1844), served in the artillery until
1870 and in the cavalry until 1879; he was appointed brigadier-
general U.S. Volunteers in the Spanish War in 1898, and served
in the Philippines. He wrote Famous and Decisive Battles
(1884), Campaigning with Crook (1890), and many popular
romances of military life.
KINO, THOMAS (1730-1805), English actor and dramatist,
was born in London on the 20th of August 1730. Garrick saw
him when appearing as a strolling player in a booth at Windsor,
and engaged him for Drury Lane. He made his first appearance
there in 1748 as the Herald in King Lear, He played the part of
All worth in the first presentation of Massinger's New Way to
Pay Old Debts (1748), and during the summer be played Romeo
and other leading parts in Bristol. For eight years he was the
Wading comedy actor at the Smock Alley theatre in Dublin,
but in 1759 he returned to Drury Lane and took leading parts
until 1802. One of his earliest successes was as Lord Ogleby
in The Clandestine Marriage (1766), which was compared to
Garrick's Hamlet and Keoble's Coriolanus, but he reached the
climax of his reputation when he created the part of Sir Peter
ToajI* at the first representation of The School for Scandal
(1 ;>r). He was the author of * number of farces, and part-
»%«*f and manager of several theatres, but his fondness for
tt*j»U«tt brought him to poverty. Ha died on the 11th of
fevtaabtt i8o>
KING. WILLIAM (1650-1729), Anglican divine, the son of
James King, an Aberdeen man who migrated to Antrim, was
bora in May 165a He was educated at Trinity College, Dobhn,
and after being presented to the parish of St Werburgh, Dublin,
in 1679, became dean of St Patrick's in 1689, bishop of Deny in
1691, and archbishop of Dublin in 1702. In 1718 he founded
the divinity lectureship in Trinity College, Dublin, which bears
his name. He died in May 1729. King was the author of The
State of the Protestants in Ireland under King J antes* s Gomemmcnt
(r69i), but is best known by bis Ik Origine Mali (1702; Eag.
trans., 1731), an essay deemed worthy of a reply by Bavie and
Leibnitz. King was a strong supporter of the Revolution, and
his voluminous correspondence is a valuable help to our know-
ledge of the Ireland of his day.
See A Great Archbishop of Dublin, William King, D-D- edited by
Sir C. S. King, Bart. (1908).
KING. WILLIAM (1663-17"), English poet and tnwrrilanrow
writer, son of Ezekicl King, was born in 1663. From bis father
he inherited a small estate and he was connected with the Hyde
family. He was educated at Westminster School under Dr
Busby, and at Christ Church, Oxford (B.A. 1685; D.CX. 1692).
His first literary enterprise was a defence of Wyciiffe, written
in conjunction with Sir Edward Hannes (d. 17 10) and entitled
Reflections upon Mans. Varillas's History of Heresy . . . (1688).
He became known as a humorous writer on the Tory nod High
Church side. He took part in the controversy aroused by the
conversion of the once stubborn non-juror William Sherlock, one
of his contributions being an entertaining ballad, " The Battle
Royal," in which the disputants are. Sherlock and Sooth. In
1604 he gained the favour of Princess Anne by a defence of her
husband's country entitled Animadversions on tka Prdtnid
Account of Denmark, in answer to a depreciatory pamphlet by
Robert (afterwards Viscount) Molesworth. For this service he
was made secretary to the princess. He supported Charles
Boyle in his controversy with Richard Bentley over the genuine-
ness of the Epistles cf Phalaris, by a letter (printed in Dr Bent-
ley's Dissertations . . . (1698), more commonly known as
Boyle against Bentley) , in which be gave an account of the cir-
cumstances of Bcntle/s interview with the bookseller Bennet.
Bentley attacked Dr King in his Dissertation in answer (1609) **
this book, and King replied with a second letter to his friead
Boyle. He further satirized Bentley in ten Dialogues of the Demi
relating to ... the Epistles of Phalaris (1609). La 1700 be pub-
lished The Transactioneer t with some of his Philosophical Fonda,
in tjpc Dialogues, ridiculing the credulity of Hans Sloane, who was
then the secretary of the Royal Society. This was followed up
later with some burlesque Useful Transactions in PhUwpmj
(1709). By an able defence of his friend, James Annesky,
5th carl of Anglesey, in a suit brought against him by bis wit
before the House of Lords in 1 701, be gained a legal reputatita
which he did nothing further to advance. He was sent to Ireland
in 1 701 to be judge of the high court of admiralty, and later
became sole commissioner of the prizes, keeper of the records is
the Bermingham Tower of Dublin Castle, and vicar-general to the
primate. About 1708 he returned to London. He served the
Tory cause by writing for The Examiner before it was taken up
by Swift. He wrote four pamphlets in support of Sachcvercil,
in the most considerable of which, " A Vindication of the Rev.
Dr Henry Sacheverell ... in a Dialogue between a-Tory and a
Whig " (171 1), he had the assistance of Charles Lambe of Christ
Church and of Sacheverell himself. In December 1 711 Swift
obtained for King the office of gazetteer, worth from £200 to
fj 50. King was now very poor, but he had no taste for work,
and he resigned his office on the 1st of July 1712. He died on
the 25th of December in the same year.
The other works of William King include: A Journey to Tnndm\,
in the year 1608. After the Ingenious Method of mat madehy Dr. Marti*
Lister to Paris, in the same Year . . . (1699), which was considered by
the author to be his best work; Adversaria, or Occasional Ira mi f 1
on Men and Manners, a selection from his critical note-book, whack
•hows wide and varied reading; Rufinus, or An Historical Essay am
the Favourite Ministry (17 42), a satire on the duke of Marlboracwsv
u« ^K-f .w-™. .«.. fr, Xrl of Cookery in imitation of Hmmca't
Hk chief poems are:
KING OF OCKHAM— KING
805
£
rt if Poetry. With same Letters to Dr Lister and Offttvr (1708), one
this most amusing works; The Art of Love; in imitation of Ovid . . .
1709); **M inly of Mountoun," and a burlesque " Orpheus and Eury-
icc * A volume of Jdiseettantes in Prose and Verse appeared in
1705; his Remains . . . were edited by J. Brown in 1 732: and in
1770 John Nichols produced an excellent edition of his Original
Works . . . with Historical Notes and Memoirs of the Author,
Dr Jobnsoti included him in his Lives of the Poets, and his works
appear in subsequent collections.
King is not to be confused with another William King (1685-
1763), author of a mock-heroic poem called The Toast ( 1736)931 tiriziog
the countess of Newburgh, and principal of St Mary Hall, Oxford.
KING [OF OCKHAM], PETER KINO. i$t Bason (1660-1734),
lord chancellor of England, was born at Exeter in 1669. In his
youth he was interested in early church history, and published
anonymously in 1691 An Enquiry into Ike Constitution, Discipline,
Unity and Worship of the Primitive Church that flourished within
the first Three Hundred Years after Christ. This treatise engaged
the interest of his cousin, John Locke, the philosopher, by whose
advice his lather sent him to the university of Leiden, where he
stayed for nearly three years. He entered the Middle Temple
in 1694 And was called to the bar in 1698. In 1700 he was
returned to parliament for Beer Alston in Devonshire; he was
appointed recorder of Glastonbury in 1705 and recorder of
London in 1708. He was chief justice of the common pleas
from 1714 to 1725, when he was appointed speaker of the
House of Lords and was raised to the peerage. In June of the
same year he was made lord chancellor, holding office until
compelled by a paralytic stroke to resign in 1733. He died at
Oekham, Surrey, on the 22nd of July 1734. Lord King as
chancellor failed to sustain the reputation which he had acquired
at the common law bar. Nevertheless be left his mark on Eng-
lish law by establishing the principles that a will of immovable
property is governed by the lex loci ret sitae, and that where a
husband had a legal right to the personal estate of his wife, which
must be asserted by a suit in equity, the court would not help
him unless he made a provision out of the property for the wife,
if she required it. He was also the author of the Act (4 Geo. II.
c. 26) by virtue of which English superseded Latin as the lan-
guage of the courts. Lord King published in 1702 a History of
ike Apostles' Creed (Leipzig, 1706; Basel, 1750) which went
through several editions and was also translated into Latin.
His great-great-grandson, William (1805-1893), married in
1835 the only daughter of Lord Byron the poet, and was created
earl of Lovelace in 1838. Another descendant, Peter John
Locke Kin© (1811-1885), who w * 8 member of parliament for
East Surrey from 1847 to 1874, won some fame as an advocate
of reform, being responsible for the passing of the Real Estate
Charges Act of 1854, and for the repeal of a large number of
obsolete laws.
KINO (O. Eng. cyning, abbreviated into cyng, cing; cf. 0. H. G.
shun- kuning, ckun- kunig, M.H.G. kMnic, hUnee, kUne, Mod.
Ger. Konig, O. Norse honungr, kongr, Swed. honung, hung), a
title, in its actual use generally Implying sovereignty of the most
exalted rank. Any inclusive definition of the word " king " is,
however, impossible. It always implies sovereignty, but in no
special degree or sense; e.g. the sovereigns of the British Empire
and -of Servia are both kings, and so too, at least- in popular
parlance, are the chiefs of many barbarous peoples, o.g. the Zulus.
The use of the title is, in fact, involved in considerable confusion,
largely the result of historic causes. Freeman, indeed, In his
Comparative Politics (p. 138) says: " There is a common idea of
kingship which is at once recognised however hard it may be to
define It. . This is shown among other things by the fact that no
difficulty is ever felt as to translating the word king and the words
which answer to it in other languages." This, however, is subject
to considerable modification. "King," for instance, is used to
translate the Homeric &Va{ equally with the Athenian fkmkebt
or the Roman rear. Yet the Homeric " kings " were but tribal
chiefs; while the Athenian and Roman kings were kings in
something more than the modern sense, as supreme priests as
well as supreme rulers and lawgivers (see Abchon; and Rome:
History). In the English Bible, too, the title of king is given
indiscriminately to the great king of Persia and to potentates
who were little more than Oriental sheiks. A more practical
difficulty, moreover, presented itself in international intercourse,
before diplomatic conventions became, in the 19th century, more
or less stereotyped. Originally the title of king was superior to
that of emperor, and it was to avoid the assumption of the
superior title of rex that the chief magistrates of Rome adopted
the names of Caesar, imperator and princeps to signalize their
authority. But with the development .of the Roman imperial
idea the title emperor came to mean more than had been in-
volved in that of rex; very early in the history of the Empire
there were subject kings; while with the Hellenking of the East
Roman Empire its rulers assumed the style of {tamXefe, no
longer to be translated " king " but " emperor." From this
Roman conception of the supremacy of the emperor the medieval
Empire of the West inherited its traditions. With the bar*
barian* invasions the Teutonic idea of kingship had come into
touch with the Roman idea of empire and with the theocratic
conceptions which this had absorbed from the old Roman and
Oriental views of kingship. With these the Teutonic kingship
had in its origin but little in common.
Etymologically the Romance and Teutonic words for king
have quite distinct origins. The Latin rex corresponds to the
Sanskrit rajah, and meant originally steersman. The Teutonic
king on the contrary corresponds to the Sanskrit ganaka, and
" simply meant father, the father of a family, the king of his
own kin, the father of a dan, the father of a people." 1 The Teu-
tonic kingship, in short, was national; the king was the supreme
representative of the people, " hedged with divinity " in so far
as he was the reputed descendant of the national gods, but with
none of that absolute theocratic authority associated with the
titles of rex or flaoCkcbs. This, however, was modified by contact
with Rome and Christianity. The early Teutonic conquerors
bad never lost their reverence for the Roman emperor, and were
from time to time proud to acknowledge their inferiority by
accepting titles, such as " patrician," by which this was implied.
But by the coronation of Charles, king of the Franks, as emperor
of the West, the German kingship was absorbed into the Roman
imperial idea, a process which exercised a profound effect on the
evolution of the Teutonic kingship generally. In the symmetri-
cal political theory of medieval Europe pope and emperor were
sun and moon, kings but lesser satellites; though the theory
only partially and occasionally corresponded with the facts.
But the elevation of Charlemagne had had a profound effect in
modifying the status of kingship in nations that never came under
his sceptre nor under that of his successors. The shadowy
claim of the emperors to universal dominion was in theory
everywhere acknowledged; but independent kings hastened to
assert their own dignity by surrounding themselves with the
ceremonial forms of the Empire and occasionally, as in the case
of the Saxon brehoaldas in England, by assuming the imperial
style. The mere fact of this usurpation showed that the title
of king was regarded as inferior to that of emperor; and so it
continued, as a matter of sentiment at least, down to the end of
the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the cheapening of the
imperial title by its multiplication in the 19th century. To the
* Max Mutter, Lett. Sci. Lang., 2nd series, p. 255. " All people, save
those who fancy that the name king has something to do with a
Tartar khan or with a ' canning ' . . . man, are agreed that the Eng-
lish cyning and the Sanskrit ganaka both come from the same root,
from that widely spread root whence comes our own cyn or kin
and the Greek yirot. The only question is whether there is any
connexion between cyning and ganaka closer than that which is
implied in their both coming from the same original root. That is
to sav, are we to suppose that cyning and ganaka are strictly the same
word common to Sanskrit and Teutonic, or is it enough to think
that cyning is an independent formation made after the Teutons
had separated themselves from the common stock ? . . . The differ-
ence between the two derivations b not very remote, as the cyn is
the ruling idea in any cast; but if we make the word immediately
cognate with ganaka we brine in a notion about ' the father of his
people ' which has no place 11 we simply derive cyning from cyn.'*
See also O. Schrader, Xeallexikon der' Indogetmanischen AUtrhtms-
kunde (Strassburg, loot) s*. " Kdnig ": the churning (King) is but
the chunm (Km) personified; cf. A3, lied masc. ■» prince "; Hod
fem.«" race*" ue. Lat. gens.
8o6
KING-BIRD
Ust, moreover, the emperor retained the prerogative of creating
lungs, as in the case of the king of Prussia in 1701, a right bor-
rowed and freely used by the emperor Napoleon. Since 1814 the
title of king has been assumed or bestowed by a consensus of the
Powers; e.g. the elector of Hanover was made king by the con-
gress of Vienna (1814), and per contra the title of king was refused
to the elector of Hesse by the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818).
In general the title of king is now taken to imply a sovereign
and independent international position. This was implied in the
recognition of the title of king in the rulers of Greece, Rumania,
Servia and Bulgaria when these countries were declared abso-
lutely independent of Turkey. The fiction of this independent
sovereignty is preserved even in the case of the kings of Bavaria,
Saxony and Wurttemberg, who are technically members of a
free confederation of sovereign states, but arc not independent,
since their relations with foreign Powers are practically con-
trolled by the king of Prussia as German emperor.
The theory of the " divine right " of kings, as at present
understood, is of comparatively modern growth. The principle
Dtvta* that the kingship is "descendible in one sacred
Ktgttot family," as George Canning put it, is not only still
**** that of the British constitution, as that of all mon-
archical states, but is practically that of kingship from the be-
ginning. This is, however, quite a different thing from asserting
with the modern upholders of the doctrine of " divine right " not
only that " legitimate " monarchs derive their authority from,
and are responsible to, God alone, but that this authority is by
divine ordinance hereditary in a certain order of succession.
The power of popular election remained, even though popular
choice was by custom or by religious sentiment confined within
the limits of a single family. The custom of primogeniture
grew up owing to the obvious convenience of a simple rule that
should avoid ruinous contests; the so-called *' Salic Law " went
further, and by excluding females, removed another possible
source dl weakness. Neither did the Teutonic kingship imply
absolute power. The idea of kingship as a theocratic function
which played so great a part in the political controversies of the
17th century, is due ultimately to Oriental influences brought to
bear through Christianity. The crowning and anointing of the
emperors, borrowed from Byzantium and traceable to the
influence of the Old Testament, was imitated by lesser poten-
tates; and this " sacring " by ecclesiastical authority gave to the
king a character of special sanctity. The Christian king thus
became, in a sense, like the Roman rex, both king and priest.
Shakespeare makes Richard II. say, " Not all the water in the
rough rude sea can wash the balm off from an anointed king "
(act iii. sc. 2); and this conception of the kingship tended to
gather strength with the weakening of the prestige of the papacy
and of the clergy generally. Before the Reformation the anointed
king was, within his realm, the accredited vicar of God for secu-
lar purposes; after the Reformation he became this in Protestant
states for religious purposes also. In England it is not without
significance that the sacerdotal vestments, generally discarded
by the clergy — dalmatic, alb and stole — continued to be among
the insignia of the sovereign (see CoaowATKm). Moreover,
this sacrosanct character he acquired not by virtue of his
" sacring," but by hereditary right; the coronation, anointing
and vesting were but the outward and visible symbol of a divine
grace adherent in the sovereign by virtue of his title. Even
Roman Catholic monarch*, like Louis XIV., would never have
admitted that their coronation by the archbishop constituted
any part of their title to reign; it was no more than the conse-
cration of their title. In England the doctrine of the divine
right of kings was developed to its ex tr ernes t logical conclusions
during the political controversies of the 17th century. Of Its
exponents the most distinguished was Hobbes, the most exagger-
ated Sir Robert Filmer. It was the main issuo to be decided
by the Civil War, the royalists holding that "all Christian
kings, princes and governors "derive their authority direct from
God, the parliamentarians that this authority is the outcome of a
contract, actual or implied, between sovereign and people. In
one rase the king's power would be unlimited, according to
Louis XI V.*s famous saying: " V it at, e i est mot I ** or Emiubfe
only by his own free act; in the other his actions would be
governed by the advice and consent of the people, to whom
he would be ultimately responsible. The victory of this latter
principle was proclaimed to all the world by the execution of
Charles I. The doctrine of divine right, indeed, for a while
drew nourishment from the blood of the royal " martyr "; it
was the guiding principle of the Anglican Church of the Restora-
tion; but it suffered a rude blow when James II. made it impos-
sible for the clergy to obey both their conscience and their king;
and the revolution of 1688 made an end of it as a great political
force. These events had effects far beyond England. They
served as precedents for the crusade of republican France against
kings, and later for the substitution of the democratic kingship
of Louis Philippe, " king of the French by the grace of God
and the will of the people," for the "legitimate" kingship of
Charles X., " king of France by the grace of God. M
The theory of the crown in Britain, as held by descent modified
and modifiable by parliamentary action, and yet also '* by the
grace of God," is in strict accordance with the earliest tradition
of the English kingship; but the rival theory of inalienable
divine right is not dead. It is strong in Germany and esperiiBy
in Prussia; it survives as a militant force among the Carttsts ia
Spain and the Royalists in France (see Legitimists); and cvea
in England a remnant of enthusiasts still maintain the claims ef
a remote descendant of Charles I. to the throne (see jACoarrES).
See J. Neville Figgis, Theory of ike Divine Right of Kiuzs (Cambridge,
1896). (W. A. PO
KINO-BIRD, the Lcnius lyrannus of Linnaeus, and the
Tyr annus carolinensis or T. pipiri of most later writers, a coo
mon and characteristic inhabitant of North America, rangisf
as high as 57° N. lat. or farther, and westward to the Rocky
Mountains, beyond which it is found in Oregon, in Wasbtngtcs
(State), and in British Columbia, though apparently not occsrrag
in California. In Canada and the northern states of the Union it a
a summer visitor, wintering in the south, but also reaching Cab,
and, passing through Central America, it has been found a
Bolivia and eastern Peru. Both the scientific and coauaoi
names of this species are taken from the way in which the cod
will at limes assume despotic authority over other birds, stuck-
ing them furiously as they fly, and forcing them to divert or
altogether desist from their course. Yet it is love of his nuK
or his young that prompts this bellicose behaviour, for it is only
in the breeding season that he indulges in it, but then almcst
every large bird that approaches his nest, from an eagle dova-
wards, is assaulted, and those alone that possess greater cocnaaa^
of flight can escape from his repeated charges, which are accom-
panied by loud and shrill cries. On these occasions it may be
that the king-bird displays the emblem of his dignity, whs*
is commonly concealed; for, being otherwise rather plakrr
coloured—dark-ashy grey above and white beneath — the erertfe
feathers of the crown of the head, on being parted, form as it
were a deep furrow, and reveal their base, which is of a brif£i
golden-orange in front, deepening into scarlet, and then passing
into silvery white. This species seems to live entirely on inaartv
which it captures on the wing; it is in bad reputewith bee- keeper*,'
though, according to Dr E. Coues, it "destroys a thousand
noxious insects for every bee it eats." It builds, often in u
exposed situation, a rather large nest, coarsely constructed out-
side, but neatly lined with fine roots or grasses, and lays five or
six eggs of a pale salmon colour, beautifully marked with bJottfca
and spots of purple, brown and orange, generally disposed ics
none near the larger end.
Nearly akin to the king-bird is the petchary or chicberce, so
called from its loud and petulant cry, T. d+minicensis, or J.
griseus, one of the most characteristic and conspicuous birds d
the West Indies, and the earliest to give notice of the break »
day. In habits, except that it eats a good many berries, U »
the very counterpart of its congener, and is possibly even more
jealous of any intruder. At all events its pugnacity »w^t^4» ta
1 It » called in some parts the bee-martin.
KING-CRAB
807
animals from which it could not possibly receive any harm, and
is hardly limited to any season of the year.
In several respects both of these birds, with several of their
allies, resemble some of the shrikes; but it must be clearly under-
stood that the likeness is but of analogy, and that there is no
near affinity between the two families Laniidae and Tyrannidae,
which belong to wholly distinct sections of the great Passerine
King- Bird:
order; and, while the former is a comparatively homogeneous
group, much diversity of form and habits is found among the
latter. Similarly many of the smaller Tyrannidae bear some
analogy to certain Musckapidae, with which they were at one
time confounded (see Flycatcher), but the difference between
them is deep seated. 1 Nor is this all, for out of the seventy
genera, or thereabouts, into which the Tyrannidae have been
divided, comprehending perhaps three hundred and fifty
species, all of which are peculiar to the New World, a series of
forms can be selected which find a kind of parallel to a series of
forms to be found in the other group of Passercs; and the genus
Tyrannus, though that from which the family is named, is by no
means a fair representative of it; but it would be hard to say
which genus should be so accounted. The birds of the genus
Muscisaxicola have the habits and almost the appearance of
wheat-ears; the genus Alectorurus calls to mind a water- wagtail;
Euscartkmus may suggest a titmouse. Elatnea perhaps a willow-
wren; but the greatest number of forms have no analogous bird
of the Old World with which they can be compared; and, while
the combination of delicate beauty and peculiar external form
possibly attains its utmost in the long-tailed Mitvulus, the glory
of the family may be said to culminate in the king of king-birds,
Muscivora regia. (A. N.)
KING-CRAB, the name given to an Arachnid, belonging to
the order Xiphosurae, of the grade Delobranchia or Hydropneu-
stea. King-crabs, of which four, possibly five, existing species
are known, were formerly referred to the genus Limulus, a name
still applied to them in all zoological textbooks. It has tecently
been shown, however, that the structural differences between
•Two easy modes of dfocrinrinatins; them externally may be
mentioned. All the Lantidai and Musckapidae have but nine
primary quills in their wings, and their tarsi arc covered with scales
in front only; while in the Tyrannidae there are ten primaries, and
the tarsal scales extend the whole way round. The more recondite
distinction in the structure of the trachea seems to have been first
detected by Macgillivray, who wrote the anatomical descriptions
Kblished in 1839 by Audubon {Qrn. Siography, v. 421, 422); but
value was not appreciated till the publication of Johannes Muller's
classical treatise on the vocal organs of Passerine birds iAhkandL k.
Akad. Wisstnuk. Berlin, 1845, pp. .121, 405).
some of the species axe sufficiently numerous and important to
warrant the recognition of three genera— Xiphosura, of which
Limulus is a synonym, Tachypleus and Careinoscorpius. In
Xiphosura the genital operculum structurally resembles the
gill-bearing appendages in that the inner branches consist of
three distinct segments, the distal of which Is lobate and projects
freely beyond the margin of the adjacent distal segment of the
outer branch; the entosternite (see Arachnida) has two pairs
of anterolateral processes, and in the male only the ambulatory
appendages of the second pair are modified as claspers. In
Tachypleus and Car cinoscor pi us, on the other hand, the genital
operculum differs from the gill-bearing appendages in that the
inner branches consist of two segments, the distal of which
are apicajly pointed, partially or completely fused in the
middle line, and do not project beyond the distal segments
of the outer branches; the entosternite has only one pair of
anterolateral processes, and in the male the second and third
pairs of ambulatory limbs are modified as claspers. Tackypleus
differs from Careinoscorpius in possessing a long movable spur
upon the fourth segment of the sixth ambulatory limb, in having
the postanal spine triangular in section instead of round, and the
claspers in the male hcmicbelate, owing to the suppression of the
immovable finger, which is well developed in Careinoscorpius.
At the present time king-crabs have a wide but discontinuous
distribution. Xiphosura, of which there is but one species,
X. Polyphemus, ranges along the eastern side of North America
from the coast of Maine to Yucatan. Careinoscorpius, which is
also represented by a single species, C. rotundicauda, extends
from the Bay of Bengal to the coast of the Moluccas and the
Philippines, while of the two better-known species of Tachypleus,
T. gigas ( ■» tnoluccanus) ranges from Singapore to Torres Straits,
and T. tridcnlatus from Borneo to southern Japan. A third
species, T. hoeveni, has been recorded from the Moluccas. But
although Xiphosura is now so widely sundered geographically
from Tachypleus and Careinoscorpius, the occurrence of the
remains of extinct species of king-crabs in Europe, both in
Tertiary deposits and in Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous strata,
suggests that there was formerly a continuous coast-line, with
tropical or temperate conditions, extending from Europe west-
ward to America, and eastward to southern Asia. There are,
however, no grounds for the assumption that the supposed
coast-line between America and Europe synchronized with
that between Europe and south Asia. King-crabs do not appear
to differ from each other in habits. Except in the breeding
season they live in water ranging in depth from about two to six
fathoms, and creep about the bottom or bury themselves in the
sand. Their food consists for the most part of soft marine
worms, which are picked up in the nippers, thrust into the
mouth, and masticated by the basal segments of the appendages
between which the mouth lies. At the approach of the breeding
season, which in the case of Xiphosura polyphemus is in May, June
and July, king-crabs advance in pairs into very shallow water
at the time of the high tides, the male holding securely to the
back of the female by means of his clasping nippers. No actual
union between the sexes takes place, the spawn of the female
being fertilized by the male at the time of being laid in the sand
or soon afterwards. This act accomplished, the two retreat
again into deeper water. Deposited in the mud or sand near
high^water mark, the eggs are eventually hatched by the heat of
the sun, to which they are exposed every day for a considerable
time. The newly hatched young is minute and subcircular in
shape, but bears a close resemblance to its parents except in the
absence of the caudal spine and in the presence of a fringe of
stiff bristles round the margin of the body. During growth it
undergoes a succession of moults, making its exit from the old
integument through a wide split running round the edge of ihe
carapace. Moulting is effected in exactly the same way in
scorpions, Pedipalpi, and normally in spiders. The caudal spme
appears at the second moult and gradually increases in length
with successive changes of the skin. This organ is of considerable
importance, since it enables the king-crab to right itself when
overturned by rough water or other causes. Without it tha
8o8
KINGFISHER
animal would remain helpless like an upturned turtle, because
fe is enable to reach the ground with its legs when lying on its
back. Before the tail is sufficiently developed to be used for
tiial purpose, the young king-crab succeeds in regaining the
normal position by flapping its flattened abdominal appendages
and rising in the water by that means. The king-crab fishery
Fie. i.
ir. adult (dorsal aspect).
, young (dorsal aspect).
*, CoaiM., Shropshire.
JHrttrttft, Coal M., Lancashire.
ittstMS* U. Silurian, Lanark.
. L. Ludlow, LAntwardlne, Shropshire.
-, U. Silurian, Russia.
to the sea-shore, but a severe winter b sure to occasion a great
mortality in the species, for many of its individuals seem suable
to reach the tidal waters where only in such a season they coald
obtain sustenance, and to this cause rather than any other is
perhaps to be ascribed its general scarcity. Very early in the
year it prepares its nest, which is at the end of a tunnel boxed
by itself in a bank, and therein the six or eight white, glossy,
translucent eggs are laid, sometimes on the bare sou, but often on
the fishbones which, being indigestible, are thrown up in pellets
by the birds; and, in any case, before incubation is compktrri
these rejectamenta accumulate so as to form a pretty cup-shaped
structure that increases in bulk after the young are hatched,
but, mixed with their fluid excretions and with decaying fishes
brought for their support, soon becomes a dripping fetid mass,
The kingfisher is the subject of a variety of legends and super-
stitions, both classical and medieval Of the latter one of the
most curious is that having been originally a plain grey bird it
acquired its present bright colours by flying towards the sua on
its liberation from Noah's ark, when its upper surface assainrd
the hue of the sky above it and its lower plumage was s cor ched
by the heat of the setting orb to the tint it now bears.* More
than this, the kingfisher was supposed to possess many virtues.
Its dried body would avert thunderbolts, and if kept in a ward-
robe would preserve from moths the woollen stuffs therein hid,
or hung by a thread to the ceiling of a chamber would point with
its bill to the quarter whence the wind blew. AH readers of
Ovid (Mctom., bk. xi.) know how the faithful but unfortunate
Ceyx and Alcyone were changed into kingfishers — birds which
bred at the winter solstice, when through the influence of Aeolus,
the wind-god and father of the fond wife, all gales were trashed
and the sea calmed so that their floating nest might ride un-
injured over the waves during the seven proverbial " Hakyoa
days"; while a variant or further development of the fabk
assigned to the halcyon itself the power of queuing storms.*
The common kingfisher of Europe is the representative of ■
well-marked family of birds, the Alcedinidac or Halcyomdae of
ornithologists, which is considered by most authorities * to be
closely related to the Bucerotidae (see Ho&kbox) ; but the affinity
can scarcely be said as yet to be proved. Be that as it may, the
present family forms the subject of an important work by
Bowdler Sharped Herein are described one hundred and twenty-
five species, nearly all of them being beautifully figured by
Keulemans, and that number may be taken even now as
approximately correct; for, while the validity of a few has beta
denied by some eminent men, nearly as many have since
been made known, and it seems likely that two or three races
described by older writers may yet be rediscovered. These
one hundred and twenty-five species Sharpe groaps in nxnetees
genera, and divides into two sub-families, Alcedininae and
Daceloninac* the one containing five and the other fourteen
genera. With existing anatomical materials perhaps no
better arrangement could have been made, but the method
afterwards published by Sundevall (Tentamen, pp. 95, 96)
differs from it not inconsiderably. Here, however, it win be
convenient to follow Sharpe. Externally, which is almost aS
we can at present say, kingfishers present a great uniformity of
structure. One of their most remarkable features is the feeble-
ness of their feet, and the union (syndactylism) of the third and
fourth digits for the greater part of their length; while, ats if st3
* Roltond, Faune bopulaire de la France, H. 74.
* In many of the islands of the Pacific Ocean the prevalent k«r
fisher is the object of much ve n er ati on,
«Cf. Eyton. Cemtrib. OrnHkatogy (1850), p. 80; Wallace. Aw*
Nat. History, series 2, voL xviii. pp. 201, 205; and Huxley, JVac
Zool. Soctety (1867), p. 467.
M Monograph of the Atcedimdae or Family of the Kingfishers, b*
R. B. Sharpe, 4to (London. 1868-1871). Some important » imiibi ■'
points were briefly noticed by Pi o f c sa ot Cunningham LrVac Z**L
See.. 1670, p. 280).
'The name of this Utter sub-family as constituted by Sharpe
would seem to be more correctly Ceycinae — the genus Ceyx, fuw de d
in 1801 by LacepMc. being the oldest included in it. The word
Daceio, invented by Leach in 1815, b simply an anagram of Altai*.
and, though of course without any ttynwlogkal meaning, kusa bean
very generally adopted.
KINGHORN— KINGLET
809
further to show the comparatively functionleas character of
these members, in two of the genera, Alcyone and Ceyx, the second
digit i> aborted, and the birds have but three toes. In moat
forms the bill does not differ much from that of the common
Aktdo ispida, but in Symo its edges are serrated, while in
CarcintuUs, Dacdo and Mdidota the maxilla is prolonged,
becoming in the last a very pronounced book. Generally the
wings are short and rounded, and the tail is in many forms incon-
spicuous; but in Tanyuptera, one of the most beautiful groups,
the middle pair of feathers is greatly elongated and speculate,
while this genus possesses only ten rectrices, all the rest having
twelve. Sundevall relies on a character not noticed by Sharpe,
and makes fads principal divisions depend on the size of the
scapulars, which in one form a mantle, and in the other are so
small as not to cover the back. The AUodinido* are a cosmo-
politan family, but only one genus, CtryU, is found in America,
and that extends as well over a great part of the Old World,
though not into the Australian region, which affords by far the
greater number both of genera and species, having no fewer than
ten of the former and fifty-nine of the latter peculiar to it.*
In habits kingfishers display considerable diversity, though
all, it would seem, have it in -common to sit at times motionless
on the watch for their prey, and on its appearance to dart upon
it, seize it as they fly or dive, and return to a perch where It may
be conveniently swallowed. But some species, and especially
that which is the type of the family, are not always content to
await at rest their victim's showing itself. They wilt hover like
a hawk over the waters that conceal it, and, in the manner
already described, precipitate themselves upon it. This is
particularly the way with those that are fishers in fact as well as
in name; but no inconsiderable number live almost entirely in
forests, feeding on insects, while reptiles furnish the chief susten-
ance of others. The last is characteristic of at least one Aus-
tralian form, which manages to thrive in the driest districts of
that country, where not a drop of water is to be found for miles,
and the air is at times heated to a degree that is insupportable
by most animals. The belted kingfisher of North America,
CeryU akyon, is a characteristic bird of that country, though its
habits greatly resemble those of the European species; and the
so-called " laughing jackass " of New South Wales and South
Australia, Dacclo &gas— -with its kindred forms, D. Icachi,
D. urrina and D. occidentalis, from other parts of the country —
deserve special mention. Attention must also be called to the
speculations of Dr Bowdler Sharpe (op. «/., pp. xliv.-xlvii.) on
the genetic affinity of the various forms of Akedinidae, and it is
to be regretted that hitherto no light has been shed by palaeon-
tologists on this interesting subject, for the only fossil referred to
the neighbourhood of the family is the Halcyornis toliapicus
of Sir R. Owen (Br. Foss. Mamm. and Birds, p. 554) from the
Eocene of Sheppey — the very specimen said to have been pre-
viously placed by Kdnig (Icon. Joss, suliics, fig. 153) in the genus
Larus. (A. N.)
K1NGH0RN, a royal and police burgh of Fifeshire, Scotland.
Pop. (1901), 1550. It is situated on the Firth of Forth, aj m.
£. by N. of Burntisland, on the North British railway. The
public buildings .include a library and town-ball. It enjoys
some repute as a summer resort. The leading industries are
ship-building, bleaching and the making of flax and glue. At
the time of his visit Daniel Defoe found thread-making in vogue,
which employed the women while the men were at sea. Alex-
ander III. created Kinghorn a burgh, but his connexion with the
town proved fatal to him. As he was riding from Inverkcithing
00 the 1 2th of March 1286 he was thrown by his horse and fell
over the cliffs, since called King's Wud End, a little to the west
of the burgh, and killed. A monument was erected in 1887 to
mark the supposed scene of the accident. The Witch Hill
used to be the place of execution of those poor wretches. King-
horn belongs to the Kirkcaldy district group of parliamentary
burghs. At Pettycur, i m. to the south, is a good harbour for
its size, and at Kinghorn Ness a battery has been established
in connexion with the fortifications on Inchkeith. The hill
1 Cf. Wallace, Gcog. Distr. Animals, ii. 31^
above the battery was purchased by g ov er nm ent in 1003 and
is used as a point of observation. About 1 m. to the north
of Kinghorn is the estate of Grange, which belonged to Sir
William Kirkcaldy. Jnchxeith, an island in the fairway of
the Firth of Forth, 24 m - s - by E. of Kinghorn and 3} m. N. by
E. of Leith, belongs to the parish of Kinghorn. It has a north*
westerly and south-easterly trend, and is nearly 1 m. long and
i m. wide. It is a barren rock, on the summit of which stands a
lighthouse visible at night for si m. In 1881 forts connected by
a military road were erected on the northern, western and
southern headlands.
K1NGLAKB, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1800-1891), English
historian and traveller, was born at Taunton on the 5th of
August 1809. His father, a successful solicitor, intended his
son for a legal career. Kinglake went to Eton and Trinity
College, Cambridge, where be matriculated in 1828, being a con-
temporary and friend of Tennyson and Thackeray. After leaving
Cambridge he joined Lincoln's Inn, and was called to the bar in
1837. While still a student he travelled, in 1835, throughout
the East, and the impression made upon him by his experiences
was so powerful that he was seized with a desire to record them
in literature. Eothen, a sensitive and witty record of impres-
sions keenly felt and remembered, was published in 1844, and
enjoyed considerable reputation. In 1854 he went to the Crimea,
and was present at the battle of the Alma. During the campaign
he made the acquaintance of Lord Raglan, who was so much
attracted by his talents that be suggested to Kinglake the plan
for an elaborate History of the Crimean War, and placed his
private papers at the writer's disposal. For the rest of his life
Kinglake was engaged upon the task of completing this monu-
mental history. Thirty-two years elapsed between its commence-
ment and the publication of the last volume, and eight volumes
in all appeared at intervals between 1863 and 1887. Kinglake
lived principally in London, and sat in parliament for Bridg-
water from 1857 until the disfranchisement of the borough in
1868. He died on the 2nd of January 1801. Kinglake's life-
work, The History of the Crimean War, is in scheme and execution
too minute and conscientious to be altogether in proportion, but
it is a wonderful example of painstaking and talented industry.
It is not without errors of partisanship, but it shows remarkable
skill in the moulding of vast masses of despatches and technical
details into, an absorbingly interesting narrative; it is illumined
by natural descriptions and character-sketches of great fidelity
and acumen; and, despite its length, it remains one of the most
picturesque, most vivid and most actual pieces of historical
narrative in the English language.
KINGLET, a name applied in many books to the bird called
by Linnaeus Motacilla regulus, and by most modern ornitho-
logists Regulus cristatus, the golden-crested or golden-crowned
wren of ordinary persons. This species is the type of a small
group which has been generally placed among the Syhiidae
or true warblers, but by certain systcmatists it is referred to
the titmouse family, Paridae. That the kinglets possess many
of the habits and actions of the latter is undeniable, but on
the other hand they are not known to differ in any important
points of organization or appearance from the former— the chief
distinction being that the nostril is covered by a single bristly
feather directed forwards. The golden-crested wren Is the
smallest of British birds, its whole length being about 3) in.,
and its wing measuring only 2 in. from the carpal joint.
Generally of an olive-green colour, the top of its head is bright
yellow, deepening into orange, and bounded on either side by a
black line, while the wing coverts are dull black, and some of
them tipped with white, forming a somewhat conspicuous bar.
The cock has a pleasant but weak song. The nest is a beautiful
object, thickly felted of the softest moss, wool, and spiders'
webs, lined with feathers, and usually built under and near the
end of the branch of a yew, fir or cedar, supported by the inter-
weaving of two or three laterally diverging and pendent twigs,
and sheltered by the rest. The eggs are from six to ten in number,
of a dull white sometimes finely freckled with reddish-brown.
The species is particularly social, living for the most part of the
Bio
KINGS, BOOKS OF
year in family parties, and often joining bands of any species of
titmouse in a common search for food. Though to be met with
in Britain at all seasons, the bird in autumn visits the east coast
in enormous flocks, apparently emigrants from Scandinavia,
while hundreds perish in crossing the North Sea, where they are
well known to the fishermen as " woodcock's pilots." A second
and more local European species is the fire-crested. wren, R. *x«»-
capiUus, easily recognizable by the black streak on each side
of the head, before and behind the eye, as well as by the deeper
colour of its crown. A third species, R. maderensis, inhabits
the Madeiras, to which it is peculiar; and examples from the
Himalayas and Japan have been differentiated as R. h'maloy-
c*sis and R. japonicus. North America has two well-known
species, R. sat r a pa, very like the European R. ignicapillus, and
the ruby-crowned wren, R. calendula, which is remarkable for
a loud song ihat has been compared to that of a canary-bird or
a skylark, and for having the charactcrbtic nasal feather in a
rudimentary or aborted condition. (A. N.)
KINGS. FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF, two books of the
Bible, the last of the scries of Old Testament histories known as
the Earlier or Former Prophets. They were originally reckoned
as a single book (Joscphus; Origcn a p. Eus., HE. vi. 25;
Peshitta; Talmud), though modern Bibles follow the bi parti-
tion which is derived from the Scptuagint. In that version
they are called the third and fourth books of " kingdoms "
03<urtX&&i'), the first and second being our books of SamueL
The division into two books is not felicitous, and even the old
Hebrew separation between Kings and Samuel must not be
taken to mean that the history from the birth of Samuel to the
exile was treated by two distinct authors in independent volumes.
We cannot speak of the author of Kings or Samuel, but only of
an editor or of successive editors whose main work was to arrange
in a continuous form extracts or abstracts from earlier sources.
The introduction of a chronological scheme and of a scries of
editorial comments and additions, chiefly designed to enforce
the religious meaning of the history, gives a kind of unity to
the book of Kings as we now read it; but beneath this we can
still distinguish a variety of documents, which, though some-
times mutilated in the process of piecing together, retain
sufficient individuality of style and colour to prove their original
independence.
Of these documents one of the best defined is the vivid picture
of David's court at Jerusalem (2 Sam. Lx.-xx.) from which the
first two chapters of t Kings manifestly cannot be separated.
As it would be unreasonable to suppose that the editor of the
history of David closed his work abruptly before the death of
the king, breaking off in the middle of a valuable memoir which
lay before him, this observation leads us to conclude that the
books of Samuel and Kings are not independent histories. They
have at least one source in common, and a single editorial hand
was at work on both- From an historical point of view, however,
the division which makes the beginning of Solomon's reign the
beginning of a new book is very convenient. The conquest of
Palestine by the Israelite Lribes, recounted in the book of Joshua,
leads up to the era of the "judges" (Judg. ii. 6-23; iii. sqq.),
and the books of Samuel follow with the institution of the
monarchy and the first kings. The books of Kings bring to a
close the life of David (c. 975 B.C.), which forms the introduction
to the reign of Solomon (1 Kings ii. 12-xi), the troubles in whose
time prepared the way for the separation into the two distinct
kingdoms, via. Judah and the northern tribes of Israel (xii. sqq.).
After the fall of Samaria, the history of these Israelites is rounded
oh* with a review (2 Kings xvii.-xviii. 12). The history of the
tuiviving kingdom of Judah is then carried down to the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem and the exile (5 and 6), and, after an account
of the Chaldean governorship, concludes with the release of the
laptiVc king Jchoiachin (561 B.C.) and with an allusion to his
kind treatment during the rest of his lifetime.
The mo>t noticeable feature in the book is the recurring interest
in the centralization of worship in the Temple at Jerusalem as
piouibcd in Deuteronomy and enforced by Josiah. Amidst
the great variety in style and manner which marks the several
parts of the history, features which are imbued with the teackiaf
of Deuteronomy recur regularly to similar stereotyped farms.
They point in fact to a specific redaction, and thus it would seem
that the editor who treated the foundation of the Temple, the
central event of Solomon's life, as a religious epoch of the first
importance, regarded this as the beginning of a new era— the
history of Israel under the one sanctuary.
When we assume that the book of Kings was thrown into its
present form by a Deutcronomislic redactor we do not affirm
that he was the first who digested the sources of the -^^^
history into a continuous work, nor must we ascribe ftimifcn
absolute finality to his work. He gave the book a
definite shape and character, but the recognized m e th ods of
Hebrew literature left it open to additions and modi&caiioe*
by later hands. Even the redaction in the spirit of Deutero-
nomy seems itself to have had more than one stage, as Ewald
long ago recognized.
The evidence to be detailed presently shows that there was a cer-
tain want of definitencss about the redaction. The nuu of da-
jointed materials, not always free from inconsistencies, which Uy
before the editor in separate documents or in excerpts already par-
tially arranged by an earlier hand, could not have been reduced to
real unity without critical sifting, and an entire recasting of tat
narrative in a way foreign to the ideas and literary habits of the
Hebrews. The unity which the editor aimed at was limited to (*)
chronological continuity in the events recorded and (6) a cmua
uniformity in the treatment of the religious meaning of the narrative.
Even this could not be perfectly attained in the circumstances,
and the links of the history were not firmly enough riveted to pre-
vent disarrangement or rearrangement of details by later scribes.
(a) The continued efforts of successive redactors can be traced
in the chronology ol the book. The chronological method of the
narrative appears most clearly in the history after Solomon, where
the events of each king's reign are thrown into a kind of stereotyped
framework on this type: " In the twentieth year of Jeroboam, bag
of Israel, Asa began to reign over Judah, and reigned in Jerusalem
forty-one years. . . . " In the third year of Asa, king of Judah.
Baasha began to reign over Israel in Ttrxah twenty-lour years.'"
The history moves between Judah and Israel according to the date
of each accession ; as soon as a new long has been introduced, every-
thing that happened in his reign is discussed, and wound op by
another stereotyped formula as to the death and burial of the sove-
reign; and to this mechanical arrangement the natural connrxm
of events is often sacrificed. In this scheme the elaborate synchros*
isms between contemporary raonarchs of the north and south ghc
an aspect of great precision to the chronology. But in reality the
data for Judah and Israel do not agree, and remarkable deviation
arc sometimes found. The key to the chronology is 1 Kings vi 1.
which, as Wellhauscn has shown, was not found in the oraewsl
Septuagint, and contains internal evidence of post -Chaldean datc-
In fact the system as a whole is necessarily later than 535 a,c, the
fixed point from which it counts back, and although the numbers
for the duration of the reigns may be based upon early sources, the
synchronisms appear to have been inserted at a much later stage
in the history ol the text. . .
(6) Another aspect m the redaction may be called theological.
Us characteristic is the retrospective application to the history of a
standard belonging to the later developments of Old Testasseat
religion. Thus the redactor regards the sins of Jeroboam as the rod
cause of the downfall of Israel (a Kings xvii. 21 seq.), and passes sa
unfavourable judgment upon all its rulers, not merely to the effect
that they did evifin the sight of Yahweh but that they followed is
the way of Jeroboam. But his opinion was manifestly not shared
by Elijah or Elisha, nor by ths original narrator of the lives of these
prophets. Moreover, the redactor in 1 Kings hi. } seq. regards wor-
ship at the high places as sinful after the building of the Temple,
although even the best kings before Hczekiah made no attempt to
suppress these shrines. This feature in the redaction displays
itself not only in occasional comments or homilctieal eicursc et
but in that part of the narrative in which all ancient historians
allowed themselves free scope for the development of their resec-
tions— the speeches placed in the mouths of actors in the fc*story.
Here also there is often textual evidence that the theological element
is somewhat loosely attached to the earlier narrative and underwent,
successive additions.
Consequently it is necessary to distinguish between the? oWer
sources and the peculiar setting in which the history has been
placed, between earlier records and that specific O s u wrf
colouring which, from its affinity to Deuteronomy ■Iwwjibib.
and to other portions of the Old Testament which appear
to have been similarly treated under the influence of its teach-
ing, may be conveniently termed " Deuteronomisilc** For
KINGS, BOOKS OF
8it
hb sources the compiler refers chiefly to two distinct works,
the " words " or " chronicles " of the kings of Israel and
those of the kings of Judah. Precisely how much is copied
from these works and how much has been expressed in the
compiler's own language is of course uncertain. It is found
on inspection that the present history consists usually of an
epitome of each reign. It states the king's age at succession (so
judah only), length of reign, death and burial, with allusions
to his buildings, wars, and other political events. 1 In the case
of Judah, also, the name of the royal or queen-mother is speci-
fically mentioned. The references to the respective " chronicles,"
made as though they were still accessible, are wanting in the case
of Jebaram and Hoshca of Israel, and of Solomon, Ahaziah,
Athaliah, Jehoahaz, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah of Judah. But
for Solomon the authority cited, " book of the acts of Solomon "
(i Kings xi. 41), presumably presupposes Judaean chronicles,
and the remaining cases preserve details of an annalistic
character. Moreover, distinctive annalistic material is found
for the Israelite kings Saul and Ishbosheth in 1 Sam.
xiii. 1; xiv. 47-51; 2 Sam. ii. &-ioa (including even their age
at accession), and for David in 2 Sam. n. xx and parts of v.
and viii.
The use which the compiler makes of his sources shows that
his aim was not the history of the past but its religious significance.
It is rare that even qualified praise is bestowed upon the kings
of Israel (Jehoram, 2 Kings Hi. 2; Jehu x. 30; Hoshea xvii. 2).
Kings of great historical importance are treated with extreme
brevity (Omri, Jeroboam (2), Uzxiah), and similar meagrenessof
historical information is apparent when the editorial details and
the religious judgments are eliminated from the accounts of
ti adab, Baasha, and the successors of Jeroboam (2) in Israel or of
Abijam and Manasseh in Judah.
To gain a more exact idea of the character of the book we may
divide the history into three sections: (1) the life of Solomon,
^ (2) the kingdoms of Ephraim (or Samaria) 1 and
SM»moa, j uda j^ Jtnd ^ lhe jcparate history of Judah after
the fall of Samaria. I. Solomon. — The events which lead up
to the death of David and the accession of Solomon (j Kings
L, ii.) are closely connected with 2 Sam. ix.-xx. The unity is
broken by the appendix 2 Sam. xxi. xxi.-xxiv. which is closely
connected, as regards general subject-matter, with ibid, v.-viii.;
the literary questions depend largely upon the structure of
the books of Samuel (<?•»•). It is evident, at least, that either
the compiler drew upon other sources for the occasion and
has been remarkably brief elsewhere, of that his epitomes
have been supplemented by the later insertion of material
npl necessarily itself of late origin. At present x Kings i., ii.
are both the close of David's life (no source is cited) and the
necessary> introduction to Solomon. But Lucian's recension of
the Septuagint (ed. Lagarde), as also Josephus, begin the book at
ii. 12, thus separating the annalistic accounts of the two. Since
the contents of 1 Kings iii.-xi. do not form a continuous narrative,
the compiler's authority (" Acts of S." xi. 41) can hardly have
been an ordinary chronicle. The chapters comprise (a) sundry
notices of the king's prosperous and peaceful career, severed by
(b) a description of the Temple and other buildings; and they con-
clude with (c) some account of the external troubles which prove
to have unsettled the whole of his reign. After an introduction
(iii.), a contains generalizing statements of Solomon's might,
wealth and wisdom (iv. 20 seq., 25, 20-34; *• 23-25, *7) and
stories of a distinctly late and popular character (iii. 16-28,
x. i-10, .13). The present lack of unity can in some cases be
remedied by the Septuagint, which oilers many deviations from
the Hebrew text; this feature together with the present form of
1 Cp. the brief annalistic form of the Babylonian chronicles (for a
specimen, see C. F. Kent. Israel's Htst. and Bw% Narratives, p. 502
seq.). For a synchronistic history of- Assyria and Babylonia,
prepared for diplomatic purposes, see Schrader's Keitmsehr. Bibl. i.
194 sqq. : also L. W. King, Studies in Eastern Hist. L (Tukulii-Ninib).
pp. 1 , 75 seq. (with interesting variant traditions).
• The term " Israel M as applied to the northern kingdom is apt
to be ambiguous, since as a general national name, with a religious
significance, it can include or suggest the inclusion of Judah.
the parallel texts in Chronicles will exemplify the persistence of
fluctuation to a late period (jxh-znd cent* B.C.).
Thus iii. 2 seq. cannot be by the same hand as 0. 4, and v. a is
probably a later Deut. gloss upon v. 3 (earlier Deut.), which repre-
sents the compiler 'a view and (on the analogy of the framework) comes
closely after 11. 12.* Ch. iii. 1 can scarcely he severed from ix. t6,
and in the Septuagint they appear in iv. in the order: iv. t-19 (the
officers), 27 seq. (their duties), rt-24 (the daily provision). 29-34
(Solomon's reputation), iii. 1; ix. 16-170 (alliance with Egypt);
iv. 20 seq. 25 are of a generalizing character and recur in the Septua-
gint with much supplementary matter in ii. Ch. iv. 26 is naturally
related to x. 26 (el. 2 Chron. i. 14) and takes its place in Lucian's
recension (cf , 2 Chron. ix. 25). There is considerable variation again
in ix. lo-x. 29, and the order ix. 10-14, 26-28, x. 1-22 (so partly
Septuagint) has the advantage of recording continuously Solomon's
dealings with Hiram. The intervening verses belong to a class
of floating notices (in a very unnatural order) which seem to have got
stranded almost by chance at different points in the two recensions;
co " ~ - ■ — Solomon s preliminary arrangements
wi cen elaborated to emphasize the im por-
ta cf. 2 Sam. vii.) ; further difficulty is caused
by eq. and 15 seq. (see 2 Chron. h. 17 seq.)
ar na ix.^20 seq. xi. 28. The account of the
ro ched tn between the related fragments
of han narrative, and the accurate details
m y actual observation of the Temple at a
da >mon. ft is not all due to a single hand.
CI ite phrases) break the connexion and are
or bv. 15-22. now untranslatable, appear in
a 1 tin the Septuagint. The account of the
de gns of a late date; viii. 14-53, 54-6 1 are
du t, and that they arc an expansion of the
ok... , „, - suggested by the fact that the ancient
fragment, sv. 12, 13 (imperfect in the Hebrew) appears in the Septua-
gint alter v, 53 in completer form and with a reference to the -book of
Jashar as source (0i0\lo* rn% v*}t "wa ("»*»'.-») too ). The redac-
tional insertion displaced it in one recension and led to its mutilation
in the other. With, viii. 27-30, cf. generally Isa. xl.-lvi.; w. 44-51
presuppose the exile, vs. 54-61 are wanting in Chron., and even the
older parts of this chanter have also been retouched in conformity
with later (even post -exilic) ritual and law. The Levites who appear
at v. 4 in contrast to the priests, in a way unknown to the pre-exilic
history, are not named in the Septuagint, which also omits the post-
exilic term " congregation " (,'tdak) in v. 5. There is a general
similarity of subject with Deut. xxviii.
The account of the end of Solomon's reign deals with (a) his
religions laxity (xi. 1-13, now in a Deuteronomic form), as the
punishment for which the separation of the two kingdoms h
announced; and (b) the rise of the adversaries who, according to
xi. 25, hod troubled the whole of his reign, and therefore cannot
have been related originally as the penalty for the sins of his old
age. Both, however, form an introduction to subsequent events,
and the life of Solomon concludes with a brief annalistic notice
of his death, length of reign, successor, and' place of burial.
(See further Solomon.)
II. EphraiM and Judah. — In the history of the two kingdoms
the redactor follows a fixed scheme determined, as has been
seen, by the order of succession. The fluctuation
of tradition concerning the circumstances of ln * JS^on!!'*
schism is evident from a comparison with the
Septuagint, and all that is related of Ahijah falls under
suspicion of being foreign to the oldest history. 4 The story
of the man of God from Judah (xiii.) is shown to be late by
its general tone (conceptions of prophctism and revelation), 1
and by the term "cities of Samaria" (v. 32, fdr Samaria
as a province, cf. 2 Kings xvii. 24, 26; for the building of
the city by Omri see 1 Kings xvi. 24). It is a late Judaean
narrative inserted after the Deuteronomic redaction, and
» Here and elsewhere a careful study (e.g. of the marginal refer-
ences in the Revised Version) will prove the close relation between
the " Deuteronomic " passages and the book of Deuteronomy
itself. The bearing of this upon the traditional date of that book
should not be overlooked. ..>...
* See art. Jeroboam; also W. R. Smith. Old Test, m Jew. Church,
pp. 117 sqq.; H. Wincklcr. A U It si. Untersuchungen, pp. I sqq.. and
the subsequent criticisms by C. F. Burney (Ktngs, pp. 163 sqq.);
J. Skinner (Kings, pp. 443 ««•): »■"* ***. Meyer Useaeliten ».
Natkbarstdmme, pp. 357 sqq.).
* Notice should everywhere be taken of those prophetical stories
which have the linguistic features of the Deuteronomic writers, or
which differ in sty* and expression from the prophecies of Amos,
Hosea and others, previous to Jeremiah.
$«i
KINGS, BOOKS OF
ti-t**s the conaesjon between xfl. 3« and "iL 33 seq. The
b ,<r ^rsvribe the i d ol atr ous worship instituted by the first
*.*r$ <* the schismatic north, and the religious attitude occurs
*fe>^" , > thtv^fcoot the compiler's epitome, however brief
tVr rc^rss <rf the kings* In the account of Nadab, xv. 25 seq.,
K* s js^ *cq. are certainly the compiler's, and the synchronism in
• «$ nmst also be editorial; xv. 32 (Septuagint omit) and 16
at* ^ :x*t« leading up to the Israelite and Judaean accounts
*f ¥U*sha respectively. But xv. 33-xvi. 7 contains little
*--vCiw*c information, and the prophecy m xvi. 1-4 is very
AiuUrfexiv. 7-1 1, whkh in turn breaks the connexion between
t* • and 1 ». Ch. xvi. 7 is a duplicate to w. 1-4 and out of place;
tSe Septuagint inserts it in the middle of v. 8. The brief reign
ot Klaa preserves an important entract in xvi. 9, but the dale
in iv 10* (LXX. omits) presupposes the late finished chronological
scheme* Zimri's seven days receive the inevitable condemnation,
but the older material embedded in the framework (xvi. 156-18)
is closely connected with v. 9 and is continued in the non-
editorial portions of Omri's reign (xvi. 31 seq., length of reign in
tv »j, and v. 34). The achievements of Omri to whkh the
editor refers can fortunately be gathered from external sources
(see Omm). Under Omri's son Ahab the separate kingdoms
converge.
Next, as to Judah: the vivid account of the accession of
Rehoboam in xii. 1-16 is reminiscent of the full narratives in
a Sam. ut.-xx.; 1 Kings i., it (cf. especially v. 16 with 2 Sam.
xx. 1); xii. 156 refers to the prophecy of Ahijah (see above),
and " unto this day," v. 19, cannot be by a contemporary
author; v. 17 (LXX. omits) finds a parallel in 2 Chron. xi. 16 seq.,
and could represent an Ephraimite standpoint. The Judaean
standpoint is prominent in w. 31-24, where («) the inclusion
of Benjamin and (6) the cessation of war (at the command of
Shemaiah) conflict with (a) xi. 33, 36, xii. 20 and (6) xiv. 30
respectively. Rehoboam's history, resumed by the redactor
in xiv. 21-24, .continues with a brief account of the spoiling
of the Temple and palace by Sheahonk (Shishak). (The
incident appears in 2 Chron. xti. In a rather different context,
before the details whkh now precede v. 21 seq.) The reign of
Abijam is entirely due to the editor, whose brief statement of
the war in xv. 7* is supplemented by a lengthy story in 2 Chron.
xii*. (where the name is Abijah). Ch. xv. 5* (last clause) and
t. 6 are omitted by the Septuagint, tho former is a unique gloss
(see a Sam. xL seq.), the latter is a mere repetition of xiv. 30;
with xv. 2 cf. t. 10. The account of Asa's long reign contains
a valuable summary of his war with Baasha, xv. 16-22; the
isolated v. 15 is quite obscure and is possibly related to
t. 18 (but cf. vii. 51). His successor Jehoshaphat is now dealt
with completely in xxii. 4>~5Q ** tcr ine death of Ahab; but
the Septuagint, which follows a different chronological scheme
(placing his accession in the reign of Omri), gives the summary
(with some variations) after xvi. 28. Another light is thrown
upon the incomplete annalistic fragments (xxii. 44, 47~49)
by a Chron. xx. 35-37: the friendship between Judah and
Israel appears to have been displeasing to the redactor of
Kings.
1 The history of the few years between the close of Ahab's
life and the accession of Jehu covers about one-third of the
rfrfcr,^ entire book of Kings. This is due to the inclu-
**<■**•* sion of a number of narratives which are partly of
<•**» a political character, and partly are interested in
the work of contemporary prophets. The climax is reached
in the overthrow of Omri's dynasty by the usurper Jehu,
when, after a period of close intercourse between Israel and
Judah, its two kings perished. The annals of each kingdom
would* naturally deal independently with these events, but
the present literary structure of 1 Kings xvii.-2 Kings xi. is
extremely complicated by the presence of the narratives referred
to. First as regards the framework, the epitome of Ahab is
preserved in xvi. 30-34 *nd ""• 39: » l contains some unknown
Recreates this iv^y bouse a,, d cities), and a stem religious
A «poa his Phoenician r* li *~ v h the intervening
t throw more lig ht. wy of his son
Ahaziah (xxii. 5>-$3)' finds its conclusion m 3 Kings t 17 seq.
where t. 18 should precede the accession of his brother Jehorani
(t. 17b). Jehorara is again introduced in in. 1-3 (note the
variant synchronism), but the usual conclusion is wanting, la
Judah, Jehoshaphat was succeeded by ms son Jehorara, who had
married Athaliah the daughter of Ahab and Jesehd (viii. 16-24);
to the annalistic details (w. 30-33) * Chron. xxi. 11 sqq. adds
& novel narrative. His son Ahaziah (vSL 35 sqq.) is similarly
denounced for his relations with Israel. He is again introduced
in the isolated ix. 39, while Ludan's recension adds after x. j6
a variant summary of his reign but ivitkmd the regular intro-
duction. Further confusion appears in the Septuagint. whkh
inserts after L 18 (Jehoram of Israel) a notice corresponding
to iii. x-3, and concludes "and the anger of the Lord «a
kindled against the house of Ahab.** This would be appropriate
in a position nearer he. seq. where the deaths of Jehoram and
Ahaziah are described. These and other examples of scrim
disorder in the framework may be associated with the literary
features of the narratives of Elijah and Elisha.
Of the more detailed narratives those that deal with the northen
kingdom are scarcely Judaean (see 1 Kings xi*. 3). and they do act
criticize Elijah's work, as the Judaean compiler denounces the vk~V
history of the north. But they are plainly not of ooe origin. To
supplement the articles Elijah and Elisha. it Is to be noticed that
the account of Naboth's death in the history of Elijah (1 Kisgs
xxi.) differs in details from that in the history of Elisha and Jets
(3 Kings ix.), and the latter more precise narrative presuppc*i
events recorded in the extant accounts of Elijah but not ibe*
events themselves. In I Kings xx., xxii. 1-28 (xxi. follows six.
in the LXX.} Ahab is viewed rather more favourably than to the
Elijah-narratives (xix., xxi.) or in the compiler's summary. Ch. xxi t*
moreover, proves that there is some exaggeration in xviii. 4. ij;
the great contest between Elijah and the king, between Yahweh sad
Baal, has been idealized. The denunciation of Ahab in xx. 35-43
has some notable points of contact with xiii. and seems to be a aspnh-
ment to the preceding incidents. Ch. xxii. is important for its tots*
of prophettsm (especially sv. 19-33; cf. Ezek. xiv. 9; a Sam. xriv 1
[in contrast to 1 Chron. xxi. ifi ; a gloss at the end of 9. 38. omitted
by the Septuagint, wrongly identifies Micaiah with the weU-kaovt
Micah (i. 3). Although the punishment passed upon Ahab in m
30 sqq. (206-26 betray the compiler's hand ; cf. xiv. 10 seq^ iswo&ktd
in ». 39, this is ignored in the account of his death, xxu. 38, wak*
takes place at Samaria (see below).
The episode of Elijah and Ahaziah (3 Kings L) is marked by tie
revelation through an angel. The prophet^ name appears m m
unusual form (via. Hiryk, not -yaku), especially in sv. a-4. Tst
prediction of Ahaziah s fate finds a parallel in 3 Chron. xxi. 13-15;
the more supernatural additions have been compared with the tau
story in 1 Sam. xix. 18-24. The ascension of Elijah (3 Kings £1
is related as the introduction to the work of Elisha, which apparaah
begins before the death of Jehoshaphat (see iii. 1, 1 1 «qq. ; coatxasl
3 Chron. let. ciL). Among the stones of Elisha are some which fad
him at the head of the prophetic gilds (iv. 1, 38-44. vi. 1-7). wbia
in others he has friendly relations with the " king of Israel and tie
court. As a personage of almost superhuman dignity he swim
in certain narratives "where political records appear to haw ben
utilized to describe the activity of the prophets. The M*w s * >
campaign (iii.) concerns a revolt already referred to in the isohtrd
i. t ; there are parallels with the story of Jehoshaphat and Ahts
(iii. 7, 11 srq :cf. I Kings xxii. 4 seq., 7 stjq.), contrast, however, rra *
(where Elijah is not even named) and iii. 1 1 seq. But Jehoahaa^ai 1
death has been already recorded (1 KingsxxiL 50). and. while Li
recension in 3 Kings iii. reads Ahaziah, 1. 17 presupposes the
sion of the Judaean Jehoram. Other political narratives may a__
lie the stories of the Aramaean wars; with vi. 24-vii. ao (after tsc
complete cessation of hostilities in vi. 33)comparct the gessesml <rj*
of 1 Kings xx, xxii. ; with the famine in Samaria.vi. 35 ; cl. ibid. *-*&
with the victory, cf. ibid. xx. The account of Elisha and Kuac£
(viii. 7-15) implies friendly relations with Damascus fin sv u the
terrors of war are in the future), but the description c4iehsj*»aooe>
sion (ix.) is in the midst of hostilities. Ch.ix. 7-100 are a Eteuterossannr
insertion amplifying the message in w. 3-6 (cf. 1 Kings xxL ao srq >■
The origin of the repetition in ix. 14-150 (cf. viil. 38 seq.) b not dear.
The oracle in ix. 35 seq. is not that in 1 Kings xxi. 19 seq.. and men
the additional detail that Naboth's 1
seq.. and mem
in. Here has
or portion is located near Jezreel. but in I Kings xxi. 18 his vineyard
is by the roval palace in Samaria (cf. xxii. 38 and coatnmaa scxi 1.
where the LXX. omits reference to lesreel). This Buctusasion «v
|., and 17; in f
appears in 2 Kings x. 1, 11 seq..
; n tx. 37 compared w*»
3 Chron. xxii. 9; and in the singular daphcatioa of an historical i
dent. vis. the war against the Aramaeans at Raraotb-fTilswJ (a) k*
Jehoshaphat and Ahab. and (6) fay Ahaziah and Jehoram, in «*c*
1 The division of the two books at this point is an
made in the LXX. and Vulgate.
KINGS, BOOKS OF
813
Dymastf
east with the death of the Israelite Hnf , at Samaria and Jezreel respec-
tively (see above and observe the contradiction in 1 Kings xxi. 29
and xxii. 38). These and other critical questions hi this section are
involved with (a) the probability that EHsh&'s work belongs rather
to the accession of Jehu, with whose dynasty he was on most intimate
perms until his death some forty-five years later (2 Kings xiii, 14-21),
and (0) the problem of the wars between Israel and Syria which
appear to have begun only in the time of Jehu (x. 32). See Jew.
Quart. Rev. (1906), pp. 597-630, and Jews: History ; f 11 seq.
In the annals of Jehu's dynasty the editorial introduction
to Jehu himself is wanting (a. $2 sqq.), although Lucian's
recension in x. 36 concludes in annalistic manner
the lives of Jehoram of Israel and Ahaziah of
Judah. The summary mentions the beginning of
the Aramaean wars, the continuation of which is found in
the redactor's account of his successor Jehoabaz (xiii x-9).
But xiii. 4-6 modify the disasters, and by pointing to the
"saviour" or deliverer (cf. Judg. aim. 9, 15) anticipate xiv. 27.
The self-contained account of his son Jehoash (xiii. 10-13) j*
supplemented (a) by the story of the death of Elisha (w. 14-21)
and (6) by some account of the Aramaean wars (vv. 22-25),
where t. 23, like vr. 4-6 (Lucian's recension actually reads it
after v. 7), is noteworthy for the sympathy towards the northern
kingdom. Further (e) the defeat of Amaziah of Judah ap-
pears in xiv. 8-14 after the annals of Judah, although from
an Israelite source (v. 116 Bethshemesh defined as belonging
to Judah, see also v. 15, and with the repetition of the concluding
statements in t. is seq., see xiii. 12 seq.). These features and
the transference of xiii. 12 seq. after xiii. 25 in Lucian's recension
point to late adjustment. In Judaean history, Jehu's reform
and the overthrow of Jezebel in the north (ix., x. 15-28) find
their counterpart In the murder of Athahah and the destruction
of the temple of Baal in Judah (xi. 18). But the framework
is incomplete. The editorial conclusion of the reign of Ahaziah,
the introduction to that of Athaliah, and the sources for both are
wanting. A lengthy Judaean document is incorporated detail-
ing the accession of Joash and the prominence of the abruptly
introduced priest Jehoiada. The interest in the Temple and
temple-procedure is obvious; and both xi. and xii. have points
of resemblance with xxii. seq. (see below and cf. also xi. 4, 7, xi,
19, with t Rings xiv. 27 seq.). The usual epitome is found in
xi. 21-xii 3 (the age at accession should follow the synchronism,
so Lucian), with fragments of annalistic matter in xii. 17-21
(another version in 2 Chron. xxiv. 23 sqq.). For Joash'sson
Amaziah see above; xiv. 6 refers to Deut. xxiv. 16, and 2 Chron.
xxv. 5-16 replaces t. 7 by a lengthy narrative with some interest-
ing details. Azariah or Uzziah is briefly summarized in xv. 1-7,
hence the notice in xiv. 22 seems out of place; perhaps the
usual statements of Amaziah's death and burial (cf. xiv. 206,
22A), which were to be expected after v. t8, have been supple-
mented by the account of the rebellion (vv. ig, jofl, 2i). ! The
chronological notes for the accession of Azariah imply different
views of the htstory of Judah after the defeat of Amaziah; with
xiv. 17, cf. xiii. 10, xiv. 2,-23, but contrast xv. 1, and again v. 8.'
The important rei^n of Jeroboam (2) is dismissed as briefly
as that of Azariah (xiv. 23-29). The end of the Aramaean war
presupposed by v. 25 is supplemented by the sympathetic ad-
dition in v. 26 seq. (cf. xiii. 4 seq. 23). Of his successors Zechariah,
Shallum and Menahem only the briefest records remain, now
imbedded in the editorial framework (xv. 8-25). The summary
of Pekah (perhaps the same as Pekahiah, the confusion being due
to the compiler) contains excerpts which form the continuation
of the older material in v. 25 (cf. also vv. 10, 14, 16, 19, so). For
an apparently similar adjustment of an earlier record to the
framework see above on r Kings xv. 25-31, xvi. 8-25. The
account of Hoshea's conspiracy (xv. 29 seq.) gives the Israelite
version with which Tiglath-Pilcscr's own statement can now be
compared. Two accounts of the fall of Samaria are given,
one of which is under the reign of the contemporary Judaean
1 Both xiv. 22 and xv. 5 presuppose fuller records of which 2 Chron.
xxvi. 6-7, 16-20 may represent merely later and less trustworthy
versions.
• See F. ROhl, Deutsche Zeii. J. Cesducktwissens. xii 54 sqq.; also
Jews: History, 1 1*.
Hezekiah (xvii. 1-6, xviit 9-"); tne chronology *% again
intricate. Reflections on the disappearance of the northern
kingdom appear in xvfi. 7-23 and xviiL 12; the latter belongs
to the Judaean history. The former is composite; xvii. 21-23
(cf. v. t8) look back to the introduction of calf-worship by
Jeroboam (1), and agree with the compiler's usual standpoint;
but w. 19-20 include Judah and presuppose the exile. The
remaining verses survey types of idolatry partly of a general
kind (w. 9-1 1, 16a), and partly characteristic of Judah in the
last years of the monarchy (w. 166, 1 7). The brief account of the
subsequent history of Israel in xvii. 24-41 is not from one source,
since the piety of the new settlers (v. 32-34*, 41) conflicts with the
later point of view in 346-40. The last-mentioned supplements the
eqilogue in xvii. 7-23, forms a solemn conclusion to the history of
the northern kingdom, and Is apparently aimed at the Samaritans.
III. Later History of Judah.— The summary of Jotham
(xv. 32-38) shows interest in the Temple (9. 35) and alludes
to the hostility of Pekah (>. 37) upon which the ^^
Israelite annals are silent. 2. Chron. xxviL expands *^^
the former but replaces the latter by other not unrelated
details (see Uzziah). But xv. 37 is resumed afresh in the
account of the reign of Ahaz (xvi. 5 sqq.; the text in 9. 6
is confused) — another version in 2 Chron. xxviii. 5 sqq.
—and is supplemented by a description, evidently from the
Temple records, in which the ritual innovations by "king
Ahaz " (in contrast to " Ahaz " alone In tv. 5-9) are described
(w. 10-18). There b further variation of detail in 2 Chron.
xxviii. ao-27. The summary of Hezekiah (xviii. 1-8) em-
phasizes his important religious reforms (greatly expanded in
2 Chron. xxix. seq. from a later standpoint), and includes two
references to his military achievements. Of these v. 8 is ignored
in Chron., and v. 7 is supplemented by (a) the annalistic extract
in vv. 13-16, and (b) narratives in which the great contemporary
prophet Isaiah is the central figure. The latter are later than
Isaiah himself (xix. 37 refers to 68 r bjc.) and reappear, with
some abbreviation and rearrangement, in Isa. xxxvi.-xxxix. (see
Isaiah). They are partly duplicate (cf. xix. 7 with vv. 28, 33;
t». 10-13 with xviii. 28-35), and consist of two portions, xviii.
17-xix. 8 (Isa. xxxvL 2-xxxvii. 8) and xix. 0&-35 (Isa. xxxvii.
9^-36); to which of these xix. go and v. 36 seq. belong is dis-
puted. 2 Chron. xxxii. (where these accounts are condensed)
is in general agreement with 2 Kings xviii. 7, as against
w. 14-16. The poetical fragment, xix. 21-28, is connected with
the sign in vv. 29-31; both seem to break the connexion between
xix. 20 and 3 2 sqq. Chap. xz. 1-19 appears to belong to an earlier
period in Hezekiah 's reign (see v. 6 and cf. 2 Chron. xxxii. 25 seq.) ;
with t*« i-n note carefully the forms in Isa. xxxviii. 1-8, 21 seq.,
and 2 Chren. xxxii. 24-26; with xx. 12-19 (Isa. xxxix) contrast
the brief allusion m 2 Chron. xxxii. 31. In t. 17 seq. the exile
is foreshadowed. Use has probably been made of a late cycle
of Isaiab-stories; such a work is actually mentioned in 2 Chron.
xxxii. 32. The accounts of the reactionary kings Manasseh and
Amo iv although now by the compiler, give some reference to
political events (see xxi 1 7, 23 seq.); xxi. 7-15 refer to the exile
and find a parallel in xxiii. 26 seq., and xxi. 10 sqq. are replaced
io a Chron. xxxiii 10-20 by a novel record of Xfanasseh's
penitence (see also ibid. t. 23 and note omission of 2 Kings
xxiii. 26 from Chron).
Josiah's reign forms the climax of the history. The usual
framework (xxii. x; s, xxiii. 28, 306) is supplemented by nana*
tives dealing with the Temple repairs and the reforms of Josiah.
These are closely related to xi seq. (cf. xxii. 3-7 with xii. 4 sqq.),
but show many signs of revision; xxii 16 seq., xxiii. 26 seq.,
point distinctly to the exile, and xxiii 16-20 is an insertion
(the altar in t. 16 is already destroyed in t . 15) after t Kings
xiii. But it is difficult elsewhere to distinguish safely between
the original records and the later additions. In their present
shape the reforms of Josiah are described in terms that point
to an acquaintance with the teaching of Deuteronomy which
promulgates the reforms themselves. 1
1 See further the special study by E. Day, Jonrn. Bib. Lit. (1902),
PP. 197 sqq.
8i4
KINGS, BOOKS OF
The annalist c notice fa rriii. 39 aeq. (contrast xxiL 30) should
precede v. 28; a Chron. xxxv. 20-27 gives another version in the
correct position and ignores 2 Kings xxiii. 24-27 (see however the
Septuagint). For the last four kings of Judah, the references 10
the worship at the high places (presumably abolished by Josiafi)
are wanting, and the literary source is only cited for Jehoiakira;
xxiv. 3 seq. (and probably v. 2), which treat the fall of Judah as
the punishment for Manasseh's sins, are a Deuteronomistic insertion
(2 Chron. xxxvi. 6 sqq. dirTers.widely ; see, however, the Septuagint) ;
With xxiv. 18-kxv. 21 cf.
ially vo. 19 sqq. is superior) ;
xxv. 22-26 appears in much
It. 1-3. 17 seq-V It is note-
rhehistory in Kings (contrast
les in general has a briefer
\ both the narratives which
ding hopeful note struck by
'-30). This last, with the
present conclusion also of
1 Conclusions. — A survey of these narratives as a whole
strengthens our impression of the merely mechanical character
of the redaction by which they are united. Though editors
have written something of their own in almost every chapter,
generally from the standpoint of religious pragmatism, there is
not the least attempt to work the materials into a history in our
sense of the word; and in particular the northern and southern
histories are practically independent, being merely pieced together
in a sort of mosaic in consonance with the chronological system,
which we have seen to be really later than the main redaction.
It is very probable that the order of the pieces was considerably
readjusted by the author of the chronology; of this indeed the
Septuagint still shows traces. But with all its imperfections as
judged from a modern standpoint, the redaction has the great
merit of preserving material nearer to the actual history than
would have been the case had narratives been rewritten from
much later standpoint! — as often in the book of Chronicles.
Questions of date and of the growth of the literary process are
still unsettled, but it is clear that there was an independent
history of (north) Israel with its own chronological scheme.
It was based upon annals and fuller political records, and at
some period apparently passed through circles where the
purely domestic stories of the prophets (Elisha) were current. 1
This was ultimately taken over by a Judaean editor who was
under the influence of the far-reaching reforms ascribed to the
x8th year of Josiah (621 B.C.). Certain passages seem to imply
that in his time the Temple was still standing and the Davidic
dynasty uninterrupted. Also the phrase " unto this day "
sometimes apparently presupposes a pre-exilic date. On the
other hand, the history is carried down to the end Of Jehoiachin's
life (xxv. 27 refers to his fifty-fifth year, n. 29 seq. look back
on his death), and a number of afltts'ons point decisively to the
postrezilic period. Consequently, most scholars are agreed
that an original pre-exilic Deuteronomic compilation made
shortly after Josiah 's reforms received subsequent additions
from a later Deuteronomic writer.
These questions depend upon several intricate literary and
historical problems. At the outset (a) the compiler deals with
history from the Deuteronomic standpoint, selecting certain
notices and referring further to separate chronicles of Israel
and Judah. The canonical book of Chronicles refers to such
a combined work, but is confined to Judah; it follows the re-
ligious judgment passed upon the kings, but it introduces new
details apparently derived from extant annals, replaces the
annalistic excerpts found in Kings by other passages, or uses
new narratives which at times are clearly based upon older
sources. Next (b) the Septuagint proves that Kings did not
reach its present form until a very late date; " each represents
a stage and not always the same stage in the long protracted
labours, of the redactors M (Kuenen); t In agreement with this
are the unambiguous indications of the post -exilic age (especially
»Cf similarly the prophetic narratives in the booksof Samuel (<m>.).
» " the LXX. of Kings is not a corrupt reproduction^ the Hebrew
fccrtftts. but represents another recension of the text. Neither
*cctL** can claim absolute superiority. The defects of the LXX.
W ■Ttlx surface, and are greatly aggravated by the condition of
tte Cetk U6U. *hkh has suffered much »f — •*. and
in the Judaean history) consisting of complete passages, obvious
interpolations, and also sporadic phrases in narratives whose
pre-exilic origin is sometimes clear and sometimes only to be
presumed. Further (<:), the Sepl uagint supports the independent
conclusion that the elaborate synchronisms belong to a lale
stage in the redaction. Consequently it is necessary to allow
that the previous arrangement of the material may have heea
different; the actual wording of the introductory notices was
necessarily also affected. In general, il becomes ever more
difficult to distinguish between passages incorporated by aa
early redactor and those which may have been inserted later,
though possibly from old sources. Where the regular framework
is disturbed such considerations become more cogent. The
relation of annalistic materials in 1 Sam. (xiii. 1; xiv. 47-51, &c.)
to the longer detailed narratives will bear upon the question, as
also the relation of 2 Sam. ix-xx. to x Kings i. seq. (see Saxucl,
books of). Again (d) the lengths of the reigns of the Judaeaa
kings form an integral part of the framework, and their total,
with fifty years of exile, allows four hundred and eighty years
from the beginning of the Temple to the return from Babylon.'
This round number (cf. again 1 Kings vi. 1) points to a date
subsequent to 537, and Robertson Smith has observed that
almost all events dated by the years of the kings of Jerusalem
have reference to the affairs of the Temple. This suggests a
connexion between the chronology and the incorporation of
those narratives in which the Temple is clearly the centre of
interest, (e) But, apart from the question of the origin of the
more detailed Judaean records, the arguments for a pre exilic
Judaean Deuteronomic compilation are not quite decisive.
The phrase " unto this day " is not necessarily valid (d
2 Chron. v. 9, viii. 8, xxi. 10 with 1 Kings viii. 8, ix, ax, 2 Kings
viii. 22), and depends largely upon the compiler's sagacity.
Also, the existence of the Temple and of the Davidic dynasty
(1 Kings viii. 14-53; ix. 3; xi. 36-38; xv. 4; 2 Kings vuL 10;
cf. 2 Chron. xiii. 5) is equally applicable to the time of the second
temple when Zcrubbabel, the Davidic representative, kindled
new hopes and aspirations. Indeed, if the object of the Deu-
teronomic compiler is to show from past history that " the
sovereign is responsible for the purity of the national religion "
(Moore, Ency. Bib, col. 2079), * date somewhere after the
death of Jchoiachin (released in 561) in the age of Zerubbabei
and the new Temple equally satisfies the conditions. With this
is concerned (/) the question whether, on historical grounds*
the account of the introduction of Deuteronomic reforms by
Josiah is trustworthy. 4 Moreover, although a twofold Deu-
teronomic redaction of Kings is generally recognized, the criteria
for the presumably pre-exilic form are not so decisive as those
which certainly distinguish the post-exilic portions, and it is
frequently very difficult to assign Deuteronomic passages u
the earlier rather than to the later. Again, apart from the
contrast between the Israelite detailed narratives, (relatively
early) and those of Judaean origin (often secondary). It
is noteworthy that the sympathetic treatment of northern
history in 2 Kings xiii. 4 seq. 23, xiv. 26 has literary parallels
in the Deuteronomic redaction of Judges (where Isradiie
tradition is again predominant), but is quite distinct from the
hostile feeling to the north which is also Deuteronomic. Even
the northern prophet Hosea (q.v.) approximates the Deutero-
nomic standpoint, and the possibility that the first Deutero-
nomic compilation of Kings could originate outside Judah is
particularly has in many places been corrected after the later Creek
versions that express the Hebrew rtceptus of the 2nd century of our
era. Yet the LXX. not only preserves many good reading* ia
detail, but throws much light on the long-continued process of
redaction at the hand of successive editors or copyists of which the
extant Hebrew of Kings is the outcome. Even the false readings
of the Greek are instructive, for both recensions were exposed to
corrupting influences of precisely the same kind " (W. R Smith).
* See W. R. Smith, Journ. of Philology, x. 200 sqq. ; PropkeU 0)
Israel, p. 147 acq. ; ami K. Marti, Ency. Bib. art u Chronology.**
* Against earlier doubts by Havet (1878), Vernes (1887) and Hortt
(1888). see W. E. Addis, Documents of HexaUuck, ii 2 sqq. ; but the
whole question has been reopened by E. Day (toe. cti. above) and
R. H. Kennett (Journ. Theol. Slud.,]u\y 1906,481 sqq ).
KING'S BENCH— KING'S COUNTY
815
strengthened by the fact that an Israelite source could be drawn
upon (or an impartial account of Judaean history (2 Kings
xrv. 8-1 5). Finally, (g) literary and historical problems here
converge. Although judaean writers ultimately rejected as
heathen a people who could claim to be followers of Yahwch
(Ezra iv. 2; 2 Kings xvii. 28, $$\ contrast ibid. 34-40. a secondary
insertion), the anti-Samaritan feeling had previously been at
most only in an incipient stage, and there is reason to infer that
relations between the peoples of north and south had been
closer. 1 The book of Kings reveals changing historical condi-
tions in its literary features, and it is significant that the very
age where the background is to be sought is that which has
been (intentionally?) left most obscure: the chronicler's
history of the Judaean monarchy (Chron. — Erra — Nehemiah),
as any comparison will show, h*s its own representation of the
course of events, and has virtually superseded both Kings and
Jeremiah, which have now an abrupt conclusion. (See further
S. A. Cook, Jew. Quart. Rev. ( 1007), pp 1 58 sqq. ; and the artides
Jews: History, §§ *
Literature.— A. «•
i. Hexateuch, pp. 26 [«*
(1892); and B.Stade, '*-;
a Kings x.-xiv. ; xv.- we
also C Hotzhey, Das of
Bcnzingcr( 1899) and 'T*
Hist, and Biog. Nan. ty.
Brit., 9th cd. (partly cd
by E. Kauusch in the ?r-
mann's Sam. u. Koni ew
Text (1903): and Sta cd
Books of the Old Testa* r'%
commentary in the C **-
bridge Bible, are uaefu
KINO'S BENCH. COURT OP, in England, one of the superior
courts of common law. This court, the most ancient of English
courts— in its correct legal title, " the court of the king before
the king himself," coram ipso rege—\s far older than parliament
Itself, for it can be traced back clearly, both in character and the
essence of its jurisdiction, to the reign of King Alfred. The king's
bench, and the two offshoots of the aula regia, the common pleas
and the exchequer, for many years possessed co-ordinate juris-
diction, although there were a few cases in which each had
exclusive authority, and in point of dignity precedence was given
to the court of king's bench, the lord chief justice of which was
also styled lord chief justice of England, being the highest per-
manent judgc.of the Crown. The court of exchequer attended
to the business of the revenue, the common pleas to private
actions between citizens, and the king's bench retained criminal
cases and such other jurisdiction as had not been divided between
the other two courts. By an act of 1830 the court of exchequer
chamber was constituted as a court of appeal for errors in law in
all three courts. Like the court of exchequer, the king's bench
assumed by means of an ingenious fiction the jurisdiction in civil
matters which properly belonged to the common picas.
Under the Judicature Act 1873 the court of king's bench be-
came the king's bench division of the High Court of Justice. It
consists of the lord chief justice and fourteen puisne judges It
exercises original jurisdiction and also appellate jurisdiction from
Ihc county courts and other inferior courts. By the act of 1873
(sec. 45) this appellate jurisdiction is conferred upon the High
Court generally, but in practice it is exercised by a divisional
court of the king's bench division only. The determination of
such appeals by the High Court is final, unless leave to appeal is
given by the court which heard the appeal or by the court of
appeal. There was an exception to this rule as regards certain
orders of quarter sessions, the history of which involves some
complication. But by sec. 1 (5) of the Court of Session Act 1894
the rule applies to all cases where there is a right of appeal to the
High Court from any court or person. It may be here mentioned
that if leave is given to appeal to the court of appeal there is a
further appeal to the House of Lords, except in bankruptcy
1 See Kennctt, Journ. Theol. Stud. 1905. PP- 1^9 *W-: J 9°6. pp.
488 sqq.; and cf. J. A. Montgomery, The Samaritans (1907), pp. 47,
53 "*. 57. 59. 61 sqq.
(Bankruptcy Appeals (County Courts) Act 1884), when the
decision of the court of appeal on appeal from a divisional court
sitting in appeal is made final and conclusive.
There are masters in the king's bench division. Unlike the
masters in the chancery division, they have original jurisdiction,
and arc not attached to any particular judge. They hear appli-
cations in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as
referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages.
There is an appeal from the master to the judge in chambers.
Formerly there was an appeal from the judge in chambers to a
divisional court in every case and thence to the court of appeal,
until the multiplication of appeals in small interlocutory matters
became a scandal. Under the Supreme Court of Judicature
(Procedure) Act 1804 there is no right of appeal to the court of
appeal in any interlocutory matters (except those mentioned
in subs, (b) ) without the leave of the judge or of the court of
appeal, and in matters of " practice and procedure " the appeal
lies (with leave) directly to the court of appeal from the judge
in chambers.
KINGSBRIDGE, a market town in the Totnes parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, 48 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, on a
branch of the Groat Western railway. Pop. of urban district
(1900,3025. It lies 6 m. from the English Channel, at the head
of an inlet or estuary which receives only small streams, on a
sharply sloping site. The church of St Edmund is mainly
Perpendicular, but there are Transitional Norman and Early
English portions. The town-hall contains a natural history
museum. A house called Pindar Lodge stands on the site of the
birthplace of John Wolcot (" Peter Pindar," 1738-18 19). William
Cook worthy (1705-1780), a porcelain manufacturer, the first to
exploit the deposits of kaolin in the south-west of England, was
also born at Kingsbridgc. The township of Dodbrooke, in-
cluded within the civil parish, adjoins Kingsbridgc on the north-
cast. Some iron-founding and ship-building, with a coasting
trade, are carried on.
Kingsbridge (Kyngysbrygge) was formerly included in the
manor of Churchstow, the first trace of its separate existence
being found in the Hundred Roll of 1276, which records that in
the manor of Churchstow there is a new borough, which has a
Friday market and a separate assize of bread and ale. The name
Kingsbridge however does not appear till half a century later.
When Kingsbridge became a separate parish is not certainly
known, but it was before 1414 when the church was rebuilt and
consecrated to St Edmund. In 1461 the abbot of Buckfasllcigh
obtained a Saturday market at Kingsbridgc and a three-days' fair
at the feast of St Margaret, both of which are still held. The
manor remained in possession of the abbot until the Dissolution,
when it was granted to Sir William Pet re. Kingsbridgc was never
represented in parliament or incorporated by charter, the govern-
ment being by a portreeve, and down to the present day the
steward of the manor holds a court leet and court baron and
appoints a portreeve and constables. In 1798 the town mills
were converted Into a woollen manufactory, which up to recent
times produced large quantities of cloth, and the serge manu-
facture was introduced early in the 19th century. The town
has been famous from remote times for a beverage called
44 white ale." Included in Kingsbridge is the little town of
Dodbrooke, which at the time of the Domesday Survey had
a population of 42, and a flock of 108 sheep and 27 goats; and
in 1257 was granted a Wednesday market and a fair at the
Feast of Si Mary Magdalene.
Sec "Victoria County History**: Devonshire; Kingsbridge and
Stdcombe, with the intermediate Estuary, historically and topographically
deputed (Kingsbridgc, 1819) ; S. F. Fox, Kingsbridge Estuary (Kings-
bridge, 1864).
KINO'S COUNTY, a county of Ireland in the province of
Lcinstcr, bounded N. by Meath andWestmeath,W.by Roscommon;
Galway and Tipperary (the boundary with the first two counties
being the river Shannon); S. by Tipperary and Queen's County,
and E. by Kildare. The area is 493,999 acres or about 772 sq. m.
The greater part of the county is included in the central plain of
Ireland. In the south-east the Slieve Bloom Mountains form the
8i6
KINGSDOWN, BARON— KING'S EVIL
boundary between King's County and Queen's County, and run
into the former county from south-west to north-east for a dis-
tance of about 20 m. consisting of a mass of lofty and precipitous
crags through which there are two narrow passes, the Black Gap
and the Cap of Glandine. In the north-east Croghan Hill, a
beautiful green eminence, rises to a height over 700 fL The
remainder of the county is flat, but a range of low hills crosses
its north-eastern division to the north of the Barrow. In the
centre of the county from east to west a large portion is occupied
by the Bog of Allen. The county shares in the ad vantage of the
navigation of the Shannon, which skirts its western side. The
Brosna, which issues from Loch Ennell in Westmeath, enters the
county near the town of Clara, and flowing south-westwards
across its north-west corner, discharges itself into the Shannon
after receiving the Clodagh and the BroughiU. A small portion
of the north-eastern extremity is skirted by the upper Boyne.
The Barrow forms the south-eastern boundary with Queen's
County. The Little Brosna, which rises in the Slieve Bloom
Mountains, forms the boundary of King's County with Tippcrary,
and falls into the Shannon.
This county lies in the great Carboniferous Limestone plain,
with day-soils and bogs upon its surface, and many drier deposits
of esker-gravrb rising as green hills above the general leveL The
Slieve Bloom Mountains, consisting of Old Red Sandstone with
Silurian inliers, form a bold feature in the south. North of
Philips town, the prominent mass of Croghan HOI is formed of
basic volcanic rocks contemporaneous with the Carboniferous
Limestone, and comparable with those in Co. Limerick.
Notwithstanding the large area occupied by bogs, the climate
is generally healthy, and less moist than that of several neigh*
bouring districts. The whole of the county would appear to
nave been covered formerly by a vast forest, and the district
bordering on Tippcrary is still richly wooded. The soil naturally
is not of great fertility except in special cases, but is capable of
being rendered so by the judicious application of bog and lime
manures according to its special defects. It is generally either
a deep bog or a shallow gravelly loam. On the borders of the
Slieve Bloom Mountains there are some very rich and fertile
pastures, and there are also extensive grazing districts on the
borders of Westmeath, which are chiefly occupied by sheep.
Along the banks of the Shannon there are some fine tracts of
meadow land. With the exception of the tract occupied by the
Bog of Allen, the remainder of the county is nearly all under
tillage, the most productive portion being that to the north-west
of the Hill of Croghan. The percentage of tillage to pasture is
roughly as 1 to 2}. Oats, barley and rye, potatoes and turnips,
are all considerably grown; wheat is almost neglected, and the
acreage of all crops has a decreasing tendency. Cattle, sheep,
pigs and poultry are bred increasingly; dairies are numerous in
the north of the county, and the sheep are pastured chiefly in the
hilly districts.
The county is traversed from S.E. to N.W. by the Portarling-
ton, Tullamore, Clara and Athlone line of the Great Southern and
Western railway, with a branch from Clara to Banagber; from
Roscrea (Co. Tippcrary) a branch of this company runs to
Farsonstown (Birr); while the Midland Great Western has
bea ch es from its main line from Enfield (Co. Kildare) to
Edeaderry, and from Streamstown (Co. Westmeath) to Clara.
Tbc Grand Canal runs through the length of the county from
«a to west, entering the Shannon at Shannon harbour.
Tie population (65,563 in 1891; 60,187 in loor), decreasing
tart«(h emigration, includes about 89% of Roman Catholics.
T!m- fecstase is rather below the average. The chief towns are
tt^nn* (the county town, pop. 4639) and Birr or Parsons-
m 4U$C vith Edenderry and Clara. Philipstown near Tulla-
^k «m tamtrly the capital of the county and was the centre
a m eastern of Offaly. The county comprises 12 baronies
x~* x*a aarohes. It returns two members to parliament.
sessions at Parsonstown, Philipstown and Tullamore. The
county is divided into the Protestant dioceses of Killaioe, Meaih
and Ossory ; and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Ardagh, Kildare
and Leigh 1 in, Ossory and Clonfert.
King's County, with portions of Tippcrary, Queen's County
and Kildare, at an early period formed one kingdom under the
name of Offaly, a title which it retained after the landing of the
English. Subsequently it was known as GlenmaUery, Western
Glenmallery pretty nearly corresponding to the present King's
County, and Eastern GlenmaUery to Queen's County. By 1
statute of 1556 the western district was constituted a shire under
the name of King's County in honour of Philip, consort of Queei
Mary — the principal town, formerly the seat of the O'Connors,
being called Philipstown; and the eastern district at the suae
time received the name of Queen's County in honour of llxrr.
Perhaps the oldest antiquarian relic is the large pyramid of while
stones in the Slieve Bloom Mountains called the lemple of tit
Sun or the While Obelisk. There are a considerable number d
Danish raths, and a chain of moats commanding the passes of the
bogs extended throughout the county. On the borders of Tippe»
rary is an ancient causeway leading presumably to a cxannag or
lake-dwelling. The most important ecclesiastical ruins are that
of the seven churches of Clonmacnoise (?.t.) on the Shannon n
the north-west of the county, where an abbey was founded by St
Kieran in 648, and where the remains include those of churcho,
two round towers, crosses, inscribed stones and a castle. Amoaf
the more famous religious houses in addition to Oonmacwobe
were Durrow Abbey, founded by St Columba in 550; Monastercn
founded in the 14th century by John Berminghaxn, earl of
Louth; and Seirkyran Abbey, founded in the beginning of tk
5th century. The principal old castles are Rathmore, prohawy
the most andent in the county; Banagher, commanding aa h>
portant pass on the Shannon; Leap Castle, in the Slieve Btaa
Mountains; and Birr or Parsonstown, now the seat of the cad of
Rosse.
K1NGSD0WH. THOMAS PBMBBRTOM LEIGH, Baxox (17a-
1867), the eldest son of Thomas Pemberton, a chancery barrinet.
was born in London on the 1 1 th of February 1 793. He was aSa
to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1816, and at once acqustd a
lucrative equity practice. He sat in parliament for Rye (1**1-
183a) and for Ripon (1835-1843). He was made a king's axes!
in 1829. Of a retiring disposition, he seldom took part in pari*
mentary debates, although in 1838 in the case of Stockidc \
Hansard he took a considerable part in upholding the priTucfB
of parliament. In 1841 he accepted the post of atiorncy-geaca
for the duchy of Cornwall. In 184a a relative, Sir Robot E
Leigh, left him a life interest in his Wigan estates, amounting u
some £15,000 a year; he then assumed the additional suraaav
of Leigh. Having accepted the chancellorship of the ducky «
Cornwall and a privy councillorship, he became a member of tk
judicial committee of the privy council, and for nearly twefij
years devoted his energies and talents to the work of that boc\
his judgments, more particularly in prize cases, of which he ta» *
especial charge, are remarkable not only for legal precision cw
accuracy, but for their form and expression. In 1858, on &
formation of Lord Derby's administration, he was offered t>
Great Seal, but declined ; in the same year, however, he was rase '
to the peerage as Baron Kingsdown. He died at his seat, Lxr.
Hill, near Sittingbourne, Kent, on the 7th of October i&*
Lord Kingsdown never married, and his title became ^tti^
See RecotUctions of Life at Ike Bar and in Parliamtewtt. by L~~
Kingsdown (privately printed for friends, 1868); Th* Timnn .a
of October 1867).
KING'S EVIL, an old, but not yet obsolete, name given to *'
scrofula, which in the popular estimation was deemed capabk >■
cure by the royal touch. The practice of " touching " lor is
scrofula, or " King's Evil," was confined amongst the na***^ •*
Europe to the two Royal Houses of England and France. -*•
KINGSFORD— KINGSLB Y; ' CHARLE8
817'
wtth Mth in the haling powers of the royal touch. TJie kings
both of France and England claimed a sole and special right to
this supernatural gift'; the house of France deducing its origin
hunt Ciovi* (5th century) and that of England declaring Edward
the Confessor the first owner of this virtue. That the Saxon origin
of the royal power of beaHng was the popular theory in England
is evident from the striking and accurate description of the cere-
mony la Jfec**** (act vi. scene Ui.). Nevertheless the practice of
this rite cannot be triced back to an earlier date than the reign
of Edward ILL in England, and of St Louis (Louis DC.) In France;
consequently, it is believed that the performance of healing by the
touch emanated in the first Instance from the French Crusader-
Xing, whose miraculous powers were subsequently transmitted
to bis descendant and representative, Isabella, of Valois, wife of
Edward U. of England In any case, Queen Isabella's son and
heir, Edward III., claimant to the French throne through his
mother, was the first English king to order a pubtie display of an
attribute that had hitherto been associated with the Valois kings
alone, FiomhttragndMmtheuteofthe i UoudH>{e<», ,, agotd
medal given to the sufferer as a kind of talisman, which was origi-
nally the angel coin, stamped with designs of St Michael and of
a three-masted ship.
The actual ceremony seems first to have consisted of the
sovereign's personal act of washing the diseased flesh with water,
hut under Henry VIL the use of an abhstfon was omitted, and a
regular office was drawn up for insertion in the Service Book.
At the " Ceremonies for the Healing " the king now merely
touched bis aJDcted subject in the presence of the court cfaaptarn
who offered up certain prayers and afterwards presented the
touch-piece, pierced so that it might be suspended by a ribbon
round the patient's neck. Henry VII.1i office was henceforth
issued with variations from time to time under successive kings,
nor did it disappear from certain editions of the Book of Common
Prayer until the middle of the 18th century. The practice of the
Royal Healing seems to have reached the height of Its popularity
during the reign of Charles II., who is stated on good authority
to have touched over 100,000 strumous persons. So great a
number of applicants becoming a nuisance to the Court, it was
afterwards enacted that special certificates should tn 'future be
granted to individuals demanding the touch, and such certificates
are -occasionally to be found amongst old pariah registers of the
dose of the 17th century. After the Revolution, William of
Orange refused to touch, and referred all applicants to the exiled
James IL at St Germain; but Queen Anne touched frequently,
one of her patients being Dr Samuel Johnson In his infancy.
The Hanoverian. kings declined to touch, and there exists no
further record of any ceremony of healing henceforward at the
English court. The practice, however, was continued by the
exiled Stuarts, and was constantly performed in Italy by James
Stuart, " the Old Pretender," and by his two sons, Charles and
Henry (Cardinal York). (H. M. V.)
KINOtFORD, WILLIAM (1*10-1808), British engineer and
Canadian historian, was born in London on the 23rd of December
r3xo. He first studied architecture, but disliking the confine*
ment of an office enlisted in the ist Dragoon Guards, obtaining his
discbarge in Canada in 1841. After serving for a time in the
office of the city surveyor of Montreal he made a survey for the
Ladriue canal (1846-1848), and was employed fn the United
States in the building of the Hudson River railroad in 1849, and
in Panama, on the railroad being constructed there in 1851.
In 1853 he was surveyor and, afterwards district superintendent
for the Grand Trunk railroad, remaining in the employment of
that company until 1804. The following year he went to England
but returned to Canada In 1867 in the hope of taking part In the
construction of the Intercolonial Railway. In this be was un-
successful, but from 187s to 1879 he held a government post in
charge of the harbours of the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence.
He had previously written books on engineering and topo-
graphical subjects, and in 1880 he began to study the records of
Canadian history at Ottawa. Among other books he published
Canadian Archaeoio%y (1886) and Early Bibliography of Ontario
(189*). But the great work of his life was a History of Canada
XV 14
in 10 volumes (1887-1897), ending with the union of Upper
and Lower Canada in 1841. Kingsford died on the 28th of
September 1898.
KTJI98LBY, CHARLES (1819-1875), Engfish clergyman, poet
and novelist, was born on the irtb of June 1819, at Holne
vicarage, Dartmoor, Devon. His early years were spent at
Barnack in the Fen country and at Clovelly in North Devon.
The scenery of both made a great impression on his mind,
and was afterwards described with singular vividness in his
writings. He was educated at private schools and at King's
College, London, after his father's promotion to the rectory
of St Luke's, Chelsea. In 1838 he entered Magdalene College,
Cambridge, and In 1849 be was ordained to the curacy of Even-
ley in Hampshire, to the rectory of which he was not long after-
wards presented, and this, with short intervals, was- his home
for the remaining thirty-three years of his Kfe. In 1844 he
married Fanny, daughter of Pascoe Grenfefl, and in 1848
he publlstied his first volume, The Saint's Tragedy. In 1850 he
became chaplain to Queen Victoria; fn i860 he was appointed
to the professorship of modern history at Cambridge, which he
resigned in 1869; and soon after he was appointed to a canonry
at Chester. In r873 this was exchanged for a canonry at West-
minster. He died at Eversley on the 23rd of January 1875.
With the exception of occasional changes p( residence in
England, generally for the sake of his wife's health, one or two
short holiday trips abroad, a tour in the West Indies, and another
in America te visit his eldest son settled there as an engineer,
his fife was spent in the peaceful, if active, occupations of a
clergyman who did his duty earnestly, and of a vigorous and
proline writer. But in spite of this apparently uneventful life,
he was for many years one of the most prominent men of his
time, and by his personality and his books he exercised con-
siderable influence on the thought of his generation. ^ Though not
profoundly learned, he was a man of wide and various informa-
tion, whose interests and sympathies embraced many branches
of human knowledge. He was an enthusiastic student in par-
ticular of natural history and geology. Sprung on the father's
side from an old Enghsh race of country squires, and on his
mother's side from a good West Indian famfly who had been
slaveholders for generations, be had a keen love of sport and
a genuine sympathy with country-folk, but he had at the same
time something of the scorn for lower races to be found in the
members of a dominant race.
With the sympathetic organization which made him keenly
sensible of the wants of the poor, he threw himself heartily into
the movement known as Christian Socialism, of which Frederick
Denison Maurice was the recognized leader, and for many years
he was considered as an extreme radical in a profession the
traditions of which were conservative. While in this phase
he wrote his novels Yoasi and Alton Locke, in which, though he
pointed out unsparingly the folly of extremes, he certainly
sympathized not only with the poor, but with much that was
dene and said by the leaders in the Chartist movement. , Yet
even then he considered that the true leaders of the people were
a peer and a dean, and there was no real inconsistency in the
fact that St a later period he was among the most strenuous
defenders of Governor Eyre in the measures adopted by him to
put down the Jamaican disturbances. He looked rather to the
extension of the co-operative principle and to sanitary reform
for the amelioration of the condition of the people than to any
radical political change. His politics might therefore have been
described as Toryism tempered by sympathy, or as Radicalism
tempered by hereditary scorn of subject races. He was bitterly
opposed to what he considered to be the medievalism and
narrowness of the' Oxford Tractarian Movement. In Mac-
mMon's Maganme for January 1864 be asserted that truth for
its own sake was not obligatory with the Roman Catholic
clergy, quoting as his authority John .Henry Newman (q.v.).
Ipi the ensuing controversy Kingsley was completely discomfited.
He was a broad churchman, who held what would be called a
liberal theology, but the Church, its organization, its creed, its
dogma, had ever an increasing hold upon him. Although at one
2o
8i8
KINGSLEY,, HENRY— KINGSLEY, MARY H.
period he certain^ shrank bona icxatiag the AtUuau Creed
ia church* he was towards tat due at an are found seedy Co
join an «SMciiun for the defence of this tetsnuiary. The
the upper hand as tsen* vat on» Wit cares*! stuaVats of aim aad
k*s writ J*gs vitt and * deep maeraUM n ad w ryia g the most
te»aosl atusnam oi has earner ywn> wauV * pari cm sir sym-
pathy we the atac tat aancted «id ike wash held pia sru i nn
ci Wx til (W last boar or has He*
eVith as 4 voter *»4 mi his airmail a Hmm with men,
tM&k? **» 4 thoroughly itsmuhriag teacher. As with his
*** t«*vhcr % hUarke. he* «%eWsKe«a other mra sathet con sis ted
ia aSw^ tarm t» thnwl for theacsehcs late m leading them
** «s*v* hss o«a tiews* never. p< rasps, very definite. But
a* hv*JL*v aai ttirnchiiag miueacs was hugely due to the
nxt (U he MHvcpicteJ the thonghes which were stirrimg ia
the awfeai at sasay of ho> vuaunsaiiiiwi
A* 4 atewcate he was rival, eager aad earnest, equally piain-
*>*<* and i impnisi iag when preaching to a fashionable
tv«grcn*;»M or to his ova vutage poor. Co* of the very best
« a* wtH^«s « 4 atnaoa catted Tar U atatre of the Ckmck 10
n *«.** Um % 4-vl the best of as. pubnihed .discourses are the
IVntv *j* \ +:*# Soman* which he preached in the early
\<*r* wt k» rtvcwr* a*e.
A» 4 n+tvUx ha datf power my ia his descriptive faculties.
TV Ar^r^KVtt wf Sooth Aaericaa scenery in Westward Hot,
«t i.V K*nsua desert ia it* *****, of the North Devon scenery
va : »* 1 «•** J^c*. 4T« among the most brilliant pieces of word-
pa.^.ag mi LAgus* proee-mriting; and the American scenery
v o*n am \\>*tf> and awre truthfully described when he
had seen r **t> a> the eye of his imagination than in his work
U :-»s< %W» was written after he had visited the tropics.
H* »x>^«:S inc ttukirea taught him how to secure their
t^rt«*». IU tertian ol the old Creek stories enlitled The
******> 4».i •» 4J^>K»W« aad Madam How and Lady Wky t In
wfevh he sk>*h vtth popular natural history, take high rank
• *» * ** hWU N< vhwateax
\» 4 aiKt he vtot* hut fitUe, but there are passages ia Tk*
,S**. * r**W* aad laaay isoiaied lyrics, which are worthy of a
!^*M4U*4a4trdv\'«VMions of English literature, Andromeda
* 4 w* suxxwiJlwl aweasp* at naturehaing the hexameter as
4 KM«* ot lUMjhsh veeas. tad reproduces with great skill the
*«km\h**>U^ the 0%m* original
U peevMi tibsrW hUagaky was tall and spare, sinewy rather
1 Wt* p^vTrtml* aad of a restless ezciuble. temperament. His
«\wju>4nuv« vas »«4tth>\ his hair dark, and his eye bright and
i>w<mm His toauior «*s hot, kept under rigid control; his
<******« tender, g«M*» *** ^viiig, with Bashing acorn aad
^^t*v*i^ a**** *« l»»t ~ l «»? We "J 1 ^P^I he wasa
rv^i hushaad, tathre aad fnend. One of his daughters, Mary
St Let* ki*fM» vNr» Harrison), has become well known as a
•♦x^stuiideftheiwewisaormof'' 1 **-■- -
4 Lucas Malet."
A merica (1 875). He was a large contributor to periodical literature-,
■may of his essays are included in Prose Idylls and other works ia
the above list. Bat no collection has been made of some of his man
characte ris tic writings in the Christie* Socialist and PotxHft far far
rVaafr. many of tbeaa signed by the pseudonym he then assumed.
** Parse* Lot."
KIMOSLEY. HENRY (1830-1*76), English novelist, younger
brother of Charles Kingsley, was born at Barnack, Narthamptoa-
shire, on the and of January tajo. In 1853 he left Oxford,
where he was an undergraduate at Worcester College, for the
Australian goldfields. This venture, however, was not a success,
and after five years he returned to England. He achieved con-
siderable popularity with his RecmOecHons of Ceojrey Hawdjm
(1859), a novel of Australian life. This was the first of a series
of novels of which Raicnshoe (1861) and The Hiltyan and The
Burtons (186s) ere the best known. These stories are charac-
terized by much vigour, abundance of incident, and healthy
sentiment. He edited for eighteen months the Edinburgh
Daily Review, for which be had acted as war cotrespoodent
during the Franco-German War. He died at Cuckfiesd, Sussex,
on the 24th of May 1876.
KIMOSLEY, MARY HENRIETTA "" (i86s-tooo) ( Engfish
traveller, ethnologist and author, daughter of George Henry
Kingsley (1827-1892), was born in Islington, London, on the
13th of October 1862. Her father, though' less widely known
than his brothers, Charles and Henry (see above), was a man of
versatile abilities, with a passion for travelling which he r****^
to indulge in combination with his practice as a doctor. He
wrote one popular book of travel, South Son Bubbles, by the
Earl and tht Doctor (1872), in collaboration with the 13th earl
of Pembroke. Mary Kingsley'* reading in history, poetry aad
philosophy was wide if desultory, but she was most attracted
to natural history. Her family moved to Cambridge ia 1886,
where she studied the science of sociology. The loss of botk
parents in 1802 left ber free to pursue her own course, aad she
resolved to study native religion and law in West Africa with a
view to completing a book which her father had left »nfi«WM
Wish her study of " raw fetish " she combined that of a sdewtinc
collector -of fresh-water fishes. She started for the West Coast
in August 1893; aad at Kabinda, at Old Calabar, Feraando
Po and on the Lower Congo she pursued ber inveacjepaioa*,
returning to England in June 1804. She gained su&deat
knowledge of the native customs to contribute an introdnctiai
to Mr R. E. Dennett's Notts on Iht Folk lore of the Fjort (rSoW
Miss Kingsley made careful preparations for a second vnat ta
the same coast; and in December 1804, provided by the
British Museum authorities with a collector's equipment, she
proceeded via Old Calabar to French Congo, and »~»~m the
Qgowe River. From this point her journey, in part nous
country hitherto untrodden by Europeans, was a long series of
adventures aad hairbreadth escapes, at one time from tht
dangers of land and water, at another from the cannibal Fang
Returning to the coast Miss Kingsley went to Cotisco and to the
German colony of Cameroon, where she made the sinnl of
the Great Cameroon (13,760 ft.) from a direction until thea
unattempted. She returned to England in October 1895. The
story of her adventures and her investigations in fetJUh a
vividly told in her Travels in West Africa (1897). The book
aroused wide interest, and she lectured to scientific gath_
on the fauna, flora and folk-lore of West Africa, aad to «
mercial audiences on the trade of that region and its r
developments, always with a protest against the lack oi cfctaied
knowledge characteristic of modern dealings with new fields of
trade. In both cases she spoke with authority, for she had 1 annua*
back a considerable number of new specimens of fishes and paact^
and had herself traded in rubber and oil in the districts tawough
which she passed. But her chief concern was for Use develop-
ment of the negro on African, not European, lines and fee the
government of the British possessions on the West Coast by
methods whkh left the native " a free unsmashed man — ant s
whitewashed slave or an enemy." With undaunted energy
Miss Kingsley made preparations for a third journey to Use Wast
Coast, but the Anglo-Boer War changed her plana, aad she
KINO'S LYNN— KINGSTON, DUCHESS OF
819
dKkfed to go first to South Attica to nurse fever cues. Sbe
died of enteric fever at Simon's Town, where she was engaged
in tending Boer prisoners, on the- 3rd of June 1900. Miss
Kingslcy's works, besides her Travels, Include West Aprican
Studies, The Story of West Africa, a memoir of her father prefixed
to his Notts on Sport and Tratcl (1809), and many contributions
to the study of West African law and folk-lore. To continue
the investigation of the subjects Miss Kingsley had made her
own " The African Society " was founded in icox.
Valuable biographical information from the pen of Mr George
A. Macmilbn is prefixed to a second edition (1901) of the Studies.
KING'S LYNN (Lynn or Lynn Recis), a market town, sea*
port and municipal and parliamentary borough of Norfolk,
England, on the estuary of the Great Ouse near its outflow
into the Wash. Pop. (1001), 20,288. It is 97 m. N. by E. from
London by the Great Eastern railway, and n also served by the
Midland and Great Northern joint line. On the land side the
town was formerly defended by a fosse, and there are still con-
siderable remains of the old wall, including the handsome South
Gate of the 15th century. Several by -channels of the river,
passing through the town, are known as fleets, recalling the
similar fidhc of Hamburg. The Public Walks forms a pleasant
promenade parallel to the wall, and in the centre of it stands a
picturesque octagonal Chapel of the Red Mount, exhibiting
ornate Perpendicular work, and once frequented by pilgrims.
The church of St Margaret, formerly the priory church, is a fine
building with two towers at the west end, one of which was
formerly surmounted by a spire, blown down in 1741. Norman
or transitional work appears in the base of both towers, of
which the southern also shows Early English and Decorated
work, while the northern is chiefly Perpendicular. There is a
fine. Perpendicular east window of circular form. The church
possesses two of the finest monumental brasses in existence,
dated respectively 1349 and 1364. St Nicholas chapel, at the
north end of the town, is also of rich Perpendicular workmanship,
with a tower of earlier date. All Saints' church in South Lynn
is a beautiful Decorated cruciform structure. Of a Franciscan
friary there remains the Perpendicular Grey Friars' Steeple,
and the doorway remains of a priests 1 college founded in 1502.
At the grammar school, founded in the reign of Henry Villi,
but occupying modern buildings, Eugene Aram was usher.
Among the other pubHc buildings are the guildhall, with Re-
naissance front, the corn exchange, the picturesque custom-house
of the 17th century, the athenaeum (including a museum, hall
and other departments), the Stanley Library and the municipal
buildings. The fisheries of the town are important, including
extensive mussel-fisheries under the jurisdiction of the corpora-
tion, and there are also breweries, corn-mills, iron and brass
foundries, agricultural implement manufactories, ship-building
yards, rope and sail works. Lynn Harbour has an area of 30 acres
and an average depth at low tide of xo ft. There is also good
anchorage in the roads leading from the Wash to the docks.
There are two docks of 6} and 10 acres area respectively. A
considerable traffic is carried on by barges on the Ouse. The
municipal and parliamentary boroughs of Lynn are co-extensive;
the parliamentary borough returns one member. The town is
governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area,
3061 acres.
As Lynn (Lun, Lenne, Bishop's Lynn) owes its origin to the
trade which its early settlers carried by the Ouse and its tribu-
taries its history dates from the period of settled occupation by
the Saxons. It belonged to the bishops of Thetford before the
Conquest and remained with the see when it was translated to
Norwich. Herbert de Losinga (c. 1054-1 119) granted its juris-
diction to the cathedral of- Norwich but this right was resumed
by a later bishop, John de Gray, who in 1204 had obtained
from John a charter establishing Lynn as a free borough. A
fuller grant in 1206 gave the burgesses a gild merchant, the
Busting court' to be held once a week only, and general liberties
according to the customs of Oxford, saving the rights of the
bishop and the earl of Arundel, whose ancestor William D'Albini
bad received from William XL the moldy of the tolbooth.
Among numerous later charters one of 1268 confirmed the
privilege granted to the burgesses by the bishop of choosing a
mayor; another of 1416 re-established his election by the
aldermen alone. Henry YTH. granted Lynn two charters,
the first (1524) incorporating it under mayor and aldermen;
the second (1537) changing its name to King's Lynn and
transferring to the corporation all the rights hitherto enjoyed
by the bishop. Edward VI. added the possessions of the gild
of the Trinity, or gild merchant, and St George's gild, while
Queen Mary annexed South Lynn. Admiralty rights were
granted by James I. Lynn, which had declared for the Crown
in 1643, surrendered its privileges to Charles II. In 1684, but
recovered Its charter on the eve of the Revolution. A fair
held on the festival of St Margaret (July 20) was included in
the grant to the monks of Norwich about rioo. Three charters
of John granting the bishop fairs on the feasts of St Nicholas,
St Ursula and St Margaret are extant, and another of Edward I.,
changing the last to the feast of St Peter ad Vlncula (Aug. 1).
A local act was passed in X558-15S9 for keeping a mart of
fair once a year. In the eighteenth century besides the pleasure
fair, still held in February, there was another in October, now
abolished. A royal charter of X524 established the cattle, corn
and general provisions market, stiH held every Tuesday and
Saturday. Lynn has ranked high among English seaports from
early times.
See E. M. Befoe, Our Borough (1899): H. Harrod, Report on
Deeds, cVc, of King f Lynn (1874); Victoria County History: Norfolk.
KINO'S MOUNTAIN, a mountainous ridge in Gaston county,
North Carolina arid York county, South Carolina, U.S.A. It
is an outHcr of the Blue Ridge running parallel with it, i.e. N.E.
and S.W., but in contrast with the other mountains of the Blue
Ridge, King's Mountain has a crest marked with sharf) and
irregular notches. Its highest point and great escarpment are
in North Carolina, About i\ m. S. of the Kne between the two
states, where the ridge is about 60 ft. above the surrounding
country and very narrow at the top, the battle of King's Moun-
tain, was fought on the 7th of October 1780 between a force of
about too Provincial Rangers and about 1000 Loyalist militia
under Major Patrick Ferguson (1744-1780), and an American force
of about 000 backwoodsmen under Colonels William Campbell
(X745-X781), Benjamin Cleveland (1 738-1806) ,Isaac Shelby, John
Sevier and James Williams (1 740-1 780), in which the Americans
were victorious. The British loss is stated as 1 xo killed (includ-
ing the commander), 123 wounded, and 664 prisoners; the
American loss was 28 killed (including Colonel Williams) and 62
wounded. The victory largely contributed to the success of
General Nathanael Greene's campaign against Lord CornwalKs.
There has been some dispute as to the exact site of the engage*
ment, but the weight of evidence is in favour of the position
mentioned above, on the South Carolina side of the line. A
monument erected in 1815 was replaced in 1880 by a much larger
one, and a monument for which Congress appropriated $30,000
in 1006, was completed in tooo.
See L. C. Draper. Kings Mountain and its Heroes (Cincinnati,
1881); and Edward McCrady, South Carolina in the Retolmtion
1775-1780 (New York, 1901).
KINGSTON, ELIZABETH, Duchess Of (1720-1788), sometimes
called countess of Bristol, was the daughter of Colonel Thomas
Chudleigh (d. 1726), and was ' appointed maid of honour to
Augusta, princess of Wales, in 1743, probably through the good
offices of her friend, WilHam Pulteney, earl of Bath. Being a
very beautiful woman Miss Chudleigh did not lack admirers,
among whom were James, 6th duke of Hamilton, arid Augustas
John Hervey, afterwards 3rd earl of Bristol. Hamilton, how-
ever, left England, and on the 4th of August 1744 she was
privately married to Hervey at Lainston, near Winchester.
Both husband and wife being poor, their union was kept secret
to enable Elizabeth to retam her post at court, While Hervey,
who was a naval officer, rejoined his ship, returning to England
towards the dose of 1746. The marriage was a very unhappy
one, and the pair soon ceased to live together; but when it
appeared probable that Hervey would succeed Ins brother as sari
$22
KINGSTOWN— KINKAJOU
councillor and created marquess of Dorchester; but in 1047 he
compounded for his estates by paying a large fine to the parlia-
mentarians. Afterwards the marquess, who was always fond
of books, spent his time mainly in London engaged in the study
of medicine and law, his devotion to the former science bringing
upon him a certain amount of ridicule and abuse. After the
Restoration he was restored to the privy council, and was made
recorder of Nottingham and a fellow of the Royal Society.
Dorchester had two daughters, but no sons, and when he died
in London on the 8th of December i68e the title of marquess of
Dorchester became extinct. He was succeeded as 3rd earl of
Kingston by Robert (d. 1682), a son of Robert Pierrepont of
Thoresby, Nottinghamshire, and as 4th earl by Robert's brother
William (d. 1090).
Ev£L¥N PteJtREPONT (c 1655-1796), 5th earl and ist duke of
Kingston, another brother had been member of parliament for
East Retford before his accession to the peerage. While serving
as one of the commissioners for the union with Scotland he was
created marquess of Dorchester in 1 706, and took a leading part
in the business of the House of Lords. He was made a privy
councillor and in 1715 was created duke of Kingston; afterwards
serving as lord privy seal and lord president of the council. The
duke, who died on the 5th of March r7a6, was a prominent figure
in the iashionable society of his day. He was twice married,
and had five daughters, among whom was Lady Mary Wonlcy
Montagu (q*.) t and one son, William, earl of Kingston (d. 1713).
The latter'a son, Evelyn Piekbepont (1711-1773). succeeded
his grandfather as second duke of Kingston. When the rebellion
of 174s broke out he raised a regiment called " Kingston's light
horse," which distinguished itself at Cullodcn. The duke, who
J"**"* 1 *h* «*nk of general in the army, is described by Horace
Walpole as " a very weak man, of the greatest beauty and finest
person in England." He is chiefly famous for his connexion
with ; Elisabeth Chudkigh, who claimed to be duchess of Kingston
(?•*•)• The Kingston titles became extinct on the duke's death
without children on the sjrd of September 1773, but on the death
of the duchess in 1788 the estates came to his nephew Charles
Meadowa(i737-i8i6) > who took the name of Pierrepont and was
created Baron Pierrepont and Viscount Newark in 1 7o6y and Earl
Man vers in 1 806. His descendant, the present Earl Man vers, is
*i!m rc P re * ent *t»veof the dukes of Kingston.
KINGSTOWN, a seaport of Co. Dublin, Ireland, m the south
parliamentary division, at the south-eastern extremity of
Dublin Bay, 6 ra. S.E. from Dublin by the Dublin & Soulh-
Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1001), I7.377- It is a
large seaport and favourite watering-place, and possesses several
fine streets, with electric trams, and terraces commanding
picturesque sea views. The original name of Kingstown was
puittary, which was exchanged for the present designation after
the embarkation of George IV. at the port on his return from
Ireland in 1821, an event which is also commemorated by a
granite obcUsk erected near the harbour. The town was a mere
twhinf village until the construction of an extensive harbour,
ttffua In 181 7 and finally completed in 1850. The eastern pier
l^ « length of 3500 ft. and the western of 4050 ft., the total
trt* enclosed being about 150 acres, with a varying depth of
Hv** I jt to «7 f t. Kingstown is the station of the City of Dublin
£4**a* Packet Company's mail steamers to Holyhead in con*
«« **« * Uh the London & North-Western railway. It has large
t**v* *«d import trade both with Great Britain and foreign
vV **t<** The principal export b cattle, and the principal
^v**i wm and provisions. Kingstown is the centre of an
vA ^,««ri\* *• Hahery; and there are three yacht clubs: the Royal
ti .*V ***** M George and Royal AMred.
fcUvuVrt tttltH* a town near Fu-liang Hien, in the province of
\ , »* »«» v Vtk* awl the principal seat of the porcelain manu-
^ ^ 4 „ u 1**4 %«*f>*re. Being situated on the south bank of the
.w. s *«* * *<* ** ancient times known as Chang-nut CAM,
^ ,,..«** ** k*w ***** «l the river Chang." It is «nwafted\ and
^ ^f^km. *\w* '.?w fee**, el the Kver. The streets are narrow,
,*., t.«<*t*w «*^ * tstpuUtlon which is reckoned at a million,
. '^ ,-^ «ta*w«4> ** *Wm find employment at '»*- ~— •**-
factories. Since the Ch'in dynasty (557-580) this has been the
great trade of the place, which was then called by its earlier
name. In the reign of King-te (Chen-tsung) of t he Sung dynasty,
early in the 1 tth century a j>. t a manufactory was founded there
for making vases and objects of art for the use of the emperor.
Hence its adoption of its present title. Since the lime of the
Ming dynasty a magistrate has been specially appointed to
superintend the factories and to despatch at regulated intervals
the imperial porcelain to Peking. The town is sit uated on a vast
plain surrounded by mountains, and boasts of three thousand
porcelain furnaces. These constantly burning fires are the causes
of frequent conflagrations, and at night give the city the appear-
ance of a place on fire. The people are as a rule orderly, though
they have on several occasions shown a hostile bearing towards
foreign visitors. This is probably to be accounted for by a desire
to keep their art as far as possible a mystery, which appears lest
unreasonable when it is remembered that the two kinds of earth
of whkh the porcelain is made are not found at Kfng-t£ Chen, but
are brought from K'i-mun in the neighbouring province of Ngaa-
hui, and that there is therefore no reason why the trade should be
necessarily maintained at that place. The two kinds of earth
are known as pat-tun4sze, which is a fine fusible quartz powder,
and kao-liri, which is not fusible, and b said to give strength 10
the ware. Both materials are prepared in the shape of bricks a
K'i-mun, and are brought down the Chang to the seat of the
manufacture.
KMOUSSIE, a town of Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop. < 1 001 ),
087. It lies at a height of 750 ft. above sea-Icvel, on the left bank
of the Spcy, here crossed by a bridge, 46} m. S. by S.E. of Inver-
ness by the Highland railway. It was founded towards the end
of the 18th century by the duke of Gordon, in the hope of its
becoming a centre of woollen manufactures. This expectation,
however, was not realized, but in time the place grew popular as a
health resort, the scenery in every direction being: remarkably
picturesque. On the right bank of the river is Ruthven. where
James Macpherson was born in 1736, and on the left bank, some
2$ m. from Kingussie, is the house of Belleville (previousfr
known as Raitts) which he acquired from Mackintosh of Bortes
and where he died in 1706. The mansion, renamed Balavii by
Macpherson's great-grandson, was burned down in 1903, whes
the fine library (including some MSS. of Sir David Brewster.
who had married the poet's second daughter) was destroyed. Of
Ruthven Castle, one of the residences of the Corny ns of Badenodu
only the ruins of the walls remain. Here the Jacobites made *a
ineffectual rally under Lord George Murray after the battle of
Culloden.
KING WILLIAITS TOWN, a town of South Africa, in the Cape
province and on the Buffalo River, 42 m. by rail W.N.W. of iht
port of East London. Pop. (1004), 9506, of whom 5087 were
whites. It a the headquarters of the Cape Mounted Pblkt
" King," as the town is locally called, stands 1275 ft- above the
sea at the foot of the Amatola Mountains, and in the midst of 1
thickly populated agricultural district. The town is well hue
out and most of the public buildings and merchants* stores art
buift of stone. There are manufactories of sweets and jaiss.
candles, soap, matches and leather, and a large trade in wool
hides and grains is done with East London. " King " is also as
important entrepot for trade with the natives througbee*
KarTraria, with which there is direct railway cornrnunicatJo&
Founded by Sir Benjamin D'Urban in May 1835 during Use Ka&-
War of that year, the town is named after William IV. It was
abandoned in December 1836, but was reoccoptcd in 1 846 and was
the capital of British KafTraria from Us creation in 1&47 to els
incorporation in 1865 with Cap* Colony. Many of the colonafs
in the neighbouring districts are descendants of members of tl*
German legion disbanded after the Crimean War and provided
with homes in Cape Colony; hence such names as Berlin, Potsdas,
Braunschweig, Frankfurt, given to settlements in this part of tie
country.
KDfKAJOO {Cvtokpks eauditohmhu or Potos Jttnms). tfcr
single species of an aberrant genus of the raccoon family (Ft*-
cyonidaty. It has been split up into a number of local race*. A
KINKEL— KINORHYNCHA
8i3
native of the forests of the wanner porta of South and Central
America, the kinkajou it about the stse of a cat, of a. uniform
pale» yellowish-brown colour, nocturnal and arboreal in its
habits, feeding on fruit* honey, eggs and small birds and
mammals, and is of a tolerably gentle disposition and easily
tamed. (See Cauoyoia.)
KINKEL. JOHAHN GOTTFRIED (1815-1883), German poet,
was bom on the nth of August 1815 at Obercassel near Bonn.
Having studied theology at Bonn and afterward* in Berlin, be
established himseti at Bonn in iS^as priwat douni of theology,
later became master at the gymnasium there, and was for a short
time assistant preacher in Cologne. Changing his religious
opinions, he abandoned theology and delivered lectuses on the
history of art, in winch he had become interested on a journey to
Italy in 1837. In 1846 he was appointed extraordinary professor
of the history of art at Bonn University. For his share in the
revolution in the Palatinate in 1840 Kinkel was arrested and,
sentenced to penal servitude for Use, was interned in the fortress
of Spandau. His friend Carl Schurs contrived in 'November 1850
to effect bis escape to England, whence he went to the United
States. Returning to London in 1853, be for several years taught
German and lectured on German literature, and in 1858 founded
the German paper Hermann, In 1866 be accepted the professor*
ship of archaeology and the history of art at the Poiytechnikum
in Zurich, in which dty he died on the 13th of November 1 88s.
The popularity which Kinkel enjoyed in his day was hardly
justified by his talent; his poetry is of the sweetly sentimental
type which was much in vogue in Germany about the middle of
the loth century. His Gedkhte first appeared in 1843, and have
gone through several editions. He is to be seen to most advan-
tage in the verse romances, Otto der $ck*to, tine tkehriseke
Gesckickte in wmtij Abenteuern (r846) which in 1806 had attained
its 75th edition, and Dm Gtobtckmied ton Antwerpen (1868).
Among Kink el's other works may be mentioned the tragedy
Nimrod (T857), and his history of art, GeiekUkle der bUdenden
KttnsU bH den ckrisilicken Vdlkern (184s). Kinkd's first wife,
Johanna, nee Mockel (1810-1858), assisted her husband in his
literary work, and was herself an author of considerable merit.
Her admirable autobiographical novel Hans I belts in London
was not published until i860, after her death. She also wrote
on musical subjects.
See A. Strodtmann, Gottfried Kinkel (a vols., Hamburg, 1851);
and O. Henne am Rhyn, G. Kinkel, em LebensbUd (Zurich, 1883).
KINNING PARK, a southern suburb of Glasgow, Scotland.
Pop. (loot), 13,85a. It 1s situated oil the left bank of the Clyde
between Glasgow, with which it is connected by tramway and
subway, and Govan. Since 1850 it has grown from a rural
village to a busy centre mainly inhabited by artisans and
labourers. Its principal industries are engineering, bread and
biscuit baking, soap-making and paint-making.
KINNOR (Gr. nfftpa), the Hebrew name for an ancient
stringed instrument, the first mentioned in the Bible (Gen. iv. 21),
where It is now always translated " harp." The identification of
the instrument has been much discussed, but, from the stand-
point of the history of musical instruments, the weight of evidence
is* in favour of the view that the Semitic kinner is the Greek
eUhara (q.v.). This instrument was already in use before sooo B.C.
among the Semitic races and in a higher state of development
than it ever attained in Greece during the best classic period.
It is unlikely that an instrument (which also appears on Hebrew
coins) so widely known and used in various parts of Asia Minor
in remote times, and occurring among the Hittite sculptures,
should pass unmentioned in the Bible, with the exception of
the verses in Dan. lit
' KINO, the West African name of an astringent drug intro-
duced into European medicine in 1757 by John Fothergul When
described by him it was believed to have been brought from the
river Gambia in West Africa, and when first imported it was sold
in England as Gummi rubrutn astringent gambiense. It was
obtained from Pterocarpus erinaceus. The drug now recognized
as the legitimate kind is East Indian, Malabar or Amboyna kino,
which is the evaporated juice obtained from incisions in the trunk
of Pteroasrpns Mortupimn (Leguminosae), though Botany Bay
ot eucalyptus kino is used in Australia. When exuding from the
tree it resembles red-currant jelly, but hardens n a few hours after
exposure td the air and sun. When sufficiently dried it is packed
into wooden boxes for exportatkm. When these- are opened it
breaks up into angular brittle fragments of a biackish-red colour
and shining surface. In cold water it is only partially dissolved,
leaving a pale flocculent residue which is soluble in boiling water
but deposited again on cooling. It is soluble in alcohol and
caustic alkaljs, but not in ether.
The chief constituent of the drug is kino-tannic acid, which
Is present to the extent of about 75%; it is only very slightly
soluble in cold water. It is not absorbed at all from the stomach
and only very slowly from the intestine. . Other constituents
are gum, pyrocatechin, and kinoin, a crystalline neutral principle.
Kino-red is also present in small quantity, being an oxidation
product of kino-tannic acid. The useful preparations of this drug
are the tincture (dose f-i drachm), and the pulvis kino com po situs
(dose 5-20 gr.) which contains one part of opium in twenty.
The drug is frequently used in diarrhoea, its value being due to
the relative insolubility of kino-tannic acid, which enables it to
affect the lower part of the intestine. In this respect it is parallel
with catechu. It is not now used as a gargle, antiseptics being
recognized as the rational treatment for sore-throat.
KINORHYNCHA, an isolated group of .minute animals con-
taining the single genus Echinoderes F. Dujardin, with some
eighteen species. They occur in mud and on sea-weeds at the
bottom of shallow seas below low- water mark and devour organic
d£bris.
The body is enclosed in a stout cuticle, prolonged in places into
spines and bristles. These are especially conspicuous in two rings
(Ate Hartof. from Cambridge Natural History, vol. B., "Worms, ftc." br
rfM«n.M«»aiiDftC<i^Ud.)
b, bristle; «, caudal spine; ph, pharynx; * c> t\ the spines on the
two segments of the proboscis; sg, salivary glands; if, stomach.
round the proboscis and in the two posterior caudal spines. The
body is divided into eleven segments and the protrusiblc pro-
boscis apparently into two, and the cuticle of the central segment
is thickened to form three plates, one dorsal and two ventro-
lateral. The cuticle is secreted by an epidermis in which no cell
boundaries are to be seen; it sends out processes into the bristles.
The mouth opens at the tip of the retractile proboscis; it leads
into a short thin-walled tube which opens into an oval muscular
gizzard lined with a thick cuticle; at the posterior end of this are
some minute glands and then follows a large stomach slightly
sacculated In each segment, this tapers through the rectum to the
terminal anus. A pair of pear-shaped, ciliated glands inside lie
Sn the eighth segment and open on the ninth. They are regarded
as kidneys. The nervous system consists of a ganglion or brain,
which lies dorsalry about the level of the junction of the pharynx
and the stomach, a nerve ring and a segmented neutral cord.
The only sense organs described are eyes, which occur in some
spedes, and mav number one to four pairs.
822
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KINTORE-^KIPLING
82$
,J "*«< * sovereigns. For several centuries previous
_ ' ^ turned two members to the Irish parliament.
• « m of an engagement between the French and
* *"t; 1380, was forcibly entered by the English in
y the Spaniards and retaken by toe English
■m. ^ *3red by the English in 164 1, who expelled the
•^ \ Finally, it was the scene o£ the landing of
M * the French army sent to his assistance in 1680;
--^ >y the English in the following year.
v^j. " - royal and police burgh of Aberdeenshire, Seot-
.. K m k>i), 789. It is situated on the Don, 15} m.
• r "*" - *en by the Great North of Scotland railway. It
_L ^we antiquity, having been made a royal burgh U
"illiam the Lion (d. 12x4). KTntore forms one of
_^ r n of parliamentary burghs, the others being Banff,
""■"■ : Inverurie and Peterhead.* One mile to the soitb-
^ "** ■ J«s of Hallforest Castle, of whkh twojstoreys stii
a9> ~ ~-~* nun ling-scat of Robert Bruce and afterwards a
* * * ■* the Keiths, earls marischaL There arc several
w " -*r. -.culptured stones and circles in the perish, and 2 in.
^^"*^ r-_»-west is the site of Brace's camp, which is also
^--* .
he Scottish, and of baron in the British peerage to
"* --*r Sj *f the Keith-Falconer family.
"* " - - j k. ^ - Kyoto), the former capital of Japan, in the province
. " ** **e: ^,lw>r m 35° 01' N. t 135 46' E. Pop. (10*3), 3?Cv«c«.
*" "^-^ -^ ^f-gawa, upon which it stands, Is a mere rivulet in ordi*
"* •=•=«■ *Jt*z^f trickling through a wide bed of pebbles; but the city
"*" •+* & S<J , * d by several aqueducts, and was connected with Lake
' -jx r -,". .^~>ooby a canal 6| m. long, which carries an abundance of
- - ■> *. ^ajj' 'manufacturing purposes, brings the great lake and tht
" * 3 ^act* r^ nav ^ ao ^ e communication, and forms with the Kama*
' -v * tat ' ,IS! " ** **** ^ e Kamo-gawa itself a through route to Osaka*
■ ■'*. <m ist^ll**' cn Kioto •* *5 m - distant by rail Founded in the year
* •« £-/' S° ^ t0 reaaline<i til0 capital of the empire during nearly
-* f ^ fa** / ^ * 3ntnries * Thc ^P* 1 ** Kwammu, when he selected this
: 3 J (- Btt ^, < v* i ; *bry picturesque spot for the residence of his court,
7 Jen, Jjl ^he city to be laid out with mathematical accuracy, after
r/ T^^vm iclof the Tang dynasty's capital in China. Itsarea,j*i.
'* h%I' R> ' " W9S intersected by 18 principal thoroughiares, running
fi ^l Ath^r J rtn **& south, and 9 due east and west, the two systems
'> C J f lJSSu'' ^to*™**^ at intervals by minor streets. At the middle
u- "northern face stood the palace, its enclosure covering three-
1 ait ^ t ^«a»rs of a square mile, and from it to the centre of the south
•ust pufcaer. .- an an avenue 283 ft. wide and 3 \ m. long. Conflagrations
roo*r itkss- subsequent reconstructions modified the regularity of this
ty tke Cat it but much of it still remains, and its story is perpetuated in
tbtadZ*. oxneadature of the streets. In its days of greatest prosperity
<xroo ss . o contained only half a million inhabitants, thus never even
' £+:-rsa zstaxi mating to the size of the Tokugawa metropolis, Yedo, Or
■*.o=_ .*.-; Hojo capital Kamakura. The emperor Kwamma. called
X .-e-.i -leian-jo, or the " city of peace, " when he made it tho seat of
1 « «= . _/croment j but the people knew it as Miyako, or Kyoto, terms
. jk s^^.h of which signify " capital," and in modern times it is often
-r-a i »>ken of as Saikyo, or western capital, in Opposition to Tokyo,
• "c eastern capital. Having been so long the imperial, intellectual,
_J . ^ .di ileal and artistic metropolis of the realm, the city abounds
^ ^ "*\. ith evidences of its unique career. Magnificent temples and
_ r ^ r Vjrines, grand monuments of architectural and artistic skill,
/"beautiful gardens, gorgeous festivals, and numerous aidiers
~ vhere the traditions of Japanese art are obeyed with attractive
~ . ~„csults» offer to the foreign visitor a fund of interest. Clearwater
_", Apples everywhere through the dty. and to this water Kioto
owes something of its importance, for nowhere else in Japan can
~~ fabrics be bleached so white or dyed in such brilliant colours.
The people, like their neighbours of Osaka, are full of manu-
., T factoring energy. Not only do they preserve, amid all the
progress of the age, their old-time eminence as producers of the
finest porcelain, faience, embroidery, brocades, bronze, cloisonnt
enamel, fans, toys and metal-work of all kinds, but they have
also adapted themselves to the foreign market, and weave and dye
quantities of silk fabrics, for which alarge and constantly growing
demand is found in Europe and America. Nowhere else can be
traced with equal clearness the part played in Japanese civiliza-
tion by Buddhism, with its magnificent paraphernalia and impos-
ing ceremonial spectacles; nowhere else, side by side with this
(usurious factor, can be witnessed in more striking juxtaposition
the austere purity and severe simplicity of the Shinto cult; and
nowhere else can be more intelligently observed the fine faculty
of the Japanese for utilising, emphasising and enhancing the
beauties of nature. The citizens' dwellings and the shops, oa
the other hand, are insignificant and even-sombre in appearance,
their exterior conveying no idea of the pretty chambers within
or of the tastefully hud-out grounds upon which they open
behind. Kioto is celebrated equally for its cherry and azalea
blossoms in the sprmg, and for the colours of its autumn
foliage,
K10WA3. a tribe and stock of North American Indians*
Their former range was around the Arkansas and Canadian
rivers, in Indian Territory (Oklahoma), Colorado and New
Mexico. A fierce people, they made raids upon. the settlers
in western Texas until 1868, when they were placed on a
reservation in Indian Territory. In 1874 they broke out again,
but in the following year were finally subdued. In number
about 1200, and settled in Oklahoma, they are the sole
representatives of the Kiowan linguistic stock.
' Sse J. Mooney, " Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians,*'
Report of Bureau of American Elhndogy (Washington, 1898).
Tfth
KIPLING, RUDYARD (1865- ), British author, was bom
in Bombay on the. 30th of December 2865. His father, John
Lockwood Kipling (1837-1911), an artist of considerable ability,
was: from 1875 to 1893 curator of the Lahore museum in India.
His mother was Miss Alice Macdonald of Birmingham, two of
whose sisters were married respectively to Sir £. Burne-jones
and Sir Edward Poynter. He was educated at the. United
Services College, Westward Ho, North Devon, of which, a some-
what rorid account is given in his story SUiUty and Co. On his
return to India he became at the age of seventeen; the sub-editor
of the Lahore Civil and Military Gaulle. In 1886, in his twenty-
first year, be published Departmental Ditties, a volume of light
verse chiefly satirical, only in two or three poems giving promise
of his authentic poetical note. In 1887 he published Plain
Tales from the Hills, a collection mainly of the stories contributed
to his own journal. During the next two years he brought out,
in six slim paper-covered volumes of Wheeler's Railway Library
(AllahabadX Soldiers Thru, The Story of the Gad$bys,In Black
and White, Under Ike Deodars, The Phantom 'Rickshaw and
Wee Willie Winkce, at a rupee apiece. These were in form and
substance a continuation of the Plain Tales. This series of tales,
all written before the author was twenty-four, revealed a new
master of fiction. A few, but those the best, he afterwards said
that his father gave him. The rest were the harvest of his own
powers of observation vitalized by imagination. In method they
owed something to Bret Harte; in matter and spirit they were
absolutely original. They were unequal, as his hooks continued
to be throughout; the sketches of Anglo-Indian social life being
generally inferior to the rest. The style was to some extent
disfigured by jerkiness and mannered tricks. But Mr Kipling
possessed the supreme spell of the story-teller to entrance and
transport. The freshness of the invention, the variety of charac-
ter, the vigour pf narrative, the radness of dialogue, the magic of
atmosphere, were alike remarkable. The soldier-stories, especially
the exuberant vitality of the cycle which contains the immortal
Mulvaney, established the author's fame throughout the world.
The child-6tories and tales of the British official were not less
masterly, while the tales of native life and of adventure " beyond
the pale " disclosed an even finer and deeper vein of romance.
India, which had been an old story for generations of English-
men, was revealed in these brilliant pictures as if seen for the first
time in its variety, colour and passion, vivid as mirage, enchant-
ing as the Arabian Nights. The new author's talent was quickly
826
KIPPER— KIRBY
recognized in India, but k was not 131 the books reached
England that his true rank was appreciated and proclaimed.
Between 1887 and 1889 he travelled through India, China, Japan
and America, finally arriving in England to find himself already
famous. His travel sketches, contributed to The Civil and
Military Gazette and The Pioneer, were afterwards collected (the
author's hand having been forced by unauthorised publication)
in the two volumes From Sea to Sea (1809). A further set of
Indian- tales, equal to the best, appeared in Macmillan's Maga-
zine and were republished with others in Life's Handicap (189 1).
In The Light that Failed (1891, after appearing with a different
ending in LippincoU's Magatine) Mr Kipling essayed his first long
story (dramatised 1005), but with comparative unsuccess. In
his subsequent work his delight in the display of descriptive and
verbal technicalities grew on him. His polemic against " the
sheltered life " and " little Englandism " became more didactic;
His terseness sometimes degenerated into abruptness and
obscurity. But in the meanwhile his genius became prominent
in verse. Readers of the Plain Tales had been impressed by the
snatches of poetry prefixed to them for motto, certain of them
being subscribed " Barrack Room Ballad." Mr Kipling now
contributed to the National Observer, then edited by W. E.
Henley, a series of Barrack Room Ballads'. These vigorous
verses in soldier slang, when published in a book in 189a, together
with the fine ballad of " East and West " and other poems, won
for their author a second fame, wider than he bad attained as a
story-teller. In this volume the Ballads of the " Bolivar " and
of the" Clampherdown," introducing Mr Kipling's poetry of the
ocean and the engine-room, and " The Flag of England," finding
a voice for the Imperial sentiment, which — largely under the
influence of Mr Kipling's own writings— had been rapidly gaining
force in England, gave the key-note of much of his later verse.
In 1808 Mr Kipling paid the first of several visits to South Africa
and became imbued with a type of imperialism that reacted on
his literature, not altogether to its advantage. Before finally
settling in England Mr Kipling lived some years in America
and married in 189a Miss Caroline Starr Balestier, sister of the
Wolcott Balestier to whom he dedicated Barrack Room Ballads,
and with whom in collaboration he wrote the Naulakka (1891),
one of his less successful books. The next collection of stories,
Many Inventions (1893), contained the splendid Mutvaney
extravaganza, " My Lord the Elephant "; a vividly realised tale
of metempsychosis, u The Finest Story in the World*"; and in
that fascinating tale " In the Rukh," the prelude" to the next new
exhibition of the author's genius. This came in 1894 with The
Jungle Book, followed in 1895 by The Second Jungle Book. With
these inspired beast-stories Kipling conquered a new world and a
new audience, and produced what many critics regard as his
most flawless work. His chief subsequent publications were
The Seven Seas (poems), 1896; Captains Courageous (a yarn of
deep-sea fishery), 1897; The Day*s Work (collected stories),
1898; A Fleet in Being (an account of a cruise in a man-of-war),
1808; Stalky and Co. (mentioned above), 1899; From Sea to Sea
(mentioned above), 1809; Kim, 1901 ; Just So Stories (for children),
1902; Tke Five Nations (poems, concluding with what proved
Mr Kipling's most universally known and popular poem, " Re-
cessional," originally published in The Times on the 17th of July
1897 on the occasion of Queen Victoria's second jubilee), 1903;
Traffics and Discoveries (collected stories), 1904; Puck of Pock's
Hill (stories), 1006; Actions and Reactions (stories), 1009. Of
these Kim was notable as far the most successful of Mr Kipling's
longer narratives, though it is itself rather in the nature of a
string of episodes. But everything he wrote, even to a farcical
extravaganza inspired by his enthusiasm for the motor-car,
breathed the meteoric energy that was the nature of the man. A
vigorous and unconventional poet, a pioneer in the modern phase
of literary Imperialism, and one of the rare masters in English
prose of the art of the short story, Mr Kipling had already by
the opening of the *oth century won the most conspicuous place
among the creative literary forces of his day. His position In
English literature was recognized in 1907 by the award to him of
the Nobel prize.
batto. i8m\
!, in Rudjcri
flr KipKng's
fs«rv( March
d Edinburgh
r the Younger
bibliography
xxx. pp. S9&
KIPPER, properly the name by which the male salmon is
known at some period of the breeding season. At the approach
of this season the male fish develops a sharp cartilaginous beak,
known as the " kip," from which the name " kipper " is said to be
derived. The earliest uses of the word (in Old English cypera
and Middle English kypre) seem to include salmon of both sexes,
and there is no certainty as to the etymology. Skeat derives it
from the Old English kippian, " to spawn." The term has been
applied by various witters to salmon both during and after
milting; early quotations leave the precise meaning of the word
obscure, but generally refer to the unwholesomeness of the fish
as food during the whole breeding season; It has been usually
accepted, without much direct evidence, that from the practice
of rendering the breeding (Le. " kipper ") salmon fit tor food by
splitting, salting and smoke-drying them, the term " kipper "
is also used of other fish, particularly herrings cured in the same
way. The " bloater " as distinct from the " kipper M is a herring
cured whole without being split open.
KIPPIS, ANDREW (1725-1795), English nonconformist divine
and biographer, son of Robert Kippis, a silk-hosier, was born at
Nottingham on the aSth of March 1725. From school at
Sleaford in Lincolnshire he passed at the age of sixteen to the
nonconformist academy at Northampton, of which Dr Dod-
dridge was then president. In 1746 Kippis became mimstet
of a church at Boston; in 1750 he removed to Dorking in
Surrey; and in 1753 he became pastor of a Presbyterian con-
gregation at Westminster, where he remained till his death on
the 8th of October 1795. Kippis took a prominent put in the
affairs of his church. From 1765 till 1784 he was «*»*— ^i 1^4
philological tutor in Coward's training college at Hoxton; nnd
subsequently for some years at another institution of the same
kind at Hackney. In 1778 he was elected a fellow of the
Antiquarian Society, and a fellow of the Royal Society in 1770.
Kippis was a very voluminous writer. He contributed kufeiy
to The Gentleman's Magazine, The Monthly Review and The Lthr^ry.
and he had a good deal to do with the establishment and conduct
of The New A nnuol Register. He published also a nu mber of sctxross
and occasional pamphlets: and he prefixed a life of the author
to a collected edition Of Dr Nathaniel Lardner's Works (178*1.
He wrote a life of Dr Doddridge, which is prefixed to Doddridge »
Exposition of the New Testament (1792). His chief work tshb
Sdition of the Biographia Britannica, of which, however, be oaly
ved to publish 5 vols, (folio, 1 778-1 793). In this work he had tke
assistance of Dr Towers. See notice by A. Rcea, D.D., in The New
Annual Register for 1795.
KIRBY, WILLIAM (1750-1850), English entomologist, was
born at Witnesham in Suffolk on the 19th of September 1750.
From the village school of Witnesham he passed to Ipswich
grammar school, and thence to Caius College, Cambridge,
where he graduated in 2781. Taking holy orders in 1782. he
spent his entire life in the peaceful seclusion of an Fr^giKK
country parsonage at Barham in Suffolk. His favourite study
was natural history; and eventually entomology engrossed aU
his leisure. His first work of importance was his Monogr*pkU
Apum Angliae (a vols. 8vo, 1802), which as the first scienutc
treatise on its subject brought him into notice with the leading
entomologists of his own and foreign countries. The practical
result of a friendship formed in 1805 with William Spence, of
Hull, was the jointly written Introduction to Entomology (4 vote,
1815-1826; 7th cd., 1856), one of the most popular books of
science that have ever appeared. In 1830 he was chosen to
write one of the Bridgewater Treatises, his subject bents The
History, Habits, and Instincts of Animals (2 vols., 1855). This
undeniably fell short of his earlier works in point of ,
value. He died on the 4th of July 185a
KIRCHER -KIRGHIZ
827
Besides the books already mentioned he was the author of many
papers in the Transactions of the Linnean Society, the Zoological
Journal and other periodicals; Strictures on Sir James Smith's
Hypothesis respecting the Lilies of the Field of our Saviour and the
Acanthus of Vtrgil (1819) ; Seven Sermons on our Lord's Temptations
(1829); and he wrote the sections on insects in the Account of the
Animals seen by the late Northern Expedition while within the Arctic
Circle O821). and in Fauna Boreah-Americana (1837). His Life
by the Rev. John Freeman, published in 1852, contains a list of his
works.
KIRCHER, ATHAHASIUS (1601-1680),' German scholar and
mathematician, was born on the and of May 1601, at Gcisa
near* Fulda. He was educated at the Jesuit college of Fulda,
and entered upon his noviciate in that order at Mainz in 16 18,
He became professor of philosophy, mathematics, and Oriental
languages at Wiirzburg, whence he was driven (1631) by the
troubles of the Thirty Years' War to Avignon. Through the
influence of Cardinal Barbcrini he next (1635) settled in Rome,
where for eight years he taught mathematics in the Collegio
Romano, but ultimately resigned this appointment to study
hieroglyphics and other archaeological subjects. . lie died on
the 28th of November 1680.
Kircher was a man of wide and varied learning, but singularly
devoid of Judgment and critical discernment. His voluminous
writings in philology, natural history, physics* and mathematics
often accordingly have a good deal of the historical interest which
attaches to pioneering work, however imperfectly performed; other-
wise they now take rank as curiosities of literature merely. They
include Ars Magnesia (1631); Magnes, she de arte magnetica opus
(1641) ; and MagfuHcum naturae regnum '
s (1036); Lingua Aegyjttiaca restituta (11 ._, .
Pamphyius (1650) ; and Oedipus Aegyptiacus, hoc est universalis dec-
tripartitum (164!); and'
tnus Cpptus (I63f " "
trinae hieroglyphtcae instauratto (1652-1655) — works which may claim
the merit of having first called attention to Egyptian hieroglyphics;
Ars magna lucis el umbrae in mundo (1645-1646} ; Musurgta univer-
salis, sine ars magna consent et dissoni (1650) ; Polygraphia, seuartifi-
cium linguarum quo cum omnibus mundt populis potent quis respondere
(1663); Mundus subterraneus, quo subterrestris mundi optjuium,
unmersae denique naturae dtviiiae, abditorum effectuum causae demon:
strantur (1665-1678); China illustrata (1667); Ars magna sciendi
(1669); and Laiium (1660), a work which may still be consulted with
advantage. The Specula MdiUnsis Encycltca (1638) (rives an ac-
count of a kind of calculating machine of his invention. The valuable
collection of antiquities which he bequeathed to the Collegio Romano
has been described by Buonanni {Uusacum Kirckerianum, 1709;
republished by Battara in 1773)* .
KIRCHHEIll-rjNTER-TBCK, a town of Germany, in the
kingdom of Wurttemberg, is prettily situated on the Lauter,
at the north-west foot of the Rauhe Alb, 15 m. S.E. of Stuttgart
by rail. Pop. (1905), 8830. The town has a royal castle
built in 1538, two schools and several benevolent institutions.
The manufactures include cotton goods, damask, pianofortes,
machinery, furniture, chemicals and cement. The town also
has wool-spinning establishments and breweries, and a com
exchange. It is the most important wool market in South
Germany, and has also a trade in fruit, timber and pigs. In
the vicinity are the ruins of the castle of Teck, the hereditary
stronghold of the dukes of that name. Kirchheim has belonged
to WUrttemberg since 1381.
KIRCHHOFP, OUBTAV ROBERT (1824-1887), German
physicist, was born at KOnigsberg (Prussia) on the 12th of
March 1824, and was educated at the university of his native
town, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1847. After acting. as
privot-doceni at Berlin for some time, he became extraordinary
professor of physics at Breslau in 1850. Four years later he
was appointed professor of physics at Heidelberg, and in 1875
he was transferred to Berlin, where he died on the 17th of October
1887. KirchhofPs contributions to mathematical physics were
numerous and important, his strength lying in 'his powers of
stating a new physical problem in terms of mathematics, not
merely in working out the solution after it had been so formu-
lated. A number of his papers were concerned with electrical
questions. One of the earliest was devoted to electrical con-
duction in a thin plate, and especially in a circular one, and it
also contained a theorem which enables the distribution of
currents in a network of conductors to be ascertained. Another
discussed conduction in curved sheets; a third the distribution
of electricity m two influencing spheres; a fourth the deter-
mination of the constant on which depends the intensity of
induced currents; while others were devoted to Ohm's law,
the motion of electricity in submarine cables, induced mag-
netism, &c. In other papers, again, various miscellaneous
topics were- treated— the thermal conductivity of iron, crystal-
line reflection and refraction, certain propositions in the thermo-
dynamics of solution and vaporization, &c. An important
part of his work was contained In his VerUsungen Qbcr motke-
matistke Physik (1876), in which the principles of dynamics,
as well as various special problems, were treated in a somewhat
novel and original manner. But his Jiame is best known for
the researches, experimental and mathematical, in radiation
which led him, in company with R. W. von Bunscn, to the
development of spectrum analysis as a complete system in
1859-1860. He can scarcely be called its inventor, for not only
had many investigators already used the prism as an instrument
of chemical inquiry, but considerable progress had been made
towards the explanation of the principles upon which spectrum
analysis rests. But to him belongs the merit of having, most
probably without knowing what had already been done, enun-
ciated a complete account of its theory, and of thus having firmly
established it as a means by which the chemical constituents
of celestial bodies can be discovered through the comparison
of their spectra with those of the various elements that exist
on this earth.
KIRCHHOFP. JOHANR WILHBLM ADOLF (1826-1008),
German classical scholar and epigraphist, was born in Berlin
on the 6th of January 1826. In 1865 he was appointed pro-
fessor of classical philology in the university of his native dty.
He died on the 26th of February 1008. He is the author of
Die Homerischc Odyssee (1859), putting forward an entirely
new theory as to the composition of the Odyssey; editions of
Plotinus (1856), Euripides (1855 and 1877-1878). Aeschylus
(1880), Hesiod {Works and- Days, x88o), Xenophon, On the
Athenian Constitution (3rd ed., 1889); Uber die EntstehnngsseU
des HerodoHscken Cesckicktswerkes (2nd ed., 1878); Thukydidcs
und sein Urkundcnmatcrvil (1895)/
The following wt
graphical studies:
Stadtrecht von Ban
Oppjdo near Band
affairs of the ancti
DieFr&nhisckenRk
Alphabets (4th ed.,
Inscriptionum Crat
tions) and vol. L <
scriptions before 4
1877-1891) are edi
KIRGHIZ, a large and widespread division of. the Turkish
family, of which there are two main branches, the Kara-Kirghiz
of the uplands and the Kirghiz-Kazaks of the steppe. They
jointly number about 3,000,000, and occupy an area of perhaps
the same number of square miles, stretching from Kulja west-
wards to the lower Volga, and from the headstreams of the Ob
southwards to the Pamir and the Turkoman country. They
seem closely allied ethnically to the Mongolians -and in speech
to the Tatars. But both Mongols and Tatars belonged them-
selves originally to one racial stock and. formed part of the same
hordes or nomadic armies: also the Western T\irks have to a
large extent lost their original physique and become largely
assimilated to the regular " Caucasian " type. But the Kirghiz
have either remained nearly altogether unmixed, as in the
uplands, or else have intermingled in the steppe mainly with
the Volga Kalmucks in the west, and with the Dzungarian
nomads in the east, all alike of Mongol stock. Hence they have
everywhere to a large extent preserved the common Mongolian
features, while retaining their primitive Tatar speech. Physi-
cally they are a middle-sized, square-built race, inclined to stout-
ness, especially in the steppe, mostly with long black hair, scant
beard or none, small, black and oblique eyes, though blue ox
grey also occur in the south, broadMongoloidfestures, high cheek-
bones, broad, flat nose, small mouth, brachycephalous head,
very small hands and feet, dirty brown or swarthy complexion,
s><
KIRGHIZ
„ - - '^.^ v«v «*» ^vvwJftnfcJv tsfc. These character-
^ % .- ... ^ .♦...< . .v„> to th* Mongol stock, also
.. .v v.v^itK * «. awau, probably due to
> > u .v aw%>. Ju-vi Xajik oc Iranian blood in
■> - * v v . > vsv-t *m.\ \ xx puraiy Turkic in structure,
-n n\ a, «n»i,* X^a*?**ia and a few Persian and even
v % . x Vs. «**.* *ostx terras unknown to the other
\^ ,% .v Vvtf*y*>ra»u Lcguistic family, and which
* - v- V-* K» ,:*%\>i tv the Kvang-Kuan, Wu-sun, Ting-
, * .- ,n V v ^wyX-* ct SowLk Siberia partly absorbed by
v V S-. TV Kara or' 4 Black" Kirghiz, so called
* ^ o.xs . .^ At t.'wts* arc known to the Russians cither
. **N- ... v v . .„ V* ,< I\kv>kammenyfe (Wild Stone ox Rocky)
v* . * >• j \ . v &*xk Kirghiz oi some English writers.
- v % * v >.• ,v . v v ; v purest and best representatives oi the
^\ ^ * v* v > vv aV »'^ to them alone belongs the distinctive
*>* -h K>»>5us oc KrgKuu This term is commonly
.v ,<* * *iwvi',v viuVt, Kirghiz, sprung of Oghuz-Khon,
v • .v^v , ;vvn J*j>hcth, It occurs in its present form
^ • -v , v ^ tW account of the embassy sent in 569 by
V* ^ • *^ » x.-y*^ Justin 1L to the Uighur Khan, Dugla-
. - *.. x. N*v A tt m tt d Qjat this prince presented a slave
. ^ V s ° ** l; '^ ** Remark, head of the mission. In the
v *, * v.. c^ I be word assumes the form Ki-li-ki-tz', and
. • n -» v* , W \*an dynasty (1 280-1367) place the territory
- ,„~ ,nnV* \*\*x> U north-west of Pckin, about the head-
.*,% v, ,v \cui«u In the records of the T'ang dynasty
*\ o'° * Nx *««■ H^kcn of under the name of Kha-kia-tz'
..„ s\\l KhAa, and sometimes transliterated Haka), and
, N «* ^'<xi thai these Khakas were of the same speech as
** v ^ l v ^ s r-inm this it follows that they were of Mongolo-
- ^ >.wX. aud are wrongly identified by some ethnologists
^ vv K-u\g Kuan, Wu-sun, or Ting-ling, all of whom are
;^si *> Ull, viith red hair, " green " or grey eyes, and fair
■»• " v s»w. ami must therefore have been of Finnish stock, akin
> * ^ i>iv<»l Sojotcsof the upper Yenisei.
v .*„- K^ K lights are by the Chinese and Mongolians called
% * K «v *i *» the Mongolian plural ending, as in Tangut. Yakut,
- ' v.n» tv «»J to Buryat, the collective name of the Siberian Mon-
v »*» v* * J* Baikal district. Thus the term Bur is the common
^ %0 :~ia vKfvsnatton both of the Baikal Mongols and of the Kara-
> *V» occupied this very region and the upper Yenisei valley
*\ .. .*'* <»'• comparatively recent times. For the original home of
v % .I'Kvtiw. the Khakas, by in the south of the present govern-
% ,*v .«. * 0* ^ cnneisk and Tomsk, stretching thence southwards beyond
t s v«>»« range to the Tannuota hills in Chinese territory. Here
it* K**-* *"" " rst «*t them in the 17th centory, and by the aid
W »v K » : ' ks exterminated all those east of the Irtish, driving the
^ i i.t x s s« >*est and south-westwards. Most of them took refuge
^,>*» |S«» kinsmen, the Kara-Kirghiz nomad hightanders, whose
Ikv^*. *t k>*st since the itth century, have been the Ala-tau ranee,
^ i^x ^ V.ul basia, the tekes. Cho and Talasa river valleys, the
I a , x^i % t-in^e, the uplands draining both to the Tarim and to the
I v « :>*« jkI Ovus, including Khokand, Karateghin and Shignan
., v N*tuN to the Pamir ta&e-land. visited by them in summer.
VW^ ^<** occupy most of the uplands along the Rosso-Chinese
ttvtutci. between 35* aad 50* N. Uu and between 70* and 85* £.
fv Ku a KIrchix are all grouped in two main sections— the On
4 >r " K*<M " in the east, with seven branches (Bogu, Sary-Bagishch.
St4»-KuixVh, Sulio or Solve. Cherik. Sayak, Bassini). and the Sol
* l.ou ' m thr west, with four branches (Kokche or Kuchy.
S.KU, M.ik'uh Kitai or Kintai). The Sol section occupies the
_- .__up»es
tr<«vva the TaUss and Oxus head breams in Ferghana
I lV>khara. where they come in contact with the
Uik>\M ^1 HvsKUMd Taiiks. The On section lies 00 both sides of
the 1 ^•K*a*». about Lake Issyk-kni, and in the Chu, Tekes and
y, »«» VW|>V « Jivirtes) valkN-s.
! "k v*/ n» »Sf of Kara-Kirghiz exceeds 800,000.
Vi *.'v w>cf» \K\ nevmaJ*, occupied mainly with stock breeding.
cWN Ikm^h g4 a vnatl hut hardy breed, sheep of the fat tailed
>*vxx og^ra wed ho<a lor ridiwg aad as packammak. seme goats,
. aA s- uvi, v* botfc •»*««•. Agriculture is limited chiedy to the
. ^v „«4 »Sv-»t. Vsrkv and mMct. from the last of wh'ch a
-v wsjO <x tS"» "^ ^* *J^* i »^ c<, • Trade is carried on ch"*.Gy by
* -» tit Sa.« tsieabv the dealers I rc»ra China, Turkestan and
**•* » v v. »<* iwe «»a»u(a<turrd rood*.
* v Jw *rc ec* , emed b> the " saanasw.** or tribal ralrrs,
- r. ^JTsCted auihot -* — eve. aett or k»U
their subjects. la religious matters they differ little from the
Kazaks, whose practices are described below. Although j "
recognizing Russian sovereignty since 1864, they pay no t~
Tkt Kaxaks— ^Though not unknown to them, the term
Kirghiz is never used by the steppe nomads, who always caB
themselves simply Ksraks, commonly interpreted as riders.
The first authentic reference to this name is by the Persian poet
and historian Firdousi (1020), who speaks of the Kazak tribes
as much dreaded steppe marauders, all mounted and armed
with lances. From this circumstance the term Kazak came
to be gradually applied to all freebooters similarly equipped, and
it thus spread from the Aralo-Caspian basin to South Russia,
where it still survives under the form of Cossack, spelt Kazak
or Kozak in Russian. Hence though Kazak and Cossack are
originally the same word, the former now designates a Mongplo-
Tatar nomad race, the latter various members of the Slav
family. Since the 18th century the Russians have used the
compound expression Kirghiz- Kazak, chiefly in order to dis-
tinguish them from their own Cossacks, at that time overrunning
Siberia. Siegmund Herberstein (r 486-1 566) is the first European
who mentions them by name, and it is noteworthy that he
speaks of them as "Tartars," that is, a people rather of Tnrki
than Mongolian stock.
In their present homes, the so-called M Kirghiz steppes." they are
fai ' — :j id than their Kara-Kirghiz kinsmen,
sb lly from Lake Balkash round the
At Is to the lower Volga, and from tie
rh lower Oxus and Ust-Urt ptatcax
Tl 2,000,000 sq. m. in extent, thus
He N. lat. and from 45* to 80" £. lona,
H( of Jenghtz Khan, after whose dratl
th Tuji. head of the Golden Horde, bet
co khans. When the Uzbegs acqu.rrd
th mer subjects of the Juji and Jaga'-a
ho ale*. Tn us about the year 1 500 met
foi he Kipchak and Kbeta steppes, the
M e latter of whom, under their k±<a
Ai xt to have had as many as 400/ro
fig antinucd to be swollen bv volmsti-j
or ragments of the Golden Horde, sura
as rats, Jalairs, KankaR. wbose names
ar divisions of the Kazaks. Aad a*
so loubtedly of true Mongolian stork.
th to the statement that all the Kanks
w< f Turin origin. But the wsttvenal
pt iety of the Turiri speech throqahaz
th ne sufficient to show that the 1 aur
d< een in the ascendant. Very varnw
ac „ ■ relationship of the Kipchak to tW
Kirghiz, but at present they seem to form a subdivision of the Ka-
ghiz-Kazaks. The Kara-Kalpaks axe an allied but appaxisJy
semrate tribe.
The Kirghiz-Kazaks have long been grouped in three h.-^
" hordes " or encamprnents, further s ubdivided into a camhr d
so-called " races," which are again g ro u ped in tribes, aa>d these is
sections, branches and aula, or communities of from five 10 aii«*»
tents. The division into hordes has been traditionally referred :j *
powerful khan, who divided his states amongst his three soss. rbe
eldest of whom became the founder of the Ulo-Yuz, or Great H>ety-.
the second of the Urta-Yuz. or Middle Horde, and the third oi tat
Kachi-Yuz, or Little Horde. The last two voder th
khan Abulkhair voluntarily submitted in 1 730 to the Einpresa A&.**
Most of the Great Horde were subdued by Yunus, khan 01 Fcrgia-z.
in 1798. and all the still iodrpcadent tribes finally accep t ed Ru«*u*
sovereignty in 1 8 19.
Since 1801 a fourth dhrisaoa. known as the Inner <__
skaya Horde, from the name of their first khan, Bukei, has 1
settled in the Orenburg steppe.
But these divisions affect the c om mon people alone, all the h%^* >
orders and ruling famines being broadly ctasaed as Wbate aad Bbrt
Kost or Bones. The White Bases comprise only the kbzuss nod t*v.r
descendants, besides the issue of the Vhojas or Moslena "*
The Black Bones include all the rest, except the Tdr*rul or s
of tbekhans,andtbeXsVorssa%TS.
The Kazaxs arc an honest and Uusmxat hy people, b«t heavy,
sluggish, sullen and unfriendly. Even the hospitalitj
by the Koran is displayed only towards the orthodox I
sect. So essentially aomiriir are aM the tribes that they cannot
adopt a settled iiic without losing: the very Tmiirnn m «€ then
nationality^ and becocung rapidly absorbed in the Sfcrv jicuwhi
tiaa. They dwell czdusively in ifiriirnlir team riinmiiim
law— KIRK
829
of a Hgbt wooden framework, and red doth or felt covering,
with an opening above lor light and ventilation.
The camp life of the Kazaks seems almost unendurable to
Europeans in winter, when they are confined altogether to the
tent, and exposed to endless discomforts. In summer the day
is spent mostly in sleep or drinking koumiss, followed at night
by feasting and the recital of tales, varied with songs accompanied
by. the musk of the flute and balalaika. But horsemanship
is the great amusement of all true Kazaks, who may almost be
said to be born in the saddle. Hence, though excellent riders,
they are bad walkers. Though hardy and long-lived, they are
uncleanly in their habits and often decimated by small-pox and
Siberian plague. They have no fixed meals, and live mainly on
mutton and goat and horse flesh, and instead of bread use the
so-called balamyk, a mess of flour fried in dripping and diluted
in water, The universal drink is koumiss, which is wholesome,
nourishing and a specific against all chest diseases.
The dress consists of the chapan, a flowing robe of which
one or two are worn in summer and several in winter, fastened
with a silk or leather girdle, in which are stuck a knife, tobacco
pouch, seal and a few other trinkets. Broad silk or cloth
pantaloons are often worn over the chapan, which is of velvet,
silk, cotton or felt, according to the rank of the wearer. Large
black or red leather boots, with round white felt pointed caps,
complete the costume, which is much the same for both sexes.
Like the Kara-Kirghiz, the Kazaks are nominally Sunnltes,
but Shamanists at heart, worshipping, besides the Kudai or good
divinity, the Shaitan or bad spirit. Their faith is strong in the
talcki or soothsayer and other charlatans, who know everything,
can do everything, and heal all disorders at pleasure. But they
are not fanatics, though holding the abstract doctrine that the
" Kafir " may be lawfully oppressed, including in this category
not only Buddhists and Christians, but even Mahommedans of
the Shiah sect. There are no fasts or ablutions, mosques or
rnollahs, or regular prayers. Although Mussulmans since the
beginning of the 16th century, they have scarcely yet found
their way to Mecca, their pilgrims visiting instead the more con-
venient shrines of the " saints " scattered over eastern Turkestan.
Unlike the Mongolians, the Kazaks treat their dead with great
respect, and the low steppe hills are often entirely covered with
monuments raised above their graves.
Letters are neglected to such an extent that whoever can
merely write is regarded as a savant, while he becomes a prodigy
of learning if able to read the Koran in the original. Yet the
Kazaks are naturally both musical and poetical, and possess a
considerable number of national songs, which are usually
repeated with variations from mouth to mouth. ,
The Kazaks still choose their own khans, who, though con-
firmed by the Russian government, possess little authority
beyond their respective tribes. The real rulers are the elders
or umpires and sultans, all appointed by public election. Brig-
andage and raids arising out of tribal feuds, which were formerly
recognized institutions, are now severely punished, sometimes
even with death. Capital punishment, usually by hanging or
strangling, is inflicted for murder and adultery, while three,
nine or twenty-seven times the value of the stolen property
is exacted for theft.
The domestic animals, daily pursuits and industries of the
Kazaks differ but slightly from those of the Kara-Kirghiz.
Some of the wealthy steppe nomads own as many as 20,000
of the large fat-tailed sheep. r Goats are kept chiefly as guides
for these flocks; and the horses, though small, are hardy, swift,
light-footed and capable of covering from 50 to 60 miles at a
stretch. Amongst the Kazaks there are a few workers in silver,
copper and iron, the chief arts besides, being skin dressing,
wool spinning and dyeing* carpet and ielt weaving. Trade is
confined mainly to an exchange of live stock for woven and
other goods from Russia, China and Turkestan.
Since their subjection to Russia the Kazaks have become less
lawless, but scarcely less nomadic A change of habit in this
respect u opposed alike to their tastes and to the climatic and
other outward conditions. Sec also Tuxxs.
KHUN, a province of centra} Manchuria, with a capital bear-
ing the same name. The province, has an area of 90,000 sq. m.,
and a population of 6,500,00a The chief towns besides the
capital are Kwang-chtng-tsze, 80 m. N.W. of the capital,
' and Harbin on the Sungari river. The city of Kirin is situated
at the foot of the Lau-Ye-Ling mountains, on the left bank of
the Sungari or Girin-ula, there 500 yds. wide, and is served by
* branch of the Manchurian railway. The situation is one of
exceptional beauty; but the streets are narrow, irregular and
indescribably filthy. The western part of the town is built upon
a swamp and is under water a great part of the year. The
dockyards are supplied with machinery from Europe and are
efficient. Tobacco is the principal article of trade, the kind
grown in the province being greatly prized throughout the
Chinese empire under the name of " Manchu leaf." Formerly
ginseng was also an important staple, but the supply from this
quarter of the country has been exhausted. Outside the town
lies a plain " thickly covered with open coffins containing the
dead bodies of Chinese emigrants exposed for identification and
removal by their friends; if no claim is made during ten years
the remains are buried on the spot." Kirin was chosen by the
emperor K'anghi as a military post during the wars with the
Eleuths; and it owes its Chinese name of Ch'uen-ch'ang, i.e.
Naval Yard, to his building there the vessels for the transport
of his troops. The population was estimated at 300,000 in 1 8 1 2 ;
in 1900 it was about 120,000.
KIRK, SIR JOHN (1832- ), British naturalist and ad-
ministrator, son of the Rev. John Kirk, was born at Barry,
near Arbroath, on the 29th of December 1832. He. was edu-
cated at Edinburgh for the medical profession, and after
serving on the civil medical staff throughout the Crimean War,
was appointed in February 1858 physician and naturalist to
David Livingstone's second expedition to Central Africa. He
was by Livingstone's side in most of his journcyings during
the next five years, and was one of the first four white men
to behold Lake Nyassa (Sept. 16, 1859). He was finally in-
valided home on the 9th of May 1863. The reputation he
gained during this expedition led to his appointment in January
1866 as acting surgeon to the political agency at Zanzibar. In
1868 he became assistant political agent, being raised to the
rank of consul-general in 1873 and agent in 1880. He retired
from that post in 1887. The twenty-one years spent by Kirk
|n Zanzibar covered the most critical period of the history of
European intervention in East Africa; and during the greater
part of that time he was the virtual ruler of the country. With
Seyyid Bargash, who became sultan in 1870, he had a con-
trolling influence, and after the failure of Sir Bartle Frere's
efforts he succeeded in obtaining (June 5, 1873) the sultan's
signature to a treaty abolishing the slave trade in his dominions.
In 1877 Bargash offered to a British merchant — Sir W. Mac-
kinnon— a lease of his mainland territories, and he gave Kirk a
declaration in which he bound himself not to cede territory to
any other power than Great Britain, a declaration ignored by
the British government. When Germany in 1885 claimed
districts considered by the sultan to belong to Zanzibar, Kirk
intervened to prevent Bargash going in person to Berlin to
protest and induced him to submit to the dismemberment of
his dominions. In the delicate negotiations which followed
830
KIRKBY— KIRKCALDY OP GRANGE, SIR W
Kirk used his powers to checkmate the German designs to
supplant the British in Zanzibar itself; this he did without
destroying the Arab form of government. He also directed the
efforts, this time successful, to obtain for Britain a portion of
the mainland— Bargash in May 1887 granting to Mackinnon a
lease of territory which led to the foundation of British East
Africa. Having thus served both Great Britain and Zanzibar,
Kirk resigned his post (July 1887), retiring from the consular
service. In 1880-1890 he was a plenipotentiary at the 'slave
trade conference in Brussels, and was one of the delegates who
fixed the tariff duties to be imposed in the Congo basin. In
189s he was sent by the British government on a mission to
the Niger; and on his return he was appointed a member of the
Foreign Office committee for constructing the Uganda railway.
As a naturalist Kirk took high rank, and many species of the
flora and fauna of Central Africa were made known by him, and
several bear his name, e.g. the Otogale kirkii (a lemuroid), the
Madoqua kirkii (a diminutive antelope), the Landoifhia kirkii
and the Clematis kirkii. For his services to geography he
received in 1882 the patrons' medal of the Royal Geographical
Society, of which society he became foreign secretary. Kirk
was created K.C.B. in 1900. He married, in 1867, Miss Helen
Cooke.
KIRKBY, JOHN (d. 1200), English, ecclesiastic and states-
man, entered the public service as a clerk of the chancery
during the reign of Henry III. Under Edward I. he acted as
keeper of the great seal during the frequent absences of the
chancellor, Robert Burnell, being referred to as vice-chancellor.
In 1282 he was employed by the king to make a tour through
the counties and boroughs for the purpose of collecting money;
this and his other services to Edward were well rewarded, and
although not yet ordained priest he held several valuable
benefices in the church. In 1283 he was chosen bishop of
Rochester, but owing to the opposition of the archbishop of
Canterbury, John Feckham, he did not press his claim to this
see. In 1 286, however, two years after he had become treasurer,
he was elected bishop of Ely, and he was ordained priest and
then consecrated by Peckham. He died at Ely on the 26th of
March 1200. Kirkby was a benefactor to his see, to which he
left some property in London, including the locality now known
as Ely Place, where for many years stood the London residence
of the bishop of Ely.
Kirkby'S Quest is the name given to'alurvey of various English
counties which was made under the bishop's direction probably
in 1284 and 1285. For this see Inquisitions and Assessments relating
to Feudal Aids, 1284-143', vol. L (London, 1899).
KIRKCALDY Qocally pronounced Kerkawil), a royal, munici-
pal and police burgh and seaport of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901), 34.079- It lies on the Firth of Forth, 26m. N. of Edinburgh
by the North British railway, via the Forth Bridge. Although
Columba is said to have planted a church here, the authori-
tative history of the town does not begin for several centuries
after the era of the saint. In 1240 the church was bestowed by
David, bishop of St Andrews, on Dunfermline Abbey, and in
1334 the town with its harbour was granted by David II. to the
same abbey, by which it was conveyed to the bailies and council
in 1450, when Kirkcaldy was created a royal burgh. In the course
of another century it had become an important commercial
centre, the salt trade of the district being then the largest in
Scotland. In 1644* "hen Charles I. raised it to a free port, it
owned a hundred vessels, and six years later it was assessed as
the sixth town in the kingdom. After the Union its shipping
fell off, Jacobite troubles and the American War of Independence
accelerating the decline. But its linen manufactures, begun
early m the 18th century, gradually restored prosperity; and
when other industries had taken root its fortunes advanced
by leaps and bounds, and there is now no more flourishing com-
munity in Scotland. The chief topographical feature of the
burgh is its length, from which it is called the M lang toun."
Formerly it consisted of little besides High Street r with closes
and wynds branching off from it; but now that it has absorbed
Invertiel, Linktown and Abbotshall on the west, and Pathhead,
Stndairtown and Gauatown- on the east, it has reached a
length of nearly 4 m. Its public buildings include the parish
church, in the Gothic style, St Brycedak United Free chorea,
with a spire 200 ft. high, a town-hall, corn exchange, pebec
libraries, assembly rooms, fever hospital, sheriff court bojUings,
people's club and institute, high school (1804)— on the site of
the ancient burgh school (1587)— the Beveridge hall and free
library, and the Adam Smith memorial halL To the west Be*
Beveridge Park of no acres, including a large sheet of water,
which was presented to the town in 1892. The harbour has aa
inner and outer division, with wet dock and wharves. Plans
for its extension were approved in 1003. They include the
extension of the cast pier, the construction of a south pier 800 ft.
in length, and of a tidal harbour 5 acres in area and a dock of
4 acres. Besides the manufacture of sheeting, towefKng, ticks,
dowlas and sail-doth, the principal Industries include fiar-spa-
ning, net-making, bleaching, dyeing, tanning, brewing, brass and
iron founding, and there are potteries, flour-mills, engmeerieg
works, fisheries, and factories for the making of oil -doth asd
linoleum. In 1847 Michael Nairn conceived the notsen of
utilizing the fibre of cork and oil-paint in such a tray as 10
produce a floor-covering more lasting than carpet and yet
capable of taking a pattern. The result of his experiments vis
oil-cloth, in the manufacture of which Kirkcaldy has kept the
predominance to which Nairn's enterprise entitled it. Indeed.
this and the kindred linoleum business (also due to Nairn, «rha
in 1877 built the first linoleum factory in Scotland) were for
many years the monopoly of Kirkcaldy. There is a large
direct export trade with the United States. Among well-
known natives of the town were Adam Smith, Henry Bainavei
of Halhill, the Scottish reformer and lord of session in the lose
of Queen Mary; George Gillespie, the theologian and a leadsf
member of the Westminster Assembly, and his younger brother
Patrick (1617-1675), a friend of Cromwell and principal «f
Glasgow University; John Ritchie (1778-1870), one of the
founders of the Scotsman; General Sir John Oswald (1771—1840*,
who had a command at San Sebastian and Vittoria. Sir Michael
Scott of Balwearie castle, about 1 J ra. W. of the town, was seat
with Sir David Wemyss to bring the Maid of Norway to Sooths*
in 1200; Sir Walter Scott was therefore in error in adopting the
tradition that identified hrra with the wizard of the same aacse,
who died in 1234. Cartyle and Edward Irving were teacben
in the town, where Irving spent seven years, and where he made
the acquaintance of the lady he afterwards married. Kirkcali?
combines with Dysart, Kinghorn and Burntisland to ret urn cot
member to parliament.
KIRKCALDY OF ORANGE. SIR WILLIAM (r. ! 5*0-15-1
Scottish politician, was the eldest son of Sir James Krrkeakr
of Grange (d. 1556), a member of an old Fifeshire family. Sr
James was lord high treasurer of Scotland from t$S7 to 1 541
and was a determined opponent of Cardinal Beaton, for wt»«
murder in 1546 he was partly responsible. William Kkt-
caldy assisted to compass this murder, and when the castle «f
St Andrews surrendered to the French in July 1 547 he was sen
as a prisoner to Normandy, whence he escaped in 1 550. He wo
then employed in France as a secret agent by the advisers <*
Edward VI., being known in the cyphers as Corax; and Iattf
he served in the French army, where be gained a lasting repot*
tlon for skill and bravery. The sentence passed on Kirkcaldy
for his share in Beaton's murder was removed in 1536, aai
returning to Scotland in 1557 he came quickly to the front; »
a Protestant he was one of the leaders of the lords of the con-
gregation in their struggle with the regent, Mary of Lorrans
and he assisted to harass the French troops in Fife. He oc^i^ st i
Queen Mary's marriage with Darnley, being associated at the
time with Murray, and was forced for a short time to seek refoje
in England. Returning to Scotland, he was accessory- to tie
murder of Rizzio, but be had no share in that of Darnley; sod
he was one of the lords who banded themselves together to reane
Mary after her marriage with Bothwelf. After the fight *
Carberry Hill the queen surrendered herself to Kitkcaddy,
his generalship was mainly responsible for her defeat at ~
KIRKCUDBRIGHT— KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE
«3*
He seems, however, to have believed that an arrangement with
Mary was possible, and coming under the influence of Maitland
of Lethingten, whom In September 1569 he released by a strata-
gem from his confinement in Edinburgh, he was soon " vehe-
mently suspected of his fellows." After the murder of Murray
Kirkcaldy ranged himself definitely among the friends of the
imprisoned queen. About this time he forcibly released one of
his supporters from imprisonment, a step which led to an alter*
cation with bis former 'friend John Knox, who called him a
"murderer and throat-cotter." Defying the regent Lennox,
Kirkcaldy began to strengthen the fortifications of Edinburgh
castle, of which he was governor, and which he held for Mary,
and early in 1573 he refused to come to an agreement with the
regent Morton because the terms of peace did not include a
section of his friends. After this some English troops arrived
to help the Scots, and in May 1573 the castle surrendered.
Strenuous efforts were made to save Kirkcaldy from the vengeance
of his foes, but they were unavailing; Knox had prophesied that
be would be hanged, and he was hanged on the 3rd of August
,s &
Sir James Melville's Memoirs, edited by T. Thomson (Edin-
v " Grant, Memoirs andAdytnturts of Sir W.KirkaUy
burgh, 1837); J. Grant* Memoirs and Adventures of Sir W. Kir kali
(Edinburgh, 1840) ; L. A. Barb6, Kirkcaldy of Grange (1897) *. and i
Lang, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (1002).
KIRKCUDBRIGHT (pron. Ker-kA-brt), a royal and police burgh,
and county town of Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (iooi),
9386. It is situated at the mouth of the Dee, 6 m. from the sea
and 30 m. S.W. of Dumfries by the Glasgow & South-Wcstcrn
railway, being the terminus of a branch line. The old form of
the name of the town was Kilcudbrit, from the Gaelic CU Cudbert,
91 the chapel of Cuthbert," the saint's body having lain here for
a short time during the seven years that lapsed between its
exhumation at Lindisfarne and the re-interment at Cbester-le-
Street. The estuary of the Dee is divided at its head by the
toeniosula of St Mary's Isle, but though the harbour is the best
»n south-western Scotland, the great distance to which the tide
retreats impairs its usefulness. Among the public buildings are
the academy, Johnstone public school, the county buildings,
town-hall, museum, Mackenzie hall and market cross, the last-
named standing in front of the old court-house, which is now
used as a drill hall and fire-station. No traces remain of the
Greyfriars' or Franciscan convent founded by Alexander II.,
nor of the nunnery that was erected in the parish of Kirkcud-
bright. The ivy-clad ruins of Bomby castle, founded in 158a
by Sir Thomas Mad ell an, ancestor of the barons of Kirkcud-
bright, stand at the end of the chief street. The town, which
witnessed much of the international strife and Border lawless-
ness, was taken by Edward I. in 1300. It received its royal
charter in 1455. After the batlle of Towton, Henry VI. crossed
the Sol way (August 146 1) and landed at Kirkcudbright to join
Queen Margaret at Linlithgow. It successfully withstood the
English siege in 1547 under Sir Thomas Carlcton, but after the
country had been overrun was compelled to surrender at dis-
cretion. Lord Maxwell, earl of Morton, as a Roman Catholic,
mustered his tenants here to act in concert with the Armada;
but on the approach of King James VI. to Dumfries he took ship
at Kirkcudbright and was speedily captured. The burgh is one
of the Dumfries district group of parliamentary burghs. On
fit Mary's Isle was situated the seat of the earl of Selkirk, at
whose house Robert Burns gave the famous Selkirk grace:—
" Some ha'c meat, and canoa eat,
And some wad eat that want it;
But we ha'c meat, and we can eat,
And eae the Lord be thankit "
Fergus, lord of Galloway, a celebrated church-builder of the
1 2th century, had his principal seat on Palace Isle in a lake called
after him Loch Fergus, near St Mary's Isle, where he eretted
the priory fle Trayle, in token of his penitence for rebellion against
David 1. The priory was afterwards united as a dependent
cell to the abbey of Holyrood. Ddndrennan Abbey, 4} m. S.E.,
was, however, his greatest achievement. It was a Cistercian
bouse, colonised from Rievaurx, and was built in 1140. There
now remain only the transept and choir, a unique example of
the Early Pointed style. . ToNCtrELAND (or Tungland), a§ m.
K. by E., has interesting historical associations. It was the site
of a Premonstratensian abbey built by Fergus, and It was here
that Queen Mary rested in her flight from the field of Langside
(May 13, 1568). The weM near Tongueland bridge from which
she drank still bears the name of the Queen's Welt
KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE (also known as the Stewart**
07 Kirkcudbright and East Galloway), a south-western
county of Scotland, bounded N. and N.W. by Ayrshire, W. and
S.W. by Wigtownshire, S. and S.E. by the Irish Sea and Solway
Firth, and E. and N.E. by Dumfriesshire. It includes the small
islands of Hestan and Little Ross, which are utilized as light-
house stations. It has an area of 575,565 acres or 809 sq. m.
The north-western part of the shire is rugged, wild and desolate.
In this quarter the principal mountains are Merrick (2764 ft.y,
the highest in the south of Scotland, and the group of the Rinns
of KeUs, the chief peaks of which are Corscrine (2668), Cariini
Cairn (1650), Meikk Millyea (1446) and Millfire (2350). To-
wards the south-west the chief eminences are Lamachan (2349),
Larg (22x6), and the bold mast of Cairnsmore of Fleet (2331)*
In the south-east the only imposing height is Crifld (1866). In
the north rises the majestic hill of Cairnsmuir of Carsphairn
(2612), and dose to the Ayrshire border is the Windy Standard
(2287). The southern section of the shire is mostly levd or
undulating, but characterized by much picturesque scenery.
The shore is generally bold and rocky, indented by numerous
estuaries forming natural harbours,, which however are of little
use for commerce owing to the shallowness of the sea. Large
stretches of sand are exposed in the Solway at low water and the
rapid flow of the tide has often occasioned loss of life. The
number of " burns " and " waters " is remarkable, but their
length sddom exceeds 7 or 8 m. Among the longer rivers are
the Cree, which rises in Loch Moan and reaches the sea near
Creetown after a course of about 30 m., during which it forms
the boundary, at first of Ayrshire and then of Wigtownshire; the
Dee or Black Water of Dee (so named from the peat by which
k is coloured), which rises in Loch Dee and after a course mainly
S.E. and finally S., enters the sea at St Mary's Isle bdow Kirk-
cudbright, its length being nearly 36 m.; the Vrr f rising in Loch
Urr on the Dumfriesshire border, falls into the sea a few miles
south of Dalbeattie 27 m. from its source; the Ken, rising on the
confines of Ayrshire, flows mainly in a southerly direction and
joins the Dee at the southern end of Loch Ken after a course of
24 m. through lovely scenery; and the Deugh which, rising on
the northern flank of the Windy Standard, pursues an extra-
ordinarily winding course of 20 m. before reaching the Ken.
The Nkh, during the last few miles of its flow, forms the boundary
with Dumfriesshire, to which county it almost wholly belongs.
The lochs and mountain tarns are many and well distributed;
but except Loch Ken, which is about 6 m. long by J m. wide, few
of them attain noteworthy dimensions. There are several passes
in the hill regions, but the only well-known glen is Glen Trool,
not far from the district of Carrick in Ayrshire, the fame of which
rests partly on the romantic character of its scenery, which is
very wild around Loch Trool, and more especially on its associa-
tions with Robert Bruce. It was here that when most desery
beset by bis enemies, who had tracked him to his fastness by
sleuth hounds, Bruce with the aid of a few faithful followers won
a surprise victory over the English in 1307 which proved the
turning-point of his fortunes.
C#W*gy.— Silurian and Ordovician rocks are the most important
In this county; they are thrown into oft-repeated folds with their
axes lying in a N.E. -S.W. direction. The Ordovician rocks are
graptotitic black shales and grits of Llandeilo and Caradoc age.
They occupy all the northern part of the County north-west oT a
Mne which runs some 3 m. N. of New Galloway and just S. of the
Rinns of Kclls. South-east of this line graptolitic Silurian shales
of Llandovery age prevail; they are found around Dairy, Creetown,
New Galloway. Castle Douglas and Kirkcudbright. Overlying the
Llandovery beds on the south coast are strips of Wcnlock rocks; they
extend from Bridgehouse Bay to Auchinleck and are well exposed in
Kirkcudbright Bay, and they can be traced farther round the coast
between the granite and the younger rocks. Carboniferous rocks
appear in small faulted tracts, unconformable on the Silurian, on
6^2
KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE
the shores of the Sohray Firth. They are best developed about
Jurkbean, where they include a basal red breccia followed by coo-
dooerates, grits and cement stones of Calciferous Sandstone age.
Bnck-red sandstones of Permian age just come within the county on
the W. side of the Nitfc at Dumfries. Volcanic necks occur In the
penman and basalt dikes penetrate the Silurian at Borgtie, Kirk*
andrews, Ac. Most of the highest ground is formed by the masses
of gtanke which have been intruded into the Ordovician and Silurian
rocks; the Criffcl mass lies about Dalbeattie and Bengal™, another
0H99 extends east and west between the Cai ' 'ct and Loch
Ken. another hes N.W. and S.E. between id Loch Dee
«*■ a small mass forms the Caimsmon rn. Glacial
^posits occupy much of the low ground; ng travelled
:jj a southerly or south-easterly direction. I int striae on
^e higher ground to indicate its course. R t ice streams
000k place from the heights of Merrick, Kc noraines are
.^oacf near Carephairn and in the Deagh am eys. Glacial
jrumlins of boulder day lie in the vales of t indUrr.
OffBofc and i4rncs*ar».— The climate and soil are better fitted
^ grass tad green crops than foe grain. The annual rainfall
^trages 4S-7 in* The mean temperature fox the year is 48 F.;
^ January 38-5*; for July so 8 . The major part of the land is
^n»r waste or poor pasture. More than half the holdings con-
^Trf 50 acres and over. Oats is the predominant grain crop,
~1 sseage under barky being small and that under wheat
iiinifr— * Tumipa are successfully cultivated, and potatoes
*^anly other green crop raised 00 a moderately large scale.
^rL-jng has been pursued with great enterprise. The
^^I^erabry in excess of that for Scotland. Blacfe-
J *^L» Cheviots are the most common on the high ground,
t^^^Lricester with either fa also in favour. Cattle-
^* fc followed wWi steady success; the black poUed
****** r ^egtnetal brad, but Aryshires have been introduced
^&**]L cketse-aoakJag «cc«p)-ing much of the farmers'
* ^^^florses an taleasivery raised, a breed of smatt-siacd
stt^i Mtd aaawak he** specifically known as Gall*
•^^Ini the hoists are used in agricultural work, but a
«j* *£ „, ako teat for stock; Clydesdales are bred to
W^^T «*««** i****"*"**** 1 Punwt, pork being
^o« ^^ . k- EBgteh — Orn in considerable quantities.
«*•**»!? J* ouartet at the roth century the number of pigs
™** * Bee*btpmg has been followed wiih special
t»
T>*
•sn-
iff *
•f *
ce** t:
So* I
sfl** J ^ of the sW* » consequently in good repute.
■*•* ;Tai wawaunw * Ow county is smalL
:r***rte ^ oaaks neat ** Aberdeen as a granite-
* ^^^^thequaiwtt^cupytlMfe number of hands.
—&*** 1 \1a ullages laws* ore manufactures of linen,
- oar *^T"; -oofe, at *»rw*s P*»ces distilling, btewing,
-<s*^ , "Stucwuf«*' rhew is a Utile ship-buflding
The
Sotway liawfry i* of small account, but
..****"
isj-ec-rf*
t&t mouth o£ certain rivers, the
e**ty L
Bviasuty
* V*? *ZZ * tfco* tuxleace.
,m+ **' mm ^ m iitO"^ * ^X lDC ^UsgOW ^ SoUth-
p *** *^l^3u»*«* to Castle Douglas, from
' "* * VTsu^*^ 1, *** *■* Portpatrkk
„-• «■•*** ^mi^ at Castle Douglas and
.•a** 1 ***L^«ait. These are supplemented
.. - - * ^^ as from Kew Galloway to
.,•*•- * "** [ a ^ Abbey and Dalbeattie, and
- —■ - ^^rr ^ea^fwatation was 3*085 in
"^ * persons-spoke Gaebc and
.^e Douglas ^jv^p. in 1901,
,^ sf^jht (:3$o\ Mixwrihown
*""„ .UtcV«>uM of FVet vtoiiV
' ^^aaaent. and the couaty
' ' M UujBtfries district group
"* '1,1 %•*-*** «s coosbioed with
% M Atr£^~ ci D^ra!rks
^net, sh*rttl-*ubttiiale *t
^t scSMOt-c^art* vunsdic*
Seiche hag> scKiob at
^' ~ v -9cV
History.— The country wast of the Nith was origindlly peapld
by a tribe of Celtic Gaels called Novantae, or Atccott Pkts, who,
owing to their geographical position, which prevented any ready
intermingling with the other Pictish tribes farther north, tag
retained their independence. After Agricoia's invasion in aj>. 79
the country nominally formed part of the Roman pcovince,
but the evidence is against there ever having been a prokiaenl
effective Roman occupation. After the retreat of the Ronaaa
the Novantae remained for a time under their own chiefs, hat
in the 7th century accepted the overJordship of Noithurabna.
The Saxons, soon engaged in struggles wkh the Norsemen, hid
no leisure to look after their tributaries, and early in the oth
century the Atecotts made common cause with the Vikings.
Henceforward they were styled, probably in contempt. Gad*
roidJW, or stranger Gaels (Le. Gads who fraternised wkh the
foreigners), the Welsh equivalent for which, Gml lmy d d d, save
rise to the name of Calloway (of which Galway is a variant).
which was applied to their territory and still denotes the
Stewartry of Kirkcudbright and the shire of Wigtown. Whea
Scotland was consolidated under Kenneth MacAlpine (crowned
at Scone in 844), Galloway was the only district in the south thai
did not form part of the kingdom; but in return for the services
rendered to him at this crisis Kenneth gave his daughter ia
marriage to the Galloway chief, Olai the While, and ai*o coc-
ferred upon the men of Galloway the privilege of maxchirj ia
the van of the Scottish armies, a right exercised and recogrl^i
for several centuries. During the next two hundred years lbs
country had no rest from Danish and Saxon incuxsiorj izi
the continual lawlessness of the Scandinavian rovers. Whts
Malcolm Canmore defeated and slew Macbeth in 1057 he married
the dead king's widow Ingibiorg, a Pictish princess, an eve^t
which marked the beginning of the decay of Norse ixvihiec t
The Galloway chiefs hesitated for a lime whether to throv ia
their lot with the Northumbrians or with Malcolm ; but i»«f-»p.
race and the situation of their country at length induced th^ai
to become lieges of the Scottish king. By the close of the 1 ;:*
century the boundary between England and Scotland m
roughly delimited on existing lines. The feudal system z>.
malely destroyed the power of the Galloway chiefs, who resisiec
the innovation to the last. Several of the lords or ** kings " of
Galloway, a line said to have been founded by Fergus. *Jx
greatest of them all, asserted in vain their independence of :*
Scottish crown; and in 12^4 the line became extinct ia the rx*
branch on the death of Fergus's great-grandson Alan. Our "
Alan's daughters, Dervorguila, had married John de Bi_-
(father of the John de Baliol who was king of Scotland froca rn:
until his abdication in 1296), and the people, out of nfcctkc ^
Alan's daughter, were lukewarm in support of Robert Bruce I:
130S the district was cleared of the English and broc^t r*±r
allegiance to the king, when the lordship of Galloway wras r; c
to Edward Bruce. Later in ♦ he 14th century GaBovay espec^:
the cause of Edward Baliol, who surrendered several cjcs*.
inciting Kirkcudbright, to Edward IIL Ia 137a Arch>
the Grim, a natural son of Sir James Dooglas " the Coc .
becasse Lord of GaCoway and received in perpercal fc? ^
Crown lands between the Nith and Cree. He appointed a. scr«?-
lo cciL-tt his revenues and administer justice, asd there '*--
arose the designaLcn of the Suwcr*j of Kakcwdbcifj^R. T»-
high-h^ndei ru!e of the Douglases created general dsscoattezr. £r-
when their treason became apparent their territory wras o^-—
by the kings men in 1455; DougHas was attnistsd, as* ■
honours and estates* were forfeited. In thai yeanr the f- -
stronghold of the Thrieve, the aaost anpiartnt f or tiesm xa. C_
waxy, • hfc* Archibald the Grim had 0^1 oa the Dee aaauanro-^
to the west of «he modem lew* of Castk r^r/ns.
nad convened iato a royal keepw (It w
by order of the Esiaxes ia fnrttro ju ru c e of the
keeper. Lord N.:h»da>. to ihc Coveaanl-) The
Xkfis Meg. now u\ Eo^borgh Casik,
>as..r' orat ev«2*ace. t» have been cocstrjeted e* /» -^» A .
Jkoes HI. ia Ous siege. As the Doo&ascs veaui <a--»~i
Maa««M» r«s<, a&d ihc &t\tt iKc laad oa law suc^hes
KIRKE— KIRKWALL
833
Dumfriesshire was for generation* the scene of strife and raid,
not only between the two nations but also among the leading
families, of whom the Maxwells, Johnstones and Armstrongs
were always conspicuous. After the battle of Sol way Moss
(1542) the shires of Kirkcudbright and Dumfries fell under
English rule for a short period. The treaty of Norham
(March 24, 1550) established a truce between the nations for ten
years; and in 1552, the Wardens of the Marches consenting, the
debateable land ceased to be matter for debate, the pariah of
Canonbie being annexed to Dumfriesshire, that of Kirkandrews
to Cumberland. Though at the Reformation the Stewart ry
became fervent in its Protestantism, it was to Galloway, through
the influence of the great landowners and the attachment of
the people to them, that Mary owed her warmest adherents, and
it was from the coast of Kirkcudbright that she made her luckless
voyage to England. Even when the crowns were united in 1603
turbulence continued; for trouble arose over the attempt to
establish episcopacy, and nowhere were the Covenanters more
cruelly persecuted than in Galloway. After the union things
mended slowly but surely, curious evidence of growing com-
mercial prosperity being the enormous extent to which smuggling
was carried on. No coast could serve the " free traders " better
than the shores of Kirkcudbright, and the contraband trade
flourished till the 19th century. The Jacobite risings of 171 5
and 1745 elicited small sympathy from the inhabitants of the
shire.
See Sir Herbert Maxwell, History of Dumfries and Galloway
(Edinburgh, 1896); Rev. Andrew Symson, A Large Description of
Calloway (1684 ; nc w ed. , 1 823 ) ; Thomas M urray. The Literary History
" v. Wi
of Scotland (London, 1873).
KIRKE, PERCY (c. 1646-1601), English soldier, was the son of
George Kirkc, a court official to Charles I. and Charles II. In
1666 he obtained his first commission in the Lord Admiral's
regiment, and subsequently served in the Blues. He was with
Monmouth at Macstricht (1673), and was present during two
campaigns with Turenne on the Rhine. In 1680 he became
lieutenant-colonel, and soon afterwards colonel of one of the
Tangier regiments (afterwards the King's Own Royal Lancaster
Regt.) In 1682 Kirke became governor of Tangier, and colonel
t of the old Tangier regiment (afterwards the Queen's Royal West
1 Surrey). He distinguished himself very greatly as governor,
though he gave offence by the roughness of his manners and the
! wildncss of his life. On the evacuation of Tangier " Kirkc's
I Lambs " (so called from their badge) returned to England, and
[ a year later their colonel served as a brigadier in Favtrshara's
I army. After Sedgemoor the rebels were treated with great
[ severity; but the charges so often brought against the " Lambs "
1 arc now known to be exaggerated, though the regiment shared
1 to the full in the ruthless hunting down of the fugitives. It is
I often stated that it formed Jeffreys's escort in the " Bloody
! Assize," but this is erroneous. Brigadier Kirke look a notable
I part in the Revolution three years later, and William IIL
, promoted him. He commanded at the relief of Dcrry, and
I made his last campaign in Flanders in 1691. He died, a* lieu-
l tenant-general, at Brussels in October of that year. His eldest
I son, Licut.-Gencral Percy Kirke (1684-1 741), was also colonel
, of the ** Lambs."
, KIRKEE (or Kirki), a town and military cantonment' of
British India in Poona district, Bombay, 4 ra. N.W. of Poona
city. Pop. (toot), 10,797. h I s *h e principal artillery station in
the Bombay presidency, and has a large ammunition factory.
It was the scene of a victory over Baji Rao, the last peshwa,
in 1817.
KIRKINTILLOCH, a municipal and police burgh of Dumbar-
tonshire, ScoUand. Pop. (1901), io,68o. It is situated 8 m.N.E.of
Glasgow, by the North British railway, a portion of the parish
extending into Lanarkshire. It lies on the Forth & Gyde canal,
and the Kelvin— from which Lord Kelvin, the distinguished
scientist, took the title of his barony — flows past the town,
xv. 15
where it receives from the north the Glasert and from the south
the Luggie, commemorated by David Gray. The Wall of
Antoninus ran through the site of the town, the Gaelic name of
which {Caer, a fort, not Kirk, a church) means " the fort at the
end of the ridge." The town became a burgh of barony under
the Comyns in n 70. The cruciform parish church with crow*
stepped gables dates from 1644. The public buildings include
the town-ball, with a clock tower, the temperance hall, a con-
valescent home, the Broomhill home for incurables (largely due
to Miss Beatrice Clugston, to whom a memorial wa\ erected in
189 1), and the Westcrmains asylum. In 1898 the burgh acquired
as a private park the Peel, containing traces of the Roman Wall,
a fort, and the foundation of Comyn's Castle. The leading
industries are chemical manufactures, iron-founding, muslin-
weaving, coal mining and Umber sawing. Lenzie, a suburb, a
mile to the south of the old town, contains the imposing towered
edifice in the Elizabethan style which bouses the Barony asylum.
David Gray, the poet, was born at Merkland, near by, and is
buried in Kirkintilloch churchyard, where a monument was
erected to his memory in 186 5.
KIRK-K1USSEH (Kirk-Kilisse; ox Kirk-Kilissia), a town,
of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople, 35 m. E. of
Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 16,000, of whom about half are
Greeks, and the remainder Bulgarians, Turks and Jews. Kirk-
Kilisseh is built near the headwaters of several small tributaries
of the river Ergene, and on the western slope of the Istranja
Dagh. It owes its chief importance to its position at the southern,
outlet of the Fakbi defile over these mountains, through which
passes the shortest road from Shumla to Constantinople. The
name Kirk-Kilissch signifies <4 four churches," and the town
possesses many mosques and Greek churches. It has an im-
portant trade with Constantinople in butter and cheese, and also
exports wine, brandy, cereals and tobacco.
KIRKSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Adair county,
Missouri, U.S.A., about 129 m. N. by W. of Jefferson City. Pop.
(1000), 5966, including 1 xa foreign-born and 291 negroes; (1910)*
6347. It is served by the Wabash and the Quincy, Omaha &
Kansas City railways. It lies on a rolling prairie at an eleva-
tion of 975 ft. above the sea. It is the seat of the First District
Missouri State Normal School (1870) ; of the American School of
Osteopathy (opened 1892); and of the related A. T. Still
Infirmary (incorporated 1895), named in honour of its founder,
Andrew Taylor Still (b. 1820), the originator of osteopathic
treatment, who settled here in 1875. la x 9° 8 the School of
Osteopathy had 18 instructors and 398 students. Grain and
fruit are grown in large quantities, and much coal is mined in
the vicinity of Kirksville. Its manufactures are shoes, bricks,
lumber, ice, agricultural implements, wagons and handles.
Kirksville was laid out in 1842, and was named in honour of
Jesse Kirk. It 'was incorporated as a town in 1857 and
chartered as a city of the third class in 1892. In April 1899 *
cyclone caused serious damage to the city.
KIRKWALL (Norse, Kirkjuvogr, {" church bay"), a royal,
municipal and police burgh, seaport and capital of the Orkney
Islands, county of Orkney, Scotland. Fop. (1901), 3711. It is
situated at the head of a bay of the same name on the east of
the bland of Pomona, or Mainland, 247 m. N. of Leilh and 54 mi
N. of Wick by steamer. Much of the city is quaint-looking, and
old-fashioned, its main street (nearly x m. long) being in parts
so narrow that two vehicles cannot pass each other. The more
modern quarters are built with great regularity and the suburbs
contain several substantial villas surrounded by gardens. Kirk-
wall has very few manufactures. The linen trade introduced
in the middle of the 18th century is extinct, and a like fate has
overtaken the kelp and straw-plaiting industries. Distilling
however prospers, and the town is important not only as regards
its shipping and the deep-sea fishery, but also as a distributing
centre for the islands and the scat of the superior law-courts.
The port has two piers. Kirkwall received its first charter from
James III. in 1486, but the provisions of this instrument being
disregarded by such men as Robert (d. 1592) and Patrick Stewart
(d. 1614), 1st and and earls of Orkney, and others, the Scottish
2a
K lRfCCZi
h2 *« Ata»
* grass «d .^^^,£e£ur« te tie Jf-
* ''•S? £'L^*«e. More than >»« *• -
jtber «s«e or P** P™*" II 0at> j» the prrfominw*
fct of 50 •«- J^SL hS «B«I that -
■be acreage «^"~'2e i«ee«tfuUy cultivated,
iosignifcant. J^*"L£££d on a moderate* _
«S ->r«*« ^2*231 JR great ««*f=
Sheep-rearing *«•>*• *££ °» that lor ScoO-
nverage is «T^fZ " temost common on tea*
*!* 'If tTlS-Sr ^th either is also in Uav
and a crosa «j£™7%j t || steady success; th«
breeding is followed w»« ^n. Arysbireshave—
■»v»\ Most rf the hoisesarei»~ dia
^number are £.£*«£ »*"*££&**
tome eatent. WJ"? ? ,L,kets in consider***- "-^
"potted to the & ^ rf ^"th century th«r -»~
During the h»t quarter ot U» £ <°»"*?*
increased so"/- ^*!?S!reU consequently
„r« and the "^ •*£_?£ the county is «r
Theproportionrf woodUad"' a6w <'
tb*«vc brick and tile works. There
atTirkcudbnght. The Solway fisher
salmon fishing is prosecuted at the rr
Dee fish being notable for their exec
The only railway communication
Western railway running from Du -
which there is a branch to Kirk " -*-
and Wigtownshire railway, b<
leaving the county at Newton l v
by coaches between various pi
Carsphairn, from Dumfries to Ne\. ^
from Auchencairn to Dalbeattie.
Population and Govcrnwunl. — The poj.
1 891 and 39,383 in 1001, when 98 person*
English. The chief towns are Castle Douglas
3078), Dalbeattie (3460), Kirkcudbright ( 2 ?g6> -*•
(5796) with Creetown (091), and Gatehouse Li JF!***
The shire returns one member to pariiamen* TIa th& Cv
VV-'v'
^ V
N,
v N
"^ N . V
*v
N.
**ao7-iy #
vdbrigbt
/Mors jl* t
f/aares /rr /o
tia.
and
y
^
«3S
* ' ' . : Alexander (see below)
hich he edited to the day
phenomenon in Magyar
any of the rising young
arty, Bajza # and Czncaor)
romanticists. Kisfaludy's
nproved, but he could not
nerosity, and he was never
he publication of Aurora so
ie abandoned the stage. But
, epigrams, short epic pieces,
s. Kisfaludy was in fact the
humorists and his comic types
. When the folk-tale became
*t to- work upon folk-tales also
5 masterpieces of that genre. He
1830. Six years later the great
e Kisfaludy Tdrsasdg, was founded
Apart from his own works it is
dy to have revived and nationalized
g it a range and scope undreamed of
■Judy's works, In 10 volumes, appeared
•r his death, but the 7U1 edition (Budapest
1 . Sec Fcrenc Toldy , Lives of the Magyar
1870); Zsolt Bcdthy, The Father of Hu
6).
escribed
•rJ KiSFALUDlf (i77*"«844), Hungarian
the preceding, wras born at Zalaon the 27th
.' September 177a, educated at Raab, and graduated in philo
ophy and jurisprudence at Pressburg. He early fell under the
influence of Schiller and Kkist, and devoted himself to the rosus*
•citation of the almost extinct Hungarian literature. Disgusted
with bis profession, the law, he entered the life Guards (1703)
and plunged into the gay life of Vienna, cultivating literature,
learning French, German and Italian*, painting, sketching,
assiduously frequenting the theatre, and consorting on equal
terms with all the literary celebrities of the Austrian capital.
In 1706 he was transferred to the army in Italy for being con-
cerned with some of his brother officers of the Vienna garrison
in certain irregularities. When Milan was captured by Napoleon
Kisfaludy was sent a prisoner of war to Vauduse, where he
studied Petrarch with enthusiasm and fell violently in love with
Caroline D'Esdapoh, a kindred spirit to whom he addressed
his melancholy Hirnfy Lays, the first part of the subsequently
famous sonnets. On returning to Austria he served with* some
distinction in the campaigns of 1708 and 1700 on the Rhine and
in Switzerland; hut tiring of a military life and disgusted at the
slowness of his promotion, he quitted the army in September
1799, and married his old love Rozi Szegedy at the beginning
of 1800. The first five happy years of their life were passed at
Kim in Vas county, but in 1805 they removed to Stlmeg where
Kisfaludy gave himself up entirely to literature.
At the beginning of the 10th century he had published a
volume of erotics which made him famous, and his reputation
was still further increased by his Regtk or Tales. During the
troublous times of 1800, when the gentry of Zala county founded
a confederation, the palatine appointed Kisfaludy one of his
adjutants. Subsequently, by command, he wrote an account of
the movement for presentation to King Francis, which was com-
mitted to the secret archives, and Kisfaludy was forbidden to
communicate its contents. In 1820 the Marczeb&nya Institute
crowned his Tales and the palatine presented him with a prize
of 400 florins in the hall of the Pest county council. In 1823
he started the Aurora with his younger brother Kfiroly (see
above)* When the academy was founded in 1830 Kisfaludy
was the first county member elected to it. In 1835 he resigned
because he was obliged to share the honour of winning the
academy's grand prize with Vorosmarty. After the death of
his first wife (1832) he married a second time, but by neither of
his wives bad he any child. Hie remainder of his days were
spent in his Tusculum among the vineyards of SOmeg and
Somla. He died on the 28th of October 1844. Alexander
Kisfaludy stands alone among the rising literary schools of
his day. He was not even influenced by his friend the great
critic Kaainczy, who gave the tone to the young classical
writers of his day. Kisfaludy's art was self-taught, solitary
and absolutely independent. If he imitated any one it was
Petrarch; indeed his famous Himfy swrdmci ("The Loves
of Himfy "), as his collected sonnets are called, have won
for him the title of "The Hungarian Petrarch." But
the passion of Kisfaludy is far more sincere and real than
ever Petrarch's was, and he completely Magyarized everything
he borrowed. After finishing the sonnets Kisfaludy devoted
himself to more objective writing, as in the incomparable Regit?,
which reproduce the scenery and the history of the deh'ghtful
counties which surround Lake Balaton. He also contributed
numerous tales and other pieces to Aurora. Far less successful
were his plays, of which Hunyddi Jdnos (1&16), by far the longest
drama in the Hungarian language, need alone be mentioned.
The best critical edition of Sandor Kisfaludy's works is the fourth
complete edition, by David Angyal, in eight volumes (Budapest,
1893). Sec Tam&s Szana, The two Kisialudys (Hung.) (Budapest,
1876); Imre Sandor, The Influence of the Italian on the Hungarian,
Literature (Hung.) (Budapest, 1878); Kalman Suraegi, Kisfaludy
and his Tales (Hung.) (Budapest, 1877),
(R. N. B.)
KlSH, or Kais (the first form is Persian and the second
Arabic), an island in the Persian Golf. It is mentioned in the
1 2th century as being the residence of an Arab pirate from Oman,
who exacted a tribute from the pearl fisheries of the gulf and had
the title of " King of the Sea," and it «** to importance in the
?34
KIRRIEMUIR— KISPALUDY
parliament passed an act in 1670 confirming the charter granted
by Charles II. in idoi. The prime object of interest is the
cathedral of St Magnus, a stately cruciform red sandstone struc-
ture in the severest Norman, with touches of Gothic. It was
founded by Jarl Rognvald (Earl Ronald) in 1 137 in memory of
his uncle Jarl Magnus who was assassinated in the bland of
Egilshay in 1115, and afterwards canonized and adopted as the
patron saint of the Orkneys.. The remains of St Magnus were
ultimately interred in the cathedral. The church is 234 ft. long
from east to west and 56 ft. broad, 71 ft. high from floor to roof,
and 133 ft. to the top of the present spire— the transepts being
the oldest portion. The choir was lengthened and the beautiful
eastern rose window added by Bishop Stewart in 1511, and the
porch and the western end of the nave were finished in 1540 by
Bishop Robert Rcid. Saving that the upper half of the original
spire was struck by lightning in 1671, and not rebuilt, the cathe-
dral is complete at all points, but it underwent extensive repairs
in the 10th century. The disproportionate height and narrow-
ness of the building lend it a certain distinction which otherwise
it would have lacked. The sandstone has not resisted the effects
of weather, and much of the external decorative work has
perished. The choir is used as the parish church. The skellat,
or fire-bell, is not rung now. The church of St Olaf, from which
the town took its name, was burned down by the English in
1502; and of the church erected on its site by Bishop Reid— the
greatest building the Orkneys ever had— little more than the
merest fragment survives. Nothing remains of the old castle,
a fortress of remarkable strength founded by Sir Henry Sinclair
(d. 1400), earl and prince of Orkney and rst earl of Caithness,
its last vestiges having been demolished in 1865 to provide better
access to the harbour; and the earthwork to the east of the town
thrown up by the Cromwellianshas been converted into a battery
of the Orkney Artillery Volunteers. Adjoining the cathedral
are the ruins of the bishop's palace, In which King Haco died
after his defeat at Largs in 1263. The round tower, which still
stands, was added in 1550 by Bishop Reid. It is known as the
Mass Tower and contains a niche in which is a small cfiigy
believed to represent the founder, who also endowed the grammar
school which is still in existence. To the east of the remains of
the bishop's palace are the ruins of the earl's palace, a structure
in the Scottish Baronial style, built about 1600 for Patrick
Stewart, 2nd earl of Orkney, and on his forfeiture given to the
bishops for a residence. Tankerncss House is a characteristic
example of the mansion of an Orkney laird of the olden time.
Other public buildings include the municipal buildings, the
sheriff court and county buildings, Balfour hospital, and the
fever hospital. There is daily communication with Scrabster
pier (Thurso), via Scapa pier, on the southern side of the waist
of Pomona, about 1} m. to the S. of Kirkwall; and steamers sail
at regular intervals from the harbour to Wick, Aberdeen and
Lefth. Good roads place the capital in touch with most places
in the island and a coach runs twice a day to Stromness. Kirk-
wall belongs to the Wick district group of parliamentary burghs,
the others being Cromarty, Dingwall, Dornoch and Tain.
KIRRIEMUIR, a police burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop.
(toot), 4006. It is situated on a height above the glen through
which the Gairfe flows, 6\ m. N.W. of Forfar by a branch line of
the Caledonian railway of which it is the terminus. There are
libraries, a public hall and a park. The staple industry is linen-
weaving. The hand-loom lingered longer here than in any other
place in Scotland and is not yet wholly extinct. The Rev. Dr
Alexander Whyte (b. 1837) and J. M. Barrie (b. i860) are natives,
the latter having made the town famous under the name of
*' Thrums." The original Secession church— the kirk of the Auld
Lichts — was founded in 1806 and rebuilt in 1893. Kinnordy,
1 1 m. N.W., was the birthplace of Sir Charles Lyell the geologist;
and Cortachy castle, a fine mansion in the Scottish Baronial
style, about 4 m. N., is the seat of the earl of Airlie.
K1RSCH (or Kirschenwasser), a potable spirit distilled from
Cherries. Kirsch is manufactured chiefly in the Black Forest
fa Germany, and in the Vosges and Jura districts in France.
Generally the raw material consists of the wild cherry known as
Census avium. The cherries are subjected to natural fermenta-
tion and subsequent distillation. Occasionally a certain quantity
of sugar and water are added to the cherries after crushing, and
the mass so obtained is filtered or pressed prior to fermentation.
The spirit is usually " run " at a strength of about 50% of
absolute alcohol. Compared with brandy or whisky the charac-
teristic features of kirsch are (a) that it contains relatively
large quantities of higher alcohols and compound ethers, and
(b) the presence in this spirit of small quantities of hydrocyanic
acid, partly as such and partly in combination as benzaldehyde-
cyanhydrine, to which the distinctive flavour of kirsch is largely
due.
KIR-SHEHER, the chief town of a sanjak of the same name
in the Angora vilayet of Asia Minor, situated on a tributary of
the Kizil Irmak (Halys), on the Angora-Kaisarieh road. It is on
the line of the projected railway from Angora to Kaisarieh. The
town gives its name to the excellent carpels made in the vicinity.
On the outskirts there is a hot chalybeate spring. Population
about 0000 (700 Christians, mostly Armenians). Kir-shcher
represents the ancient Mocissus, a sftiall town which became im-
portant in the Byzantine period: it was enlarged by the emperor
Justinian, who re-named it Jusiinianopolis, and made it the
capital of a large division of Cappadocia, a position it still
retains.
KIRWAN, RICHARD (1733^1812), Irish scientist, was born at
Cloughballymore, Co. Galway, in 1733. Part of his early fife
was spent abroad, and in 1754 he entered the Jesuit novitiate
either at St Omer or at Hesdin, but returned to Ireland in the
following year, when he succeeded to the family estates through
the death of his brother in a duel. In 1766, having conformed
to the established religion two years previously, he was called
to the Irish bar, but in 1768 abandoned practice in favour of
scientific pursuits. During the next nineteen years he resided
chiefly in London, enjoying the society of the scientific mca
living there, and corresponding with many savants on the conti-
nent of Europe, as his wide knowledge of languages enabled hira
to do with ease. His experiments on the specific gravities and
attractive powers of various saline substances formed a sub-
stantial contribution to the methods of analytical chemistry,
and in 1782 gained him the Copley medal from the Royal
Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1 780; and in 1 7S4 he
was engaged in a controversy with Cavendish in regard to the
latter's experiments on air. In 1787 he removed to Dublin,
where four years later he became president of the Royal Irish
Academy. To its proceedings he contributed some thirty-eigM
memoirs, dealing with meteorology, pure and applied chemistry,
geology, magnetism, philology, &c. One of these, on the primi-
tive state of the globe and its subsequent catastrophe, involved
him in a lively dispute with the upholders of the Huttoniin
theory. His geological work was marred by an implicit belief
in the universal deluge, and through finding fossils associated
with the trap rocks near Portrush be maintained basalt was of
aqueous origin. He was one of the last supporters in ErtgUrJ
of the phlogistic hypothesis, for which he contended in his
Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids (1787), identi-
fying phlogiston with hydrogen. This work, translated by
Madame Lavoisier, was published in French with critical notes
by Lavoisier and some of his associates; Kirwan attempted to
refute their arguments, but they proved too strong for him, and
he acknowledged himself a convert in 1791. His other books
included Elements of Mineralogy (1784), which was the finA
systematic work on that subject in the English language, and
which long remained standard; An Estimate of the Tempmlart
of Different Latitudes (1787); Essay of the Analysis of Afimni
Waters (1700), and Geological Essays (1709). In his later
years he turned to philosophical questions, producing a paper
on human liberty in 1798, a treatise on logic in 1807, *nd *
volume of metaphysical essays in t8ti, none of any worth.
Various stories are told of his eccentricities as well as of his
conversational powers. He died in Dublin in June 1S12.
KISPALUDY, KAROLY [Charles] (1788-1830), Hungaria*
author, was born at Tete, near Raab, on the 6th of February
KiSH
«3$
1788. Hh birth cost hit mother her Hfo and himself his father's
undying hatred. He entered the army as a cadet in 1804; saw
active service in Italy, Servia and Bavaria (1805-1309), espe-
cially distinguishing himself at the battle of Leoben (May 25,
1809), and returned to his quarters at Pest with the rank of first
lieutenant. It was during the war that he composed his first
poems, 04. the tragedy Cyilkot (" The Murder/' 1808), and
numerous martial songs for the encouragement of his comrades.
It was now, too, that be fell hopelessly in love with the beautiful
Katalin Heppler, the daughter of a wealthy tobacco merchant.
Tiring of the monotony of a soldier's life, yet unwilling to sacri-
fice his liberty to follow commerce or enter the civil service,
Kisfaludy, contrary to his father's wishes, now threw up his
commission and made his home at the house of a married sister
at Vorrock, where he could follow his Inclinations. In 1812 he
studied painting at the Vienna academy and supported himself
precariously by bis brush and pencil, till the theatre at Vienna,
proved a still stronger attraction. In 18 1 2 he wrote the tragedy
Kldr* Zddt, and in 181 5 went to Italy to study art more
thoroughly. But he was back again within sis months,
and for the next three years flitted from place to place, living
on the charity of his friends, lodging in hovels and dashing off
scores of daubs which rarely found a market. The united
and repeated petitions of the whole Kiafaludy family failed to
bring about a reconciliation between the elder Kisfaludy
and his prodigal son. It was the success of his drama Ilko,
written for the Fehervar dramatic society, that first made him
famous and prosperous. The play was greeted with enthusiasm
both at Fehervar and Bud* (1810). Subsequent plays, The
Vonode SHber and The Petitioners (the first original Magyar
dramas), were equally successful Kisfaludy's fame began to
spread. He had found his true vocation as the creator of
the Hungarian drama. In May 1820 he wrote three new plays
for the dramatic society (he could always turn out a five-art
drama in four days) which still further increased his reputa-
tion. From 1820 onwards, under the influence of the great
critic Kadnczy, he learnt to polish and refine his style, while ids
friend and adviser Gyflrgy Gaal (who translated some of his
dramas for the Vienna stage) introduced him to the works of
Shakespeare and Goethe. By this time Kiafaludy had evolved
a literary theory ef his own which inclined towards romanticism;
and in collaboration with his elder brother Alexander (see below)
he founded the periodical Auroro(i&n),vihich he edited to the day
of his death. The A urora was a notable phenomenon in Magyar
literature. It attracted towards it man/ of the rising young
authors of the day (including Vdrdsrnarty, Bajza.and Czuczor)
and speedily became the oracle of the romanticists. Kisfaludy's
material position had now greatly improved, but he could not
shake off his old recklessness and generosity, and he was never
able to pay a tithe of his debts: The publication of Aurora so
engrossed his time that practically he abandoned the stage. But
he contributed to Aurora ballads, epigrams, short epic pieces,
and, best of all, his comic stories. Kisfaludy was in fact the
founder of the school of Magyar humorists and his comic types
amuse and delight to this day. When the folk-tale became
popular in Europe, Kisfaludy set to work upon folk-tales also
and produced (1828) some of the masterpieces of that genre. He
died on the 21st of November 183a Six years later the great
literary society of Hungary, the Kisfaludy Tarsasdg, was founded
to commemorate his genius. Apart from his own works it is
(he supreme merit of Kisfaludy to have revived and nationalised
the Magyar literature, giving It a range and scope undreamed of
before his time.
The first edition of Kisfaludy's works, in to volumes, appeared
at Budain 1831, shortly after his death, but the 7th edition (Budapest
18913) •» the best and fullest. Sec Fercnc Toldy, Lives of the Magyar
Poets (Hung.) (Budapest, 1870); Zsolt Beotby, The Tatker of Hun-
garian Comedy (Budapest, 1882J; Tamas Szana, The Two Kisfatudyt
(Hung.) (Budapest, 1876). Kisfaludy's struggles and adventures
are also most vividly described in jokai's novel, Eppur si muoee
(Hung).
Sandor [Alexander] Kispaludv (1772-1844), Hungarian
poet, elder brother of the preceding, was born at Zalaon the 27th
ol September 177a, educated at Raab, and graduated in philo-
sophy and jurisprudence at Pressburg. He early fell under tbi
influence of Schiller and Kleist, and devoted himself to theresu*
citation of the almost extinct Hungarian literature. Disgusted
with his profession, the law, he entered the life Guards (1793)
add plunged into the gay life of Vienna, cultivating literature,
learning French, German and Italian*, painting, sketching,
assiduously frequenting the theatre, and consorting on equal
terms with all the literary celebrities' of the* Austrian capital
In 1796 he was transferred to the army In Italy for being con-
cerned with some of his brother officers of the Vienna garrison
in certain irregularities. When Milan was captured by Napoleon
Kisfaludy was sent a prisoner of war to Vauchise, where" he
studied Petrarch with enthusiasm and fcU violently in love with
Caroline D'Esdapon, a kindred spirit to whom he addressed
his melancholy Himfy Lays, the first part of the subsequently
famous sonnets. On retiming to Austria he served wftJs some
distinction in the campaigns of 1708 and 1790 on the Rhine and
in Switzerland; but tiring of a military life and disgusted at the
slowness of his promotion, he quitted the army in September
1709, and married his old love Roza Szegedy at the beginning
of 1800. The first five happy years of their life were passed at
Kim in Vis county, but in 1805 they removed to SOmeg where
Kisfaludy gave himself up entirely to literature.
At the beginning of the xoth century he had published a
volume of erotics which made him famous, and his reputation
was still further increased by his Reg** or Tales. During the
troublous times of 1809, when the gentry of Zala county founded
a confederation, the palatine appointed Kisfaludy one of hhv
adjutants. Subsequently, by command, he wrote an account of
the movement for presentation to King Francis, which was com-
mitted to the secret archives, and Kisfaludy was forbidden to*
communicate its contents. In 1820 the Marczebanya Institute
crowned his Tales and the palatine presented him with a prize
of 400 florins in the hall of the Pest county council In 182*
he started the Aurora with his younger brother Kftrofy (see
above)* When the academy was founded in 1836 Kisfahidy
was the first county member elected to it. In 1835 he resigned
because he was obliged to share the honour of winning the
academ/s grand prize with Vdrdsmarty. After the death of
his first wife (1832) he married a second time, but by neither of
his wives had he any child. The remainder of his days were
spent in his Tuscuhun among the vineyards of SUmcg and
Somla. He died on the 28th of October 1844. Alexander
Kisfaludy stands alone among the rising literary schools of
his day. He was not even influenced by his friend the great
critic Kasmczy, who gave the tone to the young classical
writers of his day. Kisfaludy's art was self-taught, solitary
and absolutely independent. If he imitated any one it was
Petrarch; indeed his famous Himfy sscrdmei ("The Loves
of Himfy"), as his collected sonnets are called, have won
for him the title of "The Hungarian Petrarch." But
the passion of Kisfaludy is far more sincere and real than
ever Petrarch's was, and he completely Magyarized everything
he borrowed. After finfehing the sonnets Kisfaludy devoted
himself to more objective writing, as in the incomparable Rcgfh,
which reproduce the scenery and the history of the delightful
counties which surround Lake Balaton. He also contributed
numerous tales and other pieces to Aurora. Far less successful
were his plays, of which HunySdi Janos (1816), by far the longest
drama in the Hungarian language, need alone be mentioned.
The best critical edition of Sandor Kisfaludy's works is the fourth
complete edition, by David Angyal, in eight volumes (Budapest,
1893). See Tamas Szana, The two Kisfaludys (Hung.) (Budapest,
1876); Imre Sandor, The Influence of the Italian on the Hungarian
Literature (Hung.) (Budapest, 1878); Kalman Sumcgi, Kisfaludy
and his Tales (Hung.) (Budapest, 1877), (R. N. B.)
Kf SET, or Kam (the first form is Persian and the second
Arabic), an island fn the Persian Gulf. It is mentioned in the
1 2th century as being the residence of an Arab pirate from Oman,
who exacted a tribute from the pearl fisheries of the gulf and had
the title of " King of the Sea," and ft ros* to importance in the
M
KISHANGARH— KISMET
13th century with the fall of Siraf as a transit station of the
trade between India and the West. In the 14th century it was
supplanted by Hortnux and lapsed into its former insignificance.
The island is nearly 10 m. long and 5 m. broad, and contains
a number of small villages, the largest, Mashi, with about 100
houses, being situated on its north-eastern corner in 26° 54' N.
and 54* 2' E. The highest part of the island has an elevation of
tao ft. The inhabitants are Arabs, ami nearly all pearl fishers,
possessing many boats, which they take to the pearl banks on
the Arabian coast. The water supply is scanty and there is
little vegetation, but sufficient for sustaining some flocks of
sheep and goats and some cattle. Near the centre of the north
coast are the ruins of the old city, now known as Harira, with
remains of a mosque, with octagonal columns, masonry, water-
cisterns (two 150 ft. long, 40 ft. broad, 94 ft. deep) and a fine
underground canal, or aqueduct, half a mile long and cut in the
solid rock 20 ft. below the surface. Fragments of glazed tiles
and brown and blue pottery, of thin white and blue Chinese
porcelain, .of green celadon (some with white scroll-work or
figures in relief), glass beads, bangles, &c, are abundant. Kfsh
is the Kataia of Arrian; Chisi and Quis of Marco Polo; Quixi,
Queis, Caes, Caia, &c, of Portuguese writers; and Khenn, or
Kenn, of English.
KISHANGARH, a native state of India, in the Rajputana
agency. Area, 858 sq. m.jpop. (1900,00,070, showing a decrease
of 27% in the decade, due to the famine of 1890-1000;
estimated revenue, £3 4. 000; there is no tribute. The state was
founded in the reign of the emperor Akbar, by a younger son
of the raja of Jodhpur. In 181 8 Kishangarh first came into
direct relations with the British government, by entering into a
treaty, together with the other Rajput states, for the suppression
of the Pindari marauders by whom the country was at that time
overrun. The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the
Rathor dan. Maharaja Madan Singh ascended the throne in 1000
at the age of sixteen, and attended the Delhi Durbar of 1003 as a
cadet in the Imperial Cadet Corps. The administration, under
the dm*, is highly spoken of. Irrigation from tanks and wells
has been extended; factories for ginning and pressing cotton have
been started; and the social reform movement, for discouraging
excessive expenditure on marriages, has been very successful.
The state is traversed by the Rajputana railway. The town of
Kismangakb is iS m. N.W. of Ajmere by raiL Pop. (1001),
12,663. It is the residence of many Jain merchants.
KISHINEV (KiskJaiumoi the Moldavians) ,a town of south-west
Russia, capital of the government of Bessarabia, situated on the
right bank of the Byk, a tributary of the Dniester, and on the
railway between Odessa and Jassy in Rumania, 120 m. W.N.W.
from the former. At the beginning of the 10th century it was
but a poor village, and in 181 2 when it was acquired by Russia
from Moldavia it had only 7000 inhabitants; twenty years later
its population numbered 35,000, while in 1862 it had with its
suburbs 92,000 inhabitants, and in 1000 125,787, composed of
the most varied nationalities— Moldavians. Walachians, Rus-
sians, Jews (43 °o). Bulgarians, Tatars, Germans and Gypsies.
A massacre (Pofrom) of the Jews was perpetrated here in 1003.
The town consists of two parts— the old or lower town, on the
banks of the Byk, and the new or upper town, situated on high
crags. 450 to 500 ft. above the river. The wide suburbs are
remarkable for their gardens, which produce great quantities of
fruits (especially plunks* which are dried and exported), tobacco,
mulberry leaves for silkworms, and wine. The buildings of the
town are sombre, shabby and low, but built of stone; and the
streets, though wide and shaded by acacias, are mostly unpaved.
Kishinev is the seat of the archbishop oi Bessarabia, and has a
cathedral, an ecclesiastical seminary with 800 students, a college,
and a gardening school, a museum, a public library, a botanic
garden, and a sanatorium with sulphur springs. The town is
adorned with statues of Tsar Alexander II. (1886) and the poet
Pushkin (188$). There are tallow-melting houses, steam flour-
redls. candle and soap works, distilleries and tobacco factories.
The trade is very active and iacreasinc. Kishinev being a centre
for the Bosanliata trade an r- -o» tallow, wool
and skins, exported to Austria and to Odessa. The town played
an important part in the war between Russia and Turkey in
1877-78, as the chief centre of the Russian invasion.
KISHM (also Arab. Jaxirat ut-tawUak, Pers. Jazarik i dare,
i.e. Long Island), an island at the mouth of the Persian Gulf,
separated from the Persian mainland by the Khor-i-Jafari, a
strait which at its narrowest point is less than 2 m. broad.
On British Admiralty charts it figures as " Clarence Strait, 1 *
the name given to it by British surveyors in 1828 in honour of
the duke of Clarence (William IV.). The island H 70 m, long,
its main axis running E.N.E. by W.S.W. Its greatest breadth
is 22 m. and the mean breadth about 7 m. A range of h2b
from 300 to 600 ft. high, with strongly marked escarpments,
runs nearly parallel to the southern coast; they are largely
composed, like those of Hormuz and the neighbouring mainland,
of rock salt, which is regularly quarried in several places,
principally at Nimakdan {i.e. salt-cellar) and Salakh on the
south coast, and forms one of the chief products of the bland,
finding its way to Muscat, India and Zanzibar. In the centre of
the island some hills, consisting of sandstone and marl, rise to an
elevation of 1300 ft. In its general aspect the island is parched
and barren-looking, like the south of Persia, but it contains
fertile portions, which produce grain, dates, grapes, melons, &c
Traces of naphtha were observed near Sakkh, but extensive
boring operations in 1892 did not lead to any result. The
town of Kishm (pop. 5000) is on the eastern extremity of the
island. The famous navigator, William Baffin, was killed here
in January 1622 by a shot from the Portuguese castle dose by.
which a British force was then besieging. Lafit (Laft, Lm).
the next place in importance (reduced by a British fleet in 1809V
is situated about midway on the northern coast in the most
fertile part of the island. There are also many flourishing
villages. At Basidu or Bassadore (correct name Baba Sa'kta).
on the western extremity of the island, the British government
maintained until 1879 a sanatorium for the crews of their
gunboats in the gulf, with barracks for a company of sepoys
belonging to the marine battalion at Bombay, workshops,
hospital, &c. The village is still British property, but its
occupants are reduced to a couple of men in charge of a ccii
depot, a provision store and about 00 villagers. In Decercber
1896 a terrible earthquake destroyed about four-fifths of the
houses on the island and over 1000 persons lost their fives.
The total population is generally estimated at about 15.000
to 20,000, but the German Admiralty's ScgHkandbitck fmr de*
Penischcn Golf for 1007 has 40,000,
Kishm is the ancient Oar acta, or Uerockta, a name said to
have survived until recently in a village called Brokt. or Brokfau
It was also called the island of the Beni Kavan, from an Ana
tribe of that name which came from Oman. (A. H_ S)
KISKUNF&LEGYHAZA, a town of Hungary, in the cooatv
of Pest-Pilis-SoJt-Kiskun, 80 m. S.S.E. of Budapest by n/.
Pop. (1000), 33,242. Among the principal buildings are * tee
town ball, a Roman Catholic gymnasium and a modern targe
parish church. The surrounding country is c o v e ictl wrfc
vineyards, fruit gardens, and tobacco and corn fields* TV
town itself, which is an important railway junction, is clue 3 •
noted for its great cattle-market. Numerous Roman urns xii
other ancient relics have been dug up in the vicinity. In the
17th century the town was completely destroyed by the Tvrfcs,
and it was not recolonized and rebuilt till 1743.
KISLOVODSK, a town and health-resort of Russian
Caucasia, in the province of Terek, situated at an afikoclr ol
2690 ft., in a deep caldron-shaped valley on the \- side <d tbe
Caucasus, 40 m. by rail S.W. of Pyatigorsk, Pop. OVr .
4078. The fimestone hills which surround the tow rar t*
successive steps or terraces, and contain numerous carnes^ TV
mineral waters are strongly impregnated with carbonic ax-c
gas and have a temperature of 51* F. The principal spr>g
is known as Narsan, and its water is caBed by the Qrcassaa
the " drink of heroes. "*
KJusct. fate, destiny, a term used by Uahotn'aexiavzts t*
express all the inridrnls and details oi man's lot ia life. TV*
KISS— KISTNA
837
word is the Turkish form of the Arabic ffoMoJ, from gasamc,
to divide.
KISS, the act of pressing or touching with the lips, cheek,
hand or lips of another, as a sign or expression of love, affection,
reverence or greeting. Skeat (Eiym. Did., 1898) connects the
Tcut. base ku&sa with Lat. guslus, taste, and with Goth, kusius,
test, from kittson, to choose, and takes " kiss " as ultimately a
doublet of " choice."
For the liturgical osculunt poets or " kiss of peace," tee Pax. See
I'kistoire de Franc* (1834-1890, series it. torn. 12).
• KISSAR, or Oytarar Barbaryeh, the ancient NuDian lyre,
still in use in Egypt and Abyssinia. It consists of a body
having instead of the traditional tortoiseshell back a shallow,
round bowl of wood, covered with a sound-board of sheepskin,
in which are three small round sound-holes. The arms, set
through the sound-board at points distant about the third of the
diameter from the circumference, have the familiar fan shape.
Five gut strings, knotted round the bar and raised from the
sound-board by means of a bridge tailpiece similar to that m use
on the modern guitar, are plucked by means of a plectrum by
the right hand for the melody, while the left hand sometimes
twangs some of the strings as a soft drone accompaniment.
KiSSINGBN, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the
kingdom of Bavaria, delightfully situated in a broad valley
surrounded by high and well-wooded hills, on the Franconiah
Saale, 656 ft. above sea-level, 6a m, E. of Frankfort -on-Main,
and 43 N.E. of WQnburg by rail. Pop. (1000), 4757. Its streets
are regular and its houses attractive. It has an Evangelical, an
English, a Russian and three Roman Catholic churches, a theatre,
and various benevolent institutions, besides all the usual buildings
for the lodging-, cure and amusement of the numerous visitors
who are attracted to this, the most popular watering-place in
Bavaria. In the Kurgarten, a tree-shaded expanse between the
Kurhaus and the handsome colonnaded Konversations-Saal, are
the three principal springs, the Rakoczy, the Pandur and the
Maxbrunnen, of which the first two, strongly impregnated
with Iron and salt, have a temperature of 51-26° F.; the last
(50-72°) is like Selters or Seltzer water. At short distances
from the town are the intermittent artesian spring Solensprudel,
the Schtinbornsprudel and the Theresienquelle; and in the
same valley as Kissingen are the minor spas of Bocklet and
Bruckenaa. The waters of Kissingen are prescribed for both
internal and external use in a great variety of diseases. They
are all highly charged with salt, and productive government
salt-works were at one time stationed near Kissingen. The
number of persons who visit the place amounts to about 20,000
a year. The manufactures of the town, chiefly carriages and
furniture, are unimportant; there is also a trade in fruit and
wine.
The salt springs were known in the 9th century, and their
medicinal properties were recognized in the 16th, but it was
only during the 10th century that Kissingen became a popular
resort. The town belonged to the counts of Hennebcrg until
1394, when it was sold to the bishop of Wtirzburg. With this
bishopric it passed later to Bavaria. On the 10th of July 1866
the Prussians defeated the Bavarians with great slaughter near
Kissingen. On the 13th of July 1874 the town was the scene
of the attempt of the fanatic Kallmann to assassinate Prince
Bismarck, to whom a statue has been erected. There are also
monuments to Kings Louis I. and Maximilian I. of Bavaria.
See Balling, Die Heilqueilen und Bdder tu Kissingen ( Kissingen,
1886); A. Sotier, Bad Kissingen (Leipzig, 1883); Werner, Bad
Kissingen als Kurort (Berlin. 1904); Leusser, Kissingen far lUrt-
kranke (Wtirzburg, 1902); Diruf, Kissingen vnd utne Heilqueilen
(Wurzburg. 1892); and Roth, Bad Kissingen (Wurzburg, 1901).
KISTNA, or Krishna, a large river of southern India. It
rises near the Bombay sanatorium of Mahabaleshwar in the
Western Ghats, only about 40 m. from the Arabian Sea, and, as
it discharges into the Bay of Bengal, it thus flows across almost
the entire peninsula from west to east. It has an estimated
basin area of 97,000 sq. m., and its length is 800 m. Its source
is held sacred, and is frequented by pilgrims, in large numbers.
From Mahabaleshwar the Kistna runt southward in a rapid
course into the nixam's dominions, then turns to the east, and
ultimately falls into the sea by two principal mouths, carrying
with it the waters of the Bhima from the north and the Tunga-
badhra from the south-west. Along this part of the coast runs
aa extensive strip of land which has been entirely formed by the
detritus washed down by the Kistna and GodsvarL The river
channel is throughout too rocky and the stream too rapid to
allow navigation even by small native craft. In utility for irri-
gation the Kistna is also inferior to its two sister streams, the
Godavari and Cauvery. By farthe greatest <tf its irrigation works
is the Bexwada anient, begun by Sir Arthur Cotton in 185s.
Bexwada is a small town at the entrance of the gorge by which
the Kistna bursts through the Eastern Ghats and immediately
spreads over the alluvial plain. The channel there is 1300 yds.
wide. During the dry season the depth of water is barely 6 ft.,
but sometimes it rises to as much as 36 ft., the maximum flood
discharge being calculated at 1,188,000 cub. ft. per second. Of
the two main canals connected with the dam, that on the left
bank breaks into two branches, the one running 39 m. to Ellore,
the other 49 m. to Masulipatam. The canal on the right bank
proceeds nearly parallel to the river, and also senoa off two
principal branches, to Nizampatam and Comamiir. The total
length of the main channels is 372 *n. and the total aiea irrigated
in 1003-1004 was about 700,000 acres.
KISTNA (or Krishna), a district of British India, in the N.E.
of the Madras Presidency. Masuhpatam is the district head-
quarters. Area, 8490 sq. m. The district is generally a flat
country, but the interior is broken by a few low hills, the highest
being 1857 ft. above sea-level The principal rivers are the Kistna,
which cuts the district into two portions, and the Munyeru,
Faleru and Naguleru (tributaries of the Gundlakamma and
Vbc Kistna); the last only is navigable. T>e Kolar lake, which
covers an area of 21 by 14 m., and the Romparu swamp ate
natural receptacles for the drainage on the north and sooth sides
of the Kistna respectively.
In 1901 the population was 4,154,803, showing an increase 01
16% in the decade. Subsequently the area of the district was
reduced by the formation of the new district of Gnntur (?.».)>
though Kistna received an accretion of territory from Godavari
district. The population in roor on the area as reconstituted
(5809 sq. m.) was 1,744,138. The Kistna delta system of irriga-
tion canals, which are available also for navigation, connect with
the Godavari «eystem. The principal crops are rice, millets,
pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, indigo, tobacco and a little sugar-cane;
There are several factories for ginning and pressing cotton. The
cigars known in England as Lunkas are partly made from to-
bacco grown on lankas or islands in the Kistna. The manufacture
of chintxes at Masulipatam is a decaying industry, but cotton is
woven everywhere for domestic use. Salt is evaporated, under
government supervision, along the coast. Bezwada, at the head
of the delta, is a place of growing importance, as the central
junction of the East Coast railway system, which crosses the
inland portion of the district in three directions. Some sea-
borne trade, chiefly coasting, is carried on at the open roadsteads
of Masulipatam and Nixampataxn, both in the delta. The
Church Missionary Society supports a college at Masulipatam.
The early history of Kistna is inseparable from that of the
northern Circars. Dharanikota and the adjacent town of Amra-
vati were the seats of early Hindu and Buddhist govern-
meats; and the more modern Rajahmundry owed its importance
to later dynasties. The Chalukyas here gave place to the Cholas,
who in turn were ousted by the Reddi kings, who flourished
during the 14th century, and built the forts of Bella mkonda,
Kondavi and Kondapalli in the north of the district, while the
Gajapati dynasty of Orissa ruled in the north. Afterwards the
entire district passed to the Kutb Shahis of* Golconda, until
annexed to the Mogul empire by Aurangzeb in 1687. Meantime
the English had in 161 x established a small factory at Masuhpa-
tam, where they traded with varying fortune from 1759, when,
8 3 8
KIT— KITE
Masulipatam being captured from the French by Colonel Fordc,
with a force sent by Lord Clive from Calcutta, the power of the
English in the greater part of the district was complete.
KIT (i) (probably an adaptation of the Middle Dutch kiUe,
a wooden tub, usually with a lid and handles, in modern Dutch
kit means a tankard), a tub, basket or pail used for holding milk,
butter, eggs, fish and other goods; also applied to similar recep-
tacles for various domestic purposes, or for holding a workman's
tools, &c. By transference " kit " came to mean the tools them-
selves, but more commdhly personal effects such as clothing,
especially that of a soldier or sailor, the word including the knap-
sack or other receptacle in which the effects are packed.
(2) The name (perhaps a corruption of " cittern " Gr. xrfdpa)
of a small violin, about 16 in. long, and played with a bow
of nearly the same length, much used at one time by dancing-
masters. The French name is pochette, the instrument being
small enough to go into the pocket.
KITAZATO, SHIBASABURO (1856- ), Japanese doctor of
medicine, was born at Kumamoto in 1856 and studied in
Germany under Koch from 1885 to 1801. He became one of the
foremost bacteriologists of the world, and enjoyed the credit of
having discovered the bacilli of tetanus, diphtheria and plague,
the last in conjunction with Dr Aoyama, who accompanied him
to Hong-Kong in 1894 during an epidemic at that place.
KIT-GAT CLUB, a club of Whig wits, painters, politicians
and men of letters, founded in London about 1703. The name
was derived from that of Christopher Cat, the keeper of the pie-
house in which the club met in Shire Lane, near Temple Bar.
The meetings were afterwards held at the Fountain tavern in
the Strand, and latterly in a room specially built for the purpose
at Barn Elms, the residence of the secretary, Jacob Tonson,
the publisher. In summer the club met at the Upper Flask,
Hampstcad Heath. The club originally consisted of thirty-nine,
afterwards of forty-eight members, and included among others
the duke of Marlborough, Lords Halifax and Somers, Sir Robert
Walpole, Vanbrugh, Congreve, Steele and Addison. The por-
traits of many of the members were painted by Sir Godfrey
Kneller, himself a member, of a uniform size suited to the height
of the Barn Elms room in which the club dined. The canvas,
36 X 28 in., admitted of less than a half-length portrait but
was sufficiently long to include a hand, and this is known as the
kit-cat size. The club was dissolved about 1720.
KITCHEN (O.E. cyeene; this and other cognate forms, such as
Dutch keuken, Ger. Kitche, Dan. kdkken, Ft. cuisine, are formed
from the Low Lat. cucina, Lat. coquita, coquere, to cook), the
room or place in a house set apart for cooking, m which the
culinary and other domestic utensils are kept. The range or
cooking-stove fitted with boiler for hot water, oven and other
appliances, is often known as a " kitchener " (see Cookery and
Heating). Archaeologists have used the term " kitchen-midden,"
i.e. kitchen rubbish-heap (Danish kdkktn-mddding) for the rubbish
heaps of prehistoric man, containing bones, remains of edible shell-
fish, implements, &c (see Shell-heaps). " Midden," in Middle
English mydding, is a Scandinavian word, from myg, muck,
filth, and dyng, heap; the latter word gives the English " dung."
KITCHENER, HORATIO HERBERT KITCHENER, Viscount
(1850- ), British field marshal, was the son of Licu^-Colonel
H. H. Kitchener and was born at Bally Longford, Co. Kerry,
on the 24th of June 185a He entered the Royal Military
Academy, Woolwich, in 1868, and was commissioned second
lieutenant, Royal Engineers, in 187 1. As a subaltern he
was employed in survey work in Cyprus and Palestine, and
on promotion to captain in 1883 was attached to the Egyptian
army, then in course of re-organixAtion under British officers.
In the following year he served on the staff of the British expedi-
tionary force on the Nile, and was promoted successively major
and lieutenant-colonel by brevet lor his services. From 1886 to
188S he w&s commandant at Suakin, commanding and receiving
a severe wound in the action of Handub in 1888. In 1S88 he
commanded a brigade in the actions of Gamaiaieh and Toski.
From 1880 to iSoj he served as adjutant-general of the army.
He had become brevet-colonel in the British army in t888, and
he received the C.B. in 1880 after the action of Toski. In 189a
Colonel Kitchener succeeded Sir Francis (Lord) Grenfell as sirdar
of the Egyptian army, and three years later, when he had com-
pleted his predecessor's work of re-organizing the forces of the
khedive, he began the formation of an expeditionary force on
the vexed military frontier of Wady Haifa. The advance into
the Sudan (see Egypt, Military Operations) was prepared by
thorough administrative work on his part which gained universal
admiration. In 1806 Kitchener won the action of Ferket
(June 7) and advanced the frontier and the railway to Dongola,
In 1807 Sir Archibald Hunter's victory of Abu Hamed (Aug. 7)
carried the Egyptian flag one stage farther, and in 1898 the
resolve to destroy the Mabdi's power was openly indicated by
the despatch of a British force to co-operate with the Egyptians.
The sirdar, who in 1806 became a British major-general and
received the K.C.B., commanded the united force, which stormed
the Mahdist zareba on the river Atbara on the 8th of April, and,
the outposts being soon afterwards advanced to Metemmeh and
Shendy, the British force was augmented to the strength of a
division for the final advance on Khartum. Kitchener's work
was crowned and the power of the Mahdists utterly destroyed
by the victory of Omdurman (Sept. 2), for which he was raised
to the peerage as Baron Kitchener of Khartoum, received the
G.C.B., the thanks of parliament and a grant of £jo,ooo. Little
more than a year afterwards, while still sirdar of the Egyptian
army, he was promoted lieutenant-general and appointed chici-
of-staff to Lord Roberts in the South African War (see Trans-
vaal, History). In this capacity he served in the campaign of
Paardeberg, the advance on Bloemfontein and the subsequent
northward advance to Pretoria, and on Lord Roberts' return to
England in November 1000 succeeded him as commander-in-
chief, receiving at the same time the local rank of general. In
June 1002 the long and harassing war came to its dose, and
Kitchener was rewarded by advancement to the dignity of
viscount,, promotion to the substantive rank of general "for
distinguished service," the thanks of parliament and a gnat of
£50,000. He was also included in the Order of Merit.
Immediately after the peace he went to India as commander-
in-chief in the East Indies, and in this position, which be held
for seven years, he carried out not only many far-reaching
administrative reforms but a complete re-organization and strate-
gical redistribution of the British and native forces. On leaving
India in 1009 he was promoted field marshal, and succeeded tlx
duke of Connaught as commander-in-chief and high commis-
sioner in the Mediterranean. This post, not of great importance
in itself, was regarded as a virtual command of the colonial as
distinct from the home and the Indian forces, and on his appoint-
ment Lord Kitchener (after a visit to Japan) undertook a tour of
inspection of the forces of the empire, and went to Australia
and New Zealand in order to assist in drawing up local schemes of
defence. In this mission he was highly successful, and earned
golden opinions. But soon after his return to England in
April 1 9 10 he declined to take up his Mediterranean appoint-
ment, owing to his dislike of its inadequate scope, and he was
succeeded in June by Sir Ian Hamilton,
KITE; 1 the Falco milvus of Linnaeus and Milvus ictiuus of
modern ornithologists, once probably the most familiar bird of
prey in Great Britain, and now one of the rarest. Three or four
hundred years ago foreigners were struck with its abundance in
the streets of London. It was doubtless the scavenger in ordinary
of that and other large towns (as kindred species now are hi
Eastern lands), except where its place was taken by the raven;
for Sir Thomas Browne (c. 1662) wrote of the latter at Norwich —
" in good plcntte about the citty which makes so few kites to be
seen hereabout." John Wollcy has well remarked of the modem
Londoners that few " who see the paper toys hovering over the
parks in fine days of summer, have any idea that the bird from
which they derive their name -used to float all day in hot 1
high over the heads of their ancestors." Even at the
ning of the 10th centnry the kite formed a feature of many
1 In O.E. is cfto; no related word appears in cognate tanguaces.
Glede, cognate with - glide," is also another Eaglish name.
KITE-FLYING
839
4 rural landscape in England, m they had done in the days
when the poet Cowper wrote of them. But an evil time«eoon
came upon the species. It must have been always hated by the
henwife, but the resources of civilisation in the shape of the gun
and the gin were denied to her. They were, however, employed
with fatal seal by the gamekeeper; for the kite, which had long
afforded the supremest sport to the falconer, was now left friend*
less," * and in a very few years it seems to have been exterminated
throughout the greater part of England, certain woods in the
Western Midlands, as well as Wales, excepted. In these latter
a small remnant still exists; but the well-wishers of this beautiful
species are naturally chary of giving information that might lead
to its further persecution. In Scotland there is no reason to
suppose that its numbers suffered much diminution until about
1835, or even later, when the systematic destruction of " vermin "
on so many moors was begun. In Scotland, however, it is now
as much restricted to certain districts as in England or Wales,
and those districts it would be most inexpedient to indicate.
The kite is, according to its sex, from 25 to 27 in. in length,
about one half of which is made up by its deeply forked tail,
capable of great expansion, and therefore a powerful rudder,
enabling the bird while soaring on its wide wings, more than
5 ft. in extent, to direct its circling course with scarcely a move-
ment that is apparent to the spectator below. Its general colour
is pale reddish-brown or cinnamon, the head being greyish-white,
but almost each feather has the shaft dark. The tail feathers are
broad, of a light red, barred with deep brown, and furnish the
salmon fisher with one of the choicest materials of his "flies."
The nest, nearly always built in the crotch of a large tree, is
formed of sticks intermixed with many strange substances
collected as chance may offer, but among them rags * seem always
to have a place. The eggs, three or four in number, are of a dull
white, spotted and blotched with several shades of brown, and
often lilac. It is especially mentioned by- old authors thai in
Great Britain the kite was resident throughout the year; whereas
on the Continent it is one of the most regular and marked
migrants, stretching it* wings towards the south ffl autumn,
wintering in Africa, and returning in spring to the land of its
birth.
There is a second European species, not distantly related, the
hiihus migrans or hi. atcr of most authors,* smaHer in size, with a
general dull blackish-brown plumage and a less forked tail. In
some districts this is much commoner than the red kite, and on
one occasion it has appeared m England. I ts habits art very like
those of the specks already described, but it seems to be more
addicted to fishing. Nearly allied to this black kite are the
hi. aegyptius of Africa, the hi. pniada (the common pariah kite
1 George, third earl of Orford, died in 1791, and Colonel Thornton,
who with him had been the latest follower of this highest branch of
the art of falconry, broke up his hawking establishment not many
years after. There is no evidence that the pursuit of the kite was
in England or any other country reserved to kings or privileged
persons, but the taking of it was quite beyond the powers of the
ordinary trained falcons, and in older days practically became
limited to those of the sovereign. Hence the kite had attached to
it, especially in France, the epithet of " royal," which hat still
survived in the specific appellation of regahs applied to It by many
ornithologists. The scandalous work of Sir Antony WcMcra {Court
and Character of King James, p. 104) bears witness to the excellence
of the kite as a quarry in an amusing story of the " British Solomon,"
whose master-falconer, Sir Thomas Monson, being determined to
outdo the performance of the French king's falconer, who, when sent
to England to show sport, "could not kill one kite, ours besot more
magnanimous than the French kite," at last succeeded, after an
outlay of £1000, in getting a cast of hawks that took nine kites
running—" never missed one." On the strength of this, James was
induced to witness « flight at Royston, " but the kite went to such
f a mountee as all the field lost sight of kite and hawke and all, and
' neither kite nor hawke were either seen or heard of to this present."
I » Thus justifying the advice of Shakespeare's Autolycus (Winter's
I Tale, iv. 3>~ When the kite builds, look to lesser linen "—very
necessary in the case of the laundresses in olden time, when the
bird commonly frequented their drying-grounds.
I • Dr R. Bowdler Sharpe (Cat. Birds BriL hius. I $27) calls it
1 hi. korschun, but the figure of S. G. Gmelin's Accipiter Korschun,
I whence the name is taken, unquestionably represents the moor-
1 bustard (Circus aerugincsms).
of India), 4 the hi. tw/aa^r of Eastern Asia, and the hi. offinis and
hi. isurus; the last is by some authors removed to another genus
or sub-genus as Lcphoictinia, and is peculiar to Australia, while
hi. ajfinii also occurs in Ceylon, Burma, and some of the Malay
countries as well. All these may be considered true kites, while
those next to be mentioned are more aberrant forms. First there
is Elsnus, the type of which is E. caerultus, a beautiful Utile bird,
the black-winged kite of English authors, that comes to the south
of Europe from Africa, and has several congeners— E. axillaris
and E. script** of Australia being most worthy of notice. An
extreme development of this form is found in the African
Naucttrus rioamrii, as well as in Elanoidesjurcatus, the swallow-
tailed kite, a widely-ranging bird in America, and remarkable
for its length of wing and tail, which gives it a marvellous power
of flight, and serves to explain the unquestionable fact of its
having twice appeared in Great Britain. To Elanus also Ictinia,
another American form, is allied, though perhaps more remotely,
and it is represented by /. mississippiensis, the Mississippi kite,
which is by some considered to be but the northern race of the
Neotropical /. plumbta. Gampsonyx, Rostrhamus and Cymitulis,
all belonging to the Neotropical region, complete the series of
forms that seem to compose the sub-family Mitvinae, though
there may be doubt about the last, and some systems tists
would thereto add the perns or foney-butxards, Perninae.
(A. N.)
KITE-FLYIN6, the art of sending up Into the air, by means of
the wind, light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or
doth (called kites, after the bird— in German Dracke, dragon),
which are attached to long cords or wires held in the hand or
wound on a drum. When made in the common diamond form,
or triangular with a semicircular head, kites usually have a
pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The tradition
is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four
centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use
among Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New
Zealand from time immemorial. Rite-flying has always been
a national pastime of the Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkinese,
Annamese, Malays and East Indians, It is less popular among
the peoples of Europe. The origin of the sport , although obscure,
is usually ascribed to religion. With the Maoris it still retains
a distinctly religions character, and the ascent of the kite is
accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans
attribute Its origin to a genera], who, hundreds of years ago,
inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached,
which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of
divine succour. Another Korean general is said to have been
the first to put the kite to mechanical uses by employing one
to span a Stream with a cord, which was then fastened to a cable
and formed the nucleus of a bridge. In Korea, Japan and China,
and indeed throughout Eastern Asia, even the tradespeople may
be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting for -customers.
Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as birds,
dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as
much as 7 ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bam-
boo strips covered with rice pa per or very thin silk. In China the
ninth day of the ninth month is " Kites' Day," when men and
boy* of all classes betake themselves to neighbouring eminences
and fly their kites. Kite-fighting b a feature of the pastime in
Eastern Ask. The cord near the kite is usually stiffened with a
mixture of glue and crashed glass or porcelain. The kite-flyer
manoeuvres to get his kite to windward of that of his adversary,
then allows his cord to drift against his enemy's, and by a sudden
jerk to cut it through and bring its kite to grief. The Malays
possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan
of Johor sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a
collection of fifteen different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear
one or more perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive
sound that can be heard for great distances. The ignorant,
believing that these kites frighten away evil spirits, often keep
tbem flying all night over their houses.
* The Brahmlny kite of India, Haliaslur Indus, seems to be rather
a fishing eagle.
KIT-FOX— KITTO
>*Ho** *** varfcu* m«nr*«*aX «*» ol the term - kite-flying,
»* V» «a ««nm*rnal aw*! . **• ~ *>«* * * le '! mea , n, 1 RUS V ,g
«*i*a on credit (vi. " raising ike wind ). or in pohtical slang for
wnj " how ih* wind Wow*." And " flying-kites," in nautical
Uncage, «* the topmost sak.
kite-flying ior scientific purpose* began in the middle of the
i&lh century. In 1 7S* Benjamin Franklin made his memorable
kite experiment, by which he attracted electricity from the air
and demonstrated the electrical nature of lightning. A more
systematic use of kites for scientific purposes may, however, be
said to date from the experiments made in the last quarter of the
ioth century. J 4 . (E * f *
MdcorvUekal {/**.— Many European and American meteoro-
logical services employ kites regularly, and obtain information
not only of the temperature, but abo of the humidity and velocity
of the air above. The kites used are mostly modifications of ;tne
so-caikd boa-lutes, invented by L. Hargrave. Roughly these
Ues may be said to resemble an ordinary box with the two ends
•cTB-vrdaod abo the middle part of each of the four sides. The
o-^ Margrave kite, the form generally used, has a rectangular
^*n. is. Rasa* * seniicircular section with the curved part
u> nr i* m»d * »©st in favour; in England the diamond-
^hu^c Wrv* * preferred for meteorological purposes owing to
t ^^^oSstiwction. Stability depends on a multitude
-x at \ '< vc wveatruction, and long practice and experience
'*V , ^u«< » **a* a really good kite. The sizes most in use
L . Ivvr ^ *r ,^ i* ft of sail area. There is no difficulty
^™ ta«*»ut * i^* w * vertical height of one or even two miles
T »sv < ox *•* heights exceeding three miles are seldom
* -»■ t November 1005 at Lindenberg, the
eervatory, the upper one of a train of
de of just four miles. The total lifting
ras nearly 300 sq. ft., and the length of
les. The kites are invariably flown on
undrance to obtaining great heights is
ight of the line as to the wind pressure
es of great importance to use a material
t possible strength, combined with the
eel piano wire meets this requirement,
meter wiU weigh about 16 lb to the
of some 250-280 lb before it breaks.
ise one long piece of wire of the same
it a join, others prefer to start with
hkker and thicker wire as more kites
of kite-flying » as follows. The first
the self-recording instruments secured
wire a short distance below it. Wire
er quickly or slowly depends on the
he usual rate is from two to three miles
that one kite will take depends on the
. roughly speaking it may be said that
surface on the kite should carry 1000
it difficulty. When as much wire as
y has run out another kite b attached
g out is continued; after a time a third
1 kite increases the strain upon the wire,
e height and makes it more uncertain
pper kites will encounter; it also adds
iry to haul in the kites. In each way
away is increased, for the wind is very
alter in strength. Since to attain an
e must be strained nearly to its break-
ch conditions a small increase in the
break the wire, it follows that great
ted by those who are willing to risk the
requently having their wire and train
e weather is the essential factor in kite-
»gland in winter it a possible on about
A in summer on about one day out of
f failure is want of wind, but there are
Military Use.— A kite forms so extremely simple a method of
lifting anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been
suggested as being suitable for various military purposes, such
as signalling to a long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or
semaphores. Kites have been used both in the army and ia
the navy for floating torpedoes on hostile positions. As much
as two miles of line have been paid out. For purposes of photo-
graphy a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable height
may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which &
bird's-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric
wire, or stow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs
have been thus obtained in England and America.
The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by
a captive balloon is a still more important one. The chief military
advantages to be gained are: (1) less transport is required; (2)
they can be used in a strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to
damage, either from the enemy's fire or from trees, &c, and are
easier to mend; (4) they can be brought into use more quickly;
(5) they are very much cheaper, both in construction and in
maintenance, not requiring any costly gas.
Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June
1804 constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36 ft. high, wnh
which he successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He
afterwards improved the contrivance, using five or six smaller
kites attached together in preference to one large one. With
this arrangement he frequently ascended as high as 100 ft. The
kites were hexagonal, being ia ft. high and xa ft. across. The
apparatus, which could be packed in a few minutes into a simple
roll, weighed in all about x cwu This appliance was proved to
be capable of raising a man even during a dead calm, the
retaining line being fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut.
H.D. Wise made some trials in America in 1897 with some huge
kites of the Hargrave pattern (Hargrave having previously him-
self ascended in Australia), and succeeded in lifting a man 40 ft
above the ground. In the Russian army a military kite apparatni
has also been tried, and was in evidence at the manoeuvres ia
1808. Experiments have abo been carried out by most of the
European powers. (B. F. & B.-P.)
KIT-FOX (Conis [VtJpes] vdox), a small fox, from north-
western America, measuring less than a yard in length, with s
tail of nearly a third this length. There is a good deal of varia-
tion in the colour of the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. A
specimen in the Zoological Gardens of London had the back and
tail dark grey, the tail tipped with black, and a rufous wash oa
the cheeks, shoulders, flanks and outer surface of the limbs, with
the under surface white. The specific name was given oa
account of the extraordinary swiftness of the «»™»| (See
C arntvo ea.)
KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was th?
son of a mason at Plymouth, where be was born on the ath cf
December 1804. An accident brought on deafness, and ia
November 1819 he was sent to the workhouse, where he was
employed in making list shoes. In 1823 a fund was raised on bs
behalf, and he was sent to board with the clerk of the guardixK.
having his time at his own disposal, and the privilege of maLir;
use of a public library. After preparing a small volume ci
miscellanies, which was published by subscription, he studied
dentistry with Anthony Norris Groves in Exeter. In xS^j U
obtained congenial employment in the printing office of tke
Church Missionary Society at Islington, and in 1827 was trans-
ferred to the same society's establishment at Malta. There
he remained for eighteen months, but shortly after hi* return
to England he accompanied Groves and other friends on a priva:c
missionary enterprise to Bagdad, where he obtained persocal
knowledge of Oriental life and habits which he afterwards appfcci
with tact and skill in the illustration of bfbtical scenes and
incidents. Plague broke out, the missionary establishment was
broken up, and in 183 2 Kitto returned to England. On arxxvk*
in London be was engaged in the preparation of various scru!
publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
KITTUR^KIWI
8+t
edited under his superintendence, appeared m two volumes ill
1843-1845 and passed through three editions. His Daily Bible
Illustrations (8 vols. 1840-1853) received an appreciation which
is not yet extinct. In 1850 he received an annuity of £100 from
the dvil list. In August 1 854 he went to Germany for the waters
of Cannstatt on the Neckar. where on the 25th of November
he died.
See Kitto's own work, The Lost Senses (1845); T. E. Ryland's
Memoirs of Kim (1856); and John Eadie's Lift of Kiito (1857).
KTTTUR, a village of British India, in the Bclgaum district
of Bombay; pop. (xooi), 4922. It contains a ruined fort,
formerly the residence of a Mahratta chief. In connexion with a
disputed succession to this chief ship in 1824, St John Thackeray,
an uncle of the novelist, was killed when approaching the fort
under a flag of truce; and a nephew of. Sir Thomas Munro,
governor of Madras, fell subsequently when the fort was stormed.
KITZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria
on the Main, 95 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main by rail, at the
junction of the main-lines to Passau, Wtirzburg and Schweinfurt.
Pop. (1900), 8489. A bridge, 3oo'yards long, connects it with
its suburb Etwashauscn on the left bank of the river. A railway
bridge also span3 the Main at this point. Kitzihgcn is still
surrounded by its old walls and towers, and has an Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches, two municipal museums, a
town-hall, a grammar school, a richly endowed .hospital and
two old convents. Its chief industries are brewing, cask-
making and the manufacture of cement and colours. Con-
siderable trade in wine, fruit, grain and timber is carried on by
boats on the Main. Kiuingen possessed a Benedictine abbey
in the 8th century, and later belonged to the bishopric of
Wtirzburg.
See F. Bernbeck, KUsintcr Ckronik 74S'^i (Kitzingen, 1899).
'JOU-KIAWQ FTJ, a prefecture and prefecture! city In the
province of Kiang-si, China. The city, which is situated on
the south bank of the Yangtsze-kiang, 15 m. above the point
where the Kan Kiang flows into that river from the Po-yang
lake, stands in 29 42' N. and tx6° 8' E. The north face of the
city is separated from the river by only the width of a roadway,
and two large lakes lie on its west and south fronts. The wails
are from 5 to 6 m. in circumference, and are more than usually
strong and broad. As is generally the case with old cities in
China, Kiu-Kiang has repeatedly changed its name. Under
the Tsin dynasty (a.d. 265-420), it was known as Sin- Yang,
under the Liang dynasty (502-557) as Kiang Chow, under the
Suy dynasty (589HS18) as Kiu-Kiang, under the Sung dynasty
(960-1127) as Ting-Kiang, and under the Ming dynasty (1368-
1644) it assumed the name it at present bears. Kiu-Kiang has
played its part in the history of the empire, and has been re-
peatedly besieged and sometimes taken, the last time being
in February 1853, when the T'ai-p'ing rebels gained possession
of the city. After their manner they looted and utterly de-
stroyed it, leaving only the remains of a single street to repre-
sent the once flourishing town. The position of Kiu-Kiang on
the Yangtsze-kiang and it* proximity to the channels of internal
communication through the Po-yang lake, more especially to
those leading to the green-tea-producing districts of the provinces
of Kiang-si and Ngan-hul, induced Lord Elgin to choose it as
one of the treaty ports to be opened under the terms of his
treaty ( 1 86 1 ) . Unfortunately, however, it stands above instead
of below the outlet of the Po-yang lake, and this has proved to
be a decided drawback to its success as a commerical port.
The immediate effect of opening the town to foreign trade was
to raise the population in one year from 10,000 to 40,000. The
population in 1008, exclusive of foreigners, was officially esti-
mated at 36,000. The foreign settlement extends westward from
the city, along the bank of Che Yangtsze-kiang, and is bounded
on its extreme west by the P'un river, which there runs into
the Yangtsze. The bund, which is 500 yards long, was erected
by the foreign community. The climate is good, and though
hot in the summer months is invariably cold and bracing in the
winter. According to the customs returns the value of the
trade of the port amounted in 1902 to £2,854,704, and in 1004
to £3,489.816, of which £1,726,506 were imports and £1 ,763,310
expo rts. I n 1004 322,266 lb. of opium were imported.
KIUSTENDIL, the chief town of a department to Bulgaria,
situated in a mountainous country, on a small affluent of the
Struma* 43 m. S.W. of Sofia by rail. Pop. (1006), 12,353.
The streets are narrow and uneven, and the majority of the
houses are of clay or wood. The town is chiefly notable for its
hot mineral springs, in connexion with which there are nine
bathing establishments. Small quantities of gold and silver
are obtained from mines near Kiustendil, and vines, tobacco
and fruit are largely cultivated. Some remains survive of the
Roman period, when the town was known as Pautalia, Ulpia
Pautalia, and Pautalia Aurclii. In the 10th century it became
the seat of a bishopric, being then and during the later middle
ages lenown by the Slavonic name of Vclbuzhd. After the
overthrow of the Servian kingdom it came into the possession
of Constantine, brother of the despot Yovan Dragash, who
ruled over northern Macedonia. Constantine was expelled and
killed by the Turks In 1394. In the 15th century Kiustendil
was known as Velbushka Banya, and more commonly as
Konstantinova.Banya (Constan tine's Bath), from which has
developed the Turkish name Kiustendil.
KIVU, a considerable lake lying in the Central African (or
Albertine) rift-valley, about 60 m. N. of Tanganyika, into
which it discharges its waters by the Rusizi River. On the
north it is separated from the basin of the Nile by a line of
volcanic peaks. The length of the lake is about 55 m., and its
greatest breadth over 30, giving an area, including islands, of
about 1 100 sq. m. It is about 4830 ft. above sea-level and is
roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying to the west.
The coast-line is much broken/ especially on the south-east,
where the indentations present a fjord-like character. The
lake is deep, and the shores are everywhere high, risingtin places
in bold precipitous cliffs of volcanic rock. A large island,
Kwijwi or Xwichwi, oblong in shape and traversed by a hilly
ridge, runs in the direction of the major axis of the lake, south-
west of the centre, and there are many smaller islands. The
lake has many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South
of Kivu the rift-valley is blocked by huge ridges, through, which
the Rusizi now breaks its way in a succession of steep gorges,
emerging from the lake in a foaming torrent, and descending
2000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at the head of Tanganyika.
The lake fauna is a typically fresh-water one, presenting no
affinities with the marine or " haloliranic " fauna of Tanganyika
and other Central African" lakes, but is similar to that shown
by fossils to have once existed in the more northern parts of the
rift-valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction
seems to have been blocked in recent geological times by the
elevation of the volcanic peaks which dammed back the water,
causing it finally to overflow to the south. This volcanic region
is of great interest and has various names, that most used being
Mfumbiro (q.v.), though this name is sometimes restricted to a
single peak. Kivu and Mfumbiro were first heard of by J. H.
Speke in 1861, but not visited by a European until 1894, when
Count von Gtttzen passed through the country on his journey
across the continent. The lake and its vicinity were sub-
sequently explored by Dr R. Kandt, Captain Bcthe, E. S.
Grogan, J. E. S. Moore, and Major St Hill Gibbons. The
ownership of Kivu and its neighbourhood was claimed by the
Congo Free State and by Germany, the dispute being settled
in 1 9 10, after Belgium had taken over the Congo State. The
frontier agreed upon was the west bank of the Rusizi, and
the west shore of the lake. The island of Kwijwi also fell to
Belgium.
See R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904), and Karte its Khusees,
l: 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelroann (Berlin, 1902); E. S.
Grogan and A. H. Sharpc, From the Cape to Cairo (London, 1900);
iE. S. Moore, To the Mountains of the Mam (Loodon, 1901);
. St H. Gibbons, Africa from South to North, u. (London, 1904).
KIWI* or .Kiwi-Kiwi, the Maori name— first apparently
introduced to zoological literature by Lesson in 1828 (Man.
M
KIWI
fOrntikplcru, fl. tio, oiVoy.deh" OpOU" assfcffe, p. 418),
and now very generally adopted in English--of one of the most
characteristic forms of New Zealand birds, the ApUryx of
scientific writers. This remarkable bird was unknown till
George Shaw described and figured it in 1814 (#<* Miscellany,
pis. 1057, 1058) from a specimen brought to him from the
southern coast of that country by Captain Bardey of the ship
" Providence." At Shaw's death, in the same year, it passed
Kiwi
Into the possession of Lord Stanley, afterwards 13th ear! of
Derby, and president of the Zoological Society, and it is now
with the rest of his collection in the Liverpool Museum. Con-
sidering the state of systematic ornithology at the time, Shaw's
assignment of a position to this new and strange bird, of which
he had but the skin, does him great credit, for he said it seemed
* to approach more nearly to the Struthious and Gallinaceous
tribes than to any other." And his credit is still greater when
we find the venerable John Latham, who is said to have
examined the specimen with Shaw, placing it some years later
among the penguins (Gra. Hist Birds, x. 304), being appar-
ently led to that conclusion through its runctionless wings and
the backward situation of its legs. In this false allocation, James
Francis Stephens also in 1S16 acquiesced (Gra. Z*wgy, xiu.
70). Meanwhile in xSjo K. J. Temminck, who had never seen
a spec i men, had assorted it with the dodo in an order to which
he apptkd the name of ImaUs (J/oa. fOn&k&rk, I cdw).
In t$jt R. P. Lesson, who had previously (Joe eft.) made some
blunders about it, placed it (Irci* fOn&V.-l?pti pw is), though
only, as he says, ** par analogic et « prim" in his first division
of birds, * Oiseaux Anomaux," which is equivalent to what we
now call rt.A.'-v. making of it a separate family ** XuIZpennes."
At that time co second example was know*, and some doubt
was fcX csT<\-iiUy on the Continent, as to the very existence
of stk h a bird *— though Lesson had k£=se& when in the Bay
of IsUsis in April iSi| (Yfj. m C^-aC*,* a* smfrf heard of it;
and a few yean later J. S. C Duxnoot d'CrvL> !ud seen its
skin, vbkh the naturalists of his expe&iko. procured, worn as a
tippet by a Maori chief at Toiiga Bay (Boca-howa),' and in
i$;o grave what proves to be on the whofe very accurate in-
fccrra: ci cocx-rrriz* it {Vrr. m As£r*Lz$e~ £- 107). To pot aS
sc>r.:.^a at res:. Lord Derby sent ms uci^ae unij . wn for
ex\ m:>3 at a rvetiqg cf the Zcofcgkal Society, on tie irth of
February 1*33 C/V.v. Z.\i- Ssicty. xSyu p, u\ aad a few- months
liter v „-m. .i;.. pv Sc* V*" \n Yaxreu cocaatrriirared to thai body
a cv~~:<te oescr\?ix>a oi it, whkh was afterwards pcb£sbed in
fe2 wna an exrrfieet portrait v F^aus. Zj*L Sancfy, voi i p 71,
pL ic-V Beresa the systemaoc place of the species, as akin to the
' Cwvwt io thr wcwai edfcaoa af his Ha w ■ ■ ■■■a ? oaly wkuuf n>
itaa Kxtwote »i 40* V
• *.""_ <■ ** »*-'* .'.-w. fL-.-*&rmcr t» X#w Znnnmi. p» $13^ had
«jw*r« *4 a* ' r-~* ' fcoao m taaf n'aaa. wSaca saw* of
Struthious birds, was placed beyond cavil, and the author c
upon all interested in zoology to aid in further iistarth as to that
singular form. In consequence of this appeal a legless akin was
within two years sent to the society (Proceedings, 1835. P- 61)
obtained by W. Yate of Waimate, who said it was the second
he had seen, and that he had kept the bird alive for nearly a
fortnight, while in less than another couple of years additional
information {pp. cii., 1837, p. 24) came from T. &. Short to the
effect that he had seen two living, and that all YarreU had said
was substantially correct, except underrating its progressive
powers. Not long afterwards Lord Derby received and in March
1838 transmitted to the same society the trunk and viscera of
an Aptcryx, which, being entrusted to Sir R. Owen, furnished
that eminent anatomist, in conjunction with other spe cim en s
of the same kind received from Drs Lyon and George Bennett,
with the materials of the masterly monograph laid before the
society in instalments, and ultimately printed in its Tnmsncliant
(ii. 257; ail. 277). From this time the whole structure of the
kiwi has certainly been far better known than that of neady
any other bird, and by degrees other examples found their way
to England, some of which were distributed to the various
museums of the Continent and of America.'
In 1847 much interest was excited by the reported discovery
of another species of the genus {Proceedings, 1847, p. 51), and
though the story was not confirmed, a second species was reafiy
soon after made known by John Gould (tost. cU , p. 93; Transac-
tions, vol Si p. 370, pL 57) under the name of Apttwyx o meni a
just tribute to the great master who bad so minutely explained
the anatomy of the group. Three years later A. D. Bartktt
drew attention to the manifest difference existing among
certain example^ all of which had hitherto been regarded as
specimens of A. cmstrclis, and the examination of a brrx* series
led him to conclude that under that name two dbtiact species
were confounded. To the second of these, the third of the
genus (according to his views), he gave the name of A. aoaataa
(Proceedings 1850, p. 274), and it soon turned out taat so tho
new form the majority of the spuirat a t already nhia ia ra
belonged. In 1851 the first kiwi known to have reached F~ng w. il
alive was presented to the Zoolngiral Society by Eyre, then
beutetttnt-governor of New Zealand. This was sousa* at
belong to the newty described A. ■saVTi, and ansae casena
observations on its habits in captivity were p nhfa h oi by Jaka
WoUey and another (Zasfcfist, pp. 3409* 3605V Sdhaeqwewdy
the society has received several other live e xam ple s oi taws faun.
besides one of the rcnl A. omstrtlis (Proceed****, 1&72. aw fax,
some of A. onxni, and one of a supposed fourth species, <d.*osa\.
characterised* 1871 by Putts (/ail, i$ja, p, SSI Tmmmm. S. ImL
/asriosfc, iv. S04; v. 19s)- 1
The kiwis form a group of the subclass Jtatmar twwAidatat
rank of aa order may fitly be assigned, as they dafier ist sassy
important particulars from any of the other i tin sa g tarns at
Ratite birds. Toe most obvious feature the ApUryga afiori
is the presence of a back toe, wave the CAtita a Oj aaunst
condition of the wings, the posoioa of the nrnfili ■ aaa 1 sf
the tip of the avaxiila-— aad the absence of aa after ima*- a
the feathers, are characters nearly as manifest, ami otaess act
lough more recondite, wul be iauawi ca
The kiwis are pneuiar in Xcw 7m!aad. awd -
* la 1*42. acconSee to Bio d nip (Paswy CjdfpmOn. na. i*\
two aad beea pteseaatd to ts^Zooiycat Society by tae Xcw 7iafi it
Ccmpaay. aad two awe otaatd t-v Lord Derby, awe of vaaca at
had give* t-> Cc^'i. la i?44 tbe BKdsii Marjnrnu —J tsr«.
acd tbe safe carouse of :Ve Kh-cC Ccflecriaa. wtoA ;■ ■ l! m 1*4*
to ts« Ac a dce a v d Nzrvral SJtwn* at Ps^adelaaaa. iaciaaB a
aar«f sprciraea-^rocarvy tke ficst taaea to \ m tr m ■
•T^sbKTdia t45QUjdaaea-a^aiserw«rdsciMriaaaw!n>arfa«
or two ojct e%^r> \^cxt. la i5c5 a nujt d the rtmn yr« I -ri*
sstrc»i jc?«i. !rct rVr^Jj a crocf J^ i ma tka to breed woo oVws
oa tbe ran ef bot*> and the eggv arser caecaa aaam of «ae Jboav
wwiocabanwi by aaa. an acogeay was assxsasl iAwoamowja. ass*.
P- juo 1 -
1 A fzae KTies c£ £r.rrs af aT these s-.vmn ! spears » crwsw i«
Rc-»*--r >^. }f~ .^L^f- x^. L ris. i-6\ ScaecrVrv a» J.
A. wn •' t^i .1 fxxs ta-»^ «?*
KIZILBASHBS— TCLADN©
843
is bettered that A. manteBi is the representative in the North
Island of the southern A. oustratis, both being of a dark reddish-
brown, longitudinally striped with- light yellowish-brown, while
A. dwcni, of a light greyish-brown transversely barred with
black, is said to occur in both islands. About the sise of a
large domestic fowl, they are birds of nocturnal habit, sleeping,
or at least inactive, by day, feeding mostly on earth-worms,
but occasionally swallowing berries, though in captivity they
will eat flesh suitably minced. Sir Walter Bullet writes (£. of
New Zealand, p. 36a): —
" The kiwi Is in some measure compensated fc :
wing9 by its swiftness of foot. When running it ir 1
and carries the body in an oblique position, with tl 1
to its full extent and inclined forwards. In the 1 t
about cautiously and as noiselessly as a rat, to \
thh' time It bears some outward resemblance,
posture, the body generally assumes a perfectly rot
and it sometimes, but only rarely, supports itself by
of its bill on the ground. It often yawns when
daytime, gaping its mandibles in a very grotesque l
provoked it erects the body, and, raising the fa ,
strikes downwards with considerable force and rai ;
its sharp and powerful c" ' J
hunting for its food the bit 1
the nostrils, which are pla<
Whether it is guided as n •
say ; but it appears to mi
That the sense of touch .
because the bird, althou \
always firrt touch an obj 1
the act of feeding; or of su ;
cage or confi.ied in a rooi ,
tapping softly at the wi s
bird, in a state of freedc s
its principal food : it mo\ ;
and the long, flexible bill •
home to the very root, ar t
worm held at the extreme I
to and fro, by an action c I
being perfectly steady. s
and deliberation with whii
place, coaxing it out as it r
or breaking it. On getti t
throws up its head with a
The foregoing extract refers to A. mantcUi, but there is little
doubt of the remarks being equally applicable to A. amlralis,
and probably also to A. oweni, though the different proportion
of the bill in the last points to some diversity in the mode of
feeding. (A. N.)
KIZILBASHES (Turkish, " Red-Heads "), the nickname given
by the Orthodox Turks to the Shiitic Turkish immigrants
from Persia, who are found chiefly in the plains from Kara-
Hissar along Tokat and Amasla to Angora. During the wars
with Persia the Turkish sultans settled them in these districts.
They are strictly speaking persianized Turks, and speak pure
Persian. There are many Kizilbashes in Afghanistan. Their
immigration dates only from the time of Nadir Shah (1737).
They are an industrious honest folk, chiefly engaged in trade and
as physicians, scribes, and so on. They form the bulk of the
amir's cavalry. Their name seems to have been first used in
Persia of the Shiites in allusion to their red caps.
See Ernesf Chantre, Rukenkes anihropoU^iqnes dam FA tie occi-
dental* (Lyons, 1895),
KIZIL IRMAK, i.e. " Red River " (anc. Balys), the largest
river in Asia Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of
6500 ft., and running south-west past Eara to Sivas. Below
Sivas it flows south to the latitude of Kaisarieh, and then curves
gradually round to the north. Finally, after a course of about
600 m., it discharges its waters into the Black Sea between
Sinope and Samsun, where it forms a large delta. The only
important tributaries are the Delije Irmak on the right and the
Geuk Irmak on the left bank.
KIZLYAR (KrzuAK, or Kizlak), a town of Russia, fn
Caucasia, in the province of Terek, 120 m. N.E. of Vladikavkaz,
fn the low-lying delta of the river Terek, about 35 m. from the
Caspian. The population decreased from 8309 in 186 1 to 7353
in 1897. The town lies to the left of the main stream between
two of the larger secondary branches, and is subject to flood-
ing. The town proper, which spreads out round the citadel, has
Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarters. The public buildings
include the Greek cathedral, dating from 1786; a Greek nunnery,
founded by the Georgian chief Daniel in 1736; the Armenian
church of SS Peter and Paul, remarkable for its sise and wealth.
The population is mainly supported by the gardens and vine*
yards irrigated by canals from the river. A government
vineyard and school of viticulture are situated 3I m. from the
town. About x, 200,000 gallons of Kixlyar wine are sold
annually at the fair of Nishniy-Novgorod. Silk and cotton are
woven. Kizlyar is mentioned as early as x6x6, but the most
notable accession of inhabitants (Armenians, Georgians and
Persians) took place m 1715. Its importance as a fortress
dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer kept in repair.
KIZYL-KUM, a desert of Western Asia, stretching S.E. of the
Aral Lake, between the river Syr-darya on the N.E. and the rivet
Amu-darya on the S. W. It measures some 370 by 2 20 m., and is
in part covered with doit-sand or dunes, many of which axe
advancing slowly but steadily towards the S. W. In character
they resemble those of the neighbouring Kara-kum desert (see
Kara-kum). On the whole the Kizyl-kum slopes S.W. towards
the Aral Lake, where its altitude is only about 160 ft. as com-
pared with 2000 in the S.E. In the vicinity of that lake the
surface is covered with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the S.E.,
as it ascends towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it
is braided with deep accumulations of fertile loess.
KJERULF, HALFDAH (1815-1868), Norwegian musical com-
poser, the son of a high government official, was born at Chris-
tiania on the 15th Of September 18x5. His early education was
at Christiania University, for a legal career, and not till he was
nearly 26— on the death of his father— was he able to devote him-
self entirely to music As a fact, he actually started on his career
as a music teacher and composer of songs before ever having
seriously studied music at all, and not for ten years did be attract
any particular notice. Then, however, his Government paid
for a year's instruction for him at Leipzig. For many years
after his return to Norway Kjerulf tried in vain to establish serial
classical concerts, while he himself was working with Bjdmson
and other writers at the composition of lyrical songs. His fame
rests almost entirely on his beautiful and manly national part-
songs and solos; but his pianoforte music is equally charming and
simple. Kjerulf died at Grefsen, on the nth of August x868.
KJERULF, THKODOR (18*5-1888), Norwegian geologist, was
born at Christiania on the 30th of March 1825. He was educated
in the university at Christiania, and subsequently studied at
Heidelberg, working in Bunsen's laboratory. In 1858 he became
professor of geology in the university of his native city, and he
was afterwards placed in charge of the geological survey of (ho
country, then established mainly through his influence. His
contributions to the geology of Norway were numerous and im-
portant, especially in reference to the southern portion of the
country, and to the structure and relations of the Archaean and
Palaeozoic rocks, and the glacial phenomena. His principal
results were embodied in his work Udsigi oner del sydiige Nor get
Gtofofi (1879), He was author also of some poetical works. He
died at Christiania on the 25th of October 1888.
KLADMO. a mining town of Bohemia, Austria, 18 m. W.N.W.
of Prague by rail. Pop. (1000), 18,600, mostly Czech. It is
situated in a region very rich in iron-mines and coal-fields and
possesses* some of the largest iron and steel works in Bohemia.
Near it is the mining town of Buscht&hrad (pop. 3510), situated
in the centre of very extensive coal-fields. Buschtehrad was
originally the name of the castle only. This was from the 15th
century to 1630 the property of the lords of Kolovrat, and came
by devious inheritance through the grand-dukes of Tuscany,
to the emperor Francis Joseph. The name Buschtehrad was
first given to the railway, and then to the town, which had been
called Buckow since its foundation in 1700. There is another
castle of Buschtcnrad near Hofic. Kladno, which for centuries
had been a village of no importance, was sold in 1705 by the
grand-duchess Anna Maria 6f Tuscany to the cloister i«
*4*
KLAFSKY^-KLAPROTH
71m ^^ " g industry N*g m\
*.\%i*»w, t* which it still bdonfa,
KLAP3KY, KATHARIXA (1855-1896), Hungarian operatic
*>:>***» was bom at Sat Janos, Wkseiburg, of humble parent*.
tVing employed at Vienna as a nurserymaid, her fine soprano
vo*c$ ltd to her being enticed as a chorus singer, and she was
$i>*n food lessons in music By x88s she became well-known
in Wagnerian roles at the Leipzig theatre, and she increased her
reputation at other German musical centres. In 1892 she
appeared in London, and had a great success in Wagner's operas,
notably as Brunnhilde and as Isolde, her dramatic as well as
vocal gifts being of an exceptional order. She sang in America
m 1895* but died of brain disease in 1806.
A Lift, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig).
KLAGKNFURT (Slovene, CeUnec), the capital of the Austrian
duchy of Carinthia, 2 x 2 m. S. W. of Vienna by raiL Pop! (xooo) ,
34,314. It is picturesquely situated on the river Glan, which is
in communication with the Wfirther-see by the 3 m. long Lend
canal. Among the more noteworthy buildings are the parish
church of St jEgidius (1700), with a tower 298 ft. in height; the
cathedral of SS Peter and Paul (x 582-1593, burnt 1723, restored
1725); the churches of the Benedictines (16x3), of the Capuchins
(1046), and of the order of St Elizabeth (17x0). To these must
be added the palace of the prince-bishop of Gurk, the bw% or
castle, existing in its present form since 1777; and the Landkaus
or house of assembly, dating from the end of the 14th century,
and containing a museum of natural history, and collection of
minerals, antiquities, seals, paintings and sculptures. The most
interesting public monument is the great Lindmurm or Dragon,
standing in the principal square (1590). The mdustrialestablish-
ments comprise white lead factories, machine and iron foundries,
and commerce is active, especially in the mine/al products of the
region.
• UpontheZollieldtothenorthof the city once stood the ancient
Roman town of Virunum. During the Middle Ages Klageufurt
became the property of the crown, but by a patent of Maxi-
milian I. of the 24th of April 15 18, it was conceded to the Carxn-
thian estates, and has since then taken, the place of St Veit as
capital of Carinthia. In 1535, 1636, 1723 and 1796 Klagenfurt
suffered from destructive fires, and m 1600 from the effects of
an earthquake. On the 29th of March 1797 the French took
the city, and upon the following day it was occupied by Napoleon
as his headquarters.
KLAJ (latinized CtAjus), JOHAMf (16x6-1656), German poet,
was born at Meissen in Saxony. After studying theology at
Wittenberg he went to Nuremberg as a "candidate for holy
orders," and there, in conjunction with Georg Phihpp Hars-
dorffer, founded in 1644 the literary society known as the Fegnitx
order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master in the
Sebaldus school in Nuremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at
Kirxingtn, where he diedin 1656. Kkj'spoemsconsistaf dramas,
written in stilted language and redundant with adventures,
among which are Holla* und Hm m mdf akrt Ckrisii (Nuremberg,
1644), and Herodes, dot Kindcrmdrder (Nuremberg, 1645), and
a poem, written jointly with HarsdfirtTer, Peptesvd* Sckiftr-
pJichi (1644). which gives in allegorical form the story of his
settlement in Nuremberg.
SeeTktmaiia.iferttirxJerfa'JDiftB^
KLAMATH, a small-tribe of North American Indians of Lutua-
xman stock. They ranged around the Klamath river and lakes,
and ire now on the Klamath reservation, southern Oregon.
See A. S. Gatschet. M Klamath Indians of Oregon.** Contributions
to North Aumicm* EthmoUgy voL n. (Washington, 1890).
KLAPKA. QBOBO (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was born
at TemesYir on the 7th of April 2820, and entered the Austrian
amy in 1&3& He was still a subaltern when the Hungarian
revolution of 1848 broke out, and he offered his services to the
rcux* party. He served in important staff appointments
v ..- «« Ike career part of the war which followed; then, early in
v^ V »v* caWwI to replace General Mesriros. who had been
<s- ^^ *i V jt V"! ***1 ** general n»y corps
he had a conspicuous share in the victories of Kapoina, Imarg.
Waitaen, Nagy Sarlo and Komarom. Then, as the fortune of
war turned against the Hungarians, Klapka, after serving for a
short time as minister of war, took command at Komarom, from
which fortress he conducted a number of successful expeditions
until the capitulation of Vilagos in August put an end to the war
in the open field. He then brilliantly defended Komarom for two
months, and finally surrendered on honourable term*. Klapka
left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years
in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefly in Switzerland.
He continued by every means in his power to work for the inde-
pendence of Hungary, especially at moments of European war,
such as 1854, 1859 and 1866, at which an appeal to arms seemed
to him to promise success. After the war of 1866 (in which as a
Prussian major-general he organized a Hungarian corps hi
Silesia) Klapka was permitted by the Austrian government to
return to his native country, and in 1867 was elected a member of
the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, in which he belonged to the
Deak party. In 1877 he made an attempt to reorganize the
Turkish army in view of the war with Russia. General Klapka
died at Budapest on the 17th of May 1892. A "»»"»«»»*■» was
erected to his memory at Komarom in 1896.
He wrote Memciren (Leipzig, 1850) ; Der NationaUcrieg ca Uafor*,
Ac (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, Der Km* ta
Orient . . . bis End* Juli i&SS (Geneva, 1835); and Aus tr
Erinnerunten (translated from the Hungarian, ZOrich, X&87).
KLAPROTH, HEDTRICH JULIUS (1783-1835), German Orient-
alist and traveller, was born in Berlin on the nth of October
1783, the son of the chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth (*>«.).
He devoted his energies in-quite early life to the study of Asiatic
languages, and published in 1802 his AsicMsckex Magwsim
(Weimar, 1802-1803). He was in consequence called to St Peters-
burg and given an appointment in the academy there. In x8c$
he was a member of Count Golovkin's embassy to China. On
his return he was despatched by the academy to the ^»nm on
an ethnographical and linguistic exploration (1807-1808), aad
was afterwards employed for several years in connexion with the
academy's Oriental publications. In 18x2 he moved to Berks;
but in 18x5 he settled in Paris, and in 1816 Humboldt fjaucui e d
him from the king of Prussia- the title and salary of professor of
Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain ia
Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works.
He died in that city on the 28th of August 1835.
The principal feature of Kleproth's erudition was the 1 latmw of
f " ' ' fu> pehffcUa (Pnrn.
d asa Hsmmi of si
w departure for tie
pedally those of the
is work is now saper-
(1821). a series of
bcrabinw, pmpartxEC
and a «w?lar » i*i
, are all regarded as
dm
1812-18x4; French
he Bewhrt%hum* ia
historic*** defArt
(824-1*28); ratten
M<fr O— raieCPam.
MffargWaaac (Para*
'KLAPROTH. atARTDf HEINRICH (2743-18x7), German
chemist, was born at Wernigerode on the 1st of December 1743.
During a large portion of his life he followed the profession of aa
apothecary. After acting as assistant in pharmacies at Quedlia-
burg, Hanover, Berlin and Danzig successively he came to
Berlin on the death of Valentin Rose the elder in 1 771 as manager
of his business, and in 1780 hestarted an esUbushment 00 hiso*n
account in the same city, where from 1782 he waspharxnaceutical
assessor of the Ober-CoUegium Medicum. In 1787 Tse was
appointed lecturer in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when
the university was founded in 18 10 he was selected to be the
professor of chemistry. He died in Berlin on the 1st of January
18x7. , Klaproth was the leading chemist of his time in Germany
KLEBER— KLEIST, B. H. W. VON ;
84S
An exact and conscientious worker, he did much to improve
and systematize the processes of analytical chemistry and
mineralogy, and his appreciation of the value of quantitative
methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents of the
Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. He was the first to dis-
cover uranium, zirconium and titanium, and to characterize
them as distinct elements, though he did not obtain any of
them in the puTe metallic state; and he elucidated the com-
position of numerous substances til! then imperfectly known,
including compounds of the then newly recognized elements:
tellurium, strontium, cerium and chromium.
His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself m
Beitrdge tur ehemischen Kenntnhs der Mineralkdrper (5 vols., 1795-
1810) and Chemisette Abkandlungen gtmischten In halts (1815). He
also published a Chemiuhes Worterbuch (1807-1810). and edited a
revised edition of F. A. C. Gren's Handbuch der Chemie (1806).
KL&BBR, JEAN BAPTISTB (1753-1800), French general, was
born on the oth of March 1753, at Strassburg, where his father
was a builder. He was trained, partly at Paris, for the profession
of architect, but his opportune assistance to two German nobles
in a tavern brawl obtained for him a nomination to the mili-
tary school of Munich. Thence he obtained a commission in the
Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783 on finding his humble
birth in the way of his promotion. On returning to France he
was appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he!
studied fortification and military science. In 1792 he enlisted in
the Haut-Rhin volunteers, and was from his military knowledge
at once elected adjutant and soon afterwards lieutenant-colonel.
At the defence of Mainz he so distinguished himself that though
disgraced along with the rest of the garrison and imprisoned, he
was promptly reinstated, and in August 1793 promoted general
of brigade. He won considerable distinction in the Vcndean
war, and two months later was made a general of division. In
these operations began his intimacy with Marceau, with whom he
defeated the Royalists at Le Mans and Savenay. For openly
expressing his opinion that lenient measures ought to be pursued
towards the Vendeans he was recalled; but in April 1794 he
was once more reinstated and sent to the Army of the Sambrc-
and-Meuse. He displayed h f j skill and bravery in the numerous
actions around Charleroi, an J especially in the crowning victory
of Fleurus, after which in the winter of 1 794-95 he besieged
Mainz. In 1 795 and again in 1 796 he held the chief command of
an army temporarily, but declined a permanent appointment as
commander-in-chief. On the 13th of October 1795 he fought a
brilliant rearguard action at the bridge of Neuwied, and in the
offensive campaign of 1796 he was Jourdan's most active and
successful lieutenant. Having, after the retreat to the Rhine
(see French Revolutionary Wars), declined the chief com-
mand, he withdrew into private life eariy in 1798. He accepted
a division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but
was wounded in the head at Alexandria in the first engage-
ment, which prevented his taking any further part in the
campaign of the Pyramids, and caused him to be appointed
governor of Alexandria. In the Syrian campaign -of 1709,
however, he commanded the vanguard, took El-Arish, Gaza
and Jaffa, and won the great victory of Mount Tabor on the
15th of April 1709. When Napoleon returned to France
towards the end of 1799 he left KWber in command of the
French forces. In this capacity, seeing no hope of bringing
his army back to France or of consolidating his conquests,
he made the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith,
the British admiral, refused to ratify the terms, be attacked
the Turks at Heliopolis, though with but 10,000 men against
60,000, and utterly defeated them on the 20th of March 1800.
He then retook Cairo, which had revolted from the French.
Shortly after these victories he was assassinated at Cairo by a
fanatic on the 14th of June 1800, the sama day on which bis
friend and comrade Desaix fell at Marengo. Kieber was un-
doubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary
epoch . Though he distrusted his powers and declined the respon-
sibility of supreme command, there is nothing in his career to
show that he would have been unequal to iL. As a second in
comr.and he was not excelled by any genera] of his time. His
conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when the treasury was
empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay, shows
that his powers as an administrator were little—if at ail-
inferior to those he oossessed as a general.
Ernouf, the grandson of Jourdan's chief of staff, published in
tour la patrie; General Pajol, Kiiber; tires of Marceau and Desaix;
M. F. Rousseau, KUber ei Menou en Egypt* (Paris, 1900).
KLEIN, JULIUS LEOPOLD (18x0-1876), German writer of
Jewish origin, was born at Miskolcz, in Hungary. He was
educated at the gymnasium in Pest, and studied medicine in
Vienna and Berlin. After travelling in Italy and Greece, he
settled as a man of letters in Berlin, where he remained until his
death on the 2nd of August 1876. He was the author of many
dramatic works, among others the historical tragedies Maria
von Medici (1841); Luines (1842); Zenobia (1847); Morcto (1859);
Maria (i860); Straford (1862) and Heliodora (1867); and the
comedies DieHerzogin (184S) ; EinSchiiiding (1850) ; and Voltaire
(1862). The tendency of Klein as a dramatist was to become
bombastic and obscure, but many of his characters are vigorously
conceived, and in nearly all his tragedies there are passages of
brilliant rhetoric He is chiefly known as the author of the
elaborate though uncompleted CeschiclUedcs Dramas (1865-1876),
in which be undertook to record the history of the drama from
the earliest times. He died when about to enter upon the Eliza*
bethan period, to the treatment of which he had looked forward
as the chief, part of. his task. The work, which is in thirteen
bulky volumes, gives proof of immense learning, but is marred
by eccentricities of style and judgment.
'Klein's Dramatisch* Werhe were collected in 7 vols. (1871-1873). -
KLEJST, BERND HEIKRICH WILHELM VON (1777-1811),
German poet, dramatist and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on-
Odcr on the 18th of October 1777. After a scanty education, he
entered the Prussian army in 1792, served in the Rhine campaign
of 1706 and retired from the service in 1799 with the rank of
lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy at the university
of Fnmkfort-on -Oder, and in 1800 received a subordinate post in
the ministry of finance at Berlin. In the following year his
roving, restless spirit got the better of him, and procuring a
lengthened leave of absence he visited Paris and then settled in
Switzerland. Here he found congenial friends in Heinrich
Zschokke (q.v.) and Ludwig Fricdrich August Wieland (1777-
1819). son of the poet; and to them he read his first drama, a
gloomy tragedy, Die Famiiie Schrofjcnstein (1803), originally
entitled Die Famiiie Ghonora, In the autumn of 1802 Kleist
returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in
Weimar, stayed for a while in Leipzig and Dresden, again pro-
ceeded to Paris, and returning in 1804 to his post in Berlin was
transferred to the Dom&nenkammer (department for the adminis-
tration of crown lands) at KSnigsberg. On a journey to Dresden
in j 807 Kleist was arrested by the French as a spy, and being sent
to France was kept for six months a close prisoner at Chalons-
sur-Marne. On regaining his liberty he proceeded to Dresden,
where in conjunction with Adam Heinrich Muller (1770-1829) he
published in 1808 the journal Phbbus. In 1809 he went to Prague,
and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-181 1) the
Berliner AbendbUtlter. Captivated by the intellectual and musical
accomplishments of a certain Frau Henriette Vogel, Kleist, who
was himself more disheartened and embittered than ever, agreed
to do her bidding and die with her, carrying out this resolution
by first shooting the lady and then himself on the shore of the
Wannsee near Potsdam, on th« a 1st of November 181 t. Kleist '*
whole life was fitted by a restless striving after ideal and
illusory happiness, and this is largely reflected in his work. He
was by far the most important North German dramatist of
the Romantic movement, and too other of the Romanticists
approaches him in the energy with which be expresses patriotic
indignation.
*♦*
KLEIST, B. C VON— KLINGER, F. M.
KLESL (or Khlesl), KBLCHIOR (1552-^30), Austrian a
man and ecclesiastic, was the son of a Protestant baker, and was
born in Vienna. Under the influence of the Jesuits he was con-
verted to Roman Catholicism, and having finished his education
at the universities of Vienna and Ingolstadt, he was made chan-
cellor of the university of Vienna; and as official and vkar-
general of the bishop of Passau he exhibited the seal of a convert
in forwarding the progress of the counter-reformation in Austria.
He became bishop of Vienna in 1598; but more important was
his association with the archduke Matthias which began about
the same time. Both before and after 161 2, when Matthias
succeeded his brother Rudolph II. as emperor, Klesl was the
originator and director of his policy, although he stoutly opposed
the concessions to the Hungarian Protestants in 1 606. He assisted
to secure the election of Matthias to the imperial throne, and
sought, but without success, to strengthen the new emperor's
position by making peace between the Catholics and the Protes-
tants. When during the short reign of Matthias the question of
the imperial succession demanded prompt attention, the bishop,
although quite as anxious as his opponents to retain the empire
in the house of Habsburg and to preserve the dominance of the
Roman Catholic Church, advised that this question should be
shelved until some arrangement with the Protestant princes had
been reached. This counsel was displeasing to the archduke Maxi-
milian and to Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand IL
who believed that' Klcsl was hostile to the candidature of the
latter prince. It was, however, impossible to shake his influence
with the emperor; and in June 161 8, a few months before the
death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the archdukes and
imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol. In 1622 Klesl, who had bees a
cardinal since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope
Gregory XV., and was released from imprisonment. In 1627
Ferdinand II. allowed him to return to his episcopal duties ia
Vienna, where he died on the 18th of September 1630.
sUin, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1*900).
HUNGER, FfUEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON (1752-1831),
German dramatist and novelist, was born of humble parentage
at Frankfort -on-Main, on the 17th of February 175a. His
father died when he was a child, and his early years were a hard
struggle. He was enabled, however, in 1774 to enter the univer-
sity of Giessen, where he studied law; and Goethe, with whom he
had been acquainted since childhood, helped him in many ways.
In 177 5 Klinger gained with his tragedy DU Zwillinge a prut
offered by the Hamburg theatre, under the auspices of the actress
Sophie Charlotte Ackermann (1 7x4-1 79*) and her son the famous
actor and playwright, Friedrich Ludwig Schroder (1744-1816).
In 1776 Klinger was appointed TkeaUrdicktcr to the " Scyiersche
Schauspiel-Gesellschaft " and held this post for two years. Ia
1778 he entered the Austrian military service and took part in the
Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went to St Petersburg,
became an officer in the Russian army, was ennobled and attached
to the Grand Duke Paul, whom he accompanied on a journey to
Italy and France. In x 785 he was appointed director of the corps
of cadets, and having married a natural daughter of the empress
Catharine, was made pracses of the Academy of Knights in 1709.
In 1803 Klinger was nominated by the emperor Alexander
curator of the university of Dorpat, an office he held until
181 7; in 181 1 he became lieutenant-general. He then gradually
gave up his official posts, and after living for many years ia
honourable retirement, died at Dorpat on the 35th of February
X83 1.
Klinger was a man of vigorous moral character and full of one
feeling, though the bitter experiences and deprivatioos of
his youth are largely reflected in his dramas. It was one of his
earliest works, Sturm und Drang (1776), which gave its name to
this literary epoch. In addition to this tragedy and Die Z*bUU*&
(1776), the chief plays of his early period of passionate fervour
and restless "storm and stress" are DU ncue Arria (1776),
Simstne Grisaldo (1 776) and SlUpo und scim Kinder ( 1 780). To
KLINGBR, M.~ KLQPSTOCK
«47
* later period belongs the fine double tragedy of M odea in Korixtk
and Medea auf dem Kaukasos (1791). In Russia be devoted
himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of
which the best known are F ousts Leben, Taten und HdJlenfahrl
(1791), CeschidUe Gia/ars des Barmecide* (179a) and GesckichU
Raphaels de AquUlas (1793)* This series was closed in 1803
with Betrachtungen und Cedanken iiber versekiedene GegensUlndc
der Welt und der Literaiur. In these works Klinger gives
calm and dignified expression to the leading ideas which the
period of Sturm und Drang bad bequeathed to German classical
literature.
Kttngcr's works were published in twelve volumes (1809-1815),
also 1 832- 1 833 and 1843. The most recent edition is in eight volumes
(1878-1880) fbut none of these is complete. A selection will be found
in A. Sauer, Stunner und Drdnger, vol. i. (1883). See E. Schmidt,
Lent und Klinger (1878); M. Rieger, Klinger in der Sturm- und
Drangperiode (1880); and Klinger in seiner Reife (1896).
HUNGER, MAX (1857- ), German painter, etcher and
sculptor, was born at Plagwitz near Leipzig. He attended the
classes at the Carlsruhe art school in 1874, and went in the follow-
ing year to Berlin, where in 1878 be created a sensation at the
Academy exhibition with two series of pen-and-ink drawings—
the " Series upon the Theme of Christ " and " Fantasies upon the
Finding of a Glove." The daring originality of these imaginative
and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and the
artist was voted insane; nevertheless the " Glove " series was
bought by the Berlin National Gallery. His painting of " The
Judgment of Paris " caused a similar storm of indignant protest
in 18S7, owing to its rejection of all conventional attributes and
the naive directness of the conception. His vivid and somewhat
morbid imagination, with its leaning towards the gruesome and
disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his mind, found their
best expression in his "cycles" of etchings: "Deliverances of
Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid." " A Brahms Phantasy," " Eve
and the Future," "A Life," and " Of Death "; but in his use of the
needle he does not aim at the technical excellence of (he great
masters; it supplies him merely with means of expressing bis
ideas. After 1886 Klinger devoted himself more exclusively to
painting and sculpture. In his painting he aims neither at classic
beauty nor modern truth, but at grim i repressiveness not without
a touch of mysticism. His " Pieta " at the Dresden Gallery, the
frescoes at the Leipzig University, and the " Christ in Olympus,"
at the Modern Gallery ih Vienna, arc characteristic examples of
his art. The Leipzig Museum contains his sculptured " Salome "
and " Cassandra." In sculpture he favours the use of vari-
coloured materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine
sculpture. His "Beethoven " is, a notable instance of his work
in this direction.
KUPSPR1NGER, the Boer name of a small African mountain-
antelope {Oreotragus saltator), ranging from the Cape through
East Africa to Somaliland and Abyssinia, and characterized by
its blunt rounded hoofs, thick pithy hair and gold-spanglcd
colouring. The klipspringer represents a genus by itself, the
various local forms not being worthy of more than racial dis-
tinction. The activity of these antelopes is marvellous.
KLONDIKE, a district in Yukon Territory, north-western
Canada, approximately in 64 N. and 140° W. The limits are
rather indefinite, but the district includes the country to the south
of the Klondike River, which comes into the Yukon from the east
and has several tributaries, as well as Indian River, a second
branch of the Yukon, flowing into it some distance above the
Klondike. The richer gold-bearing gravels are found along the
creeks tributary to these two rivers within an area of about
800 sq. m. The Klondike district is a dissected peneplain with
low ridges of rounded forms rising to 4250 ft. above the sea at
the Dome which forms its centre. All of the gold-bearing creeks
rise not far from the Dome and radiate in various directions
toward the Klondike and Indian rivers, the most productive
being Bonanza with its tributary Eldorado, Hunker, Dominion
and Gold Run. Of these, Eldorado, for the two or three miles
in which it was gold-bearing, was much the richest, and for its
length probably surpassed any other known placer deposit.
lUchgravd was discovered on Bonanza Creek In 1806, and a wild
rush to this almost inaccessible region followed, a population
of 30,000 coming in within the next three or four years with a
rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1000 the climax
of $2 2,000,000. Since then the production has steadily declined,
until in 1006 it fell to $5,600,000. The riches* gravels were
worked out before 19 10, and most of the population had left the
Klondike for Alaska and other regions; so that Dawson, which
for a time was a bustling city of more than 10,000, dwindled
to about 3000 inhabitants. As the ground was almost all frozen,
the mines were worked by a thawing process, first by setting
fires, afterwards by using steam, new methods being introduced
to meet the unusual conditions. Later dredges and hydraulic
mining were resorted to with success.
The Klondike, in spite* of its isolated position, brought to-
gether miners and adventurers from all parts of the world, ami
it is greatly to the credit of the Canadian government and of the
mounted police, who were entrusted with the keeping of order,
that life and property were as safe as elsewhere and that no
lawless methods were adopted by the miners as in placer mining
camps in the western United States. The region was at first
difficult of access, but can now be reached with perfect comfort
in summer, travelling by. well-appointed steamers on the Pacific
and the Yukon River. Owing to its perpetually frozen soil,
summer roads were excessively bad in earlier days, but good
wagon roads have since been constructed to all the important
mining centres. Dawson itself has all the resources of a civilized
city in spite of being founded on a froaen peat-bog; and is sup-
plied with ordinary market vegetables from farms just across the
river. During the winter, when for some time the sun does not
appear above the hills, the cold is intense, though usually without
wind, but the well-chinked log houses can be kept comfortably
warm. When winter travel is necessary dog teams and sledges
are generally made use of, except on the stage route south to
White Horse, where horses are used. A telegraph line connects
Dawson with British Columbia, but the difficulties in keeping
It in order are so great over the long intervening wilderness that
communication Is often broken. Gold Is praclially the only
economic product of the Klondike, though small amounts of tin
qtc occur, and lignite coal has been mined lower down on the
Yukon. The source of the gold seems to have been small
stringers of quartz in the siliceous and sericitic schists which
form the bed rock of much of the region, and no important
quartz veins have been discovered; so that unlike most other
placer regions the Klondike has not developed lode mines to
continue the production of gold when the gravels are exhausted.
KLOPP, ONNO (1822-1903), German historian, was born at
Leer on the 9th of October 1822, and was educated at the univer-
sities of Bonn, Berlin and Gdtlingen. For a few years he was
a teacher at Leer and at Osnabruck; but in 1858 he settled at
Hanover, where he became intimate with King George V., who
made him his Arckivral. Thoroughly disliking Prussia, he was
in hearty accord with George in resisting her aggressive policy;
and after the annexation of Hanover in 1866 he accompanied
the exiled king to Hicuing. He became a Roman Catholic in
1874. He died at Pcnzing, near Vienna, on the 9th of August
1903. Klopp is best known as the author of Der Fall da Hauscs
Stuart (Vienna, 1875-1888), the fullest existing account of the
later Stuarts.
His Der Konig Prieirich Ih und seine Pelitik (Schaffhatis*n, 1867)
and CeschidUe Os if rit stands (Hanover, 1854-1858) show his dislike
of Prussia. His other works include Der dreissigjakrige Krieg bis
turn Tode Gusto* Adolf s (Paderborn, 1891 -1896); a revised edition
of his Tilly im dreisstgjahrigen Krieg* (Stuttgart, 1861); a life of
George V., Kdnig Georg V. (Hanover. 1878); PkilltpP Melancktkon
(Berlin. 1897). He edited corrispondenza epistolare Ira Ltopoldo I
tmpcratore ed 1/ P. Marco FAviano capuccino (Gratz, 1888). Klopp
also wrote much in defence of George V. and his claim to Hanover,
including the OMsielUr Bericht Mber die Kriegsereignitse swischen
Hannover und Preussen im Juni 1866 (Vienna, 1867), and he
edited the works of Leibnitz in eleven volumes (1861-1884).
See W. Klopp, Onno Klopp: ein Lebenslauf (Wehberg, 1907).
KfAPSTOCK. GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH (17*4-1803), German
poet, was born at Quedlinburg, on the and of July 1 7 24* tta eldest
-S+8
KLOSTERNEUBURG
*^!-?i * U fy er » a "wn o* sterling character and of a deeply
ESSm? mlnd - ^^ in his birthplace and on the estate of
* i™ C . ? ° n lhe S ** te( which hls Uther ^ter rentcd . v °™8
juopstock passed a happy childhood; and more attention having
Deen given to his physical than to his mental development he
grew up a SUong hcaUhy ^ and wa$ an exccUcnt horserntn
Xiir l ler ' ** Ws lhirteent »» y«ar Klopstock returned to
Quemmburg where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739
proceeded to the famous classical school of Schulpforta. Here
*cjn*n became an adept in Creek and Latin versification, and
«rrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. His original
intention of making the emperor Henry I. (" The Fowler ") the
hero or an epic, was, under the influence of Milton's Paradise Lost,
k a !l hc bccame acquainted through Bodmer*s translation,
abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at school,
be had already drafted the plan of Der Mcssias, upon which his
fame mainly rests. On the aist of September 1 745 he delivered
on quitting school a remarkable " leaving oration " on epic
P otl . ry 7~' 4 * w * , «fr r «fe fl6 *r dieepische Pecsie,kultur-undliterar-
gcsckuhUich crl&ulcrt— and next proceeded to Jena as a student
of theology, where he elaborated the first three cantos of the
M<suas in prose. The life at this university being uncongenial
to him, he removed in the spring of 1746 to Leipzig, and here
joined the circle of young men of letters who contributed to
the Bremer Beitrdge. In this periodical the first three cantos
of the Mcssias in hexameters were anonymously published in
1 748. A new era in German literature had commenced, and the
name of the author soon became known. In Leipzig he also
wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is An meine
Frcunde (1747), afterwards recast as Wingolj (1767). He left
the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family
of a relative at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin
(the " Fanny " of his odes) disturbed his peace of mind. Gladly
therefore he accepted in 1750 an invitation from Jakob Bodmer
(«/»), the translator of Paradise Lost, to visit him in Zurich.
Here Klopstock was at first treated with every kindness and
respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, however,
was disappointed to find in the young poet of the Mcssias a man
of strong worldly interests, and a coolness sprang up between
the two friends.
At this juncture Klopstock received from Frederick V. of
Denmark, on the recommendation of his minister Count von
Bernstorff (17 11-177?), »n invitation lo settle at Copenhagen,
with an annuity of 400 talers, with a view to the completion of
the Mcssias. The offer was accepted , on his way to the Danish
capital Klopstock met at Hamburg the lady who in 1754 became
his wife, Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the " Cidli " of his odes), an
enthusiastic admirer of his poetry. His happiness was short,
she died in 1 758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief
at her loss finds pathetic expression in the 15th canto of the
Mcssias. The poet subsequently published his wife's writings,
Hintcrtassene Wcrkevon Margareta Klopstock (1750)1 which give
evidence of a lender, sensitive and deeply religious spirit.
Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy; new ideas failed him,
and his poetry became more and more vague and unintelligible.
He still continued to live and work at Copenhagen, and next,
following Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (?.».), turned his
attention to northern mythology, which be conceived should
replace classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In
1770, on the dismissal by King Christian VII. of Count Bern-
storff from office, he retired with the latter to Hamburg, but
retained his pension together with the rank of councillor of
legation. Here, in 1773, be issued the last five cantos of the
Mcssias. In the following year he published his strange scheme
for the regeneration of German letters, Die Cdckrtcnrcpvbttk
(1774). In 1775 he travcQed south, and making the acquaint-
ance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the
margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1 776, with the title
of H of rat and a pension from the margrave, which he retained
together with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to
Hamburg where he spent the remainder of his life. Hit latter
only occasionally relieved by association with his most intimate
friends, busied with philological studies, and hardly interesting
himself in the new developments of German literature. The
American War of Independence and the Revolution in France
aroused him, however, to enthusiasm. The French Republic
sent him the diploma of honorary citizenship; but, horrified it
the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of
liberty, he returned it. When 67 years of age he contracted a
second marriage with Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow
and a niece of his late wife, who for many years had been one of
his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg on the 14th of
March 1803, mourned by all Germany* and was buried with great
pomp and ceremony by the side of his first wife in the churchyard
of the village of Ottensen.
Klopstock's nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and to k
his deep, noble character found its truest expression He was Irs
suited for epic and dramatic representation; for, wrapt up in him*: a.
a stranger to the outer world, without historical culture, and without
even any interest in the events of his tine, he was lacking in the an
of plastic representation such as a great epic requires. Thus the
Mcssias, despite the magnificent passages whkh especially the
earlier cantos contain, cannot satisfy the demands such a them
must necessarily make. The subject matter, the Redemption,
presented serious difficulties to adequate epic treat meet- The
Gospel story was too scanty, and what might have born i mooned
from without and interwoven with it was rejected by the author »
profane. He had accordingly to resort to Christian mythology . aad
here again, circumscribed By the dogmas of the Church, be was is
danger of trespassing on the fundamental truths of the Chri&tua
faith. The personality of Christ could scarcely be treated in oa
individual form, still less could angels and devils — and in the caw
of God Himself it was impossible. The result was that, drspfft
years he passed, as had alwaya bcen^
- veurcmeat,
the groundwork— the Gospels, the Aeisof the Apostles, the J
of St John, and the model ready to hand in Milton's Paradise Im-
material elements are largely wanting and the actors in the rxxa.
Divine and human, lack plastic form. That the poem took twenty <ut
ycare to complete could not but be detrimental to its unity of deskn.
the original enthusiasm was not sustained until the end. and theearia*
cantos are far superior to the later. Thus the intense public interr-*
the work aroused in its commencement had almost vanished bvft
its completion. It was translated into seventeen languages and '^d
to numerous imitations*- In his odes Klopstock had more step*
for his peculiar talent. Among the best are An Fanny.- D&
Zurckersee; Die tote Ktarissa; An Cidli; Die bexden Musen; Dtr
Rheinvxin; Die frvhen Craber; Mein Valerland. His religious oon
mostly take the form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is P»
Fruklintsfeier. His dramas, in some of which, notably Hrrmm
Schlock! (1769) and Hermann und dte Fursten (1784), he cetrbrawd
the deeds of the ancient German hero Arminius, and in others. D*
Tod Adams (1757) and Salomo (1764), took his materials froxa tbc
Old Testament, are essentially lyrical in character and do norm a
action. I n addition to Die GeUkritnrtpublik, he was abo the acdnr
of Frmimenle uber Sprache und Dtckikunst (1779) and Crmwnmkvir '
Cesprache (1794), works in which he made important coniribwiweu
to philology and to the history of German poetry.
Klopstock's Werkc first appeared in seven quarto volumes Ta-
ttoo). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve ocu«
volumes was published (1798-1817). to which sis additional vofauno
were added in 183a More recent editions were published in isxr
i845. 1854-1855, 1879 (cd. by R. Boxbcrgcr), 188a (ed. by R. Har^
and 1893 ( a selection edited by F. Munckcr). A critical edrtwr d
the Odes was published by F. Muneker and J. Pawei in 1*8*. »
commentary oa these by H. Duntser (i860; and ed., 1878). Fj
Klopstock's correspondence see K. Schmidt. Klopstock mmd *?.«
Freunde (1810); C. A H. Clodius, Klopstocks NoxhUus (iS\jt ) . I V
Lappenberg. Briefe von und an Klopstock (1867). Cf. further K F
Cramer, Klopstock. er und Uber t«s (1780-1793); J. C Gr«i*-.
Klopslocks Leben (1832). R. Haroel, KtopstoekStrndiem (1*79-1**.
F Munckcr. F. G. Klopstock, the most authoritative bMgrap^s
(1888); E. Bailly, ttude sur la vie el Us autre: de K top Hock iP*r=.
1888).
KLOSTEBJIEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Aastru.
5I m, N.W. of Vienna by raiL Pop. (1000). 11.50 s. It is sun-air.
on the right bank of the Danube, at the foot of the KaMenbert,
and is divided by a small stream into an upper and a lower towt:
As an important pioneer station Klosterneuburg has vano»
military buildings and stores, and among the schools it p o wars
an academy of wine and fruit cultivation.
On a hill rising directly from the banks of the Danube stand
the magnificent buildings (erected 1750-1834) of the Augustine
canonry, founded in 1 106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. Tb>s
foundation it the oldest and richest of the kind in Aostrssu it
KLOTZ— KNEE
849
own* iMch of Ike bad upon which the north-western suburbs
of Vienna stand. Among the points of interest within it are the
old chapel of 1318, with Leopold's tomb and the altar of Verdun,
dating from the lath century, the treasury and relic-chamber,
the library with 30,000 volumes and many MSS., the picture
gallery, the collection of coins, the theological hall, and the wine-
cellar, containing an immense tun like that at Heidelberg. The
inhabitants of Kiostemeuburg are mainly occupied in making
wine, of excellent quality. There is a large cement factory out-
side the town. In Roman times the castle of Cilium stood in, the
region of Kiostemeuburg. The town was founded by Charle-
magne, and received its charter as a town in 1398.
KLOTZ, AEXNHOLD (1807-1870), German classical scholar,
was born near Chemnitz in Saxony on the 13th of March 1807.
In 1849 he was appointed professor in the university of Leipzig
in succession to Gottfried Hermann, and held this post till his
death on the 10th of August 1870. Klou was a man of unwearied
industry, and devoted special attention to Latin literature.
He wgs the author of editions of several classical authors, of
which the roost important were: the complete works of Cicero (and
ed., 1 869-1 87 4h Clement of Alexandria (1831-1834); Euripides
(1841-^807), in continuation of Pflugk's edition, but unfinished;
Terence (1838-1840), with the commentaries of Donates and
Eugraphtus. Mention should also be made of: HandvrtrUrbuck itr
loieinucken Sprackt (3th ed., 1874); Rdmische Litteraturgesckichte
(1847), of which only the introductory volume appeared; an edition
of the treatise Dt Graeme linguae fartieulis (1835-1842) of Mat-
thafius Deyerius (Devaw), a learned Corhote (c 1500-1570), and
corrector of the Greek MSS. in the Vatican; the posthumous Index
Ciceronianus (1672) and Randbuck der lateinuchen StUUtik (1874).
From 1 831-1855 Klots was editor of the Neue JahrbHtcher fir
Philologie (Leipzig). During the troubled times of 1848 and the
following years he showed himself a strong conservative.
A memoir by his son Richard will be found in the JakrbUcher for
1871, pp. 154-163.
KNARESBOROUGH, a market town in the Ripon parliament-
ary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 16} m.
W. by N. from York by a branch of the North Eastern railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901), 4979. Its situation is most
picturesque, on the steep left bank of the river Nidd, which here
follows a well< wooded valley, hemmed in by limestone cliffs. The
church of St John the Baptist is Early English, but has numerous
Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a cruciform building
containing several interesting monuments. Knaresborough
Castle was probably founded in 1070 by Serb de Burgh. Its
remains, however, are of the 14th century, and include a massive
keep rising finely from a cliff above the Nidd. After the battle
of Marston Moor it was taken by Fairfax, and in 1648 it was
ordered to be dismantled. To the south of the castle is St
Robert's chapel, an excavation in the rock constructed into an
ecclesiastical edifice in the reign of Richard I. Several of the
excavations in the limestone, which is extensively quarried, are
incorporated in dwelling-houses. A little farther down the rivei
is St Robert's cave, which is supposed to have been the residence
of the hermit, and in 1744 was the socne of the murder of Daniel
Clarke by Eugene Aram, whose story is told in Lytton's well-
known noveL Opposite the castle is the Dropping Well, the
waters of which are impregnated with lime and have petrifying
power, this action causing the curious and beautiful incrusta-
tions formed where the water falls over a slight cliff. The
Knaresborough free grammar school was founded in 1616. There
is a large agricultural trade, and linen and leather manufactures
and the quarries also employ a considerable number of persons.'
Knaresborough {Canardesburg, Cnorreburc, Cknareburg), which
belonged to the Crown before the Conquest, formed part of
William the Conqueror's grant to his follower Serb de Burgh.
Being forfeited by his grandson Eustace Fitzjohn in the reign of
Stephen, Knaresborough was granted to Robert de StuteviUe,
from whose descendants it passed through marriage to Hugh
de Morville, one of the murderers of Thomas Becker, who with
his three accomplices remained in hiding in the castle for a whole
year. During the 13th and 14th centuries the castle and lordship
changed hsnds very frequently; they were granted successively
to Hubert de Burgh, whose son forfeited them after the battle of
Evesham, \o Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died
without issue; to Piers Gaveston, and lastly to John of Gaunt,
duke of Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy
of Lancaster. In 13 17 John de Lilleburn, who was holding the.
castle of Knaresburgh for Thomas duke of Lancaster against
the king, surrendered under conditions to William de Ros of
Hamelak, but before leaving the castle managed to destroy all
the records of the liberties and privileges of the town which were
kept in the castle. In 1 368 an inqufcition was taken to ascertain
these privileges, and the jurors found that the burgesses held " all
the soil of their borough yielding 7s. 4<L yearly and doing suit at
the king's court." In the reign of Henry VIIL Knaresborough
is said by Leland to be " no great thing and meanely builded but
the market there is quik." During the civil wars Knaresborough
was held for some time by the Royalists, but they were obliged
to surrender, and the castle was among those ordered to bo
destroyed by parliament in 1646. A market on Wednesday and
a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St Mark to
that of St Andrew are claimed under a charter of Charles II. con-
firming earlier charters. Lead ore was found and worked on
Knaresborough Common in the 16th century. From 1555 to
1867 the town returned two members to parliament, but in the
latter year the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the
representation was merged in that of the West Riding.
KNAVE (CLE. autfa, cognate with Ger. Knobs, boy), originally
a male child, a boy (Chaucer, Canterbury Talcs-, " Clerk's Tale,"
z. 3S8). Like Lat fnur, the word was early used as a name for
any boy or lad employed as a servant, and so of male servants in
general (Chaucer: " Pardoner's Tale," 1. 204). The current uso
of the word for a man who is dishonest and crafty, a rogue, was
however an early usage, and is found in Layamon (c. 1205).
In playing-cards the lowest court card of each suit, the " jack,",
representing a medieval servant, is called the '* knave." (Seo
also Valet.)
KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG VON (1744-1834). German poet
and translator, was born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia
on the 30th of November 1744b After having studied law for
a short while at Halle, he entered the regiment of the crown
prince of Prussia in Potsdam and was attached to it as officer
for ten years. Disappointed in his military career, owing to the
slowness of promotion, he retired in 1774, and accepting the post
of tutor to Prince Konstantinof Weimar, accompanied him and
his elder brother, the hereditary prince, on a tour to Paris. On
this journey he visited Goethe in Frankibrt-on<Main, and intro-
duced him to the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus. This
meeting is memorable as being the immediate cause of Goethe's
later intimate connexion with the Weimar court. After Knebel's
return and the premature death of his pupil he was pensioned,
receiving the rank of major. In 1708 he married the singer
Luise von Rudorf, and retired to Umenau; but in 1805 he
removed to Jena, where he lived until his death on the 23rd
of February 1834. Knebel's Sammlung- kUincr Cedichie (181 5),
issued anonymously, and DislUken (1827) contain many graceful
sonnets, but it is as a translator that he is best known. His
translation of the elegies of Propertius, EUgitn das Proper*
(1798), and that of Lucretius' De rtrum naiura (2 vols., 1831) are
deservedly praised. Since their first acquaintance Kncbel and
Goethe were intimate friends, and not the least interesting of
Knebel's writings is his correspondence with the eminent poet,
Bricjwechscl mil Goethe (ed. G. E. Guhrauer, 2 vols., 1851).
Knebel's LiUrarischer Nachtass und Briejvechscl was edited by
K. A. Varnhagen von Ense and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; and ed.,
1840). See Hugo von Knebd-DoberiU, Kari Ludwig von Knebel
(1890).
KNEE (Ol E. cniov, a word common to Indo-European
languages, cf. Ger. Knit, Fr. genou, Span, kinojo, Lat. genu, Gr.
yofu, Sansk. jam), in human anatomy, the articulation of the
upper and lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur
and the tibia (see Joints). The word is also used of articulation
resembling the knee-joint in shape or position in other animals)
it thus is applied to the carpal articulation of the fore leg of a
horse, answering to the ankle in man, or to the tarsal articulation
or heel of a bird's foot.
?5^
KLN?IIF!t— KSTGHT, C.
•**•.-*-'
»t Viake,
.** iv ** **•*
»\N. -V
• * .v-»* m « -.-*».<
. . , ,. i. « . m *r * 2- <A
^ -.« v r- %f «* »?*•** v*«* *«a*
> . v "w - >v x -*»*<nk i»~ht
,*. . %* - ^ »*. Hv» *'W*"V« »
„' 1 .»» a „••* *»•» «M
.»0«ai^ j*»c*g with
- o -, v - -v »* r^a&i»r a* the i»vi-
„ . »>,» * %*«* *•* v>.*»w .v Oharles II.,
v ^ • »» v * v- v> >. j^KtiM, several
_ *%. % . •* .*, v •*** the portrait of
.v v.% »"» «*s?wk*rtter,whopro-
* ^^i»-w tottocai oVpartmcnt,
- v -.*^.x AKtrvt painting; there
N » ,>» %w v screaking of. Charks
. . *. k ,>w - .-twd to hold the same
,. N * . , *** ttdliam IH. (1692) he
s. . i%v«* * ."J5) * baronet, and by
,. N *. . » c »s<hc of the Roman Empire.
v. . » » ^*kta! fame likewise was Urge:
s . v . ^.i». Steele, Prior, Tickell and
v.v^ »v»v wry considerable; aided by
s v**Ktat stinginess, he left property
« «v vS iX^oo* His industry was main-
•.v ^ S# had at first been in Covent
I ^var^ fce bvtd in Kneller HaH,Twicken-
. v Jot* being generally given as the 7th
accounts say 1726. He was
nd has a monument in West-
er, John Zachary Kneller, an
nied Godfrey to England, and
r Godfrey Kneller as a portrait
tat art as practised by Yandyck ;
cent, and Kneller the second.
1 are well drawn and coloured;
anner, and to a great extent
om the habit which he had of
s. The colouring may be called
idulged much in the common-
be had a quality of dignified
city, genuine simple nature is
His fame has greatly declined,
advent of Reynolds. Among
the "Forty-three Celebrities
Ten Beauties of the Court of
Court; these were painted by
fi, hut match unequally, the
es II.," painted by Lely. He
of ten sovereigns, and fourteen
al Portrait Gallery. It is said
irmance was the portrait of the
>r Castle. His later works are
ad, not more than two or three
er he had settled here.
(W. M. R.)
MEN JANSEN (;. 1650-c. 1720),
lerland (New York), was a native of
Jland. Before 1683 he settled near
York, and there in 1704 he bought
one-fourth of the land in Dutchess
atch had been patented in 1688 to
deeded seven (of thirteen) lots in the
the seven children of Knickerbocker.
Johannes Harmensen, received from
city of Albany a grant of so acres of
■i^od on the south side of Schaghti-
j,yke es'*** *"* *»* 1 '' by Johannes
i* son Johannes (1795-1809), a colonel In the Con*
rmfffcl Army in the War of Independence, and by his son
Hkwi (1779-1S55), a lawyer, a Federalist representative m
depress in 1800-1811, a member of the New York Assembly
a 1S16, and a famous gentleman of the old school, who for hit
oovftfy hospitality in his manor was called "the prince of
Schaghticoke " and whose name was but tow e d by Washington
Irving for use in his (Diedrich) Knickerbocker* $ History of New
York (1800). Largely owing to this book, the name M Knicker-
bockers " has passed into current use as a designation of the
early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants. The
son of Johannes, David Bud Knickerbocker (1833-2804), who
returned to the earlier spelling of the family name, graduated
at Trinity College in 1853 and at fhe General Theological
Seminary in 1856, was a rector for many yean at Minneapolis,
Minnesota, and in 1883 was consecrated Protestant Episcopal
bishop of Indiana.
See the series of articles by W. B. Vao Abryne on * The Knicker-
bocker Family," beginning in voL nix.. No. t (Jan. 1906) of the
New York Genealogical ami Biographical Record.
KHIFB (0. E. cm//, a word appearing in different fa
many Teutonic languages, cf. Du. knijf, Ger. Kndf, a
maker's knife, Swed. knif; the ultimate origin is unknown;
Skeat finds the origin in the root of " nip," formerly " knip M ;
Fr. canif is also of Teutonic origin), a small cutting instrument,
with the blade either fixed to the handle or fastened with a hinge
so as to clasp into the handle (see Cutleby). For the knives
chipped from flint by prehistoric man see Archaeology and
Flint Implements.
KNIGGB, ADOLF F&ANZ FRUDRICH, Fkhhesk vox (175*-
1796), German author, was born on the family estate of Bredea-
beck near Hanover on the 16th of October 1752. After studying
law at Gdttingen he was attached successively to the coons of
Hesse-Cassel and Weimar as gentleman-in-waiting. Retiring
from court service in 1777, he lived a private fife with his fannry
in Frankfort-on-Main, Hanau, Heidelberg and Hanover until
1791, when he was appointed OberkoMptmann (civil adminis-
trator) in Bremen, where he died on the 6th of May 1706-
Knigge, under the name u Phflo," was one of the most active
members of the IUuminati, a mutual moral and mteflectval
improvement society founded by Adam Weishaupt (1 748-1 830)
at Ingolstadt, and which later became affiliated to the Free-
masons. Knigge is known as the author of several novels, amocg
which Der Roman meines Lebtns (1 781 -1787; new ed., 1805)
and DU Rtist nock Braunsckweig (1792), the latter a rather
coarsely comic story, are best remembered. His chief literary
achievement was, however, Ober dern Umgang mis Mtnsekm
(1788), in which he lays down rules to be observed for a peaceful,
happy and useful life; it has been often reprinted.
Knigge's Sckrifk* were published In 12 volumes (1804-1806!
See K. Goedeke. Adolf. Freikerr won Knitf (1844); and H. Klrwrkr.
A us enter alien Kisle {Briefe. Uamdscknjftem umd Do iummm t m «v dem
Nacklasu Knxggti) (1853).
KNIGHT, CHARLES (1 791-1873), English publisher and
author, the son of a bookseller and printer at Windsor, was
born on the 15th of March 1791. He was apprenticed to his
father, but on the completion of his indentures he took wp
journalism and interested himself in several newspaper speca-
lations. In 1823, in conjunction with friends be had made
as publisher (1820-182 1) of Tat Etonian, he started Kinrtgkt t
Quarterly Magaxine, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge
and Macaulay contributed. The venture was brought to
a dose with its sixth number, but it initiated for ILnight a
career as publisher and author which extended .over forty
years. In 1827 Knight was compelled to give up his pobbsh-
ing business, and became the superintendent of the pvbficatioas
of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for
which he projected and edited Tkt Britisk Almanack ad
Companion, begun in 1828. In 1829 be resumed business
on his own account with the publication of Tkt Library of
Entertaining Knomdoige, writing several volumes of the seeks
In 1832 and 1833 he started Tka Penny lfagaanae and
KNIGHT, D. R.— -KNIGHTHOOD
851
The Penny Cyclopaedia, both of which had a large circulation.
The Penny Cyclopaedia, however, on account of the heavy
excise duty, was only completed in 1844 at a great pecuniary
sacrifice. Besides many illustrated editions of standard works,
including in 1842 The Pictorial Shakespeare, which had appeared
in parts (1838-1841), Knight published a variety of illustrated
works, such as Old England and The Land we Lpx in. He also
undertook the series known as Weekly Volumes. He himself
contributed the first volume, a biography of William Caxtoo.
Many famous books, Miss Martineau's Tales, Mrs Jameson's
Early Italian Painters and G. H. Lewes's Biographical History
of Philosophy, appeared lor the first time in this series. In
1853 he became editor of The English Cyclopaedia, which was
practically only a revision of The Penny Cyclopaedia, and at
about the same time he began his Popular History of England
(8 vols., 1856-1862). In 1864 be withdrew from the business of
publisher, but he continued to write nearly to the close of his
long life, publishing The Shadows of the Old Booksellers (1865),
an autobiography under the title Passages of a Working Life
during Half a Century (2 vols., 1864-1865), and an historical
novel, Begg'd at Court (1867). He died at Addlestone, Surrey,
on the oth of March 1873.
See A. A. Clowes, Knight, a Sketch (1892); and F. Espinasse, in
The Critic (May i860).
KNIGHT. DANIEL RJDGWAY (1845- ), American artist,
was born at Philadelphia, Penn., in 1845. He was a pupil at the
£cc4e des Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and later worked
in the private studio of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived in
France, having a house and studio at Poissy on the Seine.
He painted peasant women out of doors with great popular
success. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the
Legion of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was
made a knight of the Royal Order of St Michael of Bavaria,
Munich, 1893, receiving the gold medal of honour from the
Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia, 1893. His
son, Ashton Knight, is also known as a landscape painter.
KNIGHT. JOHN BUXTON (1843- 1008), English landscape
painter, was born at Serenoaks, Kent; he started as a school-
master, but painting was his hobby, and be subsequently de-
voted himself to it. In 1861 he had his first picture Jiung at the
Academy. He was essentially an open-air painter, constantly
going on sketching tours in the most picturesque spots of Eng-
land, and all bis pictures were painted out of doors. He died
at Dover on the 2nd of January 1008. The Chantrey trustees
bought his " December's Bareness Everywhere " for the nation in
the following month. Most of bis best pictures had passed into
the collection of Mr Iceton of Putney (including " White Walls
of Old England " and " Hereford Cathedral "), Mr Walter Briggs
of Buriey in Wharfedale (especially " Pinner "), asxi Mr S. M.
Phillips of Wrotham (especially two water-colours of Richmond
Bridge).
KNIGHTHOOD and CHIVALRY. These two words, which arc
neasjy but not quite synonymous, designate a single subject
of inquiry, which presents itself under three different although
.connected and in a measure intermingled aspects. It may be
regarded in the first place as a mode or variety of feudal tenure,
in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity, and in the
third place as a scheme of manners or social arrangements.
The first of these aspects is discussed under the headings Feu-
dalism and Knigstj Se&vice: we are concerned here only with
the second and third. For the mote important religious as
distinguished from the military orders of knighthood or chivalry
the reader is referred to the headings St John or Jejlusaleii ,
Knights or; Teutonic Knights; and Templars.
" The growth of knighthood " (writes Stubbs) " Is a subject
on which the greatest obscurity prevails ": and, though J. H.
Round has done much to explain the introduction of the system
into England, 1 its actual origin on the continent of Europe is still
obscure in many of its most important details.
The words knight and knighthood are merely the modern forms
of the Anglo-Saxon or Old English cniht and cnihtkdd. Of these
1 Feudal England, pp. 225 sqq.
the primary signification of the first was a boy or youth, and of
the second that period of life which intervenes bet ween, child*
hood and manhood. But some time before the middle of the 1 2th
century they had acquired the meaning they still retain of the
French chevalier and chevalerie. In a secondary sense cniht
meant a servant or attendant answering to the German Knocks,
and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple k described as a
leorning cniht. In a tertiary sense the word appears to have been
occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin miles— usually
translated by thegn— which in the earlier middle ages was used
as the designation of the domestic as well as of the martial
officers or retainers of sovereigns and princes or great person-
ages.* Sharon Turner suggests that cniht from meaning an
attendant simply may have come to mean more especially a
military attendant, and that in this sense it may have gradually
superseded the word thegn.* But the word thegn itself, that is,
when it was used as the description of an attendant of the
king, appears to have meant more especially a military atten-
dant. As Stubbs says " the tbegn seems to be primarily the
warrior gesith " — the gesithas forming the chosen band of com-
panions (comites) of the German chiefs (principes) noticed by
Tacitus—" he is probably the gesith who had a particular mili-
tary duty in his master's service "; and he adds that from the
reign of Athclstan " the gesith is lost sight of except very occa-
sionally, the more important dass having become thegns, and the
lesser sort sinking into the rank of mere servants of the king." *
It is pretty clear, therefore, that the word cniht could never have
superseded the word thegn in the sense of a military attendant,
at all events of the king. But besides the king, the ealdormen,
bishops and king's thegns themselves had their thegns, and to
these it is more than probable that the name of cniht was applied.
Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were collected a crowd of
retainers and dependants of all ranks and conditions; and there it
evidence enough to show that among them were some called
cnihtas who were not always the humblest or least considerable
of their number. 1 The testimony of Domesday also establishes
the existence in the reign of Edward the Confessor of what
Stubbs describes as a " large class " of landholders who had
commended themselves to some lord, and he regards it as doubt-
ful whether their tenure bad not already assumed a really feudal
character. But in any event it is manifest that their condition
was in many respects similar to that of a vast number of unques-
tionably feudal and military tenants who made their appearance
after the Norman Conquest. If consequently the former were
called cnihtas under the Anglo-Saxon regime, it seems sufficiently
probable that the appellation should have been continued to the
latter— practically their successors— under the Anglo-Norman
regime. And if the designation of knights was first applied to
the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons— who
although they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services
to the king— the extension of that designation to the whole body
of military tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged
process. Assuming, however, that knight was originally used
to describe the military tenant of a noble person, as cniht had
sometimes been used to describe the thegn of a noble person, it
would, to begin with, have denned rather his social status than
the nature of his services. But those whom the English called
knights the Normans called chevaliers, by which term the nature
of their services was denned, while their social status was left
out of consideration. And at first chevalier in its general and
honorary signification seems to have been rendered not by knigkt
but by rider, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle,
wherein it is recorded under the year 1085 that William the
Conqueror " dubbade his sunu Hemic to ridcre." 4 But, as E. A.
Freeman says, " no such title is heard of in the earlier days of
England. The thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself, fought on
foot; the horse might bear him to the field, but when the fighting
» Du Cangc. Gloss., s.v. " Miles."
• History of England, Hi. 12.
•Stubbs, Constitutional History, I 156.
• Ibid. i. 156. 366: Turner, iii. 1^5-129.
• Ingram's edition, p. 290.
*5*
KNIGHTHOOD
* ^ll^ ?■ *» ***** ^ to ***** the onslaught
** riS»^ to . I***** ****!* ** "•y **»* one of the
*d imSo^»l^ B * nUsh J 05 * 1 * 1 P re i<"*kes, for on the Continent
* .dm^, 01 ***** * WMilfe ~ » lre « , y abundantly
W ^;uaSn , KwV Wm * ** m< ^ km oi *** J»"«nen that the
^rl a^H iV?,*** e***^** their superiority over their neigh-
*t£Sord e££ mt m * ted thc Westem *»!*« «**> while from
* * lZwT W ' w ^^ occurs in the Co^«tort« in the reign
** «*!*???*?*' ?*** ^ ^"^ for kni « hl » all the Romance
^ u£^i~ Germany the chevalier was called RitUr, but
**~A I £ J^Z i**, 4 *"" 1 *" Prevailed against kmifki in England.
A ?.t JT?^^ 1 * ******* had squired iupresent meaning
^ v. k* ~ \T? lry wa » incorporated into our language. It
^imJL?? u ** to ° "* P»««ng th*t in official Latin, not only
** «no vS?v but *** over Ettr °l*» the word arito held its own
^gainst both tym and atbaUcrims.
Conwniin« the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed
jo tne middle ages—implying as it did a formal assumption of
*Z££ U? »Wation into the profession of arms—nothing
iJjJJjJ^beyoiKl more or less probable conjecture is possible.
. The medieval knights had nothing to do in the way of
acTl ^*J? l t* with xht "«iwtes M of Rome, the knights of King
Arthur's Round Table, or the Paladins of Charlemagne. But
there are grounds for believing that some of the rudiments of
chivalry are to be detected in early Teutonic customs, and that
they may have made some advance among the Franks of GauL
We know from Tacitus that the German tribes in his day were
wont lo celebrate the admission of their young men into the
ranks of their warriors with much circumstance and ceremony.
The people of the district to which the candidate belonged were
called together; his qualifications for the privileges about to be
conferred upon him were inq uir ed into; and, if be were deemed
fitted and worthy to receive them, his chief, his father, or one of
his near kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance.
Again, among the Franks we find Charlemagne girding his son
Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious girding his son Charles the
Bald with the sword, when they arrived at manhood.* It seems
certain here that some ceremony was observed which was deemed
worthy of record not for its novelty, but as a thing of recognised
Ssnportance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony
extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and
emperors. But if it did we must naturally suppose that it applied
in the first instance to the mounted warriors who formed the
most formidable portion of the warlike array of the Franks.
It was among the Franks indeed, and possibly through their
experiences in war with the Ssracem, that cavalry first acquired
the pr e - emi n ent place which it long maintained in every
European country. In early society, where the army is not a paid
force but the armed nation, the cavalry must necessarily consist
of the noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman
observes, 4 wiU be the same. Since then we discover in the
C+piiularia of Charlemagne actual mention of " caballarii " as
a das$ of warriors, it may reasonably be concluded that formal
investiture with anas applied to the ** cabanarii " if it was a usage
extending beyond the sovereign and Ins hcir<apparenU M But,*'
as Hailam says, u he who fought on horseback and had been
invested with peculiar arms in a solemn manner wanted nothing
more to render him a knight; " and so he conc l udes, in view of
Ihe verbal identity of «* chevalier " and M cabaDarras," that "we
niayrekrdiivalrymaeeoeralsecsetotWagec^QiarlexnagDe.'' A
Yet, if the " cabaUaru " of the CcpkmUnts are really the pre-
cursors of the later knights, it remains a difficulty that the Latin
name for a knight is M miles,** although M cahalhm'ns " became in
various forms the vernacular designation.
Before it was known that the chronicle ascribed to Ingulf of
CroyUnd is really a fiction of the 13th or 14th century the
kni g ht i n g of Heward or Herewnrd by Brand, abbot Of Burgh
1 Cr* ?»•«■•> P*.Vrto. pi. 74.
» RiU.-c. t , .- '** AVf &«• ^mum, £. 794, 1069.
1 l>u l'*ij«> -'*•*- **• ' Arma."
« K'wrrwu. C -",'C'ii.K /V. vi. p 7 J.
• miinn, i/.jUr A get, iu. ^yj.
(now Peterborough), was accepted from Selden to HaUam at
an historical fact, and knighthood was suppo se d, not only to
have been known among the Anglo-Saxons, but to f
have had a distinctively rebgious character which 4
was contemned by the Norman invaders. The
genuine evidence at our command altogether fails to support
this view. When William of Malntesbury describes the knighting
of Athebtan by his grandfather Alfred the Great, that is, ms
investiture " with a purple garment set with gems and a Saxon
sword with a golden sheath," there is no hint of any rebgkns
observance. In spite of the silence of our records, Dr Stunts
thinks that kings so well acquainted with foreign usages as
Ethdred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could hardly have
failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry
then springing up in every country of Europe; and he is aup-
ported in this opinion by the circumstance that it is imnheu
mentioned as a Norman innovation. Yet the tact that Harold
received knighthood from William of Normandy makes it dear
either that Harold was not yet a knight, which in tne case of so
tried a warrior would imply that ** dubbing to knighthood " was
not yet known in England even under Ed ward the D eft sot , or,
as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the irth century the
custom had grown in Normandy into M something of n snore
special meaning " than it bore in England.
Regarded as a method of unitary organirarlon, tne feudal
system of tenures was always far better adapted to the pnrposri
of defensive than of offensive warfare. Against invasion k
furnished a permanent provision both in men-at-arms and strong-
holds; nor was it unsuited for the campaigns of neighbouring
counts and barons which lasted for only a few weeks* and cs-
tended.over only a few leagues. But when kings and 1
were m conflict, and distant and prolonged expeditions 1
necessary, it was speedily d is cov ered that the 1
sources of feudalism were altogether inadequate. It
therefore the manifest interest of both parties that
services should be commuted into pecuniary p ay me nt s,
there grew up all over Europe a system of fining the knights who
failed to respond to the sovereign's call or to stay their fwl time
in the field, and in England this fine de vel op e d, frona the me*
of Henry JL to that of Edward IX, into a regular war-tax caled
esaM|*orsratfafc(f.B.). In this way funds for war were pssced at
the free disposal of sovereigns, and, although the feudatories sari
their retainers stftt formed the moat oonssnembk pcxtiem of thdr
armies, the conditions under which they served were 1
changed. Their mflftary service was now far more the 1
of special agreement. In the reign of Edward L, whose 1
enterprises after he was king were omfined withm the Sons* sees,
this alteration does not seem to have pt oceeded very far, ana
Scotland and Wales were subjugated by what was hi the ssnsv
if not e xclu s i vely, a feudal nuKtia raised as of old by vast to the
earls and barons and the sheriffs.' But thc armies of Edward TIT..
Henry V. and Henry VL during the century of i
fare between England and France were recruited and 1
to a very great extent on the priadpie of contract.' Oft the
Continent the systematic employment of mercenar ies was hock
an early and a common practice.
Besides consideration for the mutual convenience all
and their feudatories, there were other causes which n
contributed towards bringing about those rhingii m
the military system of Europe whkh were finally
accomplished in the 13th and 14th centuries. ~
Crusades vast armies were set on foot in which
•Stobbs. CmuL Hid. i. 27!; ahn comp
Auti Elites, i. 65 seo.
1 There has been a general Un d ea c y to ignore the
the armies of Edward 111. wtn raised by compulsory Ir
the system of raK.ng troops by free contrac t had __^,
(eh. vi. ) points out how much England relied at ths* tins* oh wiu£
m-ocld bow be called conscription: and his it mails awn tawb
horn? out bv the Ncnrieh documents published by Mr W. HmObcb
vNocf. and Kormich ArcKaecJocScal See. bv. afij soqu), hy a L*rr%
crrponuoa djcoTtM of iJkh Xdw. IIL (Htst_J*5S. ffJMi ■
Rcron XI. AppeifciLx ot. in. p. 189). and by Search's Imwi a/ aftr
BcrhiUyi. L ju, 319, $*x
KNIGHTHOOD
«53
end obligations had no pltce, and it was aeen that the volun-
teers who flocked to the standards of the various commanders
were not leas but even more efficient in the field than the
vassals they had hitherto been accustomed to lead. It was thus
established that pay, the love of ente r prise and the prospect of
plunder— if we leave zeal for the sacred cause which they had
espoused for the moment out of sight — were quite as useful for
the purpose of enlisting troops and keeping them together as
the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty.
Moreover, the crusaders who survived the difficulties and dangers
of an expedition to Palestine were seasoned and experienced
although frequently impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to
hire themselves to the highest bidder, and well worth the wages
they received. Again, it was owing to the crusades that the
church took the profession of arms under her peculiar protection,
and thenceforward the ceremonies of initiation into it assumed a
religious as well as a martial character.
To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits
of knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they
irtfjirfiimf did not possess a sufficient property qualification—
io4*t»adtMt of which perhaps they had denuded themselves in
°t* mda * m order to their equipment for the Holy War. And
thus the conception of knighthood as of something
distinct from feudalism both as a social condition and a
personal dignity arose and rapidly gained ground. It was
then that the analogy was first detected between the order of
knighthood and the order of priesthood, and that an actual
union of monachism and chivalry was effected by the establish-
ment of the religious orders of which the Knights Templars
and the Knights Hospitallers were the most eminent examples.
As comprehensive in their polity as the Benedictines or
Franciscans, they gathered their members from, and soon
scattered their possessions over, every country in Europe. And
in their indifference to the distinctions of race and nationality
they merely accommodated themselves to the spirit which had
become characteristic of chivalry itself, already recognised, like
the church, as a universal institution which knit together the
whole warrior caste of Christendom into one great fraternity
irrespective alike of feudal subordination and territorial boun-
daries. Somewhat later the adoption of hereditary surnames
and armorial bearings marked the existence of a large and noble
class who either from the subdivision of fiefs or from the effects
of the custom of primogeniture were very insufficiently provided
for. To them only two callings were generally open, that of the
churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a rule offered
greater attractions than the former in an era of much licence and
little learning. Hence the favourite expedient for men of birth,
although not of fortune, was to attach themselves to some prince
or magnate in whose military service they were sure of an ade-
quate maintenance and might hope for even a rich reward in the
shape of booty or of ransom. 1 It is probably to this period and
these circumstances that we must look for at all events the rudi-
mentary beginnings of the military as well as the religious orders
of chivalry. Of the existence of any regularly constituted
companionships of the first kind there is no trustworthy evidence
until between two and three centuries after fraternities of the
second kind had been organized. Soon after the greater crusad-
ing societies had been formed similar orders, such as those of
St James of Compostclla, Calatrava and Alcantara, were estab-
lished to fight the Moors in Spain instead of the Saracens in the
Holy Land. But the members of these orders were not less monks
than knights, their statutes embodied the rules of the cloister,
and they were bound by the ecclesiastical vows of celibacy,
poverty and obedience, From & very early stage in the develop-
ment of chivalry, however, we meet with the singular institution
of brotherhood in arms; and from it the ultimate origin If not of
the religious fraternities at any rate of the military companion:
ships is usually derived. 1 By thai institution a relation was
1 J. B. de Lacurne de Sainte Palaye, Mbnoires tur TAnciennt
ChevoUrie, i. 363, 364 (ed. 17B1).
• »Du Cange, Dissertation svr Joimitte, xxi; Sainte Palaye,
Mbnoirts, i. 272; G. F. Belts, Memorials of the Order of the Garter
(1841,) p. xxvii.
created between two or more monks by voluntary agreement,
which was regarded as of far more intimacy and stringency than,
any which the mere accident of consanguinity implied. Brothers
in arms were supposed to be partners in all things save the affec-
tions of their " lady-loves." They shared in every danger and
in every success, and each was expected to vindicate the honour
of another as promptly and sealously as bis own. The plot of
the medieval romance of Amis and Amiles is built entirely on
such a brotherhood. Their engagements usually lasted through
life, but sometimes only for a specified period or during the
continuance of specified circumstances, and they were always
ratified by oath, occasionally reduced to writing in the shape of a
solemn bond and often sanctified by their reception of the
Eucharist together. Romance and'tradition speak of strange
rites— the mingling and even the drinking of blood—as having
in remote and rude ages marked the inception of these martial
and fraternal associations.* But in later and less barbarous
times they were generally evidenced and celebrated by a formal
and reciprocal exchange of Weapons and armour. In warfare
it was customary for knights who were thus allied to appear
similarly accoutred and bearing the same badges or cognisances,
to the end that their enemies might not know with which of them
they were in conflict, and that their friends might be unable to
accord more applause to one than to the other for his prowess in
the field. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow
up bodies of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity,
although free from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or
livery; and naming themselves after some special symbol or
some patron saint of their adoption. And such bodies placed
under the command of a sovereign or grand master, regulated by
statutes, and enriched by ecclesiastical endowments would have
been precisely what in after times such orders as the Garter
in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in
Savoy and the St Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually
were. 4
During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat
earlier and later, the general arrangements of a European army
were always and everywhere pretty much the same.*
Under the sovereign the constable and the marshal jca<boodL
or marshals held the chief commands, their authority
being partly joint and partly several. Attendant on them
were the heralds, who were the officers of their military court,
wherein offences committed in the camp and field were tried
and adjudged, and among whose, duties it was to carry orders
and messages, to deliver challenges and call truces, and to
identify and number the wounded and the slain. The main
divisions of the army were distributed under the royal and other
principal standards, smaller divisions under the banners of
some of the greater nobility or of knights banneret, and smaller
divisions still under the pennons of knights or, as in distinction
from knights banneret they came to be called, knights bachelors.
All knights whether bachelors or bannerets were escorted by
their squires. But the banner of the banneret always i*"pli>d
a more or less extensive command, while every knight was en*
titled to bear a pennon and every squire a penceL All three flags _
were of such a size as to be conveniently attached to and carried
on a lance, and were emblazoned with the arms or some portion
of the bearings of their owners. But while the banner was
square the pennon, which resembled it in other respects, was
either pointed or forked at its extremity, and the pence!, which
was considerably less than the others, always terminated in a
single tail or streamer.*
If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination from
another point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into
four than into three stages, of which two may be called provisional
and two final. The bachelor and the banneret were both equally
knights, only the one was of greater distinction and authority
• Du Cange, Dissertation, xxi., and Lancelot du Lac, among other
romances.
* Anstfe, Register of the Order of the Garter, !. 63.
•Grose, Muitary Antiq. i. 207 seq.; Stubbs, Const. HisL ii. 276"
•eg., and Hi. 278 seq.
• Grose's Military Antiquities, ii. 236.
8 5 4
KNIGHTHOOD
than the other. In like manner the squire and the page were
both in training for knighthood, but the first had advanced
further in the process than the second. It is true that the squire
was a combatant while the page was not, and that many squires
voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the insuffi-
ciency of their fortunes to support the costs and charges of
knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous educa-
tion the successive conditions of page and squire were passed
through in boyhood and youth, and the condition of knighthood
was reached in early manhood. Every feudal court and castle
was in fact a school of chivalry, and although princes and great
personages were rarely actually pages or squires, the moral and
physical discipline through which they passed was not in any
important particular different from that to which less exalted
candidates for knighthood were subjected. 1 The page, or, as he
was more anciently and more correctly called, the " valet " or
*' damoiseau," commenced his service and instruction when he
was between seven and eight years old, and the initial phase
continued for seven or eight years longer. He acted as the con-
stant personal attendant of both his master and mistress. He
waited on them in their hall and accompanied them in the chase,
served the lady in her bower and followed the lord to the camp. 1
From the chaplain and his mistress and her damsels he learnt
the rudiments of religion, of rectitude and of love, 3 from his
master and his squires the elements of military exercise, to cast a.
spear or dart, to sustain a shield, and to march with the measured
tread of a soldier; and from his master and his huntsmen
and falconers the " mysteries of the woods and rivers," or in
other words the rules and practices of hunting and hawking.
When he was between fifteen and sixteen he became a squire.
But no sudden or great alteration was made in his mode of life.
He continued to wait at dinner with the pages, although in a
manner more dignified according to the notions of the age.
He not only served but carved and helped the dishes, proffered
the first or principal cup of wine to his master and his guests,
and carried to them the basin, ewer or napkin when they washed
their hands before and after meat. He assisted in clearing the
hall for dancing or minstrelsy, and laid the tables for chess or
draughts, and he also shared in the pastimes for which he had
made preparation. - He brought his master the " vin de coucher "
at night, and made his early refection ready for him in the
morning. But his military exercises and athletic sports occupied
on always increasing portion of the day. He accustomed himself
to ride the " great horse," to tilt at the quintain, to wield the
sword and battle-axe, to swim and climb, to run and leap, and
to bear the weight and overcome the embarrassments of armour.
He inured himself to the vicissitudes of heat and cold, and volun-
tarily suffered the pains or inconveniences of hunger and thirst,
fatigue and sleeplessness. It was then too that he chose his
" lady-love," whom he was expected to regard with an adoration
at once earnest, respectful, and the more meritorious if concealed.
And when it was considered that he had made sufficient advance-
ment in his military accomplishments, he took his sword to the
priest, who laid it on the altar, blessed it, and returned it to him. 4
Afterwards he either remained with his early master, relegating
most of his domestic duties to his younger companions, or he
entered the service of some valiant and adventurous lord or
1 Sainte Palaye, Mimoires, i. 36: Frolssart. bk. Hi. ch. 9.
• Sainte Palaye, Mimoires, pt. L and Mills, History of Ckholry,
SaitUre.
he actual
contends
to admit
1 testify,
lies. No
n idea as
ibundant
' chivalry
e a cette
porter ce
Icraceau
lieotavec
knight of his own selection. He now became a " squire of the
body," and truly an "armiger " or " scutifer," for be bore the
slricld and armour of his leader to the field, and, what was a task
of no small difficulty and hazard, cased and secured him in Ms
panoply of war before assisting him to mount his courser or
charger. It was his function also to display and guard in battle
the banner of the baron or banneret or the pennon of the knight
be served, to raise him from the ground if he were unhorsed, to
supply him with another or his own horse if his was disabled or
killed, to receive and keep any prisoners he might take, to fight
by his side if he was unequally matched, to rescue him if cap-
tured, to bear him to a place of safety if wounded, and to bury
him honourably when dead. And after he had worthily and
bravely, borne himself for six or seven years as a squire, the time
came when it was fitting that he should be made a knight. This,
at least, was the current theory; but it is specially dangerous
in medieval history to assume too much correspondence between
theory and fact. In many castles, and perha s in most, the
discipline followed simply a natural and unwritten code of
"fagging" and seniority, as in public schools or on board
men-of-war some hundred years or so ago.
Two modes of conferring knighthood appear to have prevailed
from a very early period in all countries where chivalry was
known. In both of them the essential portion seems «•*• •/
to have been the accolade or stroke of the sword, t iM ft na y^
But while in the one the accolade constituted the r "lP' |i ■ ■ *
whole or nearly the whole of the ceremony, in the other h
was surrounded with many additional observances. The former
and simpler of these modes was naturally that used in war:
the candidate knelt before "the chief of the army or some
valiant knight," who struck him thrice with the flat of a sword,
pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation
which varied at the creator's will.*
In this form a number of knights were made before and after
almost every battle between the nth and the 16th centuries,
and its advantages on the score of both convenience and economy
gradually led to its general adoption both in time of peace and
time of war. On extraordinary occasions indeed the more
elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But recourse was
had to it so rarely that in England about the beginning of the
15th century it came to be exclusively appropriated to a special
king of knighthood. When Scgar, garter king of arms, wrote hi
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, this had been accomplished with
such completeness that be does not even mention that there
were two ways of creating knights bachelors. " He that is to
be made a knight," he says, " is striken by the prince with a
sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the prince saying,
'Soys Chevalier,' and in times past was added 'Saint George.'
And when the knight rises the prince sayetb 'Avences.* This is
the manner of dubbing knights at this present, and that term
' dubbing ' was the old term in this point, not 'creating.' This
sort of knights are by the heralds called knights bachelors. *• la
our days when a knight is personally made he kneels before the
sovereign, who lays a sword drawn, ordinarily the sword of state,
on either of his shoulders and says, " Rise," calling him by has
Christian name with the addition of " Sir " before it
1 There arc several obscure points as to the relation of the longer
ana shorter ceremonies, as well as the origin and original relation at
their several parts. There is nothing to show whence came *• dab-
bing " or the " accolade." It seems certain that the word " dsjb "
means to strike, and the usage is as old as the knighting of Henry by
William the Conqueror (supra t pp. 85 1 , 852). So, too, in the Empire
a dubbed knight Is '* ritter geschlagen." The " accolade '" may
etymologically refer to the embrace, accompanied by a blow with the
hand, characteristic of the longer form of knighting. The derivation
of " adoubec," corresponding to " dub," from adoptare," which
is given by Du Cange, and would connect the ceremony with
•* adoptio per anna," is certainly inaccurate. The investiture with
arms, which formed a part of the longer form of knighting;, aad
which we have seen to rest on very ancient usage, may originasrjr
have had a distinct meaning. We have observed that Lanfrmec
invested Henry I. with arms, while William " dubbed him to
rider." If th.-re was* a difference in the meaning of the two cere
monies, the difficulty as to the knighting of Earl Harold (**/*•»
p. 85a) is at least partly removed.
KNIGHTHOOD
855
Very Afferent were the solemnities which attended the creation
of a knight when the complete procedure was observed " The
ceremonies and circumstances at the giving this dignity," says
Selden, " in the elder time were of two kinds especially, which we
may call courtly and sacred. The courtly were the feasts held
at the creation, giving of robes, arms, spurs and the like. The
sacred were the holy devotions and what else was used in the
church at or before the receiving of the dignity. 1 But the leading
authority on the subject is an ancient tract written in French,
which will be found at length either in the original or translated
by Segar, Dugdale, Byshe and Nicolas, among other English
writers. 1 Daniel explains his reasons for transcribing it, " tant
a cause du detail que de la naivete 1 du stile et encore plus de la
bisarrerie des ceremonies que se faisoient pourtant alors fort
seneuscment," while he adds that these ceremonies were essen-
tially identical in England, France, Germany, Spain and Italy.
The process of inauguration was commenced in the evening by the
placing of the candidate under the care of two "esquires of honour
grave and well seen in courtship and nurture and also in the feats of
chivalry," who were to be " governors in all things relating to him."
Under their direction, to begin with, a barber shaved him and cut
his hair. He was then conducted by them to his appointed chamber,
where a bath was prepared hung within and without with linen and
covered with rich cloths, into which after they had undressed him
he entered. While he was in the bath two "ancient and grave
knights " attended him " to inform, instruct and counsel him touch-
ing the order and feats of chivalry," and when they had fulfilled
their mission they poured some of the water of the bath over his
shoulders, signing the left shoulder with the cross, and retired.
He was then taken from the bath and put into a plain bed without
hangings, in which he remained until his body was dry, when the
two esquires put on him a white shirt and over that " a robe of
russet with long sleeves having a hood thereto like unto that of an
hermit/* Then the " two ancient and grave knights " returned and
led him to the chapel, the esquires going before them " sporting and
dancing " with " the minstrels making melody." And when they
had been served with wines and spices they went away leaving
only the candidate, the esquires, " the priest, the chandler and the
watch," who kept the vigil of arms until sunrise, the candidate pass-
ing the night u bestowing himself in orisons and prayers. At
daybreak he confessed to the priest, heard matins, and communicated
in the mass, offering a taper and a piece of m * — *- ■"- ,fc ar
the lighted end as possible, the first " to the h be
second " to the honour of the person that :."
Afterwards he was taken back to his chambc ed
until the knights, esquires and minstrels we ed
him. The knights then dressed him in distinct ey
then mounted their horses and rode to the fa ,te
was to receive knighthood ; his future squire m
bareheaded bearing his sword by the point i lis
Surs hanging from its hilt. And when ev ed
e prince or subject who was to knight him < d,
the candidate's sword and spurs having been presented to him, he
delivered the right spur to the " most noble aad gentle " knight
present, and directed him to fasten it on the candidate's right heel,
which he kneeling on one knee and putting the candidate's right
foot on his knee accordingly did, signing the candidate's knee with
the cross, and in like manner by another " noble and gentle " knight
the left spur was fastened to his left heel. And then he who was to
create the knight took the sword and girded him with it, and then
embracing him he lifted his right handand smote him on the neck
or shoulder, saying, " Be thou a good knight," and kissed him.
When this was done they all went to the chapel with much music,
and the new knight laying his right hand on the altar promised to
support and defend the church, and ungirding his sword offered it
on the altar. And as he came out from the chapel the master cook
awaited him at the door and claimed his spurs as his fee. and said,
jncoise, 1 90-104; Byshe's Upton,
!e, Worwickskii "
« Selden, Titles of Honor, 639.
■ Daniel, Histoire de la Milter Franc..
D* Studio Militari, pp. 21-24; Dugdale, Warwickshire, ii. 708-710,
Segar, Honor Civil and Military, pp. 69 seq. and Nicolas, Orders of
Knighthood, vol. ii. {Order of the Bath) pp. 19 seq. . .It is given as " the
order and manner of creating Knights of the Bath in time of peace
according to the custom of England," and consequently dates from a
period when the full ceremony of creating knights bachelors generally
had gone out of fashion. But as Ashmole, speaking of Knights of the
Bath, says, " if the ceremonies and circumstances of their creation
be well considered, it will appear that this king [Henry IV.J did not
institute but rather restore the ancient manner of making knights,
and consequently that the Knights of the Bath are in truth no other
than knights bachelors, that is to say, such as are created with those
ceremonies wherewith knights bachelors were formerly created."
(Ashmole, Order of the Garter, p. 15). See also Selden, Title*, of
Honor % p. 678, and the Arckaologieal Journal, v. 258 seq.
" If you do anything contrary to the order of chivalry (which God
forbid), I shall hack the spun from your heels."*
The full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have
been so largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing
or giving the accolade alone that in England it became at last
restricted to such knights as were made at coronations and
some other occasions of state. And to them the particular
name of Knights of the Bath was assigned, while knights made
in the ordinary way were called in distinction from them knights
of the sword, as they were also called knights bachelors in dis-
tinction from knights banneret. 4 It is usually supposed that
the first creation of knights of the Bath under that designation
was at the coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of
the Bath as a companionship or capitular body was instituted
the last creation of them was at the coronation of Charles II.
But all knights were also knights of the spur or " equites aurati,"
because their spurs were golden or gilt, — the spurs of squires
being of silver or white metal, — and these became their peculiar
badge in popular estimation and proverbial speech. In the
form of their solemn inauguration too, as we have noticed, the
spurs together with the sword were always employed as the
leading and most characteristic ensigns of knighthood. 6
With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been
entertained as to both the nature of their dignity and the
qualifications they were required to possess for receiving it at
different periods and in different countries. On the Continent
the distinction which is commonly but incorrectly made between
the nobility and the gentry has never arisen, and it was unknown
here while chivalry existed and heraldry was understood.
Here, as elsewhere in the old time, a nobleman and a gentleman
meant the same thing, namely, a man who under certain con-
ditions of descent was entitled to armorial bearings. Hence
Du Cange divides the medieval nobility of France and Spain
into three classes: first, barons or ricos hombres; secondly,
chevaliers or caballeros; and thirdly, ecuyers or infanaons;
and to the first, who with their several special titles constituted
the greater nobility of either country, he limits the designation
of banneret and the right of leading their followers to war under
a banner, otherwise a " drapeau quarre " or square flag.' Selden
shows especially from the parliament rolls that the term banneret
has been occasionally employed in England as equivalent to
baron. 7 In Scotland, even as late as the reign of James VI.,
lords of parliament were always created bannerets as well as
barons at their investiture, " part of the ceremony consisting
in the display of a banner, and such ' barones majores ' were
thereby entitled to the privilege of having one borne by a
retainer before them to the field of a quadrilateral form." * In
Scotland, too, lords of parliament and bannerets were also
called bannerents, banrents or baronets, and in England
banneret was often corrupted to baronet. " Even in a patent
passed to Sir Ralph Fane, knight under Edward VI., he is
called ' baronettus ' for ' bannerettus.' " * In this manner
it is not improbable that the title of baronet may have been
suggested to the advisers of James L when the order of Baronets
■ As may be gathered from Selden, Favyn, La Colombiers, Mene-
strier and Sainte Palaye, there were several differences of detail
in the ceremony at different times and in different places. But in
the main it was everywhere the same both in its military and its
ecclesiastical elements. In the Pontifical* Romanum, the old Ordo
Romanus and the manual or Common Prayer Book in use in England
before the Reformation forms for the blessing or consecration of
new knights are included, and of these the first and the last are
quoted by Selden.
• Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 678; Ashmole, Order of the Garter t
p. 15: Favyn, Thidtre d'Honneur, ii. 1035.'
*r. ., ., •_•__» .__• * knighthood, ancient and
i a horse, gold ring, shield
d a gold chain or collar."
Antiquities j !L 257; and
i. p. xxxviu
ilso Hallam, Middle Ages,
oseq.
k Peerages, p. 578; also
i's Titles yf Honor,?. 7<».
7.
856
KNIGHTHOOD
was originally created by him, for it was a question whether the
recipients of the new dignity should be designated by that or
some other name. 1 But there is no doubt that as previously
used it was merely a corrupt synonym for banneret, and not the
name of any separate dignity. On the Continent, however, there
are several recorded examples of bannerets who had an hereditary
claim to that honour and its attendant privileges on the ground
of the nature of their feudal tenure. 1 And generally, at any rate
to commence with, it seems probable that bannerets were in
every country merely the more important class of feudatories,
the " ricos hombres " in contrast to the knights bachelors, who
in France in the time of St Louis were known as " pauvres
hommes." In England all the barons or greater nobility were
entitled to bear banners, and therefore Du Cange's observations
would apply to them as well as to the barons or greater nobility
ol France and Spain. But it is clear that from a comparatively
early period bannerets whose claims were founded on personal
distinction rather than on feudal tenure gradually came to the
front, and much the same process of substitution appears to
have gone on in their case as that which we have marked in the
case of simple knights. According to the Sailed* and the
Division du Monde, as dted by Selden, bannerets were clearly
in the beginning feudal tenants of a certain magnitude and
importance and nothing more, and different forms for their
creation are given in time of peace and in time of war.* But
in the French Gesta Romanorum the warlike form alone is given,
and it is quoted by both Selden and Du Cange. From the latter
a more modern version of it is given by Daniel as the only one
generally in force.
The knight bachelor whose services and landed possessions
entitled him to promotion would apply formally to the com-
mander in the field for the title of banneret. If this were
granted, the heralds were called to cut publicly the tails from
his pennon: or the commander, as a special honour, might cut
them off with his own hands. 4 The earliest contemporary
mention of knights banneret b in France, Daniel says, in the
reign of Philip Augustus, and in England, Selden says in the
reign of Edward I. But in neither case is reference made to
them in such a manner as to suggest that the dignity was then
regarded as new or even uncommon, and it seems pretty certain
that its existence on one side could not have long preceded
its existence on the other side of the Channel. Sir Alan Plokenet,
Sir Ralph Daubeney and Sir Philip Daubeney are entered as
bannerets on the roll of the garrison of Caermarthen Castle in
1182, and the roll of Carlaverock records the names and arms
of eighty-five bannerets who accompanied Edward I. in his
expedition into Scotland in 1300.
What the exact contingent was which bannerets were expected
to supply to the royal host is doubtful.' But, however this may
be, In the reign of Edward 111. and afterwards bannerets appear
as the commanders of a military force raised by themselves and
marshalled under their banners: their status and their relations
both to the crown and to their followers were mainly the con-
sequences of voluntary contract not of feudal tenure. It is from
the reigns of Edward IIL and Richard IL also that the two
best descriptions we possess of the actual creation of a banneret
have been transmitted to us.* Sir Thomas Smith, writing
towards the end of the x6th century, says, after noticing the
conditions to be observed in the creation of bannerets, " but
this order is almost grown out of use in England " ; T and,
during the controversy which arose between the new order of
1 See " Project concemince the conferioge of the title of vidom,**
wherein it is said that " the title of vidom (vkedominut) was an
ancient title used in this kingdom of England both before and since
the Norman Conouest " {Stat* Papers, James L D o mestic Series,
Luii. 150 B. probable date April 161 1).
1 Selden, Titles of Honor, pp. 452 scq.
* Ibid. pp. 449 «cq.
• Du Cange, Dissertation, ix : Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 452;
Daniel, M tit it Francois*, L 86 (Paris, 1721).
* Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 656 : Grose. Military A niiquiHes, u. 206.
• FrotMart. Bk. Lch. 241 and Bk. ll.ch. 5J. The recipient » were
5!. T.u- ^-Mosand Si?Tho^ Triv.t.
of England led. 104*0, p. 48.
baronets -and the crown early in the 17th century respecting
their precedence, it was alleged without contradiction in an
argument on behalf of the baronets before the privy council
that " there are not bannerets now in being, peradventure
never shall be."* Sir Ralph Fane, Sir Francis Bryan and Sir
Ralph Sadler were created bannerets by the Lord Protector
Somerset after the battle of Pinkie in 1547, and the better
opinion is that this was the last occasion on which the dignity
was conferred. It has been stated indeed that Charles L
created Sir John Smith a banneret after the battle of EdgehiQ
in 164a for having rescued the royal standard from the enemy.
But of this there, is no sufficient proof. It was also supposed
that George IIL had created several naval officers bannerets
towards the end of the last century, because he knighted them
on board ship under the royal standard displayed. This,
however, is unquestionably an error. 9
On the continent of Europe the degree of knight bachelor
disappeared with the military system which had given rise to it
It is now therefore peculiar to the British Empire, BxtWug
where, although very frequently conferred by letters Qnjsraef
patent, it is yet the only dignity which is still even **•%***••*
occasionally created — as every dignity was formerly created— by
means of a ceremony in which the sovereign and the subject
personally take part. Everywhere else dubbing or the accolade
seems to have become obsolete, and no other specks of knight-
hood, if knighthood it can be called, is known except that which
is dependent on admission to some particular order. It b a
common error to suppose that baronets are hereditary knights.
Baronets are not knights unless they are knighted like anybody
eke; and, so far from being knights because they are baronets,
one of the privileges granted to them shortly after the institution
of their dignity was that they, not being knights, and their
successors and their eldest sons and heirs-apparent should, when
they attained their majority, be entitled if they desired to receive
knighUiood. 1 * It is a maxim of the law indeed that, as Coke
says, " the knight is by creation and not by descent,** and,
although we hear of such designations as the " knight of Kerry "
or the "knight of Glin," they are no more than traditional
nicknames, and do not by any means imply that the persons
to whom they are applied are knights in a legitimate *****
Notwithstanding, however, that simple knighthood has gone
out of use abroad, there are innumerable grand crosses, com-
manders and companions of a formidable assortment of orders
in almost every part of the world." (See the section on " Order*
of Knighthood " below.)
The United Kingdom has eight orders of knighthood — the
Garter, the Thistle, St Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India,
St Michael and St George, the Indian Empire and the Royal
Victorian Order; and, while the first is undoubtedly the oldest
as well as the most illustrious anywhere existing, a ociiitoes
antiquity has been claimed and is even still frequently «-*>™-iM
• State Papers, Domestic Series, Tames the First, IxvtL 1 to.
• ** Thursday. June 24th: Hb Klaiesty was pleased to cooler the
honour of knights banneret on the following nag officers and com-
manders under the royal standard, who kneeling kissed hands oa
the occasion: Admirals Pve and Sprye; Captains Knight, Bickntoa
and Vernon." Gentleman s Magazine (1773) xliiL 290. Sir Harris
Nicolas remarks on these and the other cases (BriHsk Orders <f
Knighthood, vol. xliK.) and Sir William Fitrherbert published anony-
mously a pamphlet on the subject, A Short Inquiry inio the Xssnrt
of the Titles conferred at Portsmouth, Ac, which is very scarce, but
is to be found under the name of M Fitzhexbert *' in toe catalogs*
of the British Museum Library.
""Sir Henry Ferrers, Baronet, was indicted by the nane of
Sir Henry Ferrers, Knight, for the murther of one Stone whom oee
Nightingale feloniously murthered, and that the said Sir He^ry
was present aiding and abetting, &c Upon this indkuneat S-r
Henry Ferrers being arraigned said he never was knighted, whkh
being confessed, the indictment was held not to be sufficient, where-
fore he was indicted de novo by the name of Sir Henry Ferrers.
Baronet." BrydaU. Jut Jmaginis apud Anglos, or the Lav of E*£>
land relating to the Nobility and Gentry (London, 1675), p. 20. CT.
Patent Rolls, 10 Jac I., pt. x. No. t8; Selden. TiOes of Honor, p. 6*;.
u Louis XIV. introduced the practice of dividing the menxEcr* of
military orders into several degrees when he established the order
of St Louis in 1693.
KNIGHTHOOD
857
to the second and fourth, although the third, fifth, sixth, seventh,
and eighth appear to be as contentedly as they are unquestion-
ably recent.
It Is, however, certain that the " most noble " Order of the
Garter at least was instituted in the middle of the 14th century,
_. f when English -chivalry was outwardly brightest and
tt« ovfen th* court most magnificent. But in what particular
year this event occurred is and has been the subject
of much difference of opinion. All the original records of the
order until after 1416 have perished, and consequently the ques-
tion depends for its settlement not on direct testimony but on
inference from circumstances. The dates which have been
selected vary from 1344 (given by Froissart, but almost cer-
tainly mistaken) to 1351. The evidence may be examined at
length in Nicolas and Belts; it is indisputable that In the
wardrobe account from September 1347 to January 1349,
the 21st and 93rd Edward III., the issue of certain habits
with garters and the motto embroidered on them b marked
for St George's Day; that the letters patent relating to
the preparation of the royal chapel of Windsor are dated .in
August 2348; and that in the treasury accounts of the prince
of Wales there is an entry in November 1348 of the gift by
him of "twenty-four garters to the knights of the Society
of the Garter." 1 But that the order, although from this mani-
festly already fuUy constituted in the autumn of 1348, was
not in existence before the summer of 1346 Sir Harris Nicolas
proves pretty conclusively by pointing out that nobody who was
not a knight could under its statutes have been admitted to it,
and that neither the prince of Wales nor several others of the
original companions were knighted until the middle of that
year.
Regarding the occasion there has been almost as much con-
troversy as regarding the date of its foundation. The " vulgar
and more general story," as Ashmole calls it, is that of the
countess of Salisbury's garter. But commentators are not at
one as to which countess of Salisbury was the heroine of the
adventure, whether she was Ratherine Montacute or Joan the
Fair Maid of Kent, while Heylyn rejects the legend as " a vain
and idle romance derogatory both to the founder and the order,
first published by Polydor Vergil, a stranger to the affairs of
England, and by him taken upon no better ground than fama
tulgi, the tradition of the common people, too trifling a founda-
tion for so great a building."*
Another legend is that contained in the preface to theRegister or
Black Book of the order, compiled in the reign of Henry VIII.,
by what authority supported is unknown, that Richard I.,
while his forces were employed against Cyprus and Acre, had
been inspired through the instrumentality of St George with
renewed courage and the means of animating his fatigued
soldiers by the device of tying about the legs of a chosen number
of knights a leathern thong or garter, to the end that being
thereby reminded of the honour of their enterprise. they might be
encouraged to redoubled efforts for victory. This was supposed
to have been in the mind of Edward III. when he fixed on the
garter as the emblem of the order, and it was stated so to have
been by Taylor, master of the rolls, in his address to Francis I. of
France on his investiture in 1527.' According to Ashmole the
true account of the matter is that "King Edward having
given forth his own garter as the signal for a battle which
sped fortunately (which with Du Chesne we conceive to be that
of Crecy), the victory, we say, being happily gained, he thence
took occasion to institute this order, and gave the garter
(assumed by him for the symbol of unity and society) pre-
eminence among the ensigns of it. But, as Sir Harris
Nicolas points out — although Ashmole is not open to the
correction — this hypothesis rests for its plausibility on the
assumption that Xhe order was established before the invasion of
1 G. F. Belts, Memorials of the Most Noble Order of the Garter (1841),
p. 385-
* Heylyn, Cosmogrmphie and History of the Whole World, bk. i.
p. 286.
' Bcltz, Memorials,- p. xlvi.
France in 1346. And he further observes that M a great variety
of devices and mottoes were used by Edward III.; they were
chosen from the most trivial causes and were of an amorous
rather than Of a military character. Nothing," he adds, " is
more likely than that in a crowded assembly a lady should
accidentally have dropped her garter; that the circumstance
should have caused a smile in the bystanders; and that on its
being taken up by Edward he should have reproved the levity of
his courtiers by so happy and chivalrous an exclamation, placing
the garter at the same time on his own knee, as ' Dishonoured be
he who thinks ill of it.' Such a circumstance occurring at a time
of general festivity, when devices, mottoes and conceits of all
kinds were adopted as ornaments or badges of the habits worn at
jousts and tournaments, would naturally have been commemo-
rated as other royal expressions seem to have been by its con-
version into a device and motto for the dresses at an approaching
hastilude." 4 Moreover, Sir Harris Nicolas contends that the,
order had no loftier immediate origin than a joust or tour-
nament. It consisted of the king and the Black Prince, and
24 knights divided into two bands of 12 like the tilters in a
hastilude — at the head of the one being the first, and of the other
the second; and to the companions belonging to each, when the
order had superseded the Round Table and had become a per-
manent institution, were assigned stalls either on the sovereign's
or the prince's side of St George's Chapel. That Sir Harris
Nicolas is accurate in this conjecture seems probable from the
selection which, was made of the " founder knights." As Bcltz
observes, the fame of Sir Reginald Cobham, Sir Walter Manny
and the earls of Northampton, Hereford and Suffolk was already
established by their warlike exploits, and they would certainly
have been among the original companions had the order been
then regarded as the reward of military merit only. But,
although these eminent warriors were subsequently elected as
vacancies occurred, their admission was postponed to that of
several very young and in actual warfare comparatively unknown
knights, whose claims to the honour may be most rationally
explained on the assumption that they had excelled in the
particular feats of arms which preceded the institution of the
order. The original companionship bad consisted of the sove-
reign and 25 knights, and no change was made in this respect
until 1786, when the sons of George III. and his successors
were made eligible notwithstanding that the chapter might be
complete. In 1805 another alteration was effected by the pro-
vision that the lineal descendants of George II. should be
eligible in the same manner, except the Prince of Wales for the
time being, who was declared to be " a constituent part of the
original institution "; and again m 183 1 it was further ordained
that the privilege accorded to the lineal descendants of George II.
should extend to the lineal descendants of George I. Although,
as Sir Harris Nicolas observes, nothing is now known of the
form of admitting ladies into the order, the description applied
to them in the records during the 14th and 15th centuries leaves
no doubt that they were regularly received into it. The queen
consort, the wives and daughters of knights, and some other
women of exalted position, were designated. " Dames de la
Fraternite* de St George," and entries of the delivery of robes
and garters to them are found at intervals in the Wardrobe
Accounts from the 50th Edward III. (1376) to the 10th of
Henry VU. (1405), the nret being Isabel, countess of Bedford,
the daughter of the one king, and the last being Margaret and
Elizabeth, the daughters of the other king. The effigies of
Margaret Byron, wife of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., at Stanton
Har court, and of Alice Chaucer, wife of William de la Pole,
duke of Suffolk, K.G., at Ewelme, which date from the reigns
of Henry VI. and Edward IV., have garters on their left arms.
(See further under " Orders of Knighthood " below.)
It has been the general opinion, as expressed by Sainte Palaye
and Mills, that formerly all knights were qualified to confer
knighthood.* But it may be questioned whether the privilege
4 Orders of Knighthood, vol. L p. Ixxxiii.
• Memoires, i. 67, i. 22 ; History of Chivalry, Gibbon, Decline and
Fall, vii. 2O0|
8s8
KNIGHTHOOD
(was thus indiscriminately enjoyed even in the etriier days
of chivalry. It is true that as much might be inferred from
fWn— the testimony of the romance writers; historical
NVPwMtf evidence, however, tends to limit the proposition, and
rLftSfjIarf lDC soun( ^ er conclusion appears to be, as Sir Harris
■■*■'■••* Nicolas says, that the right was always restricted
in operation to sovereign princes, to those acting under their
authority or sanction, and to a few other personages of exalted
rank and station. 1 In several of the writs for distraint of knight-
hood from Henry III. to Edward III. a distinction is drawn
between those who are to be knighted by the king himself or
by the sheriffs of counties respectively, and bishops and abbots
could make knights in the uth and 12th centuries. 1 At all
periods the commanders of the royal armies had the power of
conferring knighthood; as late as the reign of Elizabeth it was
exercised among others by Sir Henry Sidney in 1583, and Robert,
earl of Essex, in 1595, while under James L an ordinance of
162a, confirmed by a proclamation of 1623, for the registration
of knights in the college of arms, is rendered applicable to all
who should receive knighthood from either the king or any of
his lieutenants.' Many sovereigns, too, both of England and
of France, have been knighted after their accession to the
throne by their own subjects, as, for instance, Edward III. by
Henry, earl of Lancaster, Edward VI. by the lord protector
Somerset, Louis XI. by Philip, duke of Burgundy, and Francis L
by the Chevalier Bayard. But when in 1543 Henry VIII.
appointed Sir John Wallop to be captain of Guisnes, it was
considered necessary that he should be authorized in express
terms to confer knighthood, which was also done by Edward VI.
in his own case when he received knighthood from the duke of
Somerset. 4 But at present the only subject to whom the right
of conferring knighthood belongs is the lord-lieutenant of
Ireland, and to him it belongs merely by long usage and
established custom. But, by whomsoever conferred, knight-
hood at one time endowed the recipient with the same status
and attributes in every country wherein chivalry was recognized.
In the middle ages it was a common practice for sovereigns and
princes to dub each other knights much as they were after-
wards, and are now, in the habit of exchanging the stars and
ribbons of their orders. Henry n. was knighted by his great-
uncle Da,vid L of Scotland, Alexander 1IL of Scotland by
Henry IIL, Edward I. when he was prince by Alphonso X. of
Castile, and Ferdinand of Portugal by Edmund of Langley,
earl of Cambridge.' And, long after the military importance
of knighthood had practically disappeared, what may be called
its cosmopolitan character was maintained: a knight's title was
recognized in all European countries, and not only in that
country in which he had received it. In modern times, how-
ever, by certain regulations, made in 1823, and repeated and
enlarged in 1855, not only is it provided that the sovereign's
permission by royal warrant shall be necessary for the reception
by a British subject of any foreign order of knighthood, but
further that such permission shall not authorize " the assump-
tion of any style, appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege
appertaining to a knight bachelor of the United Kingdom."'
Since knighthood was accorded either by actual investiture
or its equivalent, a counter process of degradation was regarded
Dundm< as necessary for the purpose of depriving anybody
0** who had once received it of the rank and condition
it implied. 7 The cases in which a knight has been formally
degraded in England are exceedingly few, so few indeed that
two only are mentioned by Segar, writing in 1602, and Dallaway
1 Orders ofKnitktkood, voL i. p. xL
* Sclden. TitUs of Honor, p. 638.
* Harleian MS. 6063; Hargrave MS. 325.
•Patent Rolls t 35th Hen. VIII., pt. xvl. No. 24; Burnet. Hist.
of Reformation, 1. 15.
•Spclman, " De mtlite diaaertatio." Posthumous Works, p. 181.
* London Gazette, December 6, 1823, and May 15, 1855.
7 On the Continent very elaborate ceremonies, partly heraldic
and partly religious, were observed in the degradation of a knight,
which are described by Sainte Palaye, Momoirts, L316 sea- and
•iter nimby MMm. History of Ck*»oJry,L 60 s*n. Cf. Titles of Honor,
P- 633
says that only three were on record In the College of Anns when
he wrote in 1793, The last case was that of Sir Francis Mkbefl
in 1621, whose spurs were hacked from his heels, his sword-belt
cut, and his sword broken over his head by the heralds in
Westminster Hall*
Roughly speaking, the age of chivalry properly so called may
be said to have extended from the beginning of the crusades to
the end of the Wars of the Roses. Even in the way of pageantry
and martial exercise it did not long survive the middle ages.
In England tilts and tourneys, in which her father had so reach
excelled, were patronized to the last by Queen Elizabeth, and
were even occasionally held until after the death of Henry,
prince of Wales. But on the Continent they were diwrrdilad
by the fatal accident which befell Henry II. of France in 159a,
The golden age of chivalry has been variously located. Most
writers would place it in the early 13th century, but Gentler
would remove it two or three generations further back. It may
be true that, in the comparative scarcity of historical evidence,
12th-century romances present a more favourable picture of
chivalry at that earlier time; but even such historical evidence as
we possess, when carefully scrutinized, is enough to dispel the
illusion that there was any period of the middle ages in which the
unselfish championship of '"God and the ladies " was anything
but a rare exception.
It is difficult to describe the true spirit and moral infhs-
ence of knighthood, if only because the ages in which it
flourished differed so widely from our own. At .its very
best, it was always hampered by the limitations of medieval
society. Moreover, many of the noblest precepts of the knightly
code were a legacy from earlier ages, and have survived the
decay of knighthood just as they will survive all transitory
human institutions, forming part of the eternal heritage of the
race. Indeed, the most important of these precepts did not
even attain to their highest development in the middle ages.'
As a conscious effort to bring religion into daily life, chivalry
was less successful than later puritanism; while the educated
classes of our own day far surpass the average medieval knight
in discipline, self-control and outward or inward refinement.
Freeman's estimate comes far nearer to the historical facts than
Burke's: " The chivalrous spirit is above all things a das* spirit
The good knight is bound to endless fantastic courtesies towards
men and still more towards women of a certain rank; he may
treat all below that rank with any decree of scorn and cruelty.
The spirit of chivalry implies the arbitrary choke of one or two
virtues to be practised in such an exaggerated degree as to
become vices, while the ordinary laws of right and wrong as
forgotten. The false code of honour supplants the lawn of the
commonwealth, the law of God and the eternal prindples of
right. Chivalry again in its military aspect not only enco u r ag es
the love of war for its own sake without regard to the cause isr
which war is waged, it encourages also an extravagant regasd
for a fantastic show of personal daring which cannot in any way
advance the objects of the siege or campaign which is going on.
Chivalry in short is in morals very much what feudalism h is
law: each substitutes purely personal obligations devised in the
interests of an exclusive class, for the more homely duties of as
honest man and a good citizen " (Norman Conquest, v. ♦&»).
The chivalry from which Burke drew his ideas was, so far as it
existed at all, the product of a far later age. In its owns age,
chivalry rested practically, like the highest civilisation of
ancient Greece and Rome, on slave labour;* and if many of ia
* Dallaway's Heraldry, p. 303.
* Even in 13th century England more than hah* the
were serfs, and as such had no daim to the privileges
Carta; disputes between a serf and his lord were dec
tatter's court, although the king's courts attempted to protect the
serf's life and limb and necessary implements of work. By Freer*
feudal Jaw, the villein had no appeal from his lord saw to God
(Pierre de Fontaines, Conseit, ch. xxL art. 8); and, though ooouwoa
•enx and natural good feeling set bounds in most cases to rac
tyranny of the nobles, yet there was scarcely any injustice too grow
to be possible. " How mad are they who exalt when sons asw bora
to their lords ! *' wrote Cardinal Jacques de Vitry early ia the ijts
century (Exompla, p. 64, Folk Lore Soc 1890).
KNIGHTHOOD
859
most brilliant outward attraction* have now faded for ever,
this is only because modern civilization tends so strongly to
remove social barriers. The knightly ages will always enjoy the
glory of having formulated a code of honour which aimed at
rendering the upper classes worthy of their exceptional privileges;
yet we must judge chivalry not only by its formal code but also
by its practical fruits. The ideal is well summed up by F. W.
Cornish: " Chivalry taught the world the duty of noble service
willingly rendered. It upheld courage and enterprise in obedi-
ence to rule, it consecrated military prowess to the service of the
Church, glorified the virtues of liberality, good faith, unselfish*
ness and courtesy, and above all, courtesy to women. Against
these may be set the vices of pride, ostentation, love of bloodshed,
contempt of inferiors, and loose manners. Chivalry was an im-
perfect discipline, but it was a discipline, and one fit for the
times. It may have existed in the world too long: it did not
come into existence too early; and with all its shortcomings it
exercised a great and wholesome influence in raising the medieval
world from barbarism to civilization" (p. 27). This was the
ideal, but to give the reader a clear view of the actual features
of knightly society in their contrast with that of our own day,
it is necessary to bring out one or two very significant
shadows.
Far too much has been made of the extent to which the
knightly code, and the reverence paid to the Virgin Mary,
raised the position of women (e.g. Gautier, p. 360). As Gamier
himself admits, the feudal system made it difficult to separate
the woman's person from her fief: instead of the freedom of
Christian marriage on which the Church in theory insisted,
lands and women were handed over together, as a business
bargain, by parents or guardians. In theory, the knight was
the defender of widows and orphans; but in practice wardships
and marriages were bought and sold as a matter of everyday
routine like stocks and shares in the modern market. Lord
Thomas de Berkeley (1245-1321) counted on this as a regular
and considerable source of income (Smyth, Lives, I 157).
Late in the 15th century, in spite of the somewhat greater
liberty of that age, we find Stephen Scrope writing nakedly to
a familiar correspondent "for very need [of poverty), I was
fain to sell a little daughter I have for much less than I should
have done by possibility," i*. than the fair market price
(Gairdner, PasUm Letters, Introduction, p. dxxvi; cf. ccclxxi).
Startling as such words are, it is perhaps still more startling to
find how frequently and naturally, in the highest society, ladies
were degraded by personal violence. The proofs of this which
Schulu and Gautier adduce from the Chansons de Gtste might
be multiplied indefinitely. The Knight of La Tour-Landry
(1372) relates, by way of warning to his daughters, a tale of a
lady who so irritated her husband by scolding him in company,
that he struck her to the earth with his fist and kicked her in
the face, breaking her nose. Upon this the good knight moralises:
"And this she had for her euelle and gret langage, that she was
wont to saie to her husbonde* And therfor the wiff aught to
sufire and lete her husbonde haue the wordes, and to be maister,
for that is her worshippe; for it is shame to here striff betwene
hem, and in especial before folke. But y saie not but whanne
thei be allone, but she may tolle hym with goodly wordes, and
counsaile hym to amende yef he do amy* " (La Tour, chap,
xviii.; cf. xvii. and xix.). The right Of wife-beating was
formally recognised by more than one code of laws, and it
was already a forward step when, in the 13th century, the
Centimes du Beauooisis provided " que le man ne doit battre
sa femme que raisonnaUcment " (Gautier, p. 340). This was a
natural consequence "not only of the want of self-control which
we see everywhere in the middle ages, but also of the custom
of contracting child-marriages for unsentimental considerations.
Between 1288 and 1500 five marriages are recorded in the direct
line of the Berkeley family in which the ten contracting parties
averaged less than eleven years of age: the marriage contract
of another Lord Berkeley was drawn up before be was six years
old.' Moreover, the same business considerations which dictated
.those early marriages, clashed eoua&y with the strict theory of
knighthood. In the same Berkeley family , the lord Maurice IV.
was knighted in 1338 at the age of seven to avoid the possible
evils of wardship, and Thomas V. for the same reason in 1476
at the age of five. Smyth's record of this great family shows
that, from the middle of the 13th century onwards, the lords
were not only statesmen and warriors, but still more distinguished
as gentlemen-farmers on a great scale, even selling fruit from
the castle gardens, while their ladies would go round on tours
of inspection from dairy to dairy. The lord Thomas IIL
(1326-1361), who was noted as a special lover of tournaments,
spent in two years only £00, or an average of about £15 per
tournament; yet he was then laying money by at the rate of
£450 a year, and, a few years later, at the rate of £1150, or
nearly half his income I Indeed, economic causes contributed
much to the decay of romantic chivalry. The old families had
lost heavily from generation to generation, partly by personal
extravagances, but also by gradual alienations oi land to the
Church and by the enormous expenses of the crusades. Already,
in the 13th century, they were hard pressed by the growing
wealth of the burghers, and even the greatest nobles could
scarcely keep up their state without careful business manage-
ment. It is not surprising therefore, to find that at least as
early as the middle of the 13th century the commercial side
of knighthood became very prominent. Although by the code
of chivalry no candidate could be knighted before the age of
twenty-one, we have seen how great nobles like the Berkeleys
obtained that honour for their infant heirs in order to avoid
possible pecuniary loss; and French writers of the 14th century
complained of this knighting of infants as a common and serious
abuse. 1 Moreover, after the knight's liability to personal service
in war had been modified in the 12th century by the scutage
system, it became necessary in the first quarter of the 13th to
compel landowners to take up the knighthood which in theory
they should have coveted as an honour — a compulsion which
was soon systematically enforced {Distraint of Knighthood, 1278),
and became a recognised source of royal income. An indirect
effect of this system* was to break down another rule of the
chivalrous code— that none could be dubbed who was not of
gentle birth.* This rule, however, had often been broken
before; even the romances of chivalry speak not infrequently
of the knighting of serfs ot jongleurs;* and other causes besides
distraint of knighthood tended to level the old distinctions.
While knighthood was avoided by poor nobles, it was coveted
by rich citizens. It is recorded in 1208 as " an immemorial
custom " in Provence that rich burghers enjoyed the honour
of knighthood; and less than a century later we find Sacchetti
complaining that the dignity is open to any rich upstart, however
disreputable his antecedents. 6 Similar causes contributed to
the decay of knightly ideas in warfare. Even in the x 2th century,
when war was still rather the pastime of kings and knights than
1 Sainte Palaye, ii. 90.
■Medley, Entlish Constitutional History (2nd ed., pp. 291, 466),'
suggests that Edward might have deliberately calculated this degrada-
tion of the older feudal ideal.
• Being made to '• ride the barriers " was the penalty for anybody
who attempted to take part in a tournament without the qualification
^ , ~...».-,~ ,.,.._.„
(J
ch
in
na
hood, i. 5.)
4 Gautier, pp. si, 249.
* Du Cange, s.o. miles (ed.*Didot, t. iv.'o." 402}; Sacchetti, Novella,
cliii. AH the medieval orders of knighthood, however, insisted ia
their statutes on the noble birth of the candidate.
86o
KNIGHTHOOD
{ORDERS
a national effort, the strict code of chivalry -was more honoured
in the breach than in the observance. 1 But when the Hundred
Years' War brought a real national conflict between England
and France, when archery became of supreme importance, and
a large proportion even of the cavalry were mercenary soldiers,
then the exigencies of serious warfare swept away much of that
outward display and those class-conventions on which chivalry
had always rested. Simeon Luce (chap, vi.) has shown how
much toe English successes in this war were due to strict business
methods. Several of the best commanders (e.g. Sir Robert
Knolles and Sir Thomas Dagwortb) were of obscure birth, while
on the French side even Du Guesclin had to wait long for his
knighthood because he belonged only to the lesser nobility. The
tournament again, which for two centuries had been under the
ban of the Church, was often almost as definitely discouraged
by Edward III. as it was encouraged by John of France; and
while John's father opened the Crecy campaign by sending
Edward a challenge in due form of chivalry, Edward took
advantage of this formal delay to amuse the French king with
negotiations while he withdrew his army by a rapid march from
an almost hopeless position. A couple of quotations from
Froissart will illustrate the extent to which war had now become
a mere business. Much as he admired the French chivalry, he
recognized their impotence at Crecy. "The sharp arrows
ran into the men of arms and into their horses, and many fell,
horse and men. . . . And also among the Englishmen there
were certain rascals that went afoot with great knives, and they
went in among the men of arms, and slew and murdered many
as they lay on the ground, both earls, barons, knights and
squires, whereof the king of England was after displeased,
for be had rather they had been taken prisoners." How far
Edward's solicitude was disinterested may be gauged from
Froissart's parallel remark about the battle of Aljubarroia,
where, as at Agincourt, the handful of victors were obliged by a
sudden panic to slay their prisoners. " Lo, behold the great
evil adventure that fell that Saturday. For they slew as many
good prisoners as would well have been worth, one with another,
four hundred thousand franks." .In 140s Lord Thomas de
Berkeley bought, as a speculation, 24 Scottish prisoners.
Similar practical considerations forced the nobles of other
European countries either to conform to less sentimental
methods of warfare and to growing conceptions of nationality,
or to become mere Ishmaeis of the type which outlived the
middle ages in Gots von Berlichingen and his compeers.
d.
Orders of Knichthood
When orders ceased to be fraternities and became more and
more marks of favour and a means of recognizing meritorious
1 Lecoy de la March* (Ckatrefranfaise cm meyen Ap, 2nd ed., p. $87)
gives many instances to prove that "al chevakne. au jriii* steckr,
est deji stir son dActtn." But already about 1160 Peter of Blais
ha J written. " The so-called order of knighthood is nowadays mere
disorder " (erdo mtilthtm nunc est, or din e m mm tenere. £p- xcrv.:
the waole letter should be read); and. naif a century earner still,
i.uiuert of Nogeut gives an equally unflattering picture of con*
temper**- u '- -' Hi& X>< Mia xaa (ntjgne. Pal. Z«i* torn. dvi.). •
services to the Crown and cotmtry, the term "orders"
loosely applied to the insignia and decorations themselves.
Thus " orders," irrespective of the title or other specific desig-
nation they confer, fall in Great Britain generally into three
main categories, according as the recipients are made u knights
grand cross," "knights commander," or "companions." In
some orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal
Victorian, for instance, which has five, numerous foreign orders
a like number, some six, while the Chinese M Dragon " boasts no
less than eleven degrees. Generally speaking, the insignia of the
" knights grand cross " consist of a star worn on the left breast
and a badge, usually some form either of the cross patie or of
the Maltese cross, worn suspended from a ribbon over the
shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial
from a collar. The " commanders " wear the badge from a
ribbon round the neck, and the star on the breast; the " com-
panions " have no star and wear the badge from a narrow
ribbon at the button-hole. * '
Orders may, again, be groaned according as they are (1) Panes
Orders op Christendom, conferred upon an exclusive class
only. .Here belong, inter otis, the well-known orders of the
Carter (England), Golden Fleece (Austria and Spain), Anwmnrinta
(Italy), Black Eagle (Prussia), St Andrew (Russia), EUpkant
(Denmark) and Seraphim (Sweden). Of these the first three
only, which are usually held to rank inter se in the order given,
are historically identified with chivalry. (2) Family Orders,
bestowed upon members of the royal or princely class, or upon
humbler individuals according to classes, in respect of " per-
sonal " services rendered to the family. To this category belong
such orders as the Royal Victorian and the Hohenaoflera
(Prussia). (3) Orders of Meht, whether military, crril
or joint orders. Such have, as a rule, at least thvee, oftener
five classes, and here belong such as the Order 0/ the 3aA
(British), Red Eagle (Prussia), Legion of Honour (France).
There are also certain orders, such as the recently instituted
Order of Merit (British), and the Pour U Merit* (Prussia), which
have but one class, all members being on an equality of rank
within the order.
Of the three great military and religions, orders, branches
survive of two, the Teutonic Order (Dor koJu dentscke Ritter Orden
or Uarxanen Orden) and the Knights of St John of Jerusalem
(Jokanniter Orden, Malteser Orden), for the history of which and
the present state see Teutonic Order and St John or Jeru-
salem, Knights -or the Order or.
Great Britain. — The history and constitution of the " most
noble " Order of the Garter has been treated above. The officers
of the order are five — Che prelate, chancellor,, registrar, king of
arms and usher— the first, third and fifth having been attached
to it from the commencement, while the fourth was added by
Henry V. and the second by Edward IV. The prelate has
always been the bishop of Winchester; the chancellor was
formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but is now the bishop of
Oxford; the regbtrarshJp and the deanery of Windsor have
been united since the reign of Charles I.; the. king of arms,.
whose duties were in the beginning discharged by Windsor
herald, is Garter Principal King of Arms; and the usher is the
gentleman usher of the Black Rod. The chapel of the order
is St George's Chapel, Windsor, The insignia of the order are
illustrated on Plate L
The " most ancient " Order of tie Thistle was founded by
James IL in 1687, and dedicated to St Andrew. It consisted
of the sovereign and eight knights connjaiuons, and leal into
abeyance at the Revolution of 1688. In 1703 it was revived
by Queen Anne, when it was ordained to consist of the
sovereign and is knights companions, the number being in-
creased to 16 by statute in 1827. The officers of the order
are the dean, the secretary, Lyon King of Arms and the
gentleman usher of the Green Rod. % The chapd, in St G3ess,
Edinburgh, was begun in 1000. •The*' star, badge and ribbon of
the order are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 5 and 6. The collar
b formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of me, and ihs
motto is Nemo me impune Sacessu\
0KDBR31
KNIGHTHOOD
861
The M most illustrious " Order of St Patrick was instituted
by George IIL in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the lord
lieutenant of Ireland as grand master and 1 5 knights companions,
enlarged to 22 in 1833. The chancellor of the order is the chief
secretary to the lord lieutenant of Ireland, and the king of arms
is Ulster King of Arms; Black Rod is the usher. The chapel
is in St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin. The star, badge and
ribbon are illustrated on Plate II., figs. 7 and 8. The collar is
formed of alternate roses with red and white leaves, and gold
harps linked by .gold knots; the badge is suspended from a
harp surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown. The motto
is Quis separabU t
The " most honourable " Order of the Bath was established
by George I. in 172$, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master
and 36 knights companions. This was a pretended revival of
an order supposed to have been created by Henry IV. at his
coronation in 1390. But, as has been shown in the preceding
section, no such order existed. Knights of the Bath, although
they were allowed precedence before knights bachelors, were
merely knights bachelors who were knighted with more elaborate
ceremonies than others and on certain great occasions. In
1815 the order was instituted, in three classes, " to commemorate
the auspicious termination of the long and arduous contest in
which the Empire has been engaged "; and in 1847 the civil
knights commanders ano> companions were added. Exclusive
of the sovereign, royal princes and distinguished foreigners, the
order is limited to 55 military and 27 civil knights grand cross,
145 military and xoS civil knights commanders, and 705 military
and 298 civil companions. The officers of the order are the
dean (the dean of Westminster), Bath King of Arms, the regis-
trar, and the usher of the Scarlet Rod. The ribbon and
badges of the knights grand cross (civil and military) and the
stars are illustrated on Plate II., figs, x, 2, 3 and 4.
The " most distinguished " Order af St Michael and St George
was founded by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in
1818, in commemoration of the British protectorate of the
Ionian Islands, " for natives of the Ionian Islands and of the
island of Malta and its dependencies, and for such other subjects
of his majesty as may bold high and confidential situations in'
the Mediterranean." By statute of 1832 the lord high commis-
sioner of the Ionian Islands was to be the grand master, and
the order was directed to consist of 15 knights grand crosses,
20 knights commanders and 25 cavaliers or companions. After
the repudiation of the British protectorate of the Ionian
Islands, the order was placed on a new basis, and by letters
patent of 1868 and 1877 it was extended and provided for such
of "the natural born subjects of the Crown of the United
Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential
offices within her majesty's colonial possessions, and in reward
for services rendered to the crown in relation to the foreign affairs
of the Empire." It is now (by the enlargement of 1002) limited to
100 knights grand cross, of whom the first or principal is grand
master, exclusive of extra and honorary members, of 300 knights
commanders and 600 companions. The officers are the prelate,
chancellor, registrar, secretary and officer of arms. The chapel
of the order, in St Paul's Cathedral, was dedicated in 1006.
The badge of the knights grand cross and the ribbon arc illus-
trated on Plate EL, figs. 9 and 10. The star of the knights
grand cross is a seven-rayed star of silver with a small ray of
gold between each, in the centre is a red St George's cross
bearing a medallion of St Michael encountering Satan, sur-
rounded by a blue fillet with the motto Auspicium wulioris
aevi.
The Order of St Michael and St George ranks between the
" most exalted " Order of the Star of India and the " most
eminent " Order of the Indian Empire, of both of which the
viceroy of India, for the time being is ex officio grand master.
Of these the first was instituted in x86i and enlarged in 1876.
1897 and j 903, in three classes, knights grand commanders,
knights commanders and companions, and the second was
established (for " companions " only) in 1878 and enlarged in
1887, 1892, 1897 and X003, also in the same three classes, in
commemoration of Queen Victoria's assumption of the imperial
style and title of the Empress of India. Tne badges, stars and
ribbons of the knights grand commanders of the two orders are
illustrated on Plate III., figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6. Tne collar of the
Star of India is composed of alternate links of the lotus flower,
red and white roses and palm branches enamelled on gold, with
an imperial crown in the centre; that of the Indian Empire is
composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses.
The Royal Victorian Order was instituted by Queen Victoria
on the 25th of April 1806, and conferred for personal services
rendered to her majesty and her successors on the throne. It
consists of the sovereign, chancellor, secretary and five classes—
knights grand commanders, knights commanders, commanders
and members of the fourth and fifth classes, the distinction
between these last divisions lying in the badge and in the
precedence enjoyed by the members. The knights of this
order rank in their respective classes immediately after those
of the Indian Empire, and its numbers are unlimited. The
badge, star and ribbon of the knights grand cross are illustrated
on Plate III., figs. 1 and 2.
To the class of orders without the titular appellation " knight "
belongs the Order of Merit, founded by King Edward VII. on the
occasion of his coronation. The order is founded on the lines
of the Prussian Ordre pour le mirite (see below), yet more com-
prehensive, including those who have gained distinction in the
military and naval services of the Empire, and such as have
made themselves a great name in the fields of science, art and
literature. The number of British members has been fixed at
twenty-four, with the addition of such foreign persons as the
sovereign shall appoint. The names of the first recipients
were: Earl Roberts, Viscount Wolseley, Viscount Kitchener,
Sir Henry Keppel, Sir Edward Seymour, Lord Lister, Lord
Rayleigh, Lord Kelvin, John Morley, W. E. H. Lecky, G. F.
Watts and Sir William Huggins. The only foreign recipients
up to iqxo were Field Marshals Yamagata and Oyama and
Admiral Togo. A lady, Miss Florence Nightingale, received tho
order in 1907. The badge is a cross of red and blue enamel sur-
mounted by an imperial crown; the central blue medallion bears
the inscription " For Merit " in gold, and is surrounded by a
wreath of laurel The badge of the military and naval mem*
bers bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The
ribbon is garter blue and crimson and is worn round the neck.
The Distinguished Service Order, an order of military merit, was
founded oa the 6th of September 1886 by Queen Victoria, its object
being to recognize the special services of officers in the army and
navy. Its numbers are unlimited, and its designation the fetters
D.S.O. It consists of one class only, who take precedence imme-
diately after the 4th class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge
is a white and gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial
crown surrounded by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red edged
with blue. The Imperial Service Order was likewise instituted 00
the 26th of June 1902, and finally revised in 1008, to commemorate
King^ Edward's coronation, and is specially designed as*a recognition
of faithful and meritorious services rendered to the British Crown by
the administrative members of the civil service in various parts of
the Empire, and is to consist of companions only. The numbers are
have the distinction of adding the letters I.S.O. after their names.
In precedence the order ranks after the Distinguished Service Order,
The badge is a gold medallion bearing the royal cipher and the words
" For Faithful Service " in blue; for men it rests on a silver star, for
women it k surrounded by a silver wreath. The ribbon is one blue
between two crimson stripes.
In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined to
ladies. The Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, which was instituted
in 1862. is a purely court distinction. It consists of four classes,
and it has as designation the letters V.A. The Imperial Order of the
Crown of India is conferred for like purposes as the Order of the
Indian Empire. Its primary object is to recognize the services of
ladies connected with the court of India. The letters CI. are its
designation.
The sovereign's permission by roya^ warrant is necessary before
a British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For
other decorations, see under Medals.
The Golden Fleece (La Toison d'Or) ranks historically and faj
distinction as one of the great knightly orders of Europe. It is
862
KNIGHTHOOD
PRDEXS
now divided into two branches, of Austria and Spain. It was
founded on the xoth of January, 1429/30 by Philip the Good,
duke of Burgundy, on the day of his marriage with Isabella of
Portugal at Bruges, in bcr honour and dedicated to the Virgin and
St Andrew. No certain origin can be given for the name. It
teems to have been in dispute even in the early history of the
order. Four different sources have been suggested, the
classical myth of the voyage of Jason and the Argonauts for
the golden fleece, the scriptural story of Gideon, the staple trade
of Flanders in wool, and the fleece of golden hair of Marie de
Rambrugge, the duke's mistress. Motley (Rise of Dutch Rep.,
i. 48) says: " What could be more practical and more devout
than the conception? Did not the Lamb of God, suspended
at each knight's heart, symbolise at once the woollen fabrics
to which so much of Flemish wealth and Burgundian power was
owing, and the gentle humility of Christ which was ever to
characterise the order?" At its constitution the number of
the knights was limited to 24, exclusive of the grand master,
the sovereign. The members were to be gentUshommes de
nom et formes et sans rtprocke, not knights of any other
order, and vowed to join their sovereign in the defence of the
Catholic faith, the protection of Holy Church, and the upholding
of virtue and good morals. The sovereign undertook to consult
the knights before embarking on a war, all disputes between
the knights were to be settled by the order, at each chapter the
deeds of each knight were held in review, and punishments and
admonitions were dealt out to offenders; to this the sovereign
was expressly subject. Thus we find that the emperor Charles V.
accepted humbly the criticism of the knights of the Fleece on
his over-centralization of the government and the wasteful
personal attention to details (£. A. Armstrong, Charles V. % 1902,
h\ 373). The knights could claim as of right to be tried by
their fellows on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and
Charles V. conferred on the order exclusive jurisdiction over all
crimes committed by the knights. The arrest of the offender
had to be by warrant signed by at least six knights, and during
the process of charge and trial be remained not in prison but
dans VaiutabU compagnie du dit ordre. It was in defiance of
this right that Alva refused the claim of Counts Egmont and
Horn to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. During
the 1 6th century the order frequently acted as a consultative
body in the state; thus in 1530 and 1540 Charles summons the
knights with the council of state and the privy council to decide
what steps should be taken in face of the revolt of Ghent (Arm-
strong, op. cit., i. 302), in 1562 Margaret of Parma, the regent,
summons them to Brussels to debate the dangerous condition
of the provinces (Motley, i. 48), and they were present at
the abdication of Charles in the great hall at Brussels in 1555.
The history of the order and its subsequent division into the
two branches of Austria and Spain may be briefly summarized.
By the marriage of Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of
Burgundy to Maximilian, archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand
mastership of the order came to the house of Habsburg and,
with the Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504 on the accession
of Philip, Maximilian's son, to Castile. On the extinction of
the Habsburg dynasty in Spain by the death of Charles II. in
1700 the grand-mastership, which had been filled by the kings
of Spain after the loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the
emperor Charles VI., and he instituted the order in Vienna
in 1 7 13. Protests were made at various times by Philip V.,
but the question has never been finally decided by treaty, and
the Austrian and Spanish branches have continued as indepen-
dent orders ever since as the principal order of knighthood in
the respective states. It may be noticed that while the Austrian
branch excludes any other than Roman Catholics from the
order, the Spanish Fleece may be granted to Protestants. The
badges of the two branches vary slightly in detail, more par-
ticularly in the attachment of fire-stones (fusils or fur isons) and
•I eels by which the fleece is attached to the ribbon of the collar.
The Spanish form is given on Plate IV., fig. a. The collar h
composed of alternate links of furisons and double steels
tatttUoed to form the letter B for Burgundy. A magnificent
exhibition of relics, portraits of knights and other objects con-
nected with the order of the Golden Fleece was held at Bruges
in X007.
The chief history of the order is Baron de RetfFenberg's Ristoin
de VOrdre de la Toison d'Or (1 830); see also en article by Sir J.
Balfour Paul, Lyon King of Arms, in the Scottish Historical Renew
A ustria- Hungary. —
than that of the Cold
Hungary, the royal Ht
Maria Theresa, consi
knights grand cross, 2
baaee is a green enam
the Hungarian crown
the cross bears a whi
green mound ; on eithc
and the whole is su
Publicum Meritorum I
central stripe. Theco
Eold, and consists of i
y the monograms of !
centre of the collar is 1
Siringit amore. An i
given on Plate V. fig. -
service, was founded i
of his father Leopold
after the correspondii
badge is a red ename
surmounted by the in
bears the letters F.l.
inscription Integritati
the cross rests on a gr
two white stripes,
initials F. and L. and
i.e. of Lombardy, was
and refounded as an
1816 by the emperor I
to 100—20 grand era
consists of the doubh
below it is the jewel
imperial crown; on tl
shield with the letter
service also bears two
edged with narrow bl I
crowns, oak wreaths i
The Order of Francis >
founded in 1849 by th •
usual classes and is 1
and gold imperial eaj
eagle bears a red cross 1
F. J., and to the beal 1
chain on which is the I
The Order of Maria . . _»
Theresa in 1757. '' '* a P ure ' v military order and isei ven to officer*
for personal distinguished conduct in the field. There are three
classes. There were originally only two, grand cross and knights.
The emperor Joseph II. added a commanders' das* ia 1765. The
badge is a white cross with gold edge, in the centre a red medallion
with a whUe jKold-edged/mf , surrounded by a fillet with the inscrip-
tion Fortitudtni. The ribbon is red with a white central stripe.
The Order of Elimheth Theresa, also a military order for officers, was
founded in 17S0 by the will of Elizabeth Christina, widow of the
emperor Charles VI. It was renovated in 1771 by her daughter.
the empress Maria Theresa. The order is limited to at knights ia
three divisions. The badge is an oval star with eight points*
enamelled half red and white, dependent from a gold imperial crown.
The central medallion bears the initials of the founders, with the
encircling inscription M. Theresa parentis gratiam perennem raiuaL
The ribbon is black. The Order of the Starry Cross, for high-bora
ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devote themselves to good
works, spiritual and temporal, was founded ia 1668 by the empreas
Eleanor, widow of the emperor Ferdinand 111. and mother of
Leopold I., to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross.
from a dangerous fire in the imperial palace at Vienna. The relic
was supposed to have been peculiarly treasured by the emperor
Maximilian Land the emperor Frederick 1IL The patrooesa of the
order must be a princess of the imperial Austrian bouse. The badfce
is the black double-headed eagle surrounded by a bluc-ettanaetted
ornamented border, with the inscription Solus et Gloria on a *bite
fillet; the eagle bears a red Greek cross with gold and bhae borders.
The Order of Elisabeth, also for ladies, was founded in 1898.
Belgium.— The Order of Leopold, for civil aad military merit. «u
founded in 183a by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth brine added
in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders
and bans, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green
laurel and oak wreath, in the centre a medallion, sorroaaded by a
red fillet with the motto of the order, L'uuiom toot la force, bean a
golden Belgian lion on a black field The ribbon ss watered red.
ORDERS)
KNIGHTHOOD
863
order when on the active list, viz. 3000 francs for grand cross,
2000 francs for grand officers, 1000 francs for commanders, 250
francs for chevaliers. The numbers of the recipients of the order
sans trailement are limited through all classes. In ordinary
circumstances twenty years of military, naval or civil service
must have been performed before a candidate can be eligible for
the rank of chevalier, and promotions can only be made after
definite service in the lower rank. Extraordinary service in
time of war and extraordinary services in civil life admit to any
rank. Women have been decorated, notably Rosa Bonheur,
Madame Curie and Madame Bartct. The Napoleonic form of
the grand cross and ribbon is illustrated on Plate IV, fig. 6; the
cross from which the drawing was made was given to King
Edward VII. when prince of Wales in 1863. In the present
order of the French Republic the symbolical head of the Republic
appears in the centre, and a laurel wTcath replaces the imperial
crown; the inscription round the medallion is Ripublique fran-
chise. Since 1805 there has existed an institution, liaison
a" education de la Legion d t Honneur l for the education of the
daughters, granddaughters, sisters and nieces of members of
the Legion of Honour. There are three houses, at Saint Denis, at
Ccouen and Les Loges (see Dictionnaire de V administration fran-
taise, by M. Block and E. Magnero, 1905, s.v. " Decorations ")•
Among the on" ~
in part at the R<
lufy 1830 were t
By Louis XI. in
Later the numb
it became Jcnowi
granted for serv
into which the (
in 1578 the Ordi
order was a whi
lilies of France a
outstretched, th<
the order was D
by Louis XIV. ii
Merit by Louis )
Germany — i.
order or Ilausor
Anhalt-Kdthen,
Charles of Anh;
been made at va
cross, command*
a gold oval beari
la ted wall; belo
ribbon is a shic
reverse those of 1
FUrchte Coil und
red stripes. Thi
ii. Baden. T
Treue) was insti
1 7 15. and recon
There is now onl
sovereigns and
enamelled cross
angles: in the cc
green mound sui
is suspended froi
edging. The m
1807. There arc «....* ^~^« ..... _»».. .. . -...^ ^.-«. . v »...»
on a green laurel wreath, the ribbon is red with a yellow stripe
bordered with white. The order is conferred for long and meritori-
ous military service. The Order of the Zahringen Lion was founded
in 1 8 \2 in commemoration of the descent of the reigning house of
Baden from the dukes of Zahringen. It has been reconstituted ia
1 840 and 1 877. It now consists of five classes. The badge is a green
enamel cross with gold clasps in the angles; in the central medallion
an enamelled representation of the ruined castle of Z&hringen. The
ribbon is green with two orange stripes. Since 1896 the Order of
Berihold J. has been a distinct order; it was founded in 1877 as a
higher class of the Zahringen Lion.
lii. Bavaria. The Order of St Hubert, one of the oldest and
most distinguished knightly orders, was founded in 1444 by duke
Gerhard V. of Julich-Berg in honour of a victory over Count Arnold
of Eemont at Kavensbcrg on the 3rd of November, St Hubert's day.
The knights wore a collar of golden hunting horns, whence the order
was also known as the Order of the Horn. Statutes were granted in
1476. but the order fell into abeyance at the extinction of the
dynasty in 1609. It was revived in 1708 by the elector palatine,
John William of Ncubcrg. and its constitution was altered at various
times, its final form being given by the elector Maximilian Joseph,
first king of Bavaria, in 1808. Exclusive of the sovereign and
8(>4
rtrimva
in Plate
of St H
figure* c
The iW.
turv at I
in U04,
eh* tor I
cwiitumc,
rKvtor
Wirtout
«>rtlor is
guaftes,"
order mi
iiwv* wit
lion's he
the lett*
central I
Themed -_- of St George and the
Diagon And the corresponding initials J.U.P.F., Justus ut Palma
FiortbU, the motto 01 the order. Besides the above Bavaria
possesses the Military Order of Maximilian Joseph, 1806. and the
Citsi Orders of Merit of St Michael. 1693, and of the Bavarian Crown,
1808, and other minor order* and decorations, civil and military.
There are also the two illustrious orders for ladies, the Order of
FJtsabeth\ founded in 1766, and the Order of Theresa, in 1827. The
foundations of St Anne of Munich and of St Ann* of Wursburg for
U dies are not properly orders.
i\\ Brunswick, The Order of Henry the Lion, for military and
civil merit, was founded by Duke William in. 1834. There are five
KNIGHTHOOD
{ORDERS
gns and princes, it
e rank of count or
ribbon are illustrated
•csents the conversion
old and blue enamel
tic monogram I.T.V.,
lately red and green,
nded in the 12th cen-
mperor Maximilian I.
Lion in 1729 by the
r Charles VI I. ft was
in 1778 and by the
ond Bavarian order.
1 1827 to 1875. The
man and foreign lan-
The members of the
e is a blue enamelled
m the mouth of a gold
le lozenges containing
ria Immacutata. The
maculate Conception.
classes, and a cross of merit of two classes.
> badge is a blue
5!
enamelled cross dependent from a lion surmounted by the ducal
crown; the angles of the cross are fined by crowned \V*s and the
centre bears the arms of Brunswick, a crowned pillar and a white
horse, between two sickles. The ribbon is deep red bordered with
yellow.
\\ Hanover. The Order of St George (one class only) was insti-
tuted by King Ernest Augustus I. in 1839 as the family order of the
house of Hanover ; the Royal Cuetphic Order (three classes) by George,
prince regent, afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and
the Order of Ernest Augustus by George V. of Hanover in 1865.
These orders- have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover
ceased to be a kingdom, and the Royal Cuetphic Order, which from
its institution was more British than Hanoverian, not since the
death of William IV. in 1837. The last British grand cross was the
late duke of Cambridge.
vi. Hesse. Of the various or se-
Cassel and Hesse- Darmstadt t he
-rand duchy of Hesse. The < nd
luke Louis I. of Hesse- Damn es;
the black, red and gold bordc he
centre, the ribbon is black wit! the
Magnanimous, founded by the Ive
classes; the white cross of the ur-
rounded by the motto Si IX 'he
Order of the Golden Lion was ive
Frederick II. of Hesse-Cassel. t ike
precedence of the members of Jge
is an or»cn oval of gold with t 'he
ribbon is crimson.
vii. Mecklenburg. The grand duchies of Mccklenburg-Schwerin
•nd Mecklenburg-Strelitx possess jointly the Order of the Wendish
Crcrrn, founded in 1861 by the grand dukes Frederick Francis II. of
Schwerin and Frederick William of Strcliti; there are lour classes,
with two divisions of the grand cross, and also an affiliated cross of
merit ; the grand cross can be granted to ladies. The badge is a
white cross bearing on a blue centre the Wendish crown, surrounded
by the motto, for the Schwerin Jcnights, Per aspera ad csi'c. for the
StreKtz knights, Arito rirrt honore. The Order of tke,Grif.n, founded
in 1884 by Frederick Francis- III. of S chw erin, was made common to
the duchies in 1904.
viii Oidenberg. The Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis, a
family order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke
Paul Frederick Augustus in memory of his father in 1838. It has
two divisions, each of five classes, of capitular knights and honorary
members. The badge is a white gold bordered cross su s pended
from a crow*, in the centre the crowned monogram P.F-L. sur-
rounded by the motto fiVGetf. Kin Recht, Eine Wakrkeit; the ribbon
b dark blue bordered with red.
ix. Prussia. The Order ef the Black Eagie l one of the most
distinguished of European orders, was founded in 1701 by the elector
of Brandenburg. Frederick I., in memory of hb coronation as king
of Prussia. The order consists of one class only and the original
statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal
house and foreign members, to 30, But the number has been
exceeded. It is only conferred on those of royal lineage and ur-^n
high ameers of state. It coolers the on 1 ■■, Only
those who have received the Order of the Red Eagle are eligible. An
illustration of the badge of the order with ribbon is given on Plate IV.
fig- 3. The star of silver bears the black eagle on an orange ground
surrounded by a silver fillet on which is the motto of the order
Su urn Cuique. The collar is formed of alternate black eagles and
a circular medallion with the motto on a white centre surrounded by
the initials F.R. repeated in green, the whole in a circle of blue with
four gold crowns on the exterior rim. The Order of the Red Eagle,
the second of the Prussian orders, was founded original!** as the
Order of Sincerity (L'Ordre de la SinceritS) in 1705 by George William,
hereditary prince of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The original comaitu-
tion and insignia are now entirely changed, with the exception of the
red eagle which formed the centre of the cross of the badge. The
order had almost fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734
by the margrave George Frederick Charles as the Order of the Bran-
denburg Red Eagle. It consisted of 30 nobly bom knights. The
numbers were increased and a grand cross class added in 1759. Oa
the cession of the principality to Prussia in 1791 the order was
transferred and King Frederick William raised it to that place ia
Prussian orders which it has since maintained. The order was
divided into four cbsses in 1 8 10 and there are now five classes with
numerous sub-divisions. It is an order of civil and military merit.
The grand cross resembles the badge of the Black Eagle, but as white
and the eagles in the corners red, the central medallion bearing the
initials W.R. (those of William 1.) surrounded by a blue fillet with
the motto Sincere et Constanter. a The numerous classes and sub-
divisions have exceedingly complicated distinguishing marks, sane
bearing crossed swords, a crown, or an Oak-leaf surmounting the
cross. The ribbon is white with two orange stripes.
The Order for Merit (Ordre pour le Miriie), one of the most hsghry
prized of European orders of merit, has now two divisions, military
and for science and art. It was originally founded by the electoral
prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, ia 1667 as the
Order of Generosity, it was given its present name and granted for
civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740. la
1 8 10 the order was made one for .military merit against the enemy
in the field exclusively. In 1840 the class for distinction for srieace
and art, or peace class (FriedensUasse} was founded by Frederick
William IV., for those who have gained an illustrious name by
wide recognition in the spheres of science and art." The number »
limited to 30 German and 30 foreign members The Academy
of Sciences and Arts on a vacancy nominates three candidates, frost
.-- . - |tfci|
The
which one is selected by the king' It is interesting to note that this
was the only distinction which Thomas Carlvle woe
badge of the military order is a blue cross with gold «
in the angles; on the topmost arm is the initial F., with a <
the other arras the inscription Pour le Mtrite. The ribbon is black
with a silver stripe at the edges. In 1866 a special grand cross was
instituted for the crown prince (afterwards Frederick 1 1 1.) aaul Priaor
Frederick Charles. It was in 1879 granted to Count voo Xfofckc
as a special distinction. The badge of the class for science or art
b a circular medallion of white, with a gold eagle Jn the centre sur-
rounded b " * -■ -* -•--■• o,, J^rJr J/e>iar:oadK
white fide tpeated. and fossr crow
in gold pr on b the same as tar the
military c ounded by WHUam I. sa
i86x, rani e four classes, with mas?
subdivisio the Order of WiSuam.
instituted an branch of Use fcnakii
of St Jobs in its present form daunt
from 1 893 tof HohenzoOcrm.. f oondec
in 1851 bj re two division*, nuhtarj
and civil. military badge is a wna*
cross with m a green oak ami ssacei
wreath; t Prussian Eagle with the
arms of r by a blue fillet with the
motto Vom rm *ani surer, mc uvm uauge b a black ea\gie. wek
the head encircled with a blue fillet with the motto. There are aha
for ladies the Oder of Service, founded in 1814 by Frederick Unas
III., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and ia 1865. The chrcoratjoa
of merit for ladies {Verdtenst-kreus), founded in 1870. was raised to
an order in 1907. For the famous military decoration, the Iran
Cross t see Medals.
x. Scxcny — The Order of the Crown of Rue (Rmtden Bin
founded as a family order by Frederick Augustas I. ia it
of one class only, and the sons and nephews of the a
knights of the order. It b granted to foreign r« _
subjects of high rank. The badge b a pale green manse Hid c^m
resting on a gold crown with eight rue leaves, the centre as si.'r
with the crowned monogram of the founder surrounded by a rrres
circlet of rue; the star bears ia its centre the motto /Vsaaaaasax
Memar. The ribboa b green. Other Saxon orders are the malstan
Order of St Henry, for distinguished service in the field, iosmded :=
1736 in one class: since 1839 it has had four classes; the ribbon *
sky blue with two yellow stripes, the gold cross bears ia the ceo. t
the effigy of the emperor Henry II.; the Order of AJmerU far crwi
and military merit, founded in 1850 by Frederick Aasraarma II- *
memory of l>ukc Albert the F.-M. ir>c founder of the iUbertaae L-s
of Saxony, has six classes; the Order of CfesI Merit, was fosaaded a
ORDERS)
1815. Fa
of the wife
Albertine I
xi. The
M tin in gen
1 833 in mc
revival of t
keti) found
have also s
■ xii. Sax'e
was foundf
»ii. WH\
founded in
order of ch
surmountei
by a crims<
angles of t
with two b
in 1759. ar
the Order <
granted to
Greece.—
by King Ot
in 1829 by
the numbei
and ribbon
Holland.
in 1815 by
cross rcstii
Burgundia
motto Vot\
appears on
jewelled cr
Order of tk
there are
Nassau pat
Luxemburg
Oranee-Na:
in the Ball
the Nethei
by Napolei
Italy.— 1
hood of the
count of &
collar mad
honour of
knights wa
masses eac
were fiftecr
decreed th;
some other
Philibcrt, r
The churcl
Pierre-chal
had given
order was
That relig
French Re
Carthusian
The knigh
king/ 1 and
The costur
a purple vi
it is now n
meaning ol
pendant ei
Plate IV. I
Cibrario's 1
the cost urn
The Ord*
is a combii
was origins
when be rei
of half-a-d
of state as 1
the order 1
instance of
and religio
St Lazarus
military ar
of JerusaU
were amor
with estat
succeeding
» It has
represent ir
with an all
count of S
XV. 15*
KNIGHTHOOD 865
866
KNIGHTHOOD
tORDEK
m •*» is a decoration, not an order. There remains the
venerable (VtV of the Holy SepmUhn. of which tradition assigns
t^r V4>»d»tio« to Godfrey de Boui l lon. It was. however, probably
L^.-xied «s a senary order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre
b> A*:vaader \ 1. ia 1496. The right to nominate to the order was
s>*rcd %ita the pope as grand master by the guardian of the Patres
ii.xj~a in Jerussjeca, later by the Franciscans, and then by the
La:. a patriarch an lernsaksn. In 1905 the latter was nominated
jC-Aad master, bat the pope reserves the joint right of nomination.
T** tu^x of the order n a red Jerusalem cross with red Latin cross* 1
ia t><r a^pVs.
/Wr*****.— The 0*sVr of Christ was founded on the abolition of the
TtftapUr* by Efcoavsiusor Dinix of Portugal and in 13 18 in conjunc-
tion with Pope John XXI I., both having the rigr ? ■--
order. The papal branch survives as a distim
was formed as a distinct Portuguese order and t
vested in the crown of Portugal. In 1789 i
aspect was abandoned, and with the except io
must be of the Roman Catholic faith, it is
There are three classes, The original badge of
red cross with expanded fiat ends bearing a »
the ribbon is red. The modern badge is a fa
resting on a green laurel wreath ; the central med
tains the old red and white cross. The older fo
collar by the grand-crosses. The Order of the 1 *-** « w uwr. w«»
founded in 1808 in Brazil by the recent, afterwards king John VI.
of Portugal, as a revival of the old Order of tie Sword, said to have
beei . It was remodelled in 1833
uikJ n as a general order of military
and l The badge of the order and
rib* . The Order of St Benedict 0/
Avi 1 162 as a religious military
ord ffder of military merit, in four
dis 1 JUury; the ribbon is green.
Tb< or James of Compostella, is
a b : name (see under Sfiaiu). It
a^« 186a was constituted an order
«m , in five classes. The badge is
tW melted red with gold borders;
tVc three orders were granted a
,-aj ate crosses in a gold medallion:
a b; k . w ~~~ M „.„, *.„... — « -~.ot, and to the separate crosses
♦r- > vVd a red sacred heart and small white cross, There are also
,s ->-*rr ft Our Lady of Villa Vicosa (1819), for both sexes, and the
<-»,.*- <-' ,S» IrnheHa, 1801, for ladies.
r«m>r««t. — The Order of the Star of Rumania was founded in 1877,
^•w v >&r*/aW Oown of Rumania in 1881, both in five classes,
, - •>«' anj n&tary merit; the ribbon of the first is red with blue
K <.«<v «x : V second tight blue with two silver stripes.
J.-* •«*> — TV i>der of St Andrew was founded in 1698 by Peter
«% ,.r«& I: t* the chief order of the empire, and admission carries
. - v axetv -^ to the statutes of 17*0 the orders of St Anne,
* .«~ws> „V~ tr and the White Bade; there is only one class.
t* Hvjsr »tv- nt*no is illustrated in Plate IV. fig 5. The collar is
.,^«^m .■> -*■** members alternately, the imperial eagle bearing
-. «us. 1 en a sstwreof St George slaying the Dragon, the badge
• *>v j».vfc« el Moskow, the cipher of the emperor Paul I.
.4 . » KW* pviri. surmounted by the imperial crown, and
• . v x r-.-v-A* of weapons and green and white flags, and a
-*.-*. «*»• »£ar with a blue St Andrew's cross. The Order
•#••■». ire IsJhrs* ranks neat to the St Andrew. It was
. .1* *** same of the Order of Rescue by Peter the Great
1 «.w.m«> « the empress Catherine and the part she had
-^ n. Vis at the battle of the Pruth in 1711. There are
^ ^ -V ^n%t>i cross is only for members of the imperial
I %.«.- • %v v V V« nobility. The second class was added
*""* " * -^ . • vc 0% V order is a cross of diamonds bearing in a
•rv • >* Catherine. The ribbon is red with the
„ , . sj«r%i*d in silver letters. The OraVr of St
M «' ^a^ «M*drd in 172$ by the empre s s Catherine I.
— 4^ the badge is a red enamelled cross with
. v »^v ^jitiic > n * medallion the mounted effigy
.," ^- a ^- The ribbon is red. The Order of the
*" \ »*<wr>* • fil by Augustus II. of Poland and waa
"** _-. «««r jk \SM ; there » one class. The Order
' "1ZJTU Corses Frederick, duke of Holstein-
" *" %-*«» j* ** ***'• Anna r> * trovna » daughter of
»*^ *.vv*xd as a Russian order in 1 707 by their
s^ There are four classes. Other orders
"■**■* pjt^ Catherine 1 1., 178a. four classes.
«^"\»Uy as a Polish order by Staais*
* t^S> ••d •dop*'^ *• * Russian
___, founded by the e tu p i f ss
>»ct on land and sea, with four
,^,^_«ssooed officers and men. the
* su- The badge is a white cross
*" v«<r*; 'swdaHion on which is the fiaure
' Jllir The rihh--
S he White BaeU, the principal order, wss
foui ta. statutes 1 883. in five classes : the ribbon
isbl fSt Sawa, founded 1 883. also in five dawn,
is a science and art ; the Order of the Star •/
Km ncs, was founded by Peter I. in 1994.
Th« treat, founded by Alexander I. ia 1898 and
of nally by Michael Obrenovitch in 1I63,
recx since the dynastic revolution of 1903 as
Ion] ierof St Lasarus is not a general order, tht
croi f worn by the king.
5 ranch of the Order of the CoUen Hon
has The three most ancient orders of Spaia—
of .5 l orSlJamesoftheSwora,<AAkautanami
of < > orders of merit, the first in three dassra.
the silitary merit in one class. They were afl
oris itary religious orders, like the cnasadiag
Tebn^w. ».« ..^ ..»^...llcrs, but 10 fight for the true faith against
the Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders r epre sent the
crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That of St James of
Compostella is the red lily-halted sword of St James; tb» ribbon isaho
red. The other two orders wear the cross /Uury—AkmmtOTa ted.
CaUtrava green, with corre sp onding ribbons, A snort history of these
orders may be here given. Tradition gives the foundation of the
Order of Knights of St James of Compostella to Ramiro ll„ king of
Leon, in the 10th century, to commemorate a victory over thcMoors.
but, historically. the order dates from the confirmation in 1175 by
Pope Alexander III. It gained great reputation in the wars against
the Moors and became very wealthy, la 1493 the grand-mastership
was annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic, and was vested permanently
in the crown of Spain by Pope Adrian VI. in 152a.
The Order of Knights of Alcantara, instituted about 1156 by the
brothers Don Suarez ana Don Gomez de Barrientos for protcctioa
against the Moors. In 1177 they were confirmed as a religious order
of knighthood under Benedictine rule by Pope Alexander III. Until
about 1213 they were known as the Knight* of San Julia a del
Perevro; but when the defence of Alcantara, newly wrested from
the Moors by Alpbonso LX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they
took their name from that city. For a considerable time they were
in some degree subject to the grand master of the kindred order
of Calatrava. Ultimately, however, they asserted their indepen-
dence by electing a grand master of their own, the first holder of the
office being Don Diego Sanche. During the rule of thirty-seven
successive grand masters, similarly chosen, the influence and sseahh
of the order gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were
almost as powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-149$ Juan de Zuftiga
was prevailed upon to resign the graad-mastership to Ferdinand,
who thereupon vested it in his own person as king ; and this arrange-
ment was ratified by a bull of Pope Alexander VI., and «as declared
germancnt by Pope Adrian VI. in 1533. The yearly income of
ufiiga at the time of his resignation amounted to 150.000 ducats.
In 1540 Pope Paul III. released the knights from the strictness of
Benedictine rule by giving them permission to marry, though second
marriage was forbidden. The three vows were henceforth naWsr niw,
castilas conjugalis and commsio morum. In modern times the his-
tory of the order has been somewhat chequered. When Joseph
Bonaparte became king of Spain ia 1808. he deprived the knights of
their revenues, which were only partially recovered on the restora-
tion of Ferdinand VII. in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a
spiritual body in 1835.
The Order of Knights of Calatrava was founded in 1158 by Don
Sancho III. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava. newly
wrested from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1 164 Pope Alexan-
der III. granted confirmation as a religions military order andrr
Cistercian rule. In 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the
Moors and the order removed to the castle of Sal vat terra. b«t
recovered their town in 1212. In 1489 Ferdinand seiaed the grand-
mastership, and it was finally vested in the crown of Spam ia 1523.
The order became a military order of merit in 1808 and wras reorga-
nized in 1874. The Royal and lllustrtous Order of Cowries III.
was founded in 1771 by Charles III., in two classes; altered in 1804,
il was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in 1809, together with aH the
Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, and the Royal Order of dm
Knights of Spam was established. In 1814 Ferdinand VII. sWrwed
the order, and in 1847 it received its present constitution, via. of
three classes (the commanders in two divisions). The bndsse of the
order is a blue and white cross suspended from a green laurel wreath,
in the angles are golden lilies, and the oval centre bears a agare est
the Virgin in a golden glory. The ribbon is blue and white. The
Order of Isabella the Catholic was founded in 181 5 under the patrossac*
of St Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; originally instituted «•
reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish possessions in Anaerica.
it ia now a general order of merit, in three classes. The badge is a
red rayed cross with gold rays in the angles, in the centre a repre-
sentation of the pillars of Hercules; the cross is attached to the
yellow and white ribbon by a green laurel wreath. Other Spanish
orders arc the Maria Louisa, 1792. for noble ladies; the military and
naval orders of merit of St Ferdtnand, founded by the Corte-s in lot t.
five classes: of St ErmenegtM (flermenegildo). 1814. three ctasara. of
Military Merit and /VmW Merit, 1866. and of Mono €7Jtr%sfsma.
1890; the OaVr of Beucficencia for civil merit, 1856;
KNIGHT-SERVICE
867
Alfonso XII. for me
Cml Order ofAlfons,
Sweden.— The Ord
tkm attributes the fo
hood to Magnus I. ii
the order was in exi
dates from its recon
statutes of 179* an
princes of the blood,
members. The nati
Order 0/ the Sword 01
which is administere
the Riddar Holmsk)
the Brand cross is iflu
of alternate gold act
The motto is Iesus
fthe " Yellow Ribbo
founded, it is said, fa
lished by Frederick I
modifications have t
five classes, with sul
angles gold crowns,
entwined with gold
sword with the three
royal crown The r
of the Pole Star {Pt
founded in 1748 for
white cross bears a
The ribbon is black,
founded by Gustavu
rendered to the nat
classes, with subdivi
centre the charge of
vase with two handk
XIII., founded in 1
It is thus quite uniqi
Turkey.— The Nist
DTAbdulHamidJI.
the Nischa**l-Iftikk
183 1 by Mahmoud
founded as a civil a
Med j id. There are
clustered rays, with c
ot ntre is the sultan's
a red fillet inscribed
suspended from a red
borders. The khedi
sultan, to grant thU
for civil and militar
it has four classes. 1
?;recn rays; the redo
rom agold crescent
red. The Nischan-i
instituted for ladies,
of the work done for 1
war of 1877 in conr
started by the late 1
first to receive the ord
princes, xhtHantdam
la 1003.
Non-European Or>
South America, Nica
Grey Town, founded
the Bust of Bolivar, 1
red. Mexico has at
1865, and Our lady
Southern Cross, 1822
Brazilian branches o
of Awix tn& St Jawm
in 1890, was abolish
China. — There are
are conferred by the
the grades Indicated
of the yellow jacket 1
tonal marks of honoi
in the European sec
1882 established the
in five classes, the fir
grades each, making
for the various class
class for reigning m\
and manufacturers,
and decoration. Of
a rectangular gold a
upright blue dragon!
heads for the first gn
a coral, set in green,
varies for the diffcrei
are round plaques, th
in the second class t
coral; Che grades differ in the colour, shape,
ndentations; in the third class the dragons
;n, the jewel a sapphire; in the fourth the
due ground, the jewel a lapis lazuli ; in the
a silver ground, the jewel a pearl. The
embroidered dragons, differ for the various
e orders have all been instituted by the
n design and workmanship the insignia of
samples of the art of the native enamellers.
xnlkemum (Kikkwa Daijasko). founded in
It is but rarely conferred on others than
jse or foreign rulers or princes. The badge
scribed as follows: From a centre of red
sun issue 32 white gold-bordered rays in
roups, between the angles of which arc four
rysanthemum flowers with green leaves
ch the rays rest; the whole is suspended
firysanthemum. The ribbon is deep red
rhe collar, which may be granted with the
>sed of four members repeated, two gold
th green leaves, the other surrounded by a
> elaborate arabesque designs. The Order
hoa Daijasho). founded in 1888, in one class,
ted as the highest class of the Rising Sun
in eight classes, in 1875. The bodge of
' the same, viz. the red sun with white and
the lilac flowers of the Paulownia tree, the
trms, take a prominent part. The ribbon
red with white edging, of the second scarlet
u The last two classes of the Rising Sun
I of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The
>py Sacred Treasure (Zaihosho) was founded
es. The cross of white and gold clustered
re a silver star-shaped mirror. The ribbon
stripes, There is also an order for ladies,
d in five classes in 1888. The military order
the Golden Kite, founded in 1890, in seven
an elaborate design; it consists of a star of
and silver rays, on which are displayed old
rrs and shields in various coloured enamels,
>y a golden kite with outstretched wings.
white stripes.
the Sun and [Lion, founded by Fath *Ali
lasses. There is also the Nixhan-i-Aftab,
It-
er, or the Nine Precious Stones, was founded
for the Buddhist princes of the royal house.
'lephant, founded in 18A1, is in five classes.
ral order. The badge is a striking example
id to a European conventional form. The
i of a triple circle of lotus leaves in gold.
)Iuc circlet with pearls a richly caparisoned
>ld ground, the whole surmounted by the
vn of Siam ; the collar is formed of alternate
ue and white royal monograms and gold
boon is red with green borders and small
Other orders are the Siamese Crown (Mong-
bunded 1869; the family Order of Chulah-
1873; and the Maha Charkrkri, 1884, only
1 of the reigning family. (C We.)
the dominant and distinctive tenure of
yrstem. It is associated in its origin with
irfare which made the mailed horseman,
rord, the most important factor in battle,
i it was believed that knight-service was
Wlity, under the English system, of every
e soldier in war. It is now held that, on
tovel system which was Introduced after
formans, who relied essentially on their
the English fought on foot. They were
e principle of knight-service, the knight's
ermed In England, being represented in
iu haubcrt, so termed from the hauberk
which was worn by the knight. Allusion
coronation charter of Henry I. (1100),
olding by knight-scrvicc as' milites qui per
viunt.
tow held, divided the lay lands of England
be held by the service of a fixed number
ind imposed the same service on most of
todies which retained their landed endow-
snee exists of this action on bis part, and
vice txactad was not determined by the
868
KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE
art* or value of the lands granted (or retained), but was based
upon the unit of the feudal host, the constabuiaria of ten knights.
Of the tenants-in-chief or barons (i.e. Lhosc who held directly
oi the crown), the principal were called on to find one or more of
these units, while of the lesser ones some were called on for five
knights, that is, half a constabuiaria. The same system was
adopted in Ireland when that country was conquered under
Henry 11. The baron who had been enfeoffed by his sovereign
on these terras could provide the knights required either by hiring
them for pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly
rcpn^cntcd by land, by a process of suben feoffment, analogous
to that by which he himself had been enfeoffed. That is to say,
he could assign to an under-tenant a certain portion of his fief
to Ik held by the service of finding one or more knights. The
1a ml so held would then be described as consisting of one or more
knights' fees, but the knight's fee had not, as was formerly
supposed, any fixed area. This process could be carried farther
till there was a chain of mesne lords between the tcnant-in-chicf
and the actual holder of the land; but the liability for perform-
ance of the knight-service was always carefully defined.
The primary obligation incumbent on every knight was service
in the field, when called upon, for forty days a year, with specified
armour and arms. There was, however, a standing dispute as
to whether he could be called upon to perform this service outside
the realm, nor was the question of his expenses free from diffi-
culty. In addition to this primary duty he had, in numerous
cases at least, to perform that of " castle ward " at his lord's
chief castle for a fixed number of days in the year. On certain
baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing knights for
the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, Rockingham and
Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service
had also the same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his
lord to the king. These consisted of (i) " relief," which he paid
on succeeding to his lands; (2) " wardship," that is, the profits
from his lands during a minority; (3) " marriage," that is, the
right of giving in marriage, unless bought off, his heiress, his heir
(if a minor) and his widow; and also of the three " aids " (see
Aids).
The chief sources of information for the extent and develop-
ment of knight-service are the returns (cartae) of the barons {i.e.
the tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the king, at bis request,
of the names of their tenants by knight-service with the number
of fees they held, supplemented by the payments for " scutage "
(see Scutace) recorded on the pipe rolls, by the later returns
printed in the Testa de Nesill, and by the still later ones collected
in Feudal Aids. In the returns made in 1 166 some of the barons
appear as having enfeoffed more and some less than the number
of knights they had to find. In the latter case they described
the balance as being chargeable on their " demesne," that is, on
the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands.
These returns further prove that lands had already been granted
for the service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in
practice already commuted for a proportionate money payment;
and they show that the total number of knights with which land
held by military service was charged was not, as was formerly
supposed, sixty thousand, but, probably, somewhere between
five and six thousand. Similar returns were made for Normandy,
and are valuable for the light they throw on its system of knight-
service.
The principle of commuting for money the obligation of
military service struck at the root of the whole system, and so
complete was the change of conception that " tenure by knight-
service of a mesne lord becomes, first in fact and then in law,
tenure by escuage (ix. scutage)." By the time of Henry III., as
Bracton states, the test of tenure was scutage; liability, however
small, to scutage payment made the tenure military.
The disintegration oi the system was carried farther in the
latter half of the 13th century as a consequence oi changes in
warfare, which were increasing the importance of foot soldiers
and making the service of a knight for forty days of less value
to the king. The barons, instead of paying scutage, compounded
for their service by the r "ims, and, by a process
■service doe
Jy reduced.
k, and the
• wardship,
be a source
660) tenure
IL c 24),
in the Liber
tbctu or Rri
or the Rolls
via (Recwd
FexdalAuh.
u^ht-scrvke
Commisuoa
rill be found
m the* bote
caution and
ie Exchequer
lax may also
s enunciated
I rdsstitd by
Pollack and
question at
jU-sersict ta
i monograph
supplrncKt-
rsity Series,
U-H.R-J
ttary secret
1-1864, the
and restore
t before the
of the same
tern States,
emocratsoi
>licy of the
:le, pledging
peace. In
xe orgaruza-
and in 1&64
-ship of this
Jly ia Ohio,
utb- west era
ms to have
illajMiighani
ance of the
s doe to ks
iinistratkm.
»ent in the
i and invite
Lhe old foot-
to i
; purr haw*d
peace party
to establish
set free the
r to a forced
nd the roost
lg desertion
nd resisting
oos sesxures
in a general
eaders were
tho<
ise Ex part*
•irhts mf A*
efthmUmt*
05) voL v .
urum. 1876*:
York. 1899}.
KNIPPERDOLEINCK^-KNOLLES
869
KXIPPEBDOLUVOK (or SjoepbKoouznc), BERMT (Bbkcmd
or Bernhardt) (c. 1490-1536), German divine, was a prosperous
cloth-merchant at Minister when in is 24 he joined Melchior
Rlnck and Melchior Hofman in a business journey to Stockholm*
which developed into an abortive religious errand. Knipper-
dollinck, a man of fine presence and glib tongue, noted from his
youth (or eccentricity, had the ear of the Miinster populace when
in 1527 he helped to break the prison of Tonies Kruse, in the teeth
of the bishop and the civic authorities. For this he made his
peace with the latter; but, venturing on another business
Journey, he was arrested, imprisoned for a year, and released
on payment of a high fine — in regard of which treatment he
began an action before the Imperial Chamber. Though his
aims were political rather than religious, he attached himself
to the reforming movement of Bernhardt Rothmann, once
(1529) chaplain of St Maurits, outside Minister, now (1532)
pastor of the city church of St Lamberti. A new bishop
directed a mandate (April 17, 1533) against Rothmann, which
bad the effect of alienating the moderates in Miinster from the
democrats. Knipperdollinck was a leader of the latter in the
surprise (December 26, 1532) which made prisoners of the negoti-
ating nobles at Telgte, in the territory of MOnstcr. In the end,
Miinster was by charter from Philip of Hesse (February 14, 1533)
constituted an evangelical city. Knipperdollinck was made a
burgomaster in February 1534* Anabaptism had already (Sep-
tember 8, 1533) been proclaimed at Minster by a journeyman
smith; and, before this, Hcinrich Roll, a refugee, had brought
Rothmann (May 1533) to a rejection of infant baptism. From
the xst of January 1534 Roll preached Anabaptist doctrines
in a city pulpit; a few days later, two Dutch emissaries of Jan
Matthysx, or Matthyssen, the master-baker and Anabaptist
prophet of Haarlem, came on a mission to Mttnster. They were
followed (January 13) by Jan Beukel&s (or Bockelszoon ( or
Buchboldt), better known as John- of Leiden. It was his second
visit to MUnster; he came no was an apostle of Matthyss* He was
twenty-five, with a winning personality, great gifts as an organizer,
and plenty of ambition. Knipperdollinck, whose daughter Clara
was ultimately enrolled among the wives of John of Leiden,
came under bis influence. Matthysz himself came to Miinster
(1534) and lived in KnipperdoUi nek's house, which became the
centre of the new movement to substitute Miinster for Strassburg
(Melchior Hofmann's choice) as the New Jerusalem. On the
death of Matthysz, in a foolish raid (April 5, i534>» John became
supreme. Knipperdollinck, with one attempt at revolt, when he
claimed the kingship for himself, was his subservient henchman,
wheedling the Mtmstcr democracy iuto subjection to the fantastic
rule of the " king of the earth." He was made second in com-
mand, and executioner of the refractory. He fell in with the
polygamy innovation, the protest of his wife being visited with a
penance. In the military measures for resisting the siege of
Miinster he took no loading part. On the fall of tho city (June 25,
x 53 5) he hid in a dwelling in the city wall, but was betrayed
by his landlady. After six months' incarceration, his trial, along
with his comrades, took place on the 19th of January, and his
execution, with fearful tortures, on the 22nd of January 1536.
Knipperdollinck attempted to strangle himself, but was forced
to endure the worst. His body, like those of the- others, was
hung in a cage on the tower of St Lamberti, where the cages
are still to be seen. An alleged portrait, from an engraving
of 1607, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross's Pansebtia,
1655.
See L. KeBer, Gexkkhte der Wiederidufet wtd ares Racks s»
Jfu!Wfer.(i88oh C A. Cornelius. Historiuke Arbeikn (1899); E.
Belfort Bax, Rise and FaU of the Anabaptuts (1903}. (A. Go.')
KNITTING (from (XE. cnyttan, to knit; cf. Ger. KmiUen; the
root is seen in '* knot "), the art of forming a single thread or
strand of yarn into a texture or fabric Of a loop structure, by
employing needles or wires. " Crochet " work is an analogous
art in its simplest form. It consists of forming a single thread
into a single chain of loops. All warp knit fabrics are built on
this structure. Knitting may be said to be divided into two
principles, viz. (1) hand knitting and (2) frame- work knitting
(see HostEmv). In hand knitting, the wires, pins or needles used
are of different lengths or gauges, according to the class of work
wanted to be produced. They are made of steel, bone, wood or
ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping
over the ends. Flat .or selvedged work can only be produced on
them. Others are pointed at both ends, and by employing three
or more a circular or circular-shaped fabric can be made. In
hand knitting each loop is formed and thrown off individually
and in rotation and is left hanging on the new loop formed. The
cotton, wool and silk fibres are the principal materials from which
knitting yarns are manufactured, wool being the most important
add most largely used* u Lamb's-wooV' u wheeling," " finger-
ing " and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but
may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely
used in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is
to-day principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of
the remote parts of Scotland and Ireland it is prosecuted as an
industry to some extent. In the Shetland Islands the wool of the
native •sheep is spun, and used in its natural colour, being manu-
factured into shawls, scarfs, ladies' jackets, &c The principal
trade of other districts ia hose and half-hose, made from the
wool of the sheep native to- the district. The formation of the
stitches m knitting may be varied in a great many ways, by
" purling " (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib
form}, 4 ' sli^ng'' bops, taking up and casting off and working in
various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, &c The articles
may be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and
yams are manipulated.
KNQBKERRIE (from the Taal or South African Dutch, knap-
kirie, derived from Du* knop, a knob or button, and kerrie, A
Bushman or Hottentot word for stick), a strong, short stick with
a rounded knob or head used by the natives of South Africa in
warfare, and the chase- It is employed at close quarters, or as a
missile, and in time of peace serves as a walking-stick. The name
has been extended to similar weapons used by the natives of
Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places.
KNOLLES, RICHARD (c. 1 545-1610), English historian, was
a native of Northamptonshire, and was educated at Lincoln
College, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and at some
date subsequent to 1571 left Oxford to become master of a school
at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610. In 1603 Knolles
published his GcturaU Historic of the Turkes, of which several
editions subsequently appeared, among them a good one edited
by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down to
1690. It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed
himself largely of Jean Jacques Boissard's Vitae el I cones Sullon-
orum Twcicorum (Frankfort, 1596). Although now entirely
superseded, it has considerable merits as regards style and
arrangement. Knolles published a translation of J. Bodin's
Dt Rtpublica in 1606, but the Grammatica Latina, Graeca et
Hcbraica, attributed to him by Anthony Wood and others, is the
work of the Rev. Hanserd Knollys (c. 1599-1691), a Baptist
minister.
See the Athenaeum, August 6, 1881.
KNOLLES (or Knoll ys), SIR ROBERT (e. 1325-1407), English
soldier, belonged to a Cheshire family. In early life he served
in Brittany, and he was one of the English survivors who were
taken prisoners by the French after the famous " combat of the
thirty " in March 1351. He was, however, quickly released and
was among the soldiers of fortune who took advantage of the
distracted state of Brittany, at this time the scene of a savage
civil war, to win fame and wealth at the expense of the wretched
inhabitants. After a time he transferred his operations to
Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England
and of Charles II. of Navarre. He led the " great company " in
their work of devastation along the valley of the Loire, fighting
at this time for his own band and for booty, and winning a terrible
reputation by his ravages. After the conclusion of the treaty
of Bietigny in 1360 Knolles returned to Brittany and took part
in the struggle for the possession of the duchy between John of
Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois, gaining great
fame by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September 1364), where
870
KNOLLYS
Du Guesclin was captured and Charles of Blois was slain. In
1367 he marched with the Black Prince into Spain and fought at
the battle of Najera; in 1369 he was with the prince in Aquitaine.
In 1370 he was placed by Edward III. At the head of an expe-
dition which invaded France and marched on Paris, but after
exacting large sums of money as ransom a mutiny broke up the
army, and its leader was forced to take refuge in his Breton castle
of Derval and to appease the disappointed English king with a
large monetary gift. Emerging from his retreat Knolles again
assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as John's
representative; later he led a force into Aquitaine, and he was one
of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In
1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, after-
wards duke of Gloucester, distinguishing himself by his valour at
the siege of Nantes; and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to
meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk
on the 15th of August 1407. Sir Robert devoted much of his
great wealth to charitable objects. He built a college and an
almshouse at Pontefract, his wife's birthplace, where the alms-
house still exists; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and
Harpley; and he helped to found an English hospital in Rome.
Knolles won an immense reputation by his skill and valour in
the field, and ranks as one of the foremost captains of his age.
French writers call him Canolles, or Canole.
KNOLL YS, the name of an English family descended from
Sir Thomas Knollys (d. 1435), lord mayor of London. The first
distinguished member of the family was Sir Francis Knollys
(c. 1514-1596), English statesman, son of Robert Knollys, or
Knolles (d. 15 21), a courtier in the service and favour of
Henry VII. and Henry VIII. Robert had also a younger
son, Henry, who took part in public life during the reign of
Elizabeth and who died in 1583.
Francis Knollys, who entered the service of Henry VIII.
before 1540, became a member of parliament in 1542 and was
knighted in 1547 while serving with the English army in Scotland.
A strong and somewhat aggressive supporter of the reformed
doctrines, he retired to Germany soon after Mary became queen,
returning to England to become a privy councillor, vice-chamber-
lain of the royal household and a member of parliament under
Queen Elizabeth, whose cousin Catherine (d. 1569), daughter
of William Carey and niece of Anne Boleyn, was his wife. After
serving as governor of Plymouth, Knollys was sent in 1566 to
Ireland, his mission being to obtain for the queen confidential
reports about the conduct of the lord-deputy Sir Henry Sidney.
Approving of Sidney's actions he came back to England, and in
1568 was sent to Carlisle to take charge of Mary Queen of Scots,
who had just fled from Scotland; afterwards he was in charge of
the queen at Bolton Castle and then at Tutbury Castle. He dis-
cussed religious questions with his prisoner, although the extreme
Protestant views which he put before her did not meet with
Elizabeth's approval, and be gave up the position of guardian
just after his wife's death in January 1 569. In 1 584 he introduced
into the House of Commons, where since 157a he had represented
Oxfordshire, the bill legalizing the national association for
Elizabeth's defence, and he was treasurer of the royal household
from 157a until his death on the 19th of July 1596. His monu-
ment may still be seen in the church of Rotherfield Grays,
Oxfordshire. Knollys was repeatedly free and frank in bis
objections to Elizabeth's tortuous foreign policy; but, possibly
owing to his relationship to the queen, he did not lose her favour,
and he was one of her commissioners on such important occasions
as the trials of Mary Queen of Scots, of Philip Howard earl of
Arundel, and of Anthony Babington. An active and lifelong
Puritan, his attacks on the bishops were not lacking in vigour,
and he was also very hostile to heretics. He received many
grants of land from the queen, and was chief steward of the city
of Oxford and a knight of the gaiter.
Sir Francis's eldest son Henry (d 1583), and his sons Edward
(d. c. 1580), Robert (d. 16*5), Richard (d. 1596), Frands (d.
c 1648), and Thomas, were ail courtiers and served the queen in
parliament or in the field. His daughter Lettice (1 540-1634)
married Walter Devereux, ead of Essex, and then Robert Dudley,
earl of Leicester; she was the mother of Elizabeth's favoarke,
the and earl of Essex.
Some of Knollys's letters are in T. Wright's Queen Elimbetk ami
btr Times (1838) and the Burghky Papers, edited by S. Haynes
(1740) : and a tew of his manuscripts are still in existence. A speech
which Knollys delivered in parliament against some claims made by
the bishops was printed in 1 608 and again in W. Stoughton's Astermw
for True and Christian Church Poiicte (London, 1643).
Sir Francis Knollys's second son William (c. 1547-1631)
served as a member of parliament and a soldier during the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, being knighted in 1586. His eldest brother
Henry, having died without sons in 1583, William inherited his
father's estates in Oxfordshire, becoming in 1596 a privy council-
lor and comptroller of the royal household; in 1602 he was made
treasurer of the household. Sir William enjoyed the favour of the
new king James I., whom he had visited in Scotland in 1585, and
was made Baron Knollys in 1603 and Viscount WaHingford in
1616. But in this latter year his fortunes suffered a tem-
porary reverse. Through his second wife Elizabeth (1 586-1658),
daughter of ThomtsHoward, earl of Suffolk, Knollys was related
to Frances, countess of Somerset, and when this lady was tried for
the murder of Sir Thomas Overbury her relatives were regarded
with suspicion; consequently Lord WaHingford resigned the
treasurership of the household and two years later the mastership
of the court of wards, an office which he had held since 1614.
However, he regained the royal favour, and was created earl of
Banbury in 1626. He died in London on the 35th of May 163a.
His wife, who was nearly forty years her husband's junior,
was the mother of two sons, Edward (1637-1645) and Nicholas
( 1 631-1674), whose paternity has given rise to much dispute.
Neither is mentioned in the earl's will, but in 1641 the law courts
decided that Edward was earl of Banbury, and when he was killed
in June 1645 his brother Nicholas took the title. In the Con-
vention Parliament of 1660 some objection was taken to the earl
sitting in the House of Lords, and in 1661 he was not summoned
to parliament; he had not succeeded in obtaining his writ of
summons when he died on the 14th of March 1674.
Nicholas's son Charles (1 662-1 740), the 4th earl, had not been
summoned to parliament when in 1692 he killed Captain Philip
Lawson in a duel. This raised the question of his rank in a new
form. Was he, or was he not, entitled to trial by the peers?
The House of Lords declared that he was not a peer and therefore
not so entitled, but the court of king's bench released him from
his imprisonment on the ground that he was the earl of Banbury
and not Charles Knollys a commoner. Nevertheless the House
of Lords refused to move from its position, and Knollys had not
received a writ of summons when he died in April 1740. His son
Charles (1703-1771), vicar of Burford, Oxfordshire, and his
grandsons, William (1 726-1 776) and Thomas Woods (1727-1 793),
were successively titular earls of Banbury, but they took no steps
to prove their title. However, in 1806 Thomas Woods's son
William (1763-1824), who attained the rank of general in the
British army, asked for a writ of summons as earl of Banbury,
but in 1813 the House of Lords decided against the claim.
Several peers, including the great Lord Erskine, protested against
this decision, but General Knollys himself accepted it and ceased
to call himself earl of Banbury. He died in Paris on the 20th of
March 1834. His eldest son, Sir William Thomas KnoUys ( 1 707-
1883), entered the army and served with the Guards during the
Peninsular War. Remaining in the army after the conclusion
of the peace of 1815 he won a good reputation and rose high in his
profession. From 1855 to i860 he was in charge of the nuKtary
camp at Aldershot, then in its infancy, and in 1861 he was made
president of the council of military education. From x 86 a to
1877 he was comptroller of the household of the prince of Wales*
afterwards King Edward VIL From 1877 until his death as
the 23rd of June 1883 he was gentleman usher of the black tod;
he was sbo a privy councillor and colonel of the Scots Guards.
His son Francis (b. 1837), private secretary to Edward VII. and
George V., was created Baron Knollys in 1002; another son.
Sir Henry Knollys (b. 1840), became private secretary to King
Edward's daught er Maud, queen of Norway.
KNOT
871
See Sir N. H. Nicolas, TYmH* em 0* Urn *f A ******* B**ar*y
1833); and G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage (1887), vol. a.
KNOT, a Limicoline bird very abundant at certain seasons
on the shores of Britain and many countries of the northern
hemisphere. Camden in the edition of his Britannia published
in 1607 (p. 408) inserted a passage not found in the earlier issues
of that work, connecting the name with that of King Canute,
and this account of its origin has been usually received. But no
other evidence in its favour is forthcoming, and Camden's state-
ment is merely the expression of an opinion, 1 so that there is
perhaps ground for believing him to have been mistaken, and
that the clue afforded by Sir Thomas Browne, who (c. 1672)
wrote the name " GnatU or Knots," may be the true one." Still
the statement was so determinedly repeated by successive,
authors that Linnaeus followed them in calling the species
Tringa canutus, and so it remains with nearly all modern ornitho-
logists. 1 Rather larger than a snipe, but with a shorter bill
and legs, the knot visits the coasts of some parts of Europe, Asia
and North America at times in vast flocks; and, though in tem-
perate climates a good many remain throughout the winter,
these are nothing in proportion to those that arrive towards the
end of spring, in England generally about the 15th of May, and
after staying a few days pass northward to their summer quar-
ters, while early in autumn the young of the year throng to the
same places in still greater numbers, being followed a little later
by their parents. In winter the plumage is ashy-grey above
(save the rump, which is white) and white beneath. In summer
the feathers of the back are black, broadly margined with light
orange-red, mixed with white, those of the rump white, more or
less tinged with red, and the lower parts are of a nearly uniform
deep bay or chestnut. The birds which winter in temperate
climates seldom attain the brilliancy of colour exhibited by those
which arrive from the south; the luxuriance generated by the
heat of a tropical sun seems needed to develop the full richness of
hue. The young when they come from their birthplace are
clothed in ashy-grey above, each feather banded with dull
black and ochreous, while the breast is more or less deeply tinged
with warm buff. Much curiosity has long existed among zoolo-
gists as to the egg of the knot, of which not a single identified
or authenticated specimen is known to exist in collections. The
species was found breeding abundantly on the North Georgian
(now commonly called the Parry) Islands by Parry's Arctic
expedition, as well as soon after on Melville Peninsula by Captain
Lyons, and again during the voyage of Sir George Nares on the
northern coast of Grinnell Land and the shores of Smith Sound,
where Major Feilden obtained examples of the newly batched
young (Ibis, 1877, p. 407), and observed that the parents fed
largely on the buds of Saxifraga oppositifotia. These are the
only localities in which this species is known to breed, for on
none of the arctic lands lying to the north of Europe or Asia has
it been unquestionably observed. 4 In winter its wanderings
are very extensive, as it is recorded from Surinam, Brazil,
Walfisch Bay in South Africa, China, Queensland and New
Zealand. Formerly this species was extensively netted in
England, and the birds fattened for the table, where they were
1 His words are simply " Knot Is, I Canuii cues, vt opinor e Dania
enimaduolarecrcduntur." In the margin the name is spelt" Cnotts,"
and he possibly thought it had to do with a well-known story of that
king. Knots undoubtedly frequent the sea-shore, where Canute is
said on one occasion to have taken up his station, but they generally
retreat, and that nimbly, before the advancing surf, which he is said
in the story not to have done
•In this connexion we may compare the French marinpuin,
ordinarily a gnat or mosquito, but also, among the French Creoles
of America, a small shore-bird, either a Tringa or »n Aetialitis,
according to Descourtilz (Voyage, ii. 249). See also Littr6's
Diclionnaire, s.v.
* There are few of the Limicolae, to which group the knot belongs,
that present greater changes of plumage according to age or season,
and hence before these phases were understood the species became
encumbered with many synonyms, as Tringa cinerea, ferruginea,
grisea, islandica, naevia and so forth. The confusion thus caused
was mainly cleared away by Montagu and Temminck.
* The Tringa canutus of Payer's expedition seems more likely to
have been T. maritime., which species is not named among the birds
of Franc Josef Land, though it can hardly (ail to occur there.
esteemed a great delicacy, at witness the entries in the Northum-
berland and Le Strange Household Books; and the British
Museum contains an old treatise on the subject: "The mancr of
kepyng of knotts, after Sir William Askew and my Lady, given
to my Lord Darcy, 25 Hen. VIII." (MSS. Shane, 1502, 8 cak
663). (A. N.)
KNOT (O.E. enoUa, from a Teutonic stem knutt\ cf. " knit,"
and Ger. knoten), an intertwined loop of rope, cord, string or
other flexible material, used to fasten two such ropes, &c, to one
another, or to another object. (For the various forms which
such " knots " may take see below.) The word is also used for
the distance-marks on a log-line, and hence as the equivalent of
a nautical mile (see Log), and for any hard mass, resembling a
knot drawn tight, especially one formed in the trunk of a tree
at the place of insertion of a branch. Knots in wood are the
remains of dead branches which have become buried in the wood
of the trunk or branch on which they were borne. When a
branch dies down or is broken off, the dead stump becomes grown
over by a healing tissue, and, as the stem which bears it increases
in thickness, gradually buried in the newer wood. When a sec-
tion is made of the stem the dead stump appears in the section
as a knot; thus in a board it forms a circular piece of wood,
liable to fall out and leave a " knot-hole." " Knot " or " knob "
is an architectural term for a bunch of flowers, leaves or other
ornamentation carved on a corbel or on a boss. The word is
also applied figuratively to any intricate problem, hard to dis-
entangle, a use stereotyped in the proverbial " Gordian knot,"
which, according to the tradition, was cut by Alexander the
Great (see Gordiuv).
Knots, Bends, Hitches, Splices and Seizings are all ways of
fastening cords or ropes, either to some other object such as a
spar, or a ring, or to one another. The " knot " is formed to
make a knob on a rope, generally at the extremity, and by un-
twisting the strands at the end and weaving them together.
But it may be made by turning the rope on itself through a loop,
as for instance, the " overhand knot " (fig. 1). A " bend "
(from the same root as " bind "), and a " hitch " (an O.E. word),
are ways of fastening or tying ropes together, as in the " Carrick
bend " (fig. 21), or round spars as the Studding Sail Halyard
Bend (fig. 19), and the Timber Hitch (fig. 20). A " splice "
Fig. 1.
Fig. a.
(from the same root as " split ") is made by untwisting two rope
ends and weaving them together. A " seizing " (Fr. saisir) is
made by fastening two spars to one another by a rope, or two
ropes by a third, or by using one rope to make a loop on another
— as for example the Racking Seizing (fig. 41), the Round Seizing
(fig. 40), and the Midshipman's Hitch (fig. 29). The use of the
words is often arbitrary. There is, for instance, no difference in
principle between the Fisherman's Bend (fig. 18) and the Timber
Hitch (fig. 20). Speaking generally, the Knot and the Seizing
are meant to be permanent, and must be unwoven in order to be
unfastened, while the Bend and Hitch can be undone at once by
pulling the ropes in the reverse direction from that in which they
are meant to hold. Yet the Reef Knot (figs. 3 and 4) can be cast
loose with ease, and is wholly different in principle, for instance,
from the Diamond Knot (figs. 42 and 43). These various foims
of fastening are employed in many kinds of industry, as for
example in scaffolding, as well as in seamanship. The governing
principle is that the strain which pulls against them shall draw
them tighter. The ordinary " knots and splices " are described
in every book on seamanship.
Overhand Knot (fig. 1).— Used at the end of ropes to prevent their
unreeving and as the commencement of other knots* Take the end
a round the end b.
872
KNOT
r*tnr+of-E> t ki Knot (fig. 2).— Used only to permit ropes from
unrv^vin^; U {orm»alaiiieknob.
^^5*"°* ^8*. 3. 4)— Form an overhand knot as above. Then
take the end a over the end 6 and through the bight. If the end a
b
Fig. 3. Fig. 4-
weretakTOuoderthe«id6,afroiMiywouMbef«nied. Thisknot
is so named from being used in tying the reef-points of a sail.
Bowline (figs. $-7).— Lay the end a of a rope over the standing
part b. Tonn with b a bight c over a. Take a round behind b and
b
Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
down through the bight c. This b a- most useful knot employed to
form a loop which will not slip. Running bowlines are formed by
Fig. 8..
Fig. 10.
Fig. 9.
making a bowline round its own standing part above b. It is the
most common and convenient temporary running noose.
Bowline on a Bight (figs. 8. 9). — The first part is made similar to
the above with the double part of the rope; then the bight a is pulled
through sufficiently to allow it to be bent over past a and come up
in the position shown in fig. 9. It makes a more comfortable sling
for a man than a single bight.
Half-HUch (fig. 10). — Pass the end a of the rope round the standing
part b and through the bight.
Two Half -Hitches (fig. 11).— Tbe half-hitch repeated; this is
commonly used, and is capable of resisting to the full strength of
the rope. A stop from a to the standing part will prevent it jam-
ming.
Clove Hiick (figs. 12, 13).— Pass the end a round a spar and cross
Fig. 11.
F10. 12.
Fig. 13.
It over b. Pass it round the spar again and put the end a through
the second bight.
Blackmail Hiick (fig. 14).— Form a bight at the end of a rope, and
put the book of a tackle through the bight so that the end of the rope
may be jammed be tw eeu th* stmHina oart and the back of the hook.
Donbie Blackwall Hikk (fig. 15).— Pass the end « twice rorad tie
hook and under the standing part b at the last cross.
Cats-paw (fig. 16). — Twist up two parts of a lanyard in «
directions and hook the tackle in the eyes t , i. A piece <
Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. i&, Fig. 17.
should be placed between the parts at g. A large lanyard should
be clove-hitched round a large toggle and a strap passed round «
below the toggle.
^spikel
le standing part
over both parts of the bight and w
Mariin {
over on
tg-sptU Hitch (fig. 17).-
the standing part b\ '
-Lay the end a over c\ fold the loop
then pass tbe marline-spike through*
. . „ the part b. Used for tigbtea-
ingjeach turn of a seizing.
Fisherman's Bend (fig. 18).— Take two turns round a spar, then a
Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Fig. 20,
half-hitch round the standing part and between the spar and tie
turns, lastly a half-hitch round the standing part.
Studding-sail Halyard Bend (fig. 19).— Similar to the above, except
that the end is tucked under the first round turn; this is more sang.
A magnus hiick baa two round turns and one on the other ssde of
the standing part with the end through the bight.
Timber HiUk (fig. 20).— Take the end a of a rope round a spar,
then round the standing part b, then several times round its ow*
part c, against the lay of the rope.
Carrick Bend (fig. 21).— Lay the end of one hawser over its own
part to form a bight as e\ 6; pass the end of another hawser up through
that bight near 0, going out over the first end at c, cross-
ing under the first long part and over its end at d, then
under both long parts, forming the loops, and above
tbe first short part at fc, terminating at the end *". in
the opposite direction vertically and horizontally to tbe
other end. The ends should be securely stopped to
their respective standing parts, and also a stop put on
the becket or extreme end to prevent it catching a pipe
or chock; in that form this is the best quick means of
uniting two large hawsers, since they cannot jam. When
large hawsers have to work through, small pipes, good
security may be obtained either by passing ten or twelve
taut racking turns with a suitable strand and s e cu ri ng
each end to a standing part of the hawser, or by taking
half as many round turns taut, crossing the ends bet ween
the hawsers over the seizing and reef -knotting the ends.
This should be repeated in three places and the extreme
ends well stopped. " Connecting hawsers by bowline
knots is very objectionable, as the bend b large and the
knots jam.
Sheet Bend (fig. 22).— Pass the end of one rope through FlG, 21.
the bight of another, round both parts of the other, and
under its own standing part. Used for bending small sheets to the
dews of sails, which present bights ready for the hitch. As
ordinary net is composed of a series of sheet bends. A ssssscr'x asst
is made like a sheet bend.
Single Wall Knot (fig. 23}.— Unlay the end of a rope, mad with
the strand a form a bight. Take the nest strand 6 round the end of s.
KNOT
873
Take the last strand e round the end of b and through the bight made
by a. Haul the ends taut.
Single Wall Crowned (fig. 24).— Form a single wall, and lay one
of the ends, a, over the knot. Lay b over a, and c over b and through
the bight of a. Haul the ends. taut.
FlO. 22.
Fig. 23.
Fio. 24.
Double Wall and Double Crown (fig. 25).— Form a single wall
ctowned; then let the ends follow their own parts round until all the
parts appear double. Put the ends down through the knot.
Matthew Walker (figs. 26, 27).— Unlay the end of a rope. Take
the first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the
second strand round the rope, through the bight of the first, and
through its own bight; the third through all three bights. Haul the
ends taut.
Inside Clinch (fig. 28). — The end is bent close round the standing
part till it forms a circle and a half, when it is securely seized at a, b
and c, thus making a running eyes when, taut round anything it
jams the end. It is used for securing hemp cables to anchors,
Fig. 25.
Fig. 26.
Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.
the standing parts of topsail sheets, and for many other purposes.
If the eye were formed outside the bight an outside clinch would
be made, depending entirely on the seizings, but more ready for
dipping.
Midshipman*? Hitch (fig. 29V— Take two round turns inside the
bight, the same as a half-hitch repeated; stop up the end or let
another half-hitch be taken or held by hand. Used for hooking a
tackle for a temporary purpose.
Turk's Head (fig. 30). — with fine line (very dry) make a clove
hitch round the rope; cross the bights twice, passing an end the re-
verse way (up or down) each time; then keeping the whole. spread fiat,
Fig, 29. Fig. 30.
Fig. 31.
Fig. 32.
let each end follow its own part round and round till it & too tight
to receive any more. Used as an ornament variously on side-ropes
and foot-ropes of jibbooms. It nmy also be made with three ends.
two formed by the same piece of line seeured through the rope and
one single piece. Form with them a diamond knot; then each end
crossed over its neighbour follows its own part as above.
Spanish Windlass (fig. 31).— An iron bar and two marling-spikes
are taken; two parts of a seizing are twisted like a cat's-paw (fig. 16),
passed round the bar, and hove round till sufficiently taut. In
heaving shrouds together to form an eye two round turns are taken
with a strand and the two ends hove upon. When a lever is placed
between the parts of a long lashing or frapping and hove round,
we have what is also called a Spanish windlass.
Slings (fig. 32). — This is simply the bight of a rope turned upover
its own part ; it is frequently made of chain, when a shackle (bow up)
takes the place of the bight at s and another at y, connecting the
two ends with the part which goes rouod the mast-head* Used to
sling lower yards. For boat's yards it should be a grummet with a
thimble seized in at y. As the tendency of all yards is to cant
forward with the weight of the sail, the part marked by an arrow
should be the fore-side— easily illustrated by a round ruler and a
piece of twine.
Sprit-Sail Sheet Knot (fig. 33).— This knot consists of a double wall
and double crown made by the two ends, consequently with six
strands, with the ends turned down. Used formerly in the clews of
sails, now as an excellent stopper, a lashing or shackle being placed
at s and a lanyard round the head at L
Turning in a Dead-Eye Cutter-Stay fashion (fig. 34). — A bend is
made in the stay or shroud round its own part and hove together
Fig. 33.
Fig. 34.
Fig. 35.
lice is
dead-eye 18 in., lanyard 6 in.
Short Splice (fig. 36). — The most common description of splio
when a rope is lengthened by another of the same size, or nearly
Ftc 36 represents a splice of
this kind: the strands have
been unlaid, married and
passed through with the assist-
ance of a marling-spike, over
one strand and under the next, ,-^
twice each way. The ends are *-^ * 10 * 3&
then cut off dose. To render the splice neater the strands should
have been halved before turning them in a second time, the upper
half of each strand only being turned in ; then all are cut off smooth.
Eye Sflice. — Unlay the strands and place them upon the same rope
spread at such a distance as to give the size of the eye; enter the
centre strand (unlaid) under a strand of the rope (as above), and the
other two in a similar manner on their respective sides of the first ;
taper each end and pass them through again. If neatness is desired,
reduce the ends ana pass them through once more; cut off smooth
and serve the part disturbed tightly with suitable hard line. Uses
too numerous to mention. Cut Splice. — Made in a similar manner
to an eye splice, but of two pieces of rope, therefore with two splices.
Used for mast-head pendants, jib-guys, breast backstays, and even
odd shrouds, to keep the eyes ofthe rigging lower by one part.
It is not so strong as two separate eyes. Horseshoe Spice. — Made
similar to the above, but one part much shorter than the other, or
another piece of rope is spliced across an eye, forming a horseshoe
with two long legs. Used for back-ropes on dolphin striker, back
stays (one on each side) and cutter's runner pendants. Long Splice.
— The strands must be unlaid about three times as much as for a
short splice and married — care being taken to preserve the lay or
shape of each. Unlay one of the strands still further and follow up
8 7 4
KNOT
the vacant space with the corresponding # errand 1 of the other part,
fitting it firmly into the rope till only a few inches remain. Treat
the other tide in a similar manner. There will then appear two long
strandi in the centre and a long and a short one on each side. The
splice U practically divided into three distinct parts; at each the
strands are divided and the corresponding halves knotted (as shown
en the top of fig. 3*) and turned in twice. The half strand ihay if
desired, be still further reduced before the halves are turned in for the
second time. This and all other splices should be weHstretcbed and
hammered into shape before the ends are cut off. The long splice
alone is adapted to running ropes.
Shroud Knot (fig. 37) —P**** *°P »* ■** d«fance from each end
of the broken shroud as to afford sufficient length of strands, when it
"is unlaid, to form a single wall
knot on each side after the
\ W \*C* P" 1 * nave ^ een roarric d"» it wiW
,^>>VV then appear as represented in
the figure, the strands having
been well tarred and hove taut
Fig. 37. separately. The part o provides
the knot on the opposite side and the «* Mj the jpart. c pro-
vides the knot and the ends d, d. After the knot Ma been
weU stretched the «nds are tapered. laid amopthly between the
brands of the shroud, and firmly served over. This knot is used when
shrouds or stays are broken. French Shroud KnoL—Mirry the parts
with a similar amount of end as before; stop one set of strands taut
up on the shroud (to keep the parts togetWr). and turn the ends
hack on their own part, forming bights. Make a single wall knot
with ?he other three strands round the said bights and shroud;
kanl the knot taut first and stretch the whole; then heave down the
bSu close: it will look like the ordinary shroud knot. It is very
fcXfe to slip. W the ends by which the wall knot is made after
£;«* hove were passed through the bights, it would make the
faot stronger. The ends woulcf be tapered and served.
FUmish Eye (fig- 38).— Secure a spar or toggle twice the circum-
tJ^Z tJ the rope intended to be rove through the eye; unlay the
ierence «w t- rope whkh {% tQ fc^ lhe eye about
three times its circumference, at which
part place a strong whipping. Point
the rope vertically under the eye, and
bind it taut up by the core if it is four-
stranded rope, otherwise by a few yarns.
While doing so arrange six or twelve
pieces of spun-yarn at equal distances on
the wood and exactly halve the number
of yarns that have been unlaid. If it
is a small rope, select two or three
re;
ilf-
all
tat
OCT
ed,
tas
ing
ost
ing
nt.
of
ye,
>pe
ng
ticc
lis
of
ds.
ed.
by
ing
nee
the
be
wn
ing
tyg
te
hitch on the other side of the haufing put. This is very wseretssl
can be put on and off quickly.
Round Seising (fig. 40).— So named when the rope it aecora dsa
not cross another, and there are three sets of turns. Thenar of ox
Fig. 39.
Fig, 40.
seizing Fine is about one-sixth (nominal) that of the ropes te be
secured, but varies according to the number of turns to be taken. As
eye is spliced in the line and the end rove through it. embracing bats
parts. If either part is to be spread open, commence farthest frost
that part; place tarred canvas under the seizing; pass the line rosed
as many times (with much alack) as it is intended to have sader-
turns; and pass the end back through them all and through the e>«.
Secure the eye from rendering round by the ends of its splice; heiw
the turns on with a marling-spike (see fig. 17), perhaps seven or nor:
haul the end through taut, and commence again the riding turn
in the hollows of the first. If the end is not taken back through the
eye, but pushed up between the last two turns (as is sometiaes
recommended), the riders must be passed the o pposite way in order
to follow the direction of the under-turns, which are always one mare
in number than the riders. When the riders are complete, the end is
forced between the last lower turns and two cross tarns are taken, the
end coming up where it went down, when a wall knot is made vita
the strands and the ends cut close; or the end may be taken oece
round the shroud. Throat Setting. — Two ropes or parts of ropes
are laid on each other parallel and receive a seizing similar to that
shown in figure 35— that is with upper and riding but no cross
turns. As the two parts of rope are intended to turn up at right
angles to the direction in which they were secured, the seizing should
be of stouter line and short, not exceeding seven lower and six ridasg
turns. The end is better secured with a turn round the standing osrt.
Used for turning in dead-eyes and variously. Flat SrsssVsg. — Com-
menced similarly to the above, but it has neither riding nor cross
turns. ,
Racking Setting (fig. 4 «).— A running eye having been spliced rosed
one part of the rope, the line is passed entirely round the other pan.
Fie. 41*
Fig. 4>
Fic.43.
crossed back round the first part, and so on for ten to twenty 1
according to the expected strain, every turn being hove as tight as
possible; after which round turns are passed to nil the spaces at
the back of each rope, by taking the end a over both parts into the
hollow at b, returning at r, and going over to d. When it reaches t
a turn may be taken round that rope only, the end rove under a.
and a half-hitch taken, which will form a clove-hitch ; knot the end
and cut it close. When the shrouds are wire (which u half the sire
of hemp) and the end turned up round a dead-eye of any kind, wve
seizings are preferable. It appears very undesirable to have wire
rigging combined with plates or screws Tor setting it up, as in case
ofaccident — such as that of the mast going over the tide, a shot or
collision breaking the ironwork — the seamen are pow e r les s.
Diamond Knot (figs. 42, 43).— The rope must be unlaid as Car as the
centre if the knot is required there, and the strands handled with
great care to keep the lay in them. Three bights are turned up as is
fig. 42, and the end of a is taken over b and up the bight c. The end
of b is taken over c and up through a. The end c is taken over a
and through b. When hauled taut and the strands are laid up again
it will appear as in fig. 43. Any number of knots may be made on the
same rope. They were used on man-ropes, the foot-ropes on the jib-
boom, and similar places, where it was n eces s a ry to give a good hold
for the hands or feet. Turk's heads are now generally used. Dm+bU
Diamond, — Made by the ends of a single diamond following their
own part till the knot is repeated. Used at the upper end ©T a aide
rope as an ornamental stopper-knot.
Stropping-Blochs.— There are various modes of securing Mocks •»
ropes; the most simple is to splice an eye at the end of the rope a
little longer than the block and pass a round seizing to keep it is
place; such is the case with jib-pendants. As a general rule, the
parts of a strop combined should possess greater strength than the
parts of the fall which act against it. The shell of aa ordinary block
KNOT 875
tout,
nated
should be about three timet the circumference of the rope which b
to reeve through it, at a o-in. block for a 3-in. rope; but tmall ropet
require larger blocks in proportion, at a 4-in. block for a i-in. rope.
When the work to be done it very important the blocks are much
larger: brace-blocks are more than five timet the nominal tiae of the wring
brace. Leading- blocks and sheaves in racks are generally smaller urety,
than the Mocks through which the ropes past farther away, which half-
appears to be a mistake, as more power it lost by friction. A clump- t end
block should be double the nominal size of the rope. A tingle strop ough
may be made by joining the ends of a rope of sufficient length to go
round the block and thimble by a common short splice, which rests ftould
on the crown of the block (the opposite end to the thimble) and it r and
stretched into place by a jigger; a strand is then patted twice round acing
1 incn
vards
con-
turns
> *the
taut
place
open
1 into
taper
nittle
100th
The
.and
nthe
r and
circle
>ng»
F.g.44. F.0.4S. ?S
the space between the block and the thimble and hove taut by a I stop
Spanish windlass to cramp the parts together ready for the reception nting
of a tmall round seizing. The cramping or pinching into shape is c end
sometimes done by machinery invented by a rigger in Portsmouth ine or
dockyard. The strop may be made the required length by a long lead,
splice, but it would not possess any advantage. irhole
Grummet-Strop (fig. 44). — Made by unlaying a piece of rope of the than
desired size about a foot more than three times the length required Je it,
for the strop. Place the centre of the rope round the block and
thimble; mark with chalk where the parts cross; take one strand out
of the rope; bring the two chalk marks together; and cross the strand
in the lay 00 both tides, continuing round and round till the two ,
ends meet the third time; they are then halved, and the upper halves
half-knotted and passed over and under the next strands, exactly
as one part of a long splice. A piece of worn or well-stretched f
rope will better retain its shape, upon which success entirely depends. f. ta f
The object is neatness, and if three or multiples of three strops are l *****
to be made it is economical. wove
Double Strop (fig. 45). — Made with one piece of rope, the splice
being brought as usual to the crown of the block /, the bights fitting L-t"
into scores some inches apart, converging to the upper part, above t^l
which the thimble receives the bights" a, a; and the four parts of the sto P
strop are secured at s,'s by a round seizing doubly crossed. If the °? ♦
block be not then on the right slew (the shell horizontal or vertical) tdat
a union thimble is used with another strop, which produces the de- .
sired effect; thus the fore and main brace-blocks, being very large when
and thin, are required (for appearance) to lie horizontally; a single
strop round the yard vertically has a union thimble between it and
the double strop round the block. The double strop is used for large
blocks; it gives more support to the shell than the single strop and
admits of smaller rope being used. Wire rope is much used for
block-strops; the fitting is similar. Metal blocks are also used in
fixed positions; curability b their chief recommendation. Great
care should be taken that they do not chafe the ropes which pass
by them as well as those which reeve through.
Selvagat Strop.— Twine, rope-yarn or rope is warped round two
or more pegs placed at the desired distance apart, till it assumes
the requisite size and strength; the two ends arc then knotted or
spliced. Temporary firm seizings are applied in several places
to bind the parts together before the rope or twine b removea from
the pegs, after which it U marled with suitable material. A large
strop should be warped round four or six pegs in order to give it
the shape in which it is to be used. This description of strop b much
stronger and more supple than rope of similar size. Twine strops
(covered whh duck) are used for boats' blocks and in similar places
neatness. Rope-yarn and spun-yarn strops are used 1 then
for attaching luff-tackles to shrouds and for many similar purposes. made
To bring to a shroud or hawser, the centre of the strop is passed round eaten
the rope and each part crossed three or four times before hooking nailer
the " luff "; a spun-yarn stop above the centre will prevent slipping nailer
and b very necessary with wire rope. As an instance of a large de by
selvagee block-strop oeing used — when the " Melville " was hove 1 then
down at Chusan (China), the main-purchase-block was double ed in
stropped with a selvagee containing 28 parts of 3-in. rope ; that would .^. ,„ m w jf the
$-6
KNOUT— KNOWLES, SIR J.
W*s» a. € rm threat* the other and attached to the whip of
r\* a own; !ote treatise on the subject the reader may be referred
to .*'</ &vi *t Kmets, betrng a Complete Treatise on the Art of Cordage,
t» ».vvr(-\i >« / 7^ [hatrams, showing the Manner of making every Knot,
I* erne Sfiwe, by Tom Bowling (London, 1890).
Mathematical Theory of Knott.
In the scientific sense a knot is an endless physical line which
cannot be deformed into a circle, A physical line is flexible and
inextensible, and cannot be cut— so that no lap of it can be
drawn through another.
The founder of the theory of knots is undoubtedly Johann
Benedict Listing (1808-1882). In his " Vorstudien tur Topo-
logie " (Gstiinger Studien, 1847), a work in many respects of
startling originality, a few pages only are devoted to the subject. 1
He treats knots from the elementary notion of twisting one
physical Ene (or thread) round another, and shows that from
the projection of a knot on a surface we can thus obtain a notion
of the relative situation of its coils. He distinguishes " reduced "
from " reducible " forms, the number of crossings in the reduced
knot being the smallest possible. The simplest form of reduced
knot is of two species, as in figs. 49 and 50. Listing points out
that these are formed, the first by right-handed the second by
left-handed twisting. In fact, if three half-twists be given to a
long strip of paper, and the ends be then pasted together, the
two edges become one line, which is the knot in question. We
may free it by slitting the paper along its middle Kne; and then
we have the juggler's trick of putting a knot on an endless un-
knotted band. One of the above forms cannot be deformed into
the other. The one is, in Listing's language, the " perversion "
of the other, i.e. its image in a plane mirror. He gives a method
of symbolizing reduced knots, but shows that in this method the
same knot may, in certain cascs.be represented by different
symbols. It is dear that the brief notice he published contains
• mere sketch of his investigations.
The most extensive dissertation on the properties of knots is
thvit of Peter Guthrie Tait (Trcns. Roy. Soc. Edin. t xxviii. 145,
where the substance of a number of papers in the Proceedings
of the same society is reproduced). It was for the most part
written in ignorance of the work of Listing, and was suggested
by an inquiry concerning vortex atoms.
Tait starts with the almost self-evident proposition that, if any
plane closed curve have double points only, in passing continuously
along the curve from one of. these to the same again an even number
of double points has been passed through. Hence the crossings
may be taken alternately over and under. On this he bases a scheme
(or "the representation of knots of every kind, and employ* it to find
all the distinct forms of knots which have, in their sunplest projec-
FW.4*
Fig. 5a
Fie 51. Fig. 52.
Their numbers are shown to
t of three crossings has been
he unique knot of four cross-
perties lead to a very singular
ny of the four forms — figs. 51
which can be deformed into
thicheiral " (from the Greek
id), and he has shown that
td for every even number of
iks" (in which two endless
iscss a similar property; and
d mode of making a complex
nt either knotting or linking,
king." Its nature is obvious
Jut no one of the three lines
et the three are inseparably
\.: v osiivr «Jc*b chiefly with numerical character*
^ VT-Vu ** kcottiness," M beknottednesa " and
u w»v »Ao** that any knot, however complex.
can be fufiy repr esen ted by three closed plane curves, boss* of which
hat double points and no two "f which intersect. It may be stand
here that the notion of beknottednesa is founded on a remark ei
Gauss, who in 1833 considered the problem of the number of u*ter-
linkings of two dosed circuits, and ex pre ssed it by the eleetro-
dynamic measure of the work required to carry a unit magnetic pole
found one of the interlinked curves, while a unit electric carrest is
Fto. 53. Fie. 34.
kept circulating in the other. This original suggestion has been
developed at considerable length by Otto BoeddScber {Erwezlemxt
der Gauss' scken Theorie der Verscklingungen (Stuttgart. 1876). Ths
author treats also of the connexion of knots with Rjemann's surfaces.
It is to be noticed that, although every knot in which the ciussia e i
are alternately over and under is irreducible, the converse is rot
generally true. This b obvious at once from fig. 54. which b merely
the thre e -cros s ing knot with a doubled string — what Listing ca!ls
" paradromic"
Christian Felix Klein, in the Matkematische Annalen, ix. 478. bas
proved the remarkable proposition that knots cannot exist m space
•of four dimensions. (P. G. T.)
KNOUT (from the French transliteration of a Russian word of
Scandinavian origin; cf. A.-S. cxwttc, Eng. knot), the whip used
in Russia for flogging criminals and political offenders. It is
said to have been introduced under Ivan III. (146^-1505). The
knout had different forms. One was a lash of raw hide, 16 in.
long, attached to a wooden handle, 9 in. long. The lash coded
in a metal ring, to which was attached a second lash as
long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few
inches of hard leather ending in a beak -like hook. Another kind
consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with
wire, ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o'-nioe tails. The
victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped,
receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sen-
tence of 100 or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence;
but few lived to receive so many. The executioner was usually
a criminal who had to pass through a probation and regular
training; being let off his own penalties in return for his services.
Peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting bis son
Alexis to death, and there is little doubt that Use boy was
actually beaten till he died, whoever was (he executioner. The
emperor Nicholas I. abolished the earlier forms of knout axd
substituted the pUti, a three-thonged lash. Ostensibly the kneel
has been abolished throughout Russia and reserved for the penal
settlements.
KNOWLES, SIR JAMES (1831-1008), English architect and
editor, was born in London in 1831, and was educated, with a
view to following his father's profession, as an architect at
University College and in Italy. Hb literary tastes also brought
him at an early age into the field of authorship. In i860 he
published The Story of King Arthur. In 1867 he was introduced
to Tennyson, whose house, AMworth, on Blackdown, he
designed; this led to a dose friendship, Knowies assistkg
Tennyson in business matters, and among other things helping
to design scenery for The Cup, when Irving produced that piiy
in 1880. Knowies became intimate with a number of the boos*
interesting men of the day, and in 1869, with Tennyson *s co-
operation, he started the Metaphysical Society, the object of
which was to attempt some intellectual rapprochement betweea
religion and science by getting the leading representatives 01
faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views.
The members from first to last were as follows: Dean Stanlr?
Scelev, Roden Noel, Martineau. W. B. Carpenter, Hintoo* Husky
Pritchard, Hutton. Ward, Bagehot, Froude, Tennyson, Tysdafi
Alfred Barry, Lord Arthur Russell, Gladstone, Manning. Knowife-
Lord Aveburv. Dean Alford. Alex. Grant. Bishop Thirrarxli
F. Harrison, Father Dalgxirns, Sir G. Grow, Shudworth Hoogscr^.
KNOWLES, J. a— KNOW NOTHING PARTY
S77
H. Sidgwkk, E. Lushfngten. Bishop EUicott, Mark Ratiton, duke
of Argyll, Rusktn. Robert Lowe. Grant Duff. Greg, A. C Frascr,
Henry Ac land. Maurice, Archbishop Thomson. Mozley, Dean Church.
"Bishop Magee. Croom Robertson. Fitz James Stephen, Sylvester,
I. C. Buckoill, Andrew Clark, W K. Clifford. St George Mi van.
M Boulton. Lord Selborne. John Morlcy. Leslie Stephen. F. PoUock.
Gasquet. C B. Upton. William Gull. Robert Clarke, A. J. Balfour.
James Sully and A. Barratt.
Papers were read and discussed at the various meetings on
such subjects as the ultimate grounds of belief in the objective
and moral sciences, the immortality of the soul. &c An interest-
ing description of one of the meetings was given by Magee (then
bishop of Peterborough) in a letter of 13th of February 1873: —
" Archbishop Mannii t
bishops right and left
Spectator, an Arian ; the
Catholic priest; opposi
*:al w
Scotch mcta physic;
broad editor ot the Co
looking like a country
earliest of the perverts
Christendom, a Deist, t
our Church, now a f>
red republican, and lool
a paper on miracles, w
Nothing could be calmc t
then the discussion I fi
live best of it- Dalgaii :,
clever and precise and ._., _s
Greg. We only wanted a Jew and a Mahonunedan to make our
Religious Museum complete " (Lt/r. i. 284).
The last meeting of the society was held on 16th May 1880.
Huxley said that it died " of too much love "; Tennyson, " be-
cause after ten years of .strenuous effort no one had succeeded in
even defining metaphysics." According to Dean Stanley, " We
all meant the same thing if we only knew it." The society
formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of contributors who
supported Knowles in his capacity as an editor. In 1870 he
became editor of the Contemporary Review, but left it in 1877
and founded the Nineteenth Century (to the title of which, in 1001,
were added the words And After} Both periodicals became
very influential under him, and formed the type of the new sort
of monthly review which ca/ne to occupy. the place formerly
held by the quarterlies. In 1004 he received the honour of
knighthood. He died at Brighton on the 15th of February
1008.
KNOWLES. JAMES SHERIDAN (1 784-1862), Irish dramatist
and actor, was born in Cork, on the 1 2th of May 1 784. His father
was the lexicographer, James Knowles (1750-1840), cousin-
german of Richard Brinslcy Sheridan. The family removed to
London in 1703, and at the age of fourteen Knowles published
a ballad entitled The Welsh Harper, which, set to music, was very
popular. The boy's talents secured him the friendship of
Hazlitt, who introduced him to Lamb and Coleridge. He served
for some time in the Wiltshire and afterwards in the Tower
Hamlets militia, leaving the service to become pupil of Dr
Robert Willan (1757-1812). He obtained the degree of M. D., arid
was appointed vaccinator to the Jennerian Society. Although,
however, Dr Willan generously offered him a share in his
practice, he resolved to forsake medicine for the stage, making
his first appearance probably at Bath, and playing Hamlet at the
Crow Theatre, Dublin. At Wexford he married, in October 1800,
Maria Chatteris, an actress from the Edinburgh Theatre. In
18 to he wrote Leo, in which Edmund Kean acted with great
success; another play, Brian Bofoikme, written for the Belfast
Theatre in the next year, also drew crowded houses, but bis
earnings were so small that he was obliged to become assistant
to his father at the Belfast Academical Institution. In 1817 he
removed from Belfast to Glasgow, where, besides conducting a
flourishing school, be continued to writs for the stage. His
first important success was Caius Gracchus, produced at Belfast
in x8is; and his Virghtius, written for Edmund Kean, was first
performed in 1820 at Covent Garden. In William Tell (1825)
Mac ready found one of his favourite parts. His best -known
play. The Hunchback, was produced at Covent Garden in 1832;
The Wife was brought out at the same theatre id 1833 ; and The
Lave Chase In 1837. In his later years he forsook the stage for
the pulpit, and as a Baptist preacher attracted large audiences
at Exeter Hall and elsewhere. He published two polemical
works— the Rock of Rome and the idol Demolished by its own
Priesls-An both of which he combated the special doctrines of
the Roman Catholic Church. Knowles was for some years in the
receipt of an annual pension of £200, bestowed by Sir Robert
Peel. He died at Torquay on the 30th of November 1862.
A full list of the works of Knowles and of the various notices of
him will be found in the Life (1872), privately printed by his son,
Richard Brinslcy Knowles (1820-1882), who was well known as a
journalist.
KNOW NOTHING (or Americak) PARTY, in United States
history, a political party of great importance in the decade
before i860. Its principle was political proscription of natural-
ized citizens and of Roman Catholics. Distrust of alien immi-
grants, because of presumptive attachment to European insti-
tutions, has always been more or less widely diffused, and race
antagonisms have been recurrently of political moment; while
anti-Catholic sentiment went back to colonial sectarianism.
These were the elements of the political " nativism "—*.*.
hostility to foreign influence in poli tics—of 1830-1860. In
these years Irish immigration became increasingly preponderant ;
and that of Catholics was even more so. The geographical
segregation and the donnishness of foreign voters in the cities
gave them a power that Whigs and Democrats alike (the latter
more successfully) strove to control, to the great aggravation
of naturalization and election frauds. " No one can deny that
ignorant foreign suffrage had grown to be an evil of immense
proportions" (J. F. Rhodes). In labour disputes, political
feuds and social clannishness, the alien elements— especially
the Irish and German — displayed their power, and at times gave
offence by their hostile criticism of American institutions, 1 In
Immigration centres like Boston, Philadelphia and New York,
the Catholic Church, very largely foreign in membership and
proclaiming a foreign allegiance of disputed extent, was really
" the symbol and strength of foreign influence " (Scisco); many
regarded it as a transplanted foreign institution, un-American
in organization and ideas. 1 Thus it became involved in politics.
The decade 1830-1840 was marked by anti-Catholic (anti-Irish)
riots in various cities and by party organization of nativists in
many places in local elections. Thus arose the American-
Republican (later the Native- American) Party, whose national
career begun practically in 1845, and which in Louisiana in 1841
first received a state organization. New York City in 1844 and
Boston in 184s were carried by the nativists, but their success
was due to Whig support, which was not continued, 9 and the
national organization was by 1847— in which year it endorsed
the Whig nominee for the presidency— pract ically dead. Though
some Whig leaders had strong nativist leanings, and though the
party secured a few representatives in Congress, it accomplished
little at this time in national politics. In the early 'fifties nativism
was revivified by an unparalleled inflow of aliens. Catholics,
moreover, had combated the Native-Americans defiantly. In
1852 both Whigs and Democrats were forced to defend their
presidential nominees against charges of anti-Catholic sentiment.
In 1853-1854 there was- a wide -spread "anti-popery " propa-
ganda and riots against Catholics in various cities. Meanwhile
the Know Nothing Party had sprung from nativist secret societies,
whose relations remain obscure.* Its organization was secret ;
and hence its name— for a member, wben interrogated, always
• £.|. for some extraordinary •• reform " programmes among
German immigrants see Schmeckebier (as below), pp. 48-50.
1 " The actual offence of the Catholic Church was its non-con-
formity to American methods of church administration and popular
education " (Scisco).
'The Whigs bargained aid in New York city for "American "
support in the state* and charged that the latter was not given.
Millard Fillmore attributed the Whig loss of the state (see Liberty
Pa rtv} to the disaffection of Catholic Whigs angered by the alliance
with the nativists.
4 The Order of United Americans and the Order of the Star
Spangled Banner, established in New York respectively in 1845 and
1850. were the most important sources of its membership.
KNOfc, JOHN
879
was a son of Wfllfam Knox, who lived in or near the town of
Haddington, that his mother's name was Sinclair, and that his
forefathers on both sides had fought under the banner of the
BothweUs. WiHiam Knox was "simple,** not *' gentle"—
perhaps a prosperous East Lothian peasant. But he sent his
son John to school (no doubt the well-known grammar school
of Haddington), and thereafter to the university, where, like his
contemporary George Buchanan, he sat " at the feet " of John
Major. Major was a native of Haddington, who had recently re-
turned to Scotland from Paris with a great academical reputation.
He retained to the last, as his History of Greater Britain shows,
the repugnance characteristic of the university of Paris to the
tyranny of kings and nobles; but like it, he was now alarmed by
the revolt of Luther, and ceased to urge hs ancient protest
against the supremacy of the pope. He exchanged his ** re-
gency " or professorship in Glasgow University for one in that of
St Andrews in 1 5*3. If Knox's college time was later than that
date (as it must have been, if he was born near 1515), it was no
doubt spent, as Beza narrates, at St Andrews, and probably
exclusively there. But in Major's last Glasgow session a
" Joannes Knox " (not an uncommon name, however, at that
time in the west of Scotland) matriculated there; and if this were
the future reformer, he may thereafter either have followed his
master to St Andrews or returned from Glasgow straight to
Haddington. But till twenty years after that date his career
has not been again traced. Then he reappears in his native
district as a priest without a university degree (Sir John Knox)
and a notary of the diocese of St Andrews. In 1 543 he certainly
signed himself " minister of the sacred altar " under the arch-
bishop of St Andrews. But in 1546 he was carrying a twd-
handed sword in defence of the reformer George Wishart, on the
day when the latter was arrested by the archbishop's order.
Knox would have resisted, though the arrest was by his feudal
superior, Lord Bothwell; but Wishart himself commanded his
submission, with the words " One is sufficient for a sacrifice,"
and was handed over for trial at St Andrews. And next year
the archbishop himself had been murdered, and Knox was
preaching in St Andrews a fully developed Protestantism.
Knox gives us no information as to how this startling change
in himself was brought about.. During those twenty years
Scotland had been slowly tending to freedom in religious pro-
fession, and to friendship with England rather than with France.
The Scottish hierarchy, by this time corrupt and even profligate,
saw the twofold danger and met it firmly. James V., the
M Commons' King " had put himself into the hands of the
Beatons. who in 1528 burned Patrick Hamilton. On James's
death there was a slight reaction, but the cardinal-archbishop
took possession of the weak regent Arran, and in 1546 burned
George Wishart. England had by this time rejected the pope's
supremacy In Scotland by a recent statute it was death even
to argue against it, and Knox after Wishart 's execution was
fleeing from place to place, when, hearing that certain gentlemen
of Fife had slain the cardinal and were in possession of his castle
of St Andrews, he gladly joined himself to them. In St Andrews
he taught M John's Gospel " and a certain catechism— probably
that which Wishart had got from " Helvetia " and translated;
but his teaching was supposed to be private and tutorial and for
the benefit of his friends' " bairns." The men about him how-
ever— amorfg them Sir David Lindsay of the Mount, "Lyon
King " and poet — saw his capacity for greater things, and, on
his at first refusing " to run where God had not called him,"
planned a solemn appeal to Knox from the pulpit to accept
" the public office and charge of preaching." At the close of it
the speaker (in Knox's own narrative) *• said to those that were
present, ' Was not this your charge to me ? And do ye not
approve this vocation?* They answered, 'It was, and we
approve it.' Whereat the said Johnnc, abashed, burst forth
in most abundant tears and withdrew himself to his chamber,**
remaining there in " heaviness " for days, until be came forth
resolved and prepared. Knox is probably not wrong in regarding
this strange incident as the spring of his own public life. The
St Andrews invitation was really one to danger and death;
John Roogh, who spoke It, dted a few years after in the flames
at Smithfield. But it was a call which many in that ardent
dawn were ready to accept, and it had now at length found, or
made, a statesman and leader of men. For what to the others
was chiefly a promise of personal salvation became for the
indomitable will of Knox an assurance also of victory, even in
this world, over embattled forces of ancient wrong. It is certain
at least that from this date he never changed and scarcely even
varied his public course. And looking back upon that course
afterwards, he records with much complacency how his earliest
St Andrews sermon built up a whole fabric of aggressive Protes-
tantism upon Puritan theory, so that his startled hearers mut-
tered, " Others sned (snipped) the branches; this man strikes
at the root,"
Meantime the system attacked was safe for other thirteen
years. In June 1 547 St Andrews yielded to the French fleet , and
the prisoners, including Knox, were thrown into the galleys on
the Loire, to remain in irons and under the lash for at least
nineteen months. Released at last (apparently through the
influence of the young English king, Edward VI ), Knox was
appointed one of the licensed preachers of the new faith for
England, and stationed in the great garrison of Berwick, and
afterwards at Newcastle. In 1551 he seems to have been made
a royal chaplain; in 1552 he was certainly offered an English
bishopric, which he declined; and during most of this year he
used his influence, as preacher at court and in London, to make
the new English settlement more Protestant. To him at least
is due the Prayer-book rubric which explains that, when kneeling
at the sacrament is ordered, " no adoration is intended or ought
to be done.** While in Northumberland Knox had been
betrothed to Margaret Bowes, one of the fifteen children of
Richard Bowes, the captain of Norham Castle. Her mother,
Elizabeth, co-heiress of Aske in Yorkshire, was the earliest of
that little band of women-friends whose correspondence with
Knox on religious matters throws an unexpected light on his
discriminating tenderness of heart. But now Mary Tudor
succeeded her brother, and Knox in March 1554 escaped into
five years' exile abroad, leaving Mrs. Bowes a fine treatise on
" Affliction," and sending back to England two editions of a
more acrid " Faithful Admonition " on the crisis there. He
first drifted to Frankfort, where the English congregation
divided as English Protestants have always done, and the party
opposed to Knox got rid of him at last by a complaint to the
authorities of treason against the emperor Charles V. as well
as Philip and Mary. At Geneva he found a more congenial
pastorate. Christopher Goodman (c. 1520-1603) and he, with
other exiles, began there the Puritan tradition, and prepared
the earlier English version of the Bible, " the household book of
the English-speaking nations " during the great age of Elizabeth.
Here, and afterwards at Dieppe (where he preached in French),
Knox kept in communication with the Other Reformers, studied
Greek and Hebrew in the interest of theology, and having
brought his wife and her mother from England in 1555 lived
for years a peaceful fife.
But even here Knox was preparing for Scotland, and facing
the difficulties of the future, theoretical as welt as practical. In
his first year abroad he consulted Calvin and Bollinger as to the
right of the civil *' authority " to prescribe religion to his sub-
jects — in particular, whether the godly should obey "a magis-
trate who enforces idolatry and condemns true religion," and
whom should they join M ln the case of a religious nobility
resisting an idolatrous sovereign." In August 1555 he visited
his native country and found the queen-mother, Mary of Lorraine,
acting as regent in place of the real •• sovereign," the youthful
and better-known Mary, now being brought up at the court of
France. Scripture-reading and the new views had spread
widely, and the regent was disposed to wink at this in the case of
the " religious nobility " Knox was accordingly allowed to
preach privately for six months throughout the south of Scotland,
and was listened to with an enthusiasm which made him break
out, *' sweet were the death which should follow such forty
days in Edinburgh as here I have had three I " Before leaving he
evci -4.
RNOX» JOHN
^ -^_ ^. ^ V > *
MtMtBf thtaT (Kit.
Atearwaopc ~
*a* awded he* a*
.-v -t -hecaaijeot
V «•; * ?TJIt= ADC
tbe dcspairiac avhitade
immfiil aUrgiaare to llie regcst,
fc«* as Kao* calls it " uahappy/'
: tie Eagash troops, after the escal
' their Scots allies; a&c
0* the 6th of Jul/ 1560 a
ty between Elizabeth as4
*Ur Ccdl iastructed his m>
tka the govcraaaent of Scot*
jod." The rrvofatioo was a
who ukes credit for have*
m Faaforef which vat so Lsz
SEpeodeace, was stranger;
tie staaapof a
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mAjajast 15&0. tbeProus-
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^ . JL-3. 3L St I
„ ^ -s-tted lie
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v , „ v^ -uc -se k-rds icr s»x
s ,..> i.ta3^!ti oc the f - x4>^
„ * v . .i^va u» Me i~s ovaceo-
u« vji .iierpceied to id JLaox
* ^. ^-.. jcL }ys\ paries lapsed
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s. * &~-£:.m& »a^ 'o ie ^«-rad L7
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^ . * . l . k ir.tz L-ap ci Frarce *»j er-
v v . xl He ti'l oce seno^i ^.,".r^.tj.
v Kw-ssoi :o tie Kzfr.^i cxo»o. ar.i aii*r
* >v\*vjfAi b*i 'i-*A» p^-x;«d tui i-'-pes, be
r s -sC ^fi -a; *tAi he ci-,Ml * The l!ca*Lrccs
,v ^r»cr^aes:ty of \A<^»cn"; ihv-gs lie
^vlc **e »»* scaxtti/ 4ppre:.A-./ worse
v ^ 1 :^=jJe hiii*. £*J*>:ii ^r-.er Jor-
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jj v ^ c -»- c^csiaicy, but ci acf^recaod
t;y, that the air..:y axil ^.ij-c
icied xs4 bc^oa ia CLr^l Jc>*s, may
1 XV> * T, ,li»*c S»r ever/* The kAg-e *as proojed
X "^ jcvay of Frasce *as fc/U m the £e:i, and
• ^ "^ ;W ,^7 diove tbe forces of the w congre-
* v v *f *^* *,»i ZLzbaifb, and tf^n oat of it 10 a
" v * * fc ^ . -*— "that dari aod dolorous night," as
^ * MV * v V_> s**^ t * wbercin "^ y«» rc y ioTdi *' 1 " 111
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tieiri
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cm. 3."cs i ^e g*yr atstasct ibt
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■v-:_^s ii = r^-=a caissc^c ■- _i .-7 j as tie sect:-
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gave ao ex^rru uvv a to ihe fc^nir. .
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before il the piac for ch*-jd: pirri=r=z xrra
drif.^d ia A-^--st a: the saoc L^e w^i lsc
tee nasac cf 7e« £oci sS £>.i -.?„«#. m.- W
K:*.x was e% es n>^rc ckar.j i= *^< case Lae -"* ■" • aariiar. a=i x
bad by tha tisse cooe to dc^rt a rr^ch aaare r^jd rVeaivtsr-*
■sa ^aa be ha-i saetched is h^s ** Vacaaocae Cj
Is fJ ar r . l s^ it he seesu to haTe ord his j
** Oriciianoes " of ihe Geaerac Cfccch cacSer C-ahr^. »ad * :
the ^ forca" of the Cerxa* Ck=rch a. t-^^-i w—.<*~ \ -
Lasai .'or A. Lascc 1 . Startira; »uh "treah'* cxujw ^
Scr.p«ure as the ch-rth's fouada^ca, asd the Vcaal *ad Sa^r*
nser.Li as s^eans of t^-*^sf it ap, it peorades g u ^m >^. 4 c- -
to be eiccted ty tte coc^rega^ass. with a s«£>cn£aaxc «-L»<> :
" readers," aad ty their meaas senaccs sad paym ca^
" Sunday " ia oery parish, la large towns these im u :*
also on other days, with a weekly ocrtisg far coofereSL; -*
'■ prophes>"ag." The " p??rTa:ioa " of aev churche* is to r .:
every^rxre under the guidance ci higher cherefc ccaccrs c^ ..
seperinietiderits. AD art to hdp their brethren, *"lcr aoEsair-
be permitted 10 live as best pleaseth him withia tic Chorvi
God.*' And above all things tbe young ac J the ig&oraju art :: :e
instructed, the former by a regular gradatica or ladder of pa-^i
or elementary schccls, secondary schools aad um\m:.i
Even the poor were to be fed by the Church's baads, aajdheh^s
KNOX, JOHN
881
its mortd influence, and a discipline over both poor and rich, was
to be not onJy the coercive authority of the civil power but its
money. Knox had from the first proclaimed that " the teinds
(tithes of yearly fruits) by God's law do not appertain of necessity
to the kirkmen." And this book now demands that out of
them " must not only the ministers be sustained, but also the
poor and schools." But Knox broadens his plan so as to claim
.also the property which had been really gifted to the Church by
princes and nobles— given by them indeed, as he held, without
any moral right and to the injury of the people, yet so as to
be Church patrimony. From all such property, whether land
or the sheaves and fruits of land, and also from the personal
property of burghers in the towns, Knox now held that the
state should authorize the kirk to claim the salaries of the minis-
ters, and the salaries of teachers in the schools and universities,
but above all, the relief of the poor— not only of the absolutely
" indigent " but of " your poor brethren, the labourers and
handworkers of the ground." For the danger now was that
some gentlemen were already cruel in exactions of their tenants,
" requiring of them whatever before they paid to the Church,
so that the papistical tyranny shall only be changed into the
tyranny of the lord* or of the laird." The danger foreseen alike
to the new Church, and to the commonalty and poor, began to be
fulfilled a month later, when the lords, some of whom had already
acquired, as others were about to acquire, much of the Church
property, declined to make any of it over for Knox's magnificent
scheme. It was, they said, "a devout imagination." Seven
years afterwards, however, when the contest with the Crown was
ended, the kirk was expressly acknowledged as the only Church
in Scotland, and jurisdiction given it over all who should attempt
to be outsiders; while the preaching of the Evangel and the plant-
ing of congregations went on in all the accessible parts of Scot-
land. Gradually too stipends for most Scottish parishes were
assigned to the ministers out of the yearly ieinds; and the Church
received — what it retained even down to recent times— the ad-
ministration both of the public schools and of the Poor Law of
Scotland. But the victorious rush of 1560 was already some-
what stayed, and the very next year raised the question whether
the transfer of intolerance to the side of the new faith was as
wise as it had at first seemed to be successful.
Mary Queen of Soots had been for a short time also queen of
France, and in 1561 returned to her native land, a young widow
on whom the eyes of Europe were fixed. Knox's objections to
the " regiment of women " were theoretical, and in the present
case he hoped at first for the best, favouring rather bis queen's
marriage with the heir of the house of Hamilton. Mary had
put herself into the hands of her half-brother, Lord James
Stuart afterwards earl of Moray, the only man who could perhaps
have pulled her through. A proclamation now continued the
"' state of religion " begun the previous year; but mass was
celebrated in the queen's household, and Lord James himself
defended it with his sword against Protestant intrusion. Knox
publicly protested; and Moray, who probably understood and
liked both parties, brought the preacher to the presence of his
queen. There is nothing revealed to us by " the broad clear
light of that wonderful book," l The History of the Reformation
in Scotland, more remarkable than the four Dialogues or inter-
views, which, though recorded only by Knox, bear the strongest
stamp of truth, and do almost more justice to his opponent than
to himself. Mary took the aggressive and very soon raised the
real question. " Ye have taught the people to receive another
religion than their princes can allow; and how can that doctrine
be of God, seeing that God commands subjects to obey their
princes?" The point was made keener by the fact that
Knox's own Confession of Faith (like all those of that age, in
which an unbalanced monarchical power culminated) had held
kings to be appointed " for maintenance of the true religion,"
and suppression of the false; and the reformer now fell back on
ifohn Hill Burton Mist, of Scotland, iii. 339). Mr Burton's vie
(differing from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the dialogue
1 view
, i dialogues
— the earlier of them at least— must have been spoken in the French
tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year.
his more fundamental principle, that u right religion took
neither original nor authority from worldly princes, but from
the Eternal God alone." All through this dialogue too, as in
another at Lochleven two years afterwards, Knox was driven
to axioms, not of religion but of constitutionalism, which
Buchanan and he may have learned from their teacher Major,
but which were not to be accepted till a later age. " * Think ye/
quoth she, ' that subjects, having power, may resist their
princes? ' ' If their princes exceed their bounds, Madam, they
may be resisted and even deposed,' " Knox replied. But these
dialectics, creditable to both parties, had little effect upon the
general situation. Knox had gone too far in intolerance, and
Moray and M ait land of Lei hi ng ton gradually withdrew their
support. The court and parliament, guided by them, declined to
press the queen or to pass the Book of Discipline; and meantime
the negotiations as to the queen's marriage with a Spanish, a
French or an Austrian prince revealed the real difficulty and peril
of the situation. Her marriage to a great Catholic prince would
be ruinous to Scotland, probably also to England, and perhaps
to all Protestantism. Knox had already by letter formally
broken with the earl of Moray, " committing you to your own
wit, and to the conducting of those who better please you ";
and now, in one of his greatest sermons before the assembled
lords, he drove at the heart of the situation— the risk of a Catho-
lic marriage. The queen sent for him for the last time and burst
into passionate tears as she asked, " What have you* to do with
my marriage? Or what are you within this commonwealth? "
" A subject born within the same," was the answer of the son
of the East Lothian peasant; and the Scottish nobility, whHc
thinking him overbold, refused to find him guilty of any crime,
even when, later on, he had " convocatcd the lieges " to Edin-
burgh to meet a crown prosecution. In 1564 a change came.
Mary had wearied of her guiding statesmen, Moray and the
more pliant Malt land; the Italian secretary David Rixzio,
through whom she had corresponded with the pope, now more
and more usurped their place; and a weak fancy for her handsome
cousin, Henry Darnley, brought about a sudden marriage in 1565
and swept the opposing Protestant lords into exile. Darnley,
though a Catholic, thought it well to go lo Knox's preaching; but
was so unfortunate as to hear a very long sermon, with allusions
not only to " babes and women " as rulers, but to Ahab who did
not control his strong-minded wife. Mary and the lords still
in her council ordered Knox not to preach while she was in
Edinburgh, and he was absent or silent during the weeks in
which the queen's growing distaste for her husband, and advance-
ment of Rixzio over the nobility remaining in Edinburgh,
brought about the conspiracy by Darnley, Morton and Ruthven.
Knox does not seem to have known beforehand of Rizxio's
" slaughter," which had been intended to be a semi-judicial act;
but soon after it he records that "that vile knave Davie was
justly punished, for abusing of the commonwealth, and for other
villainy which we list hot to express." The immediate effect how-
ever of what Knox thus approved was to bring his cause to its
lowest ebb, and on the very day when Mary rode from Holy-
rood to her army, he sat down and penned the prayer, " Lord
Jesus, put an end to this my miserable life, for justice and truth
are not to be found among the sons of men I " He added a
short autobiographic fragment, whose mingled self-abasement
and exultation are not unworthy of its striking title — " John
Knox, with deliberate mind, to his God." During the rest of
the year he was hidden in Ayrshire or elsewhere, and throughout
1566 he was forbidden to preach when the court was in Edin-
burgh. But he was influential at the December Assembly in
the capital where a greater tragedy was now preparing, for
Mary's infatuation for Bothwell was visible to all. At the Assem-
bly's request, however, Knox undertook a long visit to England,
where his two sons by his first wife were being educated, and were
afterwards to be Fellows of St John's, Cambridge, the younger
becoming a parish clergyman. It was thus during the reformer's
absence that the murder of Darnley, the abduction and sub-
sequent marriage of Mary, the flight of Bothwell, and the im-
prisonment in Lochleven of the queen, unrolled themselves
88 2
KNOX, P. C.
before tbe eyes of Scotland. Knox retned m lime to guide
the Assembly which sat oo tbe 251b of June 15*7 m dealing
with this unparalleled crisis, and to wind op tbe revolution
by preaching at Stirling on the oth of July 1567, after Mary's
abdication, at tbe coronaaon of the infant fc »"g
His main work was now really done; for tbe pariiararnt of
1567 made Moray regent, and Knox was only too glad to have
bis old friend back in power, though tbey seem to have differed
on the question whether tbe queen should be allowed to pass
into retirement without trial (or her husband's death, as tbey
bad differed all along on the question of tolerating her private
religion. Knox's victory had not come too early, for his physical
strength soon began to fail, But Mary's escape in 156$ resulted
only in her defeat at Langside, and in a long imprisonment and
death in England. In Scotland tbe regent's assassination in
1 570 opened a miserable civil war, bat it made no permanent
change. The massacre of St Bartholomew rather united
English and Scottish Protestantism; and Knox in St Giles'
pulpit, challenging tbe French ambassador to report his words,
denounced God's vengeance on tbe crowned murderer and bis
posterity. When open war broke out between Edinburgh
Castle, held by Mary's friends, and tbe town, held for her son,
both parties agreed that tbe reformer, who had already had a
stroke of paralysis, should remove to St Andrews. While there
be wrote his will, and published his last book, m tbe preface to
which he says, " I heartily take my -good-night of the faithful
of both realms ... for as the world is weary of me, so am 1 of
it." And when he now merely signs bis name, it is " John
Knox, with my dead hand and glad heart." In tbe autumn of
1 57 2 be returned to Edinburgh to die, probably in tbe picturesque
bouse in the " throat of the Bow," which for generations has
been called by bis name. With him were his wife and three
young daughters; for though be bad lost Margaret Bowes at tbe
close of his year of triumph 1 560, be had four years after married
Margaret Stewart, a daughter of bb friend Lord Ochiltree.
She was a bride of only seventeen and was related to the royal
house; yet, as his Catholic biographer put it, " by sorcery and
witchcraft he did so allure that poor gentlewoman that she could
not live without him." But lords, ladies and burghers also
crowded around his bed, and his colleague and his servant
have severally transmitted to us tbe words in which his weakness
daily strove with pain, rising on tbe day before bis death into a
solemn exultation— yet characteristically, not so much on his
own account as for " tbe troubled Church of God." He died on
tbe 24th of November 1572, and at his funeral in St Giles*
Churchyard tbe new Regent Morton, speaking under tbe hostile
guns of the castle, expressed the first surprise of those around as
they looked back on that stormy life, that one who had " neither
nattered nor feared any flesh " had now " ended his days in
peace and honour." Knox himself had a short time before put
in writing a larger claim for the historic future, " What I have
been to my country, though this unthankful age will not know,
yet the ages to come will be compelled to bear witness to the
truth."
Knox was a rather small man, with a well-knit body ; he had a
powerful face, with dark blue eyes under a ridge of eyebrow,
high check-bones, and a long black beard which latterly turned
grey. This description, taken from a letter in 1579 by his
junior contemporary Sir Peter Young, is very like Bexa's fine
engraving of him in the lames — an engraving probably founded
on a portrait which was to be sent by Young to Beza along with
the letter. The portrait, which was unfortunately adopted by
Carlyle, has neither pedigree nor probability. After his two
years in the French galleys, if not before, Knox suffered perma-
nently from gravel and dyspepsia, and be confesses that bis
nature " was for the most part oppressed with melancholy."
Yet he was always a hard worker; as sole minister of Edinburgh
studying for two sermons on Sunday and three during the week,
besides having innumerable cares of churchesat home and abroad.
He was undoubtedly sincere in his religious faith, and most dis-
interested in his devotion to it and to the good of his countrymen.
But like too many of them, he was self-conscious, self-willed and
ssensefy enriched his sympathies as wen* as
unable to pot himself in the place of tboae who «
which be bad bintsdf held. AB bs training too. wnrvexsty.
priestly and in foreign parts, tended to make horn logical ove?-
mech. But ibis was mitigated by a 1 Irons, sense of henwur
(not always sarcastic, though sonartimrs savagery so), and by
tenderness, best seen in his epistolary friendships mm* womea,
and it was quite ovubuiuc by an instinct and n a in i n n for great
practical affairs. Hence it was that Kcox as a ■lilinnsa ss
often struck swrxessfoily ax tbe centre of tbe rnanph ■ motives
of bis time,- leaving it to later critics to reconcile has theories of
action. But hence too be more than once took dowbcinl short-
cuts to some of his most important ends; giving the ssnustry
within the new Church move power over laymen than Protestant
principles would suggest, and binding tbe masses o ut s i de who
were not members of it, equally with their countrymen who wee,
to join in its worship, submit to its jurisdiction, and *
to its support. And hence also his style (which conte
called a n gj u c ia ed and modern), though it occasionally rises ssto
liturgical beauty, and often Bashes into vivid hist o rical por-
traiture, is generally kept dose to tbe harsh necessities of the
few years in which be bad to work for the future. That work
was indeed chiefly done by the living voice; and in speaking,
this " one man," as Elizabeths very critical ambassador wrote
from Edinburgh, was " able in one hour to put snore life in as
than five hundred trumpets continually blustering in oar ears."
But even his eloquence was constraining and constructive--*
personal call for immediate and universal co-operation; and thai
personal influence survives to this day in the instil utiows of ha
people, and perhaps still more in their character. His country-
men indeed have always believed that to Knox more than to any
other man Scotland owes her political and religious inoSviduahiy
And since bis 10th century biography by Dr Thomas hfcCrac
or at. least since bis recognition in the following generation by
Thomas Carl vie, the same view has taken its place in literature.
docomecs
ar volumes of
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in he chief arc
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inc. Begua
and revued
bookappar-
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1 suppressed
a a Life. ~v
!uf (Lon&x.
*- — EpisAa,
.— 7nr rVs
I cf Wmmx*
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any part* of
KNOX, PHILANDER CHASB (1853- ). American lawyer
and political leader, was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania.
on the ath of May 1855. He graduated from Mount Uaka
College (Ohio) in 1872, and was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar
in 1875. He settled in Pittsburg, where he continued in private
practice, with the exception of two years' service (1876-1577'
as assistant United States district attorney, acquiring a Urge
practice as a corporation lawyer. In April root be became
attorney-general of the United States in tbe cabinet of Presides!
McKinley, and retained this position after the accession of
President Roosevelt until June 1004. when he was appjpintH
by Governor Pcnirypacker of Pennsylvania to fill the unexpirrc
term of Matthew S. Quay in the United States Senate; in 1005 bf
KNOXVILLE— KNUCKLEBONES
883
was re-elected to the Senate for the full term. In March too?
he became secretary of state in the cabinet of President Taft.
KNOXVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
Tennessee, U.S.A., in the E. part of the state, 160 m. E. of
Nashville, and about too m. S.E. of Louisville, Kentucky, on the
right bank of the Tennessee river, 4 m. below the point where
it is formed by the junction of the French Broad and Holston
Rivers. Pop. (1880), 9693; (1800), 22,535; (1900), 32,637, of
whom 7359 were negroes and 895 were foreign-born; (19x0 cen«
■us), 36,346. It is served by the main line and by branches
of the Louisville & Nashville and the Southern railways, by the
Knoxville & Bristol railway (Morris town to Knoxville, 58 m.),
by the short Knoxville & Augusta railroad (Knoxville to
WaHand, 26 m.), and by passenger and freight steamboat lines
on the Tennessee river, which is here navigable for the greater
part of the year. A steel and concrete street-car bridge crosses
the Tennessee at Knoxville. Knoxville is picturesquely situated
at an elevation of from 850 to 1000 ft. in the valley between the
Smoky Mountains and the Cumberland Mountains, and is one
of the healthiest cities in the United States. There are several
beautiful parks, of which Chilhowie and Fountain City are the
largest, and among the public buildings are a city-hall, Federal
building, court-house, the Knoxville general hospital, the
Lincoln memorial hospital, the Margaret McClung industrial
home, a Young Men's Christian Association building and the
Lawson-McGhee public library. A monument to John Sevier
stands on the site of the blockhouse first built there. Knox-
ville is the seat of Knoxville College (United Presbyterian, 1875)
for negroes, East Tennessee institute, a secondary school for
girls, the Bakcr-Himel school for boys, Tennessee Medical
College (1889), two commercial schools and the university of
Tennessee. The last, a state co-educational institution, was
chartered as Blount College in 1794 and as East Tennessee
College in 1807, but not opened until 1820 — the present name was
adopted in 1870. It had in 1907-1908 106 instructors, 755
students (536 in academic departments), and a library of 25,000
volumes With the university is combined the state college
of agriculture and engineering; and a large summer school for
teachers is maintained. At Knoxville are the Eastern State
insane asylum, state asylums for the deaf and dumb (for both
white and negro), and a national cemetery in which more than
3200 soldiers are buried. Knoxville is an important commercial
and industrial centre and docs a large jobbing business. It is
near hardwood forests and is an important market for hardwood
mantels. Coal-mines in the vicinity produce more than 2,000,000
tons annually, and neighbouring quarries furnish the famous
Tennessee marble, which is largely exported. Excellent building
and pottery clays are found near Knoxville. Among the city's
industrial establishments arc flour and grist mills, cotton and
woollen mills, furniture, desk, office supplies and sash, door, and
blind factories, meat-packing establishments, clothing factories,
iron, steel and boiler works, foundries and machine shops, stove
works and brick and cement works. The value of the factory
product increased from $6,201,840 in 1000 to $13,432,880
in 1905, or 100-5 %, in 1905 the value of the flour and grist
mill products alone being $2,048,509. Just outside the city the
Southern railway maintains large car and repair shops. Knox-
ville was settled in 1786 by James White (1737-1815), a North
Carolina pioneer, and was first known as <4 Whitens Fort"; it
was laid out as a town in 1 791, and named in honour of General
Henry Knox, then secretary of war in Washington's cabinet
In 1 79 1 the Knoxville Gazette, the first newspaper in Tennessee
(t be early issue, printed at Rogersvillc) began publication. From
1792 to 1796 Knoxville was the capital of the " Territory South
of the Ohio," and until 1811 and again in 1817 it was the capital
of the state. In 1 796 the convention which framed the constitu-
tion of the new state of Tennessee met here, and here later in
the same year the first state legislature was convened. Knox-
ville was chartered as a city in 181 5. In its early years it was
several times attacked by the Indians, but was never captured.
During the Civil War there was considerable Union sentiment
in East Tennessee, and in the summer of 1863 the Federal
authorities determined to take possession of Knoxville as well as
Chattanooga and to interrupt railway communications between
the Confederates of the East and West through this region.
As the Confederates had erected only slight defences for the pro-
tection of the city, Burnside, with about 12,000 men, easily
gained possession on the 2nd of September 1863. Fortifications
were immediately begun for its defence, and on the 4th of Novem-
ber, Bragg, thinking his position at Chattanooga impregnable
against Grant, Sherman, Thomas and Hooker, despatched a force
of 20,000 men under Longstreet to engage Burnside. Longs treet
arrived in the vicinity on the 16th of November, and on the
following day began a siege, which was continued with numerous
assaults until the 28th, when a desperate but unsuccessful attack
was made on Fort Sanders, and upon the approach of a relief
force under Sherman, Longstreet withdrew on the night of the
4th of December. The Confederate losses during the siege were
182 killed, 768 wounded and 192 captured or missing; the Union
losses were 92 killed, 394 wounded and 207 captured or missing.
West Knoxville (incorporated in 1888) and North Knoxville
(incorporated in 1889) were annexed to Knoxville in 1898.
See the sketch by Joshua W. Caldwell in Historic Towns of the
Southern States, edited by L. P. Powell (New York, 1900): and
W. Rule, G. F. Mellcn and J. Wooldridge, Standard History 9/
Knoxville (Chicago, 1900).
KNUCKLE (apparently the diminutive of a word for " bone,"
found in Ger. Knocken), the joint of a finger, which, when the
hand is shut, is brought into prominence. In mechanical use
the word is applied to the round projecting part of a hinge
through which the pin is run, and in ship-building to an acute
angle on some of the timbers. A " knuckle-duster," said to have
originally come from the criminal slang of the United States,
is a brass or metal instrument fitting on to the hand across the
knuckles, with projecting studs and used for inflicting a brutal
blow.
KNUCKLEBONES (Hucklebones, Dibs, Jackstones, Chuck-
stones, Five-stones), a game of very ancient origin, played
with five small objects, originally the knucklebones of a sheep,
which are thrown up and caught in various ways. Modern
"knucklebones" consist of six points, or knobs, proceeding
from a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is he
who first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws,
which, while of the same general character, differ widely in detail.
The simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the jack, and
picking up one or more from the table while it is in the air;
and so on until all five stones have been picked up. Another
consists in tossing up first one stone, then two, then three and
so on, and catching them on the back of the band. Different
throws have received distinctive names, such as 4< riding the
elephant," " peas in the pod," and " horses in the stable."
The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of
dice, of which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless
Asiatic. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of
draughts and knucklebones (aslragahi) to Palamedes, who
taught them to his Greek countrymen during the Trojan War.
Both the Iliad and the Odyssey contain allusions to games simi-
lar in character to knucklebones, and the Palamedes tradition, as
flattering (o the national pride, was generally accepted through-
out Greece, as is indicated by numerous literary and plastic
evidences. Thus Pausanias {Corinth xx.) mentions a temple
of Fortune in which Palamedes made an offering of his newly
invented game. According to a still more ancient tradition,
Zeus, perceiving that Ganymede longed for his playmates upon
Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a companion and golden dibs
with which to play, and even condescended sometimes to join
in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however, that both
Herodotus and Plato ascribe to the game a foreign origin.
Plato (Pkaedrus) names the Egyptian god Theuth as its inventor,
while Herodotus relates that the Lydians, during 8 period of
famine in the days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed
almost all other games except chess. There were two methods of
playing in ancient times. The first, and probably the primitive
method, consisted in tossing up and catching the bones on the
884
KNUTSFORD— KOBELL
bark of the band, very much a* the game is played to-day. In
the Mmeum of Naples may be seen a painting excavated at
Pompeii, which represents the goddesses Latona, Niobe, Phoebe,
Aglaia and Hileaera, the last two being engaged in playing
at Knucklebones (see Gbeek Arr, fig. 42). According to an
epigram of Asclepjodotus, a st ra gals were given as prises to school-
children, and we are reminded of Platarch's anecdote of the
youthful Alcibiades, who, when a teamster threatened to drive
ovrr tome ot bis knucklebones that had fallen into the wagon-
fots, bokfly threw himself in front of the advancing team. This
simple form of the game was generally played only by women
and children, and was called pentalitka or five-stones. There were
several varieties of it besides the usual toss and catch, one being
called trapa, or hole-game, the object having been to toss the
booes into a bole in the earth. Another was the simple and
primitive game of ** odd or even."
Xbe second, probably derivative, form of the game was one of
pcrc chance, the stones being thrown upon a table, either with
tke hand or from a cop, and the values of the sides upon which
ifeer fell connted. In this game the shape of the pastern-bones
^rd lor astralagM, as well as for the tali of the Romans, with
,h,n knucklebones was also popular, determined the manner
4 coasting. The pastern-bone of a sheep, goat or calf has, be-
^^s two rounded ends upon which it cannot, stand, two broad
jjg* two narrow sides, one of each pair being concave and one
u ■ gf The convex narrow side, called ckios or " the dog,"
jp^, <»d 1; the convex broad side 3; the concave broad side 4;
mp + '-3t concave narrow side 6. Four astragals were used and
«_ anneal scores were possible at a single throw, many receiving
4<^n£±>« names such as Aphrodite, Midas, Solon, Alexander,
gpr saaomg the Romans, Venus, King, Vulture, &c The
j—c^sc ?*r*w in Greece, counting 40, was the Euripides, and
w ^. ~x**J&f * combination throw, since more than four sixes
irI _ 1 -zee he thrown at one time. The lowest throw, both in
r^^r sad ***** w the Dog.
t
(
y-
no
Yt
stu
best
He
inter
But,
cudRns nine. For the history see Us Jeux dts
~ Becq de/°uqu»ere$ (Paris, 1869); Das Knochtlspid
^ Me (\\ismar, 1 886); Vie SpieU dtr Griuhcn und
y Ixteer (Leipzig, 1887).
a attrket town in the Knutsford parliamentary
\ England; on the London & North Western
ralways, 24 m. E.N.E. of Chester, on the
iai I^ndon & North Western railway. Pop.
teifc, Si 7*. It is pleasantly situated on an
«na dje fine domains of Tatton Park and Tabley
* of iu The meres in these domains
Knutsford Is noted in modern times
fc to ^asketi's novel CranjorxL Among several
t tw nam interesting are a cottage with the date
at a- wn««nrk, and the Rose and Crown tavern,
old customs linger in the town,
designs in coloured sand, when
the bride's house. In what
usui graveyard in the kingdom
at a churchyard a mile from the
which, though partially rebuilt in
ZL~-zu nua rain in 1741. The church of
w -si sizapd in 1879, was supplemented,
n> jac-x ^ajendirutor style, The town
a. mam the reign of Henry VIII.,
*jbk. SgHton built the Egerton
se cotton, worsted and
is mainly a residential
have settled here,
Knutsford was
Extraordinary to
The name KnqtsJord ( Ou w to/ wrf. K mm\ ifmd ) is saad tonpay
Cnut's ford, but there is no evidence of a settlrawrm bercnenva
to Domesday. In 1066 Erthebrand held Ksnts/ord uauntmtkfr
of William FhzXigel, baxoo of Halloo, who was hunseHaness
lord of Hugh Lupos earl of Chester. In 109a William de Tabiej,
lord of both Over and Nether Knotstord, granted free bmrgage
to his burgesses in both Knotsf ords, This cnaxter is the oaiy
one which gives Knotsf ord a daim to the title of borough, h
provided that the b ur ge sses might elect a baBifi from amoapt
themselves every year. The office ho w e v er carried hltk real
power with it, and soon lapsed. In the same year as the charter
to Knutsford the king granted to Wiwam de Tabley a nurtet
every Saturday at Nether Knutsford, and a three days* fair at
the Feast of St Peter and St PauL When this charter was coa-
firmed by Edward III. another market (Friday) and another
three days' fair (Feast of St Simon and St Jude) were added
The Friday market was certainly dropped by 150a, if it wasever
held. May-day revels are still kept up here and attract large
crowds from the neighbourhood. A sflk mill was erected hoe
in 1770, *°d there was also an attempt to foster the cotton trade,
but the lack of means of communication made the undertakmj
impossible.
See Henry Green, History «f Kmmtsford (1859).
KOALA (Pkosoicrctus cintrms), a stoutly built marsupial, d
the family Pkascoimyidat, which also contains the womtcis.
This animal, which inhabits the south-eastern ports of the A 3-
tralian continent, is about 2 ft. in length, and of an ash grey
colour, an excellent climber, residing generally in lofty eucalyp-
tus trees, the buds and tender shoots of *hich form its principal
food, though occasionally it descends to the ground in the ri^i
in search of roots. From its shape the koala is called by the
colonists the " native bear "; the term M native sloth •* briar,
also applied to it, from its arboreal habits and slow deliberate
movements. The flesh is highly prized by the natives, and is
palatable to Europeans. The skins are largely imported h»
England, for the manufacture of articles in which a cheap asd
durable fur is required.
KOBDO, a town of the Chinese Empire, in north-wes
Mongolia, at the northern foot of the Mongolian Altai, on tie
right bank of the Buyantu River, 13 m. from its entrance isto
Lake Khara-usu; 500 m. E.S.E. of Biysk (Russian), and 470 o.
W. of Ulyasutai. It is situated amidst a dreary plain, and cca-
sists of a fortress, the residence of the governor of the Kobda
district, and a small trading town, chiefly peopled by Chinese
and a few Mongols. It is, however, an important centre fe?
trade between the cattle-breeding nomads and Peking. It tu
founded by the Chinese in 1731, and pillaged by the Mussulmans
in 1872. The district of Kobdo occupies the north-westcra
corner of Mongolia, and is peopled chiefly by Mongols, and aise
by Kirghiz and a few Soyotes, Uryankhes and Khotons. It is
governed by a Chinese commissioner, who has under him a
special Mongol functionary (Mongol, dxurgan) . The chief mocas-
tery is at Ulangom. Considerable numbers of sheep (abos:
i,coo,coo), sheepskins, sheep and camel wool arc exported to
China, while Chinese cottons, brick tea and various small goods
are imported. Leather, velveteen, cotton, iron and copper goods
boxes, &c, are imported from Russia in exchange for cattle, furs
and wool. The absence of a cart road to Biysk hinders the
development of this trade.
KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRANZ, Baron vox (1803-
1S82), German mineralogist, was born at Munich on the 10th of
July 1803. He studied chemistry and mineralogy at Landshi£
(1 820-1823), and in 1826 became professor of mineralogy in de
university of Munich. He introduced some new methods of
mineral analyses, and in 1855 invented the stauroscope for the
study of the optical properties of crystals. He contributed
numerous papers to scientific journals, and described many nrv
minerals. He died at Munich on the nth of November, rSSa.
Public A7iOHs.—-Ckoralieristik dtr MineraUen (2 vols. 1 830-1 $31 * :
In tttr Bestimmunt dtr Mineralun &r. (1833; and later e<£tkm
r, by K. Oebbeke, 1884); CrundsOge dtr Mintraiatie (1A3SJ;
■kf dtr Mintrclotis von 1650-1860 (1864).
KOCH, R.— KODUNGALUR
885
K0C8, R01BRT (1843- 1910), Gorman bacteriologist, was born
at Klausthal, Hanover, on the nth of December 1843. He
studied medicine at Gottingen, and it was while be was practising-
as a physician at Wollsteia that be began those bacteriological
researches that made bis name famous. In 1876 he obtained a
pure culture of the bacillus of anthrax, announcing a method of
preventive inoculation against' that disease seven years later.
He became a member of the Sanitary Commission at Berlin and
a professor at the School of Medicine in 1880, and five years later
be was appointed to a chair in Berlin University and director
of the Institute of Health. In 1882, largely as the result of the
improved methods of bacteriological investigation he was able
to elaborate, he discovered the bacillus of tuberculosis; and in
the following year, having been sent on an official mission to
Egypt and India to study the aetiology of Asiatic cholera, he
identified the comma bacillus as the specific organism of that
malady. In 1800 great hopes were aroused by the announce-
ment that in tuberculin he had prepared an agent which exercised
an inimical influence on the growth of the tubercle bacillus, but
the expectations that were formed of it as a remedy for consump-
tion were not fulfilled, though It came into considerable vogue
as a means of diagnosing the existence of tuberculosis in animals
intended for food. At the Congress on Tuberculosis held in
London in 1001 he maintained that tuberculosis in man and in
cattle is not tbe same disease, the practical Inference being that
the danger to men of infection from milk and meat is less than
from other human subjects suffering from the disease. This
statement, however, was not regarded as properly proved,
and one of its results was the appointment of a British Royal
Commission to study the question. Dr Koch also Investigated
the nature of rinderpest in South Africa in 1806, and found means
of combating the disease. In 1897 he went to Bombay at the
head of a commission formed to investigate the bubonic plague,
and he subsequently undertook extensive travels in pursuit of
his studies on the origin and treatment of malaria. He was
summoned to South Africa a second time in 1003 to give expert
advice on other cattle diseases, and on his return was elected
a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1006-1907 he
spent eighteen months in East Africa, investigating sleeping-
sickness. He died at Baden-Baden of heart-disease on the
s8th of May roro. Koch was undoubtedly one of the greatest
bacteriologists ever known, and a great benefactor of humanity
by his discoveries. Honours were showered upon him, and in
1905 he was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine.
Among his works may be mentioned: Weitere MitteQungen Hber
ein lleilmiltel gegen Tuber kulose (Leipzig, 1891); and Rciicberichtc
«2&rr Rinderpest, Bubonenpest in Indien nnd Afrika, Tsetses oder
Smrra-Krankkeit, TexasjUber, tropisdie Malaria, Sekwarswasaerfieber
(Berlin, 1 898). From 1 886 onwards he edited, with Dr Karl Fluege,
the ZeiUchrift fUr Hygiene und InjektionshrankheUen (published at
Leipzig). See Loeffler, V Robert Koch, zura 6otcn Geburtstagc ** In
Dent. Medisin. Wochensckr. (No. 50, 1903).
KOCH, a tribe of north-eastern India, which has given its
name to the state of Kuca Behar (?.».). They are probably of
Mongolian stock, akin to the Mech, Kachnri, Garo and Tippera
tribes, and originally spoke, like these, a language of the Bodo
group. But since one of their chiefs established a powerful
kingdom at Kuch Behar in the 16th century they have gradually
become Hinduixed, and now adopt the name of Rajbansi ( - " of
royal blood "). In 190 1 the number in Eastern Bengal and
Assam was returned at nearly a| millions.
KOCK, CHARLES PAUL DB (1793-187 1), French novelist, was
born at Passy on the 2tst of May 1793. He was a posthumous
child, his father, a banker of Dutch extraction, having been a
victim of the Terror. Paul de Kock began life as a banker's clerk.
For the most part he resided on the Boulevard St Martin, and
was one of the most inveterate of Parisians. He died in Paris
en the 27th of April 1871. He began to write for the stage
very early, and composed many operatic libretti His first
novel, V Enfant de ma/emme (181 1), was published at his own
expense. In r 8 20 he began his long and successful series of
novels dealing with Parisian life with Georgette, on la mere du
TabeUum. His period of greatest and most successful Activity
was the Restoration and the early days of Louis Philippe. He
was relatively less popular in France itself than abroad, where he
was considered as the special painter of life in Paris. Major
Pendennis's remark that he bad read nothing of the novel kind
for thirty years except Paul de Kock, " who certainly made him
laugh," is likely to remain one of the most durable of Ms tests*
monials, and may be classed with tbe legendary question of a
foreign sovereign to a Frenchman who was paying his respects,
" Vous veaez de Paris et vous deves savoir des nouveHes.
Comment se porte Paul de Kock ? " The disappearance of the
grisette and of tbe cheap dissipation described by Henri Murger
practically made Paul de Kock obsolete. But to the student of
manners his portraiture of low and middle class life in the first
half of the 19th century at Paris still has its value.
The works of Paul de Kock are very numerous. With tbe
exception of a few not very felicitous excursions into historical
romance and some miscellaneous works of which his share in
La Grande ville, Paris (184s), Is the chief, they arc all stories
of middle-class Parisian life, of gtdnguettes and cabarets and
equivocal adventures of one sort or another. The most famous
are Andri U Savoyard (1825) and Lc Barbier de Paris (1826).
His Mimoirts were published in 1 873. See also Th. Trimm , La Vie
de Charles Paul de Kock (1873).
KODAIKANAL, a sanatorium of southern India, in the Madura
district of Madras, situated in the Palni hills, about 7000 ft*
above sea-level; pop. (1901), 191 2, but the number in the hot
season would be much larger. It is difficult of access, being
44 m. from a railway station, and the last u m. are impracticable
for wheeled vehicles. It contains a government observatory,
the appliances of which are specially adapted for tbe study of
terrestrial magnetism, seismology and solar physics.
KODAMA, GEMTARO, Count (1852-1007), Japanese general,
was born in Choshu. He studied military science in Germany,
and was appointed vice-minister of war in 1892. He became
governor-general of Formosa in xooo, holding at the same time
tbe portfolio of war. When tbe conflict with Russia became
Imminent in 1003, he gave up his portfolio to become vice-chief
of the general staff, a sacrifice which elicited much public ap-
plause. Throughout the Russo-Japanese War (ioo4-5)hc served
as chief of staff to Field Marshal Oyama, and it was well under-
stood that his genius guided the strategy of the whole campaign,
as that of General Kawakami had done in the war with China
ten years previously. General Kodama was raised in rapid
succession to the ranks of baron, viscount and count, and his
death in 1907 was regarded as a national calamity.
KODUNGALUR (or Ckanganur), a town of southern India,
in Cochin state, within the presidency of Madras. Though now
a place of little importance, its historical interest is considerable.
Tradition assigns to it the double honour of having been the first
field of St Thomas's labours (a.d. 52) in India and the seat of
Cberaman Perumal's government. The visit of St Thomas is
generally considered mythical; but it is certain that the Syrian
Church was firmly established here before the 9th century
(BumeU), and probably the Jews' settlement was still earlier.
The latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated aj>. 378. The
cruelty of the Portuguese drove most of the Jews to Cochin. Up
to 13 14, when the Vypin harbour was formed* the only opening
in the Cochin backwater, and outlet for the Periyar, was at
Kodungalur, which must then have been the best harbour on the
coast. In 1502 the Syrian Christians invoked the protection
of tbe Portuguese. In 1523 the latter built their first fort there,
and in 1565 enlarged it. In 1661 the Dutch took the fort, the
possession of which for the next forty years was contested
between this nation, the samorin, and tbe raja of Kodungalur,
In 1776 Tippoo seized the stronghold. The Dutch recaptured
h two years later, and, having ceded it to Tippoo in 1784, sold
it to the Travancore raja, and again in 1789 to Tippoo, who
destroyed it in the following year. Tbe country round Kodun-
galur now forms an autonomous principality, tributary to the
raja of Cochin.
Bum RAH DUTBICH BBBRHARD (1774-1851),
^^oaiaeoatotafbt, wis born at Brunswick in 1774, and was
S£^^tGfcO» In ite7 be became assistant keeper,
*^?«, ; I* w^Z&ttd k«per. o£ the department of natural
S?^ * the BriSM«w. and afterwards of geology and
!SiSo^v^SS the post until the close of his life. He
£"*?S£*«VfoS * the British Museum in a classic work
MriI^f****' m " siiits{lS * > ' l * 2 S ) - He died in London
m the 6th of Septesswar 1851.
roBFKUl a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
WcstDhaKa. on the Berkel, 3* ». by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund.
Z! fJooO ftrfr ** °** tnrce R oman Catholic churches, one
l/\Hljcb--tt* GywMsial Kirche— is used by the Protestant
mmvtt»*y. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri Castle, formerly
thT rcv-vk-oce «f the bishops of Mttnstcr, and also the castle
oS Yvtar. lb* residence of the princes of Salm-Horstmar.
XW fe*i>t« Wastries include the making of linen goods and
KMsAT* a lows and district of British India, in the Peshawar
J*\».>*» *l the North- West Frontier Province. The town is
t» w. w*th of Peshawar by the Rohat Pass, along which a
^.. uv ^4 was opened in 1001. The population in 1001
«.t«' ¥****! including 12,670 in the cantonment, which is garri-
^skU 5"\ artillery, cavalry and infantry. In the Tirah cam-
ts* uh s \i i$o;-<»3 Kohat was the starting-point of Sir William
l^kut^ expedition against the Orakxais and Afridis. It is
i*v •m.&uiy base for the southern Afridi frontier as Peshawar is
km v W w*ihern frontier of the same tribe, and it lies in the heart
v4 tW IVhan country.
t W Uistikt or Kohat has an area of 3973 *q« m - I* consists
st^^tx tfi a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus,
ykvv^v svoted with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few
» Aitcmi patches of cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak
vvuftttv especially comprises a perfect labyrinth of ranges, which
l%ll E s*>w*v*r, into two principal groups, to the north and south of
ts* IVti Toi river. The Miransai valley, in the extreme west,
tjuw*rft by comparison a rich and fertile tract. In its small but
v*r»mUy tilled glens, the plane, palm, fig and many orchard trees
IfeurohWxuriantly; while a brushwood of wild olive, mimosa and
tXfc<* thorny bushes clothes the rugged ravines upon the upper
tKtjx*. Occasional grassy glades upon their sides form favourite
pasture grounds for the Waziri tribes. The Ten Toi, rising on the
tastem limit of Upper Miranzai, runs due eastward to the Indus,
which ft joins is m. N. of Makhad, dividing the district into two
main port Ions. The drainage from the northern half flows south-
watd into the Teri Toi Itself, and northward into the parallel
st ream of the Kohat Toi. That of the southern tract falls north-
wards also Into the Teri Toi, and southwards toward* the Kurram
and the Indus. The frontier mountains, continuations of the Safed
Koh system, attain in places a considerable elevation, the two
principal peaks, Dapa Sir and Man Carh, just beyond the British
Frontier, being 8a6o and 7040 ft. above the sea respectively.
The Waiiri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge between the
boundaries of Banna and Kohat, with a general elevation of less
than 4000 ft. The salt-mines are situated in the low line of hills
crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both
banks of that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a
mils with a thickness of 1000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 300 ft.
In height, almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may
orobably rank as one of the largest veins of its kind in the world.
Themost extensive exposure occurs at Bahadur Khel, on the
south bank of the Teri Toi The annual output is about 16,000
tons, yielding a revenue of £40,000. Petroleum springs exude
from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat ; and sulphur abounds
ITtht northern range. In 1001 the population was 217,865,
thowtat an increase of 1 r % in the decade. The frontier tribes
ihtKohat border are the Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhu and
tL- All these are described under their separate names. A
7^ mbs from Kushalgarh through Kohat to Thai, and the
"^lCUs been bridged at Kushalgarh.
a^tat fitfi » mountain pass in the North-West Frontier
JJ^j, «| India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar. From
KOENrG—KOHLHASE
the north side the defile commences at 4* »>• S.W. of fan
Mackeson, whence it is about 1 a or 13 ra. to the Kaast
entrance. The pass varies from 400 yds. to i| m. im widti,
and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain, h a
inhabited by the Adam Kbel Afridis, and nearly all British
relations with that tribe have been concerned with this piss,
which is the only connexion between two British districts
without crossing and recrossing the Indus (see Arsioi). It a
now traversed by a cart-road.
KOHISTAN, a tract of country on the Peshawar border of
the Nortli-West Frontier Province of India. Kohistan meass
the " country of the hills " and corresponds to the Fngfah word
highlands; but it is specially applied to a district, which is very
little known, to the south and west of Chilas, between the Kagaa
valley and the river Indus. It comprises an area of over
1000 sq. m., and is bounded on the N.W. by the river ladn,
on the N.E. by Chilas, and on the S. by Kagan, the Cher
Glen and Allai. It consists roughly of two main valleys rmnraat
east and west, and separated from each other by a mountais
range over 16,000 ft. high. Like the mountains of Chilas, those
in Kohistan are snow-bound and rocky wastes from their crests
downwards to 12,000 ft. Below Ibis the hiUs are covered wok
fine forest and grass to 5000 or 6000 fL, and in the vaBeys.
especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under cultivation
The Kohistanis are Mahommedans, but not of Pa than race, and
appear to be closely allied to the Chilasis. They are a well-built,
brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with Britisk
districts, and have never given the government much troobk-
There is little doubt that the Kohistanis are, like the Kafirs d
Kafiristan, the remnants of old races driven by Mahotuaedai
invasions from the valleys and plains into the higher mountains.
The majority have been converted to Islam within the last 30©
years. The total population is about 16,000.
An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north
of Kabul in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. The
Kohistani Tajiks proved to be the most powerful and the best
organised clans that opposed the British occupation of Kabtt.
in 1870-80. Part of their country is highly cultivated, abound-
ing in fruit, and includes many important villages. It is hot
that the remains of an ancient city have been lately discovered
by the amir's officials, which may prove to be the great cirr
of Alexander's founding, known to be to the north of Kabul
but which had hitherto escaped identification.
The name of Kohistan is also applied to a tract of barrea
and hilly country on the east border of Karachi district
Sind.
KOHL, (x) The name of the cosmetic used from the earfie*
times in the East by women to darken the eyelids, in order t*
increase the lustre of the eyes. It is usually composed of find?
powdered antimony, but smoke black obtained from bum
almond-shells or frankincense is also used. The Arabic wort*
kofil, from which has been derived " alcohol," is derived fron
JfcoMa, to stain, (a) a Kohl " or " kohl-raW "(cole-rape, cms
Lat caulis, cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (q.v.) t with a 1
shaped top, cultivated chiefly as food for cattle.
KOHLHASB, HANS, a German historical figure about <
personality some controversy exists. He is chiefly known as
the hero of Heinrich von Kleist's novel, Midud Koklhmms. H*
was a merchant, and not, as some have supposed, a ^^T twlr i lr,
and he lived at K6Un in Brandenburg. In October r 53 1, so the
story runs, whilst proceeding to the fair at Leipzig, he was
attacked and his horses were taken from him by the servants d
a Saxon nobleman, one. Gttnter von Zaschwitx. In con s e qu enc e
of the delay the merchant suffered some loss of business at the
fair and on his return he refused to pay the small sua
Zaschwitx demanded as a condition of returning the
Instead Kohlhase asked for a substantial amount of 1
compensation for his loss, and failing to secure this he invoked
the aid of his sovereign, the elector of Brandenburg. FiscSsf
however that it was impossible to recover his horses, be pad
Zaschwitx the sum required for them, but re se r v ed to bsmseff
the right to take further action. Then unable to obtain 1
KOKOMO— KOLA*
887
In the courts of law, the merchant, in a Fekdebrief, threw down
a challenge, not only to his aggressor, bat to the whole of Saxony.
Acts of lawlessness were soon attributed to him, and after an
attempt to settle the feud had failed, the elector of Saxony, John
Frederick I., set a price upon the head of the angry merchant.
Kohlhase now sought revenge in earnest. Gathering around him
a band of criminals and of desperadoes he spread terror throughout
the whole of Saxony; travellers were robbed, villages were burned
and towns were plundered. For some time the authorities were
practically powerless to stop these outrages, but In March 1540
Kohlhase and his principal associate, Gcorg Nagdschmidt, were
seized, and on the 22nd of the month they were broken on the
wheel in Berlin.
The life and fate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas.
See Burkhardt. Der kistorische Ham Kohlhase und H. von KteiUs
Michael Koklhaa* (Leipxig, 1864).
KOKOMO, a dty and the county-seat of Howard county,
Indiana, U.S.A., on the Wildcat River, about 50 m. N. of Indiana-
polis. Pop. (1890), 8261; (1000), 10,609 of whom 409 were
foreign-born and 359 negroes; O910 census), 17,010. It is
served by the Lake Erie & Western, the Pittsburg Cincinnati
Chicago & St Louis, and the Toledo St Louis & Western railways,
and by two interurban electric lines. Kokomo is a centre of
trade in agricultural products, and has various manufactures,
including flint, plate and opalescent glass, &c. The total value
of the factory product increased from $2,062,156 in 1900 to
$3,651,105 in 1905, or 77-i %; and in 1905 the glass product
was valued at $864,567, or 23-7 % of the total. Kokomo was
settled about 1840 and became a city (under a state law)
in 1865.
KOKO-NOR (or Kuku-Nos) (Tsing-kai of the Chinese, and
Tso-ngombo of the Tanguts), a lake of Central Asia, situated at
an altitude of 9975 ft, in the extreme N.E. of Tibet, 30 m. from
the W. frontier of the Chinese province of Kan-suh, in ioo° £.
and 37 N. It lies amongst the eastern ranges of the Kucn-Iun,
having the Nan-shan Mountains to the north, and the southern
Kokonor range (10,000 ft.) on the south. It measures 66 m. by
40 m., and contains half a dozen islands, on one of which is a
Buddhist {i.e. Lama 1st) monastery, to which pilgrims resort.
The water is salt, though an abundance of fish live in it, and it
often remains frozen for three months together in winter. The
surface is at times subject to considerable variations of level.
The lake is entered on the west by the river Buhain-goL The
nomads who dwell round its shores are Tanguts.
. KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAI IVANOVICH VON (1818-1893),
Russian mineralogist and major-general in the Russian army,
was born at Ust-Kamenogork in Tomsk, on the 5th of December
1818 (o.s.). He was educated at the military school of mines
in St Petersburg. At the age of twenty-two he was selected to
accompany R. I. Murchison and De Vcrncufl, and afterwards
De Kcyserling, in their geological survey of the Russian Empire.
Subsequently he devoted his attention mainly to the study of
mineralogy and mining, and was appointed director of the
Institute of Mines. In 1865 he became director of the Imperial
Mineralogical Society of St Petersburg. He contributed numer-
ous papers on eudase, zircon, cpidote, orlhite, monazite and other
mineralogical subjects to the St Petersburg and Vienna academics
of science, to Poggendorfs Annalen, Leonhard and Brown's
Jahrbuch, &c. He also issued as separate works Malcrialen zur
Uintralogie Russlands (10 vols., 1853-1891), and VorUsungcn
liber Uintralogie (1865). He died in St Petersburg on the
3rd of January 1893 (o.s.)
KOKSTAD, a town of South Africa, the capital of Criqualand
East, 236 m. by rail S.W. of Durban, 110 m. N. by W. of Port
Shcpstone, and 150 m. N. of Port St John, Pondoland. Pop.
(1904), 2903, of whom a third were Griquaa. The town is built
on the outer slopes of the Drakensberg and is 4270 ft. above the
sea. Behind it Mount Currie rises to a height of 7297 ft. An
excellent water supply is derived from the mountains. The town
is well. laid out, and possesses several handsome public buildings.
It is the centre of a thriving agricultural district and has a con-
siderable trade in wool, grain, cattle and horses with Basutdand,
Pondoland and the neighbouring regions of Natal. The town
is named after the Griqua chief Adam Kok, who founded it in
1869. In 1879 it came into the possession of Cape Colony and
was granted municipal government in 1893. It is the residents
of the Headman of the Griqua nation. (See KAmaniA and
Griqualand.)
KOLA, a peninsula of northern Russia, lying between the
Arctic Ocean on the N. and the White Sea on the S. It forms
part of the region of Lapland and belongs administratively to
the government of Archangel. The Arctic coast, known as the
Murman coast (Murman being a corruption of Norman), is 260 m.
long, and being subject to the influence of the North Atlantic
drift, is free from ke all the year round: It is a rocky coast,
built of granite, and rising to 650 f L, and is broken by several
excellent bays. On one of these, Kola Bay, the Russian govern-
ment founded in 1895 the naval harbour of Alesandrovsk.
From May to August a productive fishery is carried on along tbib
coast. Inland the peninsula rises up to a plateau, 1000 ft in
general elevation, and crossed by several ranges of low moun-
tains, which go up to over 3000 ft. in altitude. The lower slopes
of these mountains are dotbed with forest up to 2300 ft., and
in places thickly studded with lakes, some of them of very con-
siderable extent, eg. Imandra (330 sq. m.), Ump-jaur, Nuorti-
jirvi, GuoUc-jaur or Kola Lake, and Lu-jaur. From these issue
streams of appreciable magnitude, such as the Tuloma, Voconya,
Yovkyok or Yokanka, and Ponoi, all flowing into the Arctic, and
the Varsuga and Umba, into the White Sea. The area of the
peninsula is estimated at 50,000 sq. m.
See A. O. Kihlrnann and Palmen, Die Expedition nacn der ffatbinsd
Kola (1887-1802) (Hclsingfor*) ; A. O. Kihlrnann, Berickt einer nalur-
vnssenschofUUken Keisedurek Russisch-Lappland (Hetaingfors, 1890);
and W. Ramsay, Geolofbche Beobaekiungen auj der HoJbinsel Kola
(Hdslngfors, 1899).
KOLABA (or Colaba), a district of British India, in the
southern division of Bombay. Area, 2131 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
605,566, showing an increase of 2 % in the decade. The head-
quarters are at Alibagh. Lying between the Western Ghats
and the sea, Kotaba district abounds in hills, some being spurs
running at right angles to the main range, while others are
isolated peaks or lofty detached ridges. The sea frontage, of
about 20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed
by a belt of coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt
lies a stretch of flat country devoted to rice cultivation. In
many places along the banks of the salt-water creeks there are
extensive tracts of salt marshland, some of them reclaimed,
some still subject to tidal inundation, and others set apart for
the manufacture of salt. The district is traversed by a few
small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the principal are the
Nagothna on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the
Bankot creek in the south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming
highways for a brisk trade in rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish.
Near the coast especially, the district is well supplied with
reservoirs. The Western Ghats have two remarkable peaks—
Raigarh, where Stvajt built his capital, and Mi radon gar. There
are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value of which
is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian
Peninsula railway crosses part of tht district, and communication
with Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Owing to its
nearness to that city, the district has suffered severely from
plague. Kolaba district takes its name from a little island off
Alibagh, which was one of the strongholds of Angria, the Mah-
ratta pirate of the 18th century. The same island has given
its name to Kolaba Point, the spur of Bombay Island running
south that protects the entrance to the harbour. On Kolaba
Point are the terminus of the Bombay & Baroda railway,
barracks for a European regiment. lunatic asylum and
observatory.
KOLAR, a town and district of India, in the state of Mysore.
The town is 43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1901), 12,21a
Although of ancient foundation, it has been almost completely
modernized. Industries include the weaving of blankets and
the breading of turkeys for export.
$SS
KOLBE— KOLDING
Tbe DisTOcr or Kmam has aa m of 3180 sq. m. It
occupies tbe portioo of the Mysore table-land inwifalily
bordering tbe Eastern Chats. Tbe principal watcsshed fas
fa tbe north -wot, around the hd of Kandidrag (4810 ft.),
from which riven radiate in all directions; and tbe wbole
country it broken by numerous h21 ranges. Tbe cbief threes
•re tbe Palar, tbe Sooth Pmakini or Peanar, tbe North Piaafczni,
and tbe Papagani, wbkb are industriously utmaed far irrigation
bx Beans of anknts and tanks. Tbe rocks of tbe district axe
Mostly syenite or granite, with a saaal adanatve of mica and
feldspar. Tbe soil in tbe valleys consists of a fertile loam; and
in tbe higher levels sand and gravel are found. Tbe bflh are
covered with scrab,' jingle and brushwood. In root tbe
pormtafion was 723^00, shoving an increase of tt % in tbe
decade. Tbe district k tra ver s ed by tbe Bangalore bne of
tbe Madras railway, with a branch 10 m. long, known as the
Kolar ColdfccMs railway. Gold pi mprrli n g in this region
began in 1876, and tbe industry is now settled on a secure
basis. Here are sitnated the mines of tbe Mysore, Champ i o n
Reef, Ooregum, and Kandidnig co mp a n i es . To tbe end of
1004 tbe total valne of gold p roduced was 21 mOtions sternng,
and there had been paid in dividends 9 mfltinrn, and in royalty
to the Mysore state one mfflkm- The municipality called the
Kolar Gold Fields had in root a population of 38,204; it has
suffered severely from plague. Electricity from tbe falls of
the Canvery (93 m. distant) k utilized as tbe motive power
in the mines. Sugar manufacture and silk and cotton weaving
are the other principal industries in tbe district. Tbe chief
historical interest of modern times centres round tbe mil fort
of Xandadrug, which was stormed by the British in 1791, after
a bombardment of 21 days.
KOLBE, ADOLPHB WILHEIJI HERMAWM (1818-1884),
German chemist, was born on the 27th of September 1818 at
Eliebansen, near Gdttingen, where in 1838 he began to study
chemistry under F. Wohlcr. In 1842 be became assistant to
JL W. von Hansen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon
Flayfak at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at
Brunswick in editing tbe Dictionary of Chemistry started by
Liebig, but in the latter year he went to Marburg as successor
to Bunsen in the chair of chemistry. In 186$ he was called to
L ii p ni g in tbe same capacity, and he died in that city on the
25th of November 1884. Kolbe bad an important share in tbe
great dm hymn of chemical theory that occurred about
the middle of the 19th century, especially in regard to tbe eon-
ttitutioa of organic compounds, which be viewed as derivatives
ei j-t-** ones, formed from tbe latter — in some cases directly
J-bj simple proce ss e s of substitution. Unable to accept
jjerwims'* doctrine of the unalterability of organic radicals,
tn at*> gave a new interpretation to tbe meaning of copulae
g^atr the i"*"" 1 ™ of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland's
jppojfttiou of dentate atomic saturation-capacities, and thus
^CTtbated m an important degree to the subsequent cslablisb-
J ^ m _ c cat structure theory. Kolbe was a very successful
tff — : * amc> and vigorous writer, and a brilliant experi-
- — t work revealed the nature of many compounds
• of which bad not previously been understood.
•imdk da organiscken C hemic in 1854, smaller
caad inorganic chemistry in 1877-1883, and
dcr thtorciiuhen Chernie in 1S81.
r of tbe Journal jiir prakiisckc Chernie,
& criticisms of contemporary chemists
ucd from his pen.
c), a town of Germany, and seaport
: *f Pomcrania, on tbe right bank of
* ^J» into tbe Baltic about a mile below
c inr*«« of the railway lines to Bclgard
^ » \**n It has a handsome raarket-
„. ^ -t^aeckk William III.; and there are
.j*. a lb* most important is MOnde.
. 4^ ..-« the huge red-brick church of St
.^ * ^4 the mc bes in
.""" «. * 14th iuse
). erected after the plans of Ernst F. Zunrmer; and ike
Kofcerg also pnsaeaaes fowx other emmrmes. a thescc.
school of navigation, and am cwrwaspr Ls
are hugely frequented aad artiat: t
of mia in fi visitors. It ban a ka-fauu 21
the month of the Persante, where there is a hgfcnhoaae. VooCes
dotkv aaachanery and spirit* are manufactured; these s ta
extensive aak-nrine in the neighbouring 7~ihataig, the saisai
and lamprey isberies are important; and a fair aanoae: a
commercia l activity is maintained. In 1003 a iiiimii— m tb
erected to the memory of Gneisenaq and the patriot, JoacLa
Christian Kettefbeck (1 738-1824), through whose efiorts lis
town was saved from the French in 1806-7.
OrjginaSy a Slavonic fart, Kolberg b one of tbe oldest plans
of Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat 0/ a baa**.
and although it soon lost ths distinction it obtained ■■■! 1. d
pti w ikgu in 125s- From about 1276 k ranked as the was.
important place in the ep isc opa l principality of r«^, and
from 1284 it was a member of the Hansrarir League. Dsrbf
tbe Thirty Years' War it was captured by tbe Swedes m r£;:,
passing by the treaty of Westphalia to tbe elector of Branden-
burg, Frederick William L, who strengthened its tortincarbes.
The town was a centre of conflict during tbe Seven Years* Wat
la 1758 and again in 1760 the Russians besieged Kolberg a
vain, but in 1762 they s u ccee d ed in capturing it. Soon restoxtj
to Brandenburg, it was vigorously attacked by tbe French a
1806 and 1807, but it was saved by the long resistance of ia
inhabitants. In 1887 the fortifications of tbe town were razed,
and it has since become a fashionable watering-place, recejvaf
annually nearly 15^00 visitors.
See Riemann, GosduehU der Smif Ko&trg (Ruben. 1S7V;
Scoewer, CeukkkM der Stmdt Kolberg (Kolberg, 1897); &hoak^
GeschithU drr BeJafmtajes KUberrs u* den Jakrtn J7f£, fTOO, nu
«*d 1807 (Kolberg, 1878); and Kempin, Fihrtr dmrdk Bad gjfrrt
(Kotberg, i899>-
K6LCSE7. FEREHC2 (1 790-1838), Hungarian poet, critic t=i
orator, was born at Saodemeter, in Transylvania, on tbe Stb d
August 179a In his fifteenth year be made tbe acquaintance of
Kazinczy and zealously adopted his linguistic reforms. In iSaj
Kolcsey went to Pest and became a " notary to tbe royal board"
Law proved distasteful, and at Cseke in Szatxnir county br
devoted bis lime to aesthetical study, poetry, criticism, and tl s
defence of the theories of Kazinczy. Kolcsey's early melnal
pieces contributed to the Transytvanian Museum did not attn^
much attention, whilst his severe criticisms of rc^v^n-^ £2.
and especially Berzsenyi, published in 181 7, rendered him tttj
unpopular. From 1821 to 1826 he published many separu
poems of great beauty in the Aurora, Hebe, Astasia, and odLr
magazines of polite literature. He joined Paul Szemerr in a nev
periodical, styled tXcl is liieralura (" Life and Literature '\
which appeared from 1826 to 1829, in 4 vols., and gained for
Rdlcscy the highest reputation as a critical writer. From \%rt
to 183s he sat in the Hungarian Diet, where his extreme Kbenl
views and his singular eloquence soon rendered him famous *s 1
parliamentary leader. Elected on the 17th of November i%p
a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, he tort
part in its first grand meeting; in 1S32, he delivered fca
famous oration on Kazinczy, and in 1836 that on his fonser
opponent Daniel Berzsenyi. When in 1838 Baron Wessclcini
was unjustly thrown into prison upon a charge of treasoa,
Kelcscy eloquently though unsuccessfully conducted his defence;
and he died about a week afterwards (August 24) from inicrsi
inflammation. His collected works, in 6 vols., were published
at Pest, 1840-1846, and his journal of the diet of X832-1SP
appeared in 1848. A monument erected to the memory cf
K6lcscy was unveiled at Szatmar-Nemeti on tbe acth of
September 1864.
See C. Steinacker, Ungarische Lynker (Leipzig, and Pest. 1S74*:
F. Toldy. Uaryar Kdltdk Oete (2 vols.. Pat^lSji): J. Ferenczy aad
J. Danidik, Magyar Irik (2 vols., Pest, 1856-1858).
KOLDING, a town of Denmark in tbe ami (county) of Vejfc, 01
the east coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord. an inlet of tfe
KOLGUEV— KOLLIKER
889
Little Belt, 9 m. N. of tho.German frontier. Pop. (1901), 12,51 6.
It is on the Eastern railway of Jutland. The harbour throughout
has a depth of over 20 ft. A little to the north-west is the
splendid remnant of the royal castle Koldinghuus, formerly
called Oernsborg or Arensborg. It was begun by Duke Abel in
1248; in 1808 it was burned. The large square tower was built
by Christian IV. (1588-1648), and was surmounted by colossal
statues, of which one is still standing. It contains an anti-
quarian and historical museum (1892). The name of Kolding
occurs in the 10th century, but its earliest known town-rights
date from 132 1. In 1644 it was the scene of a Danish victory
over the Swedes, and on the -22nd of April 1849 of a Danish
defeat by the tcoops of Schlcswig-Holstein. A comprehensive
view of the Little Belt with its islands, and over the mainland,
is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, a slight elevation 8} m.
S.E., where an obelisk (1863) commemorates the effort made to
preserve the Danish language in Schleswig.
KOLGUEV, Kolouepp or Kalouyev, an island off the north-
west of Russia in Europe, belonging to the government of Arch-
angel. It lies about 50 ro. from the nearest point of the mainland,
and is of roughly oval form, 54 m. in length from N.N.E. to S.S.W.
and 39 m. in extreme breadth. It lies in a shallow sea, and is
quite low, the highest point being 250 ft. above the sea. Peat-
bogs and grass lands cover the greater part of the surface; there
are several considerable streams and a large number of small lakes.
The island & of recent geological formation; it consists almost
wholly of disintegrated sandstone or clay (which rises at the
north-west into cliffs up to 60 ft. high), with scattered masses
of granite. Vegetation is scanty, but bears,, foxes and other
Arctic animals, geese, swans, &c, provide means of livelihood for
a few Samoyed hunters.
KOLHAPUR, a native state of India, within the Deccan
division of Bombay. It is the fourth in importance of the Mah-
ratta principalities, the other three being Baooda, GwaUor and
Iodore; and it is the principal state under the political control
of the government of Bombay. Together with its jagits or
feudatories, it covers an area of 3x65 sq. m. In xoox the popula-
tion was 910,01 x. The estimated revenue is £300,000. Kolhapur
stretches from the heart of the Western Ghats eastwards into the
plain of the Deccan. Along the spurs of the main chain of the
Ghats lie wild and picturesque hill slopes and valleys, producing
little but timber, and till recently covered with rich forests.
The centre of the state is crossed by several lines of low hills run-
ning at right angles from the main range. In the east the
country becomes more open and presents the unpicturesque uni-
formity of a well-cultivated and treeless plain, broken only by an
occasional river. Among the western hills are the ancient Mah-
ratta strongholds of Panhala, Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna.
The rivers, though navigable during the rains by boats of 2 tons
burthen, are all fordablc during the hot months. Iron ore is
found in the hills, and smelting was formerly carried on to a con-
siderable extent; but now the Kolhapur mineral cannot compete
with that imported from Europe. There are several good stone
quarries. The principal agricultural products arc rice, millets,
sugar-cane, tobacco, cotton, safflower and vegetables.
The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a
younger son of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta
power. The prevalence of piracy caused the British government
to send expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765 and 1793; and in
the early years of the 19th century the misgovenunent of the
chief compelled the British to resort to military operations, and
ultimately to appoint an officer to manage the state. In
recent years the state has been conspicuously well governed, on
the pattern of British administration. The raja Shahu Chhatra-
pati, G.C.S.I. (who is entitled to a salute of 21 guns) was bora in
1874, and ten years later succeeded to the throne by adoption.
The principal institutions are the Rajaram college, the high
school, a technical school, an agricultural school, and training-
schools for both masters and mistresses. The state railway from
Miraj junction to Kolhapur town is worked by the Southern
Mahratta company. In recent years the stale has suffered from
both famine and plague.
The tow* of KoxHXPca, or Kasvne, is the terminus of a branch
of the Southern Mahratta railway, 30 m. from the main line.
Pop. (1901), 54,373. Besides a number of handsome modern
public buildings, the town has many evidences of antiquity.
Originally it appears to have been an important religious centre,
and numerous Buddhist remains have been discovered in the
neighbourhood.
K0LIN, or Neu-Kouw (also KoUtn; Czech, N<n$ KcUn), a
town of Bohemia, Austria, 40 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1900), 15,025, mostly Czech. It is situated on the Elbe, and
amongst its noteworthy buildings may be specially mentioned
the beautiful early Gothic church of St Bartholomew, erected-
during the latter half of the 14th century. The industries of the
town include sugar-refining, steam mills, brewing, and the manu-
facture of starch, syrup, spirits, potash and tin ware. The
neighbourhood is known for the excellence of its fruit and vege-
tables. Kohn is chiefly famous on account Of the battle here
on the 1 8th of June 1757, when the Prussians under Frederick
the Great were defeated by the Austrians under Daun (see Seven
Yeabs' War)* The result was the raising of the siege of Prague
and the evacuation of Bohemia by the Prussians. Kolin was
colonized in the 13th century by German settlers and made a
royal city. In 142 1 it was captured by the men of Prague, and
the German inhabitants who refused to accept " the four articles "
were expelled. In 1427 the town declared against Prague, was
besieged by Prokop the Great, and surrendered to him upon con-
ditions at the dose of the year.
KOLIS, a caste or tribe of Western India, of uncertain origin.
Possibly the name is derived from the Turki kuleh a slave; and,
according to one theory, this name has been passed on to the
familiar word " cooly " for an agricultural labourer. They form
the main part of the inferior agricultural population of Gujarat,
where they were formerly notorious as robbers; but they also
extend into the Konkan and ti^e Deccan. In xoox the number
of Kolis in all India was returned as nearly 3} millions; but this
total includes a distinct weaving caste of Kolis or Koris in
northern India.
K0LLIKER, RUDOLPH ALBERT VON (1817-1905), Swiss
anatomist and physiologist, was born at Zurich on the 6th of
July 18x7.. His father and his mother were both Zurich people,
and he in due time married a lady from Aargau, so that Switzer-
land can claim him as wholly her own, though he lived the
greater part of his life in Germany. His early education was
carried on in Zurich, and he entered the university there in 1836.
After two years, however, he moved to the university of Bonn,
and later to that of Berlin, becoming at the latter place the pupil
of Johannes M tiller and of F. G. J. Hcnle. He graduated in philo-
sophy at Zurich in 1841, and in medicine at Heidelberg in 1843.
The first academic post which he held was that of prosector of
anatomy under Henle; but his tenure of this office was brief, for
in 1844 his native city called him back to its university to occupy
a chair as professor extraordinary of physiology and comparative'
anatomy. His stay here too, however, was brief, for in 1847 the
university of Wurzburg, attracted by his rising fame, offered him
the post of professor of physiology and of microscopical and
comparative anatomy. He accepted the appointment, and at
Wurzburg he remained thenceforth, refusing all offers tempting
him to leave the quiet academic life of the Bavarian town, where
he died on the 2nd of November 1005.
Kolliker's name will ever be associated with that of the tool
with which during his long life he so assiduously and successfully
worked, the microscope. The time at which he began his studies
coincided with that of the revival of the microscopic investigation
of living beings. Two centuries earlier the great Italian Mai*
pighi had started, and with his own hand had carried far the
study by the help of the microscope of the minute structure of
animals and plants. After Malpighi this branch of knowledge,
though continually progressing, made no remarkable bounds for-
ward until the second quarter of the 19th century, when the
improvement of the compound microscope on the one hand, and
the promulgation by Theodor Schwann and Matthias Schleiden
of the " cell theory " on the other, inaugurated a new era of
8$o
KOLLONTAJ
microscopic investigation. Into thk new learning Kdlliker threw
himself with all the seal of youth, wisely initiated into it by his
great teacher Henle, whose sober and exact mode of inquiry went
far at the time to give the new learning a right direction and to
counteract the somewhat fantastic views which, under the name
of the cell theory, were tending to be prominent* Henle's
labours were for the most part limited to the microscopic in-
vestigation of the minute structure of the tissues of man and of
the higher animals, the latter being studied by him mainly with
the view of illustrating the former. But Kolliker had another
teacher besides Henle, the even greater Johannes Muller, whose
active mind was sweeping over the whole animal kingdom,
striving to pierce the secrets of the structure of living creatures
of all sorts, and keeping steadily in view the wide biological
problems of function and of origin, which the facta of structure
might serve to solve. We may probably trace to the influence
of these two great teachers, strengthened by the spirit of the
times, the threefold character of Kolliker's long-continued and
varied labours. In all of them, or in almost all of them, the
microscope was the instrument of inquiry, but the problem to be
solved by means of the instrument belonged now to one branch
of biology, now to another.
At Zurich, and afterwards at Wurzburg, the title of the chair
which he held laid upon him the duty of teaching comparative
anatomy, and very many of the numerous memoirs which he
published, including the very first paper which he wrote, and
which appeared in 184 1 before he graduated, " On the Nature of
the so-called Seminal Animalcules," were directed towards
elucidating, by help of the microscope, the structure of animals
of the most varied kinds— that is to say, were zoological in char-
acter. Notable among these were his papers on the Medusae
and allied creatures. His activity in this direction led him to
make zoological excursions to the Mediterranean Sea and to
the coasts of Scotland, as well as to undertake, conjointly with
his friend C T. E. von Siebold, the editorship of the ZcUsdtriflJUr
WisttnsckafUtike Zoohgu, which, founded in 1848, continued
under his hands to be one of the most important zoological
periodicals.
At the time when Kolliker was beginning his career the in-
fluence of Karl Ernst von Baer's embryological teaching was
already being widely felt, men were learning to recognize
the importance to morphological and zoological studies of
a knowledge of the development of animals; and Kolliker
plunged with enthusiasm into the relatively new line of inquiry.
His earlier efforts were directed to the invertebrata, and his
memoir on the development of cephalopoda, which appeared in
1*44, is a classical work; bat he soon passed on to the vertebrata,
and studied not only the amphibian embryo and the chick, but
also the mammalian embryo. He was among the first, if not the
very first, to introduce into this branch of biological inquiry the
newer microscopic technique— the methods of hardening, section-
catting and staining. By doing so, not only was he enabled to
make rapid pr ogi cs s himself, but he also placed in the hands of
others the means of a like advance. The remarkable strides for-
ward which embryology made during the middle and during the
latter half of the 19th century will always be associated with his
name. His Lectmrts tm DoertopimaU, published in 1861, at once
became a standard work.
But neither zoology nor embryology furnished Kolliker's chief
daim to fame. II he did much for these branches of science, he
did still more for histology, the knowledge of the minute structure
of the animal tissues. This he made emph ati ca l ly his own. It
may indeed be said that there is no fragment of the body of
man and of the higher animal* on which he did not leave his mark,
and in more places than one his mark was a mark of fundamental
importance. Among his earlier results may be mentioned the
demonstration in 1847 that smooth or onstriated muscle is made
up of distinct units, of nucleated mosde-celb. In this work he
followed in the footstep* 0/ his master Henle. A few years before
this men were doubting whether arteries were muscular, and
no solid histological basis as yet existed for those views as to the
action of the nervous system on the drcok t ion , wmch were soon
to be put forward, and which had such a great influence oa the
progress of physiology. By the above discovery Kdlliker com-
pleted that basis.
Even to enumerate, certainly to dwell on, all his contributions
to histology would be impossible here: smooth muscle, striated
muscle, skin, bone, teeth, blood-vessels and viscera were afl
investigated by him; and he touched none of them without
striking out some new truths. The results at which he arrived
were recorded partly in separate memoirs, partly in his great
textbook on microscopical anatomy, which first saw the Eght
in 1850, and by which he advanced histology no less than by
his own researches. In the case of almost every tissue our
present knowledge contains something great or small whka
we owe to Kolliker; but it is on the nervous system that his
name is written in largest letters. So early as 1845, while still
at Zurich, he supplied what was as yet still lacking, the dear
proof that nerve- fibies are continuous with nerve-cells, and so
furnished the absolutely necessary basis for all sound specula-
tions as to the actions of the central nervous system. From that
time onward he continually laboured, and always fruitfully,
at the histology of the nervous system, and more especially at the
difficult problems presented by the intricate patterns in whkk
fibres and cells are woven together in the brain and spinal cord.
In his old age, at a time when he had fully earned the right to
fold his arms, and to rest and be thankful, he still enriched acuro-
logical science with results of the highest value. From his early
days a master of method, he saw at a glance the value of the new
Golgi method for the investigation of the central nervous system,
and, to the great benefit of science, took up once more in ms oli
age, with the aid of a new means, the studies for which he had
done so much in his youth. It may truly be said that much of
that exact knowledge of the inner structure of the brain, whkk
is rendering possible new and faithful conceptions of its working,
came from his hands.
Lastly, Kdlliker was in his earlier years professor of physiology
as well as of anatomy; and not only did hb histological labours
almost always carry physiological lessons, but he also enriched
physiology with the results of direct researches of an experimental
kind, notably those on curare and some other poisons. In fact,
we have to go back to the science of centuries ago to find a maa
of science of so many-sided an activity as he. His Kfe constituted
in a certain sense a protest against that specialized differentiatioa
which, however much it may under certain aspects be regretted,
seems to be one of the necessities of modern development- la
Johannes Mailer's days no one thought of parting anatomy and
physiology; nowadays no one thinks of joining them together.
Kolliker did in his work join them together, and indeed said
himself that he thought they ought never to be kept apart.
Naturally a man of so much accomplishment was not left with-
out honours. Formerly known simply as KSUiker, the thk
" von " was added to his name. He' was made a member of the
learned societies of many countries; in England, which he visited
more than once, and where he became well known, the Royal
Society made htm a fellow in 1660, and in 1897 gave him as
highest token of esteem, the Copley medal. (If. F }
KOUOHTAJ, HUGO (1750-1812), Polish politician dhd writer,
was bora in 1750 at Niedslawice in Sandomir, and educated at
Pinczow and Cracow. After taking orders he went (1770) to
Rome, where he obtained the degree of doctor of theology sad
common law, and devoted himself enthusiastically to the study
of the fine arts, especially of architecture and r-Si^Hwg At
Rome too he obtained a caaonry attached to Cracow cathedral,
and on hb return to Poland in 1755 threw himself heart and sasi
into the question of educational reform. Hz) efforts were impeded
by the obstruction of the clergy of Cracow, who regarded him as
an adventurer; but be succeeded in reforming the university after
Ins own mind, and was its rector for three years (1781— 17S5)
Kottontaj next turned his attention to pontics. In 1786 he «u
appointed rtftrtmdarius of Lithuania, and during the Four Yean'
Diet (1788*1792) displayed an amazing and many-sided acuity
as one of the reformers of the constitution. He gioapcd amend
him all the leading writers, publicists and progressive young men
KOLOMEA— KOLYVAN
891
of the day; declaimed against prejudices; stimulated the timid;
inspired the lukewarm with enthusiasm ; and never rested till the
constitution of the 3rd of May 1791 had been carried through. In
June 1 791 KollonUJ was appointed vice-chancellor. On the
triumph of the reactionaries and the fall of the national party,
be secretly placed in the king's hands his adhesion to the tri-
umphant Confederation of Targowica, a false step, much blamed
at the time, but due not to personal ambition but to a desire to
save something from the wreck of the constitution. He then
emigrated to Dresden. On the outbreak of Kosciuszko's in-
surrection he returned to Poland, and as member of the national
government and minister of finance took a leading part in affairs.
But his radicalism had now become of a disruptive quality, and
he quarrelled with and even thwarted Kosciuszko because the
dictator would not admit that the Polish republic could only be
saved by the methods of Jacobinism. On the other hand, the
more conservative section of the Poles regarded Kollontaj as " a
second Robespierre," and he is even suspected of complicity in
the outrages of the 1 7th and 18th of June 1794, when the Warsaw
mob massacred the political prisoners. On the collapse of the
insurrection Kollontaj emigrated to Austria, where from 1795
to 1802 he was detained as a prisoner. He was finally released
through the mediation of Prince Adam Czartoryski, and returned
to Poland utterly discredited. The remainder of his life was a
ceaseless struggle against privation and prejudice. He died at
Warsaw on the 28th of February 18x2.
Of his numerous works the moat notable are: Political Speeches
at Vice-CkanceUor (Pol.) (in 6 vols., Warsaw, 1791); On the Erection
and Fall of the Constitution of May (Pol.) (Leipzig, 1793; Paris,
1 868 ); Correspondence with T. Czacki (Pol.) (Cracow, 1854); Letters
witten during Emigration, 1702-1704 (Pol.) (Posen, 1872).
See Irnacz Badcni, Necrotomy of Huto KoUontoi (Pol.) (Cracow,
1819); Henryk Schmitt, Review of the Life and Works of Kollontaj
(Pol.) (Lemberg, i860); Wojciek Grochowski,
(Pol.) in TygoilUus. (Warsaw, 1861).
' Life of Kollontaj '
(R. N. B.)
. KOLOMEA (Polish, Kolomyja), a town of Austria, in Galicia,
1 22 m. S. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1900), 34,188, of which half
were Jews. It is situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade
in agricultural products. To the N.E. of Kolomea, near the
Dniester, lies the village of Czernelica, with ruins of a strongly
fortified castle, which served as the residence of John Sobieaki
during his campaigns against the Turks. Kolomea is a very old
town and is mentioned already in 1240, but the assertion that
it was a Romao settlement under the name of Colonia is not
proved. It was the principal town of the Polish province of
Pokutia, and it suffered severely during the isth and 16th
centuries from the attacks of the Moldavians and the Tatars.
KOLOMNA, a town of Russia, in the government of Moscow,
situated on the railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72 m. S.E.
of Moscow, at the confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolo-
menka. Pop. (1897), 20,970. It is an old town, mentioned in
the annals in 1177, and until the 14th century was the capital
of the Ryazan principality. It suffered grea lly from the invasions
of the Tatars in the 13th century,, who destroyed it four times, as
well as from the wars of the 17th century; but it always recovered
and has never lost its commercial importance. During the 19th
century it became a centre for the manufacture of silks, cottons,
ropes and leather. Here too are railway workshops, where
locomotives and wagons are made. Kolomna carries on an
active trade in grain, cattle, tallow, skins, salt and timber. It
has several old churches of great archaeological interest, including
two of the 14th century, one being the cathedral. One gate
(restored in 1895) of the fortifications of the Kreml still survives.
KOLOZSVAR (Ger. Kteusenburg; Rum. Cluj), a town of
Hungary, in Transylvania, the capital of the county of Kolozs,
and formerly the capital of the whole of Transylvania, 248 m.
E.S.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 46,670. It is
situated in i picturesque valley on the banks of the Little
Szamos, and comprises the inner town (formerly surrounded
with walls) and five suburbs. The greater part of the town
lies on the right bank of the river, while on the other side is the
so-called Bridge Suburb and the citadel (erected in 1715).
Upon the slopes of the citadel hill there is a gipsy quarter.
With the exception of the old quarter, Kolozsvar is generally
well laid out, and contains many broad and fine streets, several
of which diverge at right angles from the principal square.
In this square is situated the Gothic church of St Michael (1396-
1432); in front is a bronze equestrian statue of King Matthias
Corvinus by the Hungarian sculptor Fadrusz (1902). Other
noteworthy buildings are the Reformed church, built by Matthias
Corvinus in 1486 and ceded to the Calvinists by Bethlen Gabor in
1642; the bouse in which Matthias Corvinus was born (1443),
which contains an ethnographical museum; the county and town
halls, a museum, and the university buildings. A feature of
Kolozsvir is the large number of handsome mansions belonging
to the Transylvanian nobles, who reside here during the winter.
It is the seat of a Unitarian bishop, and of the superintendent
of the Calvinists for the Transylvanian circle. Kolozsvir is the
literary and scientific centre of Transylvania, and is the seat of
numerous literary and scientific associations, it contains a
university (founded in 1872), with four faculties — theology, phi-
losophy, law and medicine— -frequented by about 1900 students
in 1005; and amongst its other educational establishments are
a seminary for Unitarian priests, an agricultural college, two
training schools for teachers, a commercial academy, and several
secondary schools for boys and girls. The industry comprises
establishments for the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth,
paper, sugar, candles, soap, earthenwares, as well as breweries
and distilleries.
Kolozsvir is believed to occupy the site of a Roman settlement
named Napoca. Colonized by Saxons in 11 78, it then received
fts German name of KJousenburg, from the old word Kiaus4,
signifying a " mountain pass." Between the years 1545 *nd
1 570 large numbers of the Saxon population left the town in can-
sequence of the introduction of Unitarian doctrines. In x 70S the
town was to a great extent destroyed by fire. As capital of
Transylvania and the seat of the Transylvanian diets, Kolozsvar
from 1830 to 1848 became the centre of the Hungarian national
movement in the grand principality; and in December 1848 it
was taken and garrisoned by the Hungarians under General Bern.
KOLPINO, one of the chief iron- works of the crown in Russia,
in the government of St Petersburg, x6 m. S.E. of the city of St
Petersburg, on the railway to Moscow, and on the Izhora river.
Pop. ( 1 897); 8076. . A sacred image of St Nicholas in the Trinity
church is visited by numerous pilgrims on the 22nd of May
every year. Here is an iron-foundry of the Russian admiralty.
KOLS, a generic name applied by Hindus to the Munda, Ho
and Oraon tribes of Bengal. The Mundas are an aboriginal tribe
of Dravidian physical type, inhabiting the Chota Nagpur division,
and numbering 438,000 in ioox. The majority of them are ani-
mists in religion, but Christianity is making rapid strides among
them. The village community in its primitive form still exists
among the Mundas; the discontent due to the oppression of their
landlords led to the Munda rising of 1899, and to the remedy of
the alleged grievances by a new settlement of the district. The
Hos, who are closely akin to the Mundas, also inhabit the Chota
Nagpur division; in 1901 they numbered 386,000. They were
formerly a very pugnacious race, who successfully defended their
territory against all comers until they were subdued by the
British in the early part of the 19th century, being known as the
Larks (or fighting) Kols. They are still great sportsmen, using
the bow and arrow. Like the Mundas they are animists, but they
show little inclination for Christianity. Both Mundas and Hos
speak dialects of the obscure linguistic family known as Munda or
Kol.
See Imp. Gazetteer of India, vols, xiii., xviii. (Oxford, 1908).
KOLYVAfl. (1) A town of West Siberia, in the government
of Tomsk, on the Chaus river, 5 m. from the Ob and 120 m.
S.S.W. of the city of Tomsk. It is a wealthy town, the merchants
carrying, on a considerable export trade in cattle, hides, tallow,
corn and fish. It was founded in 1 7x3 under the nameof Chausky
Ostrog, and has grown rapidly. Pop. (1897), n,7<>3- (*)
KoLYVAftsxiY Zavoo, another town of the same government,
in the district of Biysk, Altai region, on the Byelaya river, 192 m.
&t}3
KOMAROM— KONGSBERG
^^^nOSS. a«d WUS longU
**1? on lb* »»th of July
S>E- «* Barnaul; altitude, 1990 ft It » renowned far its stone-
cwtting factory, where marble, jasper, various porphyries and
fcf«caas are wicked into vases, columns, &c Pop., 5000. (3)
OMnameoiRevalfe.*).
K0«AJtO« (Ger., Kowunt), the capital of the county of
fComarott, Hungary, 65 m. W.N.W. of Budapest by rail. Fop.
(looo). i6.Si6w It is situated at the eastern extremity of the
y$U&d CsaUoko* or Grosse Scbutt, at the confluence of the Waag
^tch the Danube, Just below Komirom the two arms into
^hkh the Danube separates bdow Pressburg, forming the Grosse
^cbutt island, unite again. Since 1806 the market-town of
^-j-S*fioY, which hes on the opposite bank of the Danube, has
^gem incorporated with Komirom. The town is celebrated
c tiicfr for its fortifications, whkh farm the centre of the inland
^^pftifecatioas of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. A brisk
<r *de ia cereals, timber, wine and fish is carried on. Komirom
-j oft* of the oldest towns of Hungary, having received its charter
^ 126$. The fortifications were begun by Matthias Corvinus,
~V| vert enlarged and strengthened during the Turkish wars
*^Vo-^*V New forts were constructed in 1663 and were greatly
V^jjqfed between 1805 and 1800. In 1543, 1504, 1508 and
*\\, , it was b tkaguu e tl by the Turks. It was raised to the
*^r^fr? of a iwyal free town in 1751. During the revolutionary
t&*£-40 Koaaarom was a principal point of military
tfulry besieged by the Austrian*,
1&40 were defeated there by General
^g^et. *•*■ w *^ 3*^ °f August by General Klapka. On the
v - t & C^ p unv b cr the fortress capitulated to the Austrians upon
•^ terms* and on the 3rd and 4th of October was evacu-
> *"T** the Hungarian troops. The treasure of the Austrian
*^~^jl ie*k «** removed here from Vienna in 1866, when that
***~ ^* da ua * *a «d by the Prussians.
k a river of south-eastern Africa. It rises at an de-
^ jt *&c«* $000 ft. in the Enneb district of the Transvaal,
***# <tf :h» source of the Vaal, and flowing in a general N.
* % tf*vt*m Poaches the Indian Ocean at Ddagoa Bay, after
»"* ^-^ mom- 500 miles. In its upper valley near Steynsdorp
•■"^.^vA W the reefs are almost entirely of low grade ore.
r ^..^^«c^«a«mtWDeakensbcrgbyapass3om.S.ofBarber-
*** ' „. » 2*e eatceen border of Swasfland is deflected north-
* «•<-*>)* * ceurse parallel to the Lcbombo mountains.
• " . s\ *adm*$* ic* S. his joined by one of the mtfny
*~ ' >*»* ^..x^aAmed Crocodile. This tributary rises, as
* " . #fc < f*e a the Bergendal (6437 ft.) near the upper
*• * \ » v;«m^ and flows E. across the high veld, being
• * "* m «■** a* * reaches the Drakensberg escarpment.
■••"* , ^ v« >*»i «s over 3000 ft. in 30 m., and across the
' '"* w w-t V l\akensberg and the Lebombo (100 m.)
h *.. tel « jaoo ft. A mile below the junction of
- " „,**»» avjuaatt* the united stream, which from this
*""".. ->*■'*** ** ^* Manhissa, passes to the coast plain
„ „* t **-<• in the Lebombo known as Komati
. .« *»m ^turesque falls. At Komati Poort, whkh
«,. . vv**cu British and Portuguese territory,
^ <h,» *> m> from its mouth in a direct line,
^ <% %*• * makes a wide sweep of too nu,
"*" w4 \ *au«c lagoon-like expanses and back-
veral tributaries. In
d through the swamps
Komati enters the sea
rigible from its mouth,
ep, to the foot of the
D > Pretoria traverses the
* iches the KomatL It
JT' nters the high country
t the same name. 2 m.
H/ tt 1000, during the war
j?V antier awl surrendered
^^ * Poort westward the
KOHOTAU (Czech, Cfcumttpc). a town of Bohemia, Aastra
79 m. N.N.W. of Prague by raU. Pop. (1000), 15,935. ahunt
exclusively German. It has an old Gothic church, and its tow
hall was formerly a comma ndrry of the Teutonic knights. Tbea-
dustrial establishments comprise manufactories of woollen cskb,
linen and paper, dyeing houses, breweries, distilleries, viaqor
works and the central workshops of the Buschtencad cauway
Lignite is worked in the neighbourhood. Komotau was ongb-
aUy a Caech market-place, but in lass it came into the pnmmnn
of the Teutonic Order and was completdy Gern^anueexL la 139b
it received a town charter; and in 14x6 the knights sold both
town and lordship to Wenccslaus IV. On the 16th of Manx
1421, the town was stormed by the Taborites, sacked and burned.
After several changes of ownership, Komotau came in 1588 to
Popel of Lobkovic, who established the Jesuits here, which led
to trouble between the Protestant burghers and the overkvi
In 1504 the lordship fell to the crown, and in 1605 the teas
purchased its freedom and was created a royal city.
KOSURA. JTJTARO, Count (1855- ), Japanese states-
man, was born in Hiuga. He graduated at Harvard in 1877, auf
entered the foreign office in Tokyo in 1 884. He served as charge
d'affaires in Peking, as Japanese minister in Seoul, ia Washkg-
ton, in St Petersburg, and in Peking (during the Boxer treubki,
earning in every post a high reputation far diplomatic ab2tr.
In 1901 he l ece iv e d the portfolio of foreign affairs, and hekJ it
throughout the course of the negotiations with Rossia and tie
subsequent war (1004-5), being finally appointed by his soveretra
to meet the Russian plenipotentiaries at Portsmouth, and satse*
qucntly the Chinese representatives in Peking, on which cccaskas
the Portsmouth treaty of September 1005 and the Peking treat j
of November in the same year were concluded. For these
services, and for negotiating the second Anglo- Japanese •r?™^
he rece i ved the Japanese title of count and was made a K.CJL
by King Edward VI L He resigned his portfolio in 1906 izi
became privy councillor, from whkh post he was transferred t:
the embassy in London, but he returned to Tokyo in 1008 ac£
resumed the portfolio of foreign affairs in the second g— «■ *»
cabinet.
KOHARAK or Ksmiaf, a ruined temple m India, in tix
Puri district of Orissa, which has been described as for its sue
M the most richly ornamented building— externally at least— a
the whole world." It was erected in the middle of the i:'i
century, and was dedicated to the sun-god. It ^—rftprH a t
tower, probably once over 180 ft- high, with a porch ia irrtr.
140 ft. high, sculptured with figures of lions, elephants, horses, ar
K0JK3, the name of a town, district and range of haus in *>
N.W. of the Ivory Coast colony, French West Africa. The kl
are part of the band of high ground separating the inner pii_^
of West Africa from the coast regions. In maps of the first k^.
of the 10th century the range is shown as part of a great xeoo
tain chain sup pose d to run east and west across Africa, aaf a
thus made to appear a continuation of the Mountains at '^r
Moon, or the snow-clad heights of RnwenxorL The culmfrai -s
point of the Kong system b the Pk des K ran m on o , 4757 ft- *_rr
In general the summits of the Inns axe below aooo ft. and - *-
more than 700 ft. above the level of the country. The * err-?
of Kong," one of the administrative divisions of the Ivory C^st
colony, covers 46,000 sq. m. and has a population of scar
400,000. The inhabitants are negroes, cutesy Basahnra sr-
hfandingo. About a fourth of the population profess MaKr
medanism; the remainder are spirit wonuuppers. The tow^ .
Kong, situated in o* N., 4*20' W^ is not now of great imporu-. -.
Probably Rene Cafl!ir. who spent some time ia the wast e s a r :.-
of the country in 1&17, was the first European to visit E - :
In i&SS Captain L. G. Bisger induced the native chiefs to r ^
thesis^ res under the proteclica of France, and in i&;j: ::;
protectorate was attached to the Ivory Coast cclony. K~ 1
t:rae Kong was overrun by the armies of Samory «'&ee S«:x£
bat the capture 0/ that chief in 1 SgS was followed by tWpei.k.
de\Nr"\^-iert cf the distrKt by France (see Ivoxv Covsr).
KOKGSBEBG. a raining town of Norway ^x Busk era i •:*
'ccuavty). on the Laagen, 00 ft. above the sra, and 4x &1SV
KONIA— KONIG
89S
of Christiania by rail. Pop. (1906), 5585." With the exception
of the church and the town-house, the buildings are mostly of
wood. The origin and whole industry of the town are connected
with the government silver-mines in the neighbourhood. Their
first discovery was made by a peasant in 16*3, since which time
they have been worked with varying success. During the z8th
century Kongsbe rg was more important than now, and contained
double its present population. Within the town are situated
the smelting-works, the mint, and a Government weapon factory.
Three miles below the Laagen forms a fine fall of 140 ft.
(Labrofos). The neighbouring Jonksnut (2950 ft.) commands
extensive views of the Tdemark. A driving-road from
Kongsberg follows a favourite route for travellers through this
district, connecting with routes to Sand and Odde on the west
coast.
KONIA. (x) A vilayet in Asia Minor which includes the
whole, or parts of, Pamphylia, Pisidia, Phrygia, Lycaonia,
CilidaandQappadocia. It was formed in 1864 by adding to the
old eyalet of Karamania the western half of Adama, and part of
south-eastern AnadoU. It is divided into five sanjaks: Adalia,
Buldur, Hamid-abad, Konia and Nigdeh. The population
(900,000 Moslems and 80,000 Christians) is for the moat part
agricultural and pastoral The only industries are carpet-
weaving and the manufacture of cotton and silk stuffs. There
are mines of chrome, mercury, cinnabar, argentiferous lead and
rock salt. The principal exports art salt, minerals, opium,
cotton, cereals, wdol and livestock; and the imports cloth-goods,
coffee, rice and petroleum. The vilayet is now traversed by the
Anatolian railway, and contains the railhead of the Ottoman Hne
from Smyrna.
(2) The chief town [anc Iconium (q.v.)\ altitude 3320 ft.,
situated at the S.W. edge of the vast central plain of Asia Minor,
amidst luxuriant orchards famous in the middle ages for their
yellow plums and apricots and watered by streams from the hills.
Pop. 45,000, including 5000 Christians. There are interesting
remains of Sdjuk buildings, all -showing strong traces of Persian
influence in their decorative details. The principal rum is that
of the palace of Kilij Arslan II., which contained a famous halL
The most important mosques are the great Ttkkt, which contains
the tomb of the poet Mevlana Jelal ed-din Rumi, a mystic (sun)
poet, founder of the order of Mevlevi (whirling) dervishes, and
those of his successors, the " Golden " mosque and those of Ala
ed-Din and Sultan Selitn. The walls, largely the work of Ala
ed-Din I., are preserved in great part and notable for the number
of ancient inscriptions built into them. They once had twelve
gates and were 30 ells in height. The climate is good— hot in
summer and cold, with snow, in winter. Konia is connected
by railway with Constantinople and is the starting-point of the
extension towards Bagdad. After the capture of Nicaea by the
Crusaders (1097), Konia became the capital of the Sdjuk Sultans
of Rum (see Seltuks and Tunis). It was temporarily occupied
by Godfrey, and again by Frederick Barbarossa, but this scarcely
affected its prosperity. During the reign of Ala ed-Din I.
(1 219-1236) the city was thronged with artists, poets, historians,
jurists and dervishes, driven westwards from Persia and Bokhara
by the advance of the Mongols, and there was a brief period of
great splendour. After the break up of the empire of Rum,
Konia became a secondary city of the amirate of Karamania
and in part fell to ruin. In 1472 it was annexed to the Osmanli
empire by Mahommed II. In 1832 it was occupied by Ibrahim
Pasha who defeated and captured the Turkish general, Reshid
Pasha, not far from the walls. It had come to fill only part of
its ancient circuit, but of recent years it has revived considerably,
add, since the railway reached it, has acquired a semi-European
quarter, with a German hotel, cafes and Greek shops, &c.
See W. M. Ramsay, Historical Geography of Asia Minor (1890);
St Paul the Traveller (1895) '. G. Lc Strange, Lands of theB. CaUphaU
I KONIECPOLSKI, STANISLAUS (1591-1646), Polish soldier,
I was the most illustrious member of an ancient Polish family
I which rendered great services to the Republic. Educated at
) the academy of Cracow, be learned the science of war under the
great Jan Chodkiewicxfwhom he accompanied oil his Muscovite
campaigns, and under the equally great Stanislaus Zoikiewski,
whose daughter Catherine he married. On the death of his first
wife he wedded, in 16x9, Christina Lubomirska. In 1619 he
took part in the expedition against the Turks which terminated
so disastrously at Cecora, and after a valiant resistance was
captured and sent to Constantinople, where he remained a dose
prisoner for three years. On his return he was appointed com-
mander of all the forces of the Republic, and at the head of an
army of 25,000 men routed 60,000 Tatars at Martynow, follow-
ing up this success with fresh victories, for which he received the
thanks of the diet and the palatinate of Sandomeria from the
king. In 1625 he was appointed guardian of the Ukraine
against the Tatars, but in 1626 was transferred to Prussia to
check the victorious advance of Gustavus Adolphus. Swedish
historians have too often ignored the fact that Koniecpolskf s
superior strategy neutralized all the efforts of the Swedish king,
whom he defeated again and again, notably at Homersttiu
(April 1627) and at Tndand (April 1629). But for the most
part the fatal parsimony of his country compelled Koniecpolski
to confine himself to the harassing guerrilla warfare in which he
was an expert. In 1632 he was appointed to the long vacant
post of hitman wielki hotonmy, or commander In chief of Poland,
and in that capacity routed the Tatars at Sasowy Rogi (April
1633) and at Paniawce (April and October 1633), and the Turks,
with terrific loss, at Abazd Basha. To keep the Cossacks of the
Ukraine in order he also built the fortress of Kudak* As one
of the largest proprietors in the Ukraine he suffered severely
from Cossack depredations and offered many concessions to
them. Only after years of conflict, however, did he succeed in
reducing these unruly desperadoes to something like obedience.
In 1644 he once more routed the Tatars at Ockmatow, and again
in 1646 at Brody. This was his last exploit, for he died the same
year, to the great grief of Wladislaus IV., who had already con*
certed with him the plan for a campaign on a grand scale against
the Turks, and relied principally upon the Grand He t m an for its
success. Thous^lessfamouethanhbconUinporariesZolkiehw&ki
and Chodkiewicz, Koniecpolski was fully their equal as a general,
and his inexorable severity made him an ideal lord-marcher.
See an unfinished biography in the Tw. Ittns, of Warsaw for
1863; StanieJaw Przykmski, Memorials of the KonUcpolskii (Pol.)
(Lemberg, 1842). (R. N. B.)
K0NIG, KARL RUDOLPH (1832-1901), German physicist,
was born at KOnigsberg (Prussia) on the 26th of November 1832,
and studied at the university of his native town, taking the degree
of PhJD. About 1852 he went to Paris, and became apprentice
to the famous violin-maker, J. B. Vuillaume, and some six years
later he started business on his own account. He called himself
a " maker of musical instruments," but the instruments for
which his name is best known are tuning-forks, which speedily
gained a high reputation among physicists for their accuracy
and general excellence. From this business Kdnig derived his
livelihood for the rest of his life. He was, however, very far
from being a mere tradesman, and even as a manufacturer he
regarded the quality of the articles that left his workshop as a
matter of greater solicitude than the profits they yielded. Acous-
tical research was his real interest, and to that he devoted all the
time and money he could spare from his business. An exhibit
which he sent to the London Exhibition of 1862 gained a gold
medal, and at the Philadelphia Exposition at 1876 great admira-
tion was expressed for a tonome trie apparatus of his manufacture.
This consisted of about 670 tuning-forks, of as many different
pitches, extending over four octaves, and it afforded a perfect
means for testing, by enumeration of the beats, the number of
vibrations producing any given note and for accuratdy tuning
any musical instrument. An attempt was made to secure this
apparatus for the university of Pennsylvania, and Kftnig was
induced to leave it behind him in America on the assurance that
It would be purchased; but, ultimately, the money not being
forthcoming, the arrangement feQ through, to Us great dis-
appointment and pecuniary loss. Some of the forks he disposed
of to the university of Toronto and the remainder he used as a
«94-
KONIGGRATZ— KONIGSBERG
nucleus for the construction of a sml more elaborate tonometer.
While the range of the old apparatus was only between 128 and
4096 vacations a second, the lowest fork of the new one made
only 16 vacations a second, wh3e the highest gave a sound too
shrill to be perceptible by the human ear. Kdnig will also be
remembered as the inventor and const ruct or of many other
beautiful pieces of apparatus for the investigation of ac ou stical
problems, among which may be mentioned his wave-sirens, the
first of which was shown at Philadelphia m 1876. His original
work dealt, among other things, with Wheatstone's sound-figures,
the characteristic notes of the different vowels, manometric
names, &c; but perhaps the most important of his researches
are those devoted to the phenomena produced by the interference
of two tones, in which he controverted the views of H. von Hdnv
holu as to the eihtmcr of summation and difference tones. He
died in Paris on the 2nd of October ioox.
1 KAffiMRiTE (Czech, Hro^iCru^ol), a town and episcopal
see of Bohemia, Austria, 74 m. E. of Prague by rail. Pop.
(1000), 9773, mostly Czech. It is situated in the centre of a very
fertile region called the "Golden Road," and contains many
buildings of historical and architectural interest. The cathedral
was founded in 1303 by Elizabeth, wife of Wenceslaus II; and the
church of St John, built in 1710, stands on the ruins of the old
castle. The industries include the manufacture of musical
instruments, machinery, colours, and cartm-pUne, as well as
gloves and wax candles. The original name of Konjggrata,
one of the oldest settlements in Bohemia, was Ckiumtc Dtbro*-
itmkf; the name Hradoc, or "the Castle," was given to it when it
became the seat of a count, and Kraloot, " of the queen l ' (Ger.
Komgm), was prefixed when it became one of the dower towns
of the queen of Wenceslaus IL, Elisabeth of Poland, who lived
here for thirty yean. It remained a dower town till 1620.
Koniggrttz was the first of the towns to declare for the national
cause during the Hussite wars. After the battle of the White
Monntain (x6so) a large part of the Protestant population left
the place. In 1639 the town was occupied for eight months by
the Swedes. Several churches and convents were pulled down
to make way for the fortifications erected under Joseph IL The
fortress was finally dismantled in 1884. Near Koniggritx took
place, on the 3rd of July 1866, the decisive battle (formerly
called Sadowa) of the Austro-Prussian war (see Seven Weeks'
Was).
K&MvIsTHOF {Dm* Krahte in Czech), the seat of a provincial
district and of a provincial law-court, is situated in north-eastern
Bohemia on the left bank of the Elbe, about 160 kilometres from
Prague. Brewing, corn-milling and cotton-weaving are the
principal industries. Pop. about 11,000. The city is of very
ancient origin. Founded by King Wenceslaus IL of Bohemia
(1 278-1305), it was given by him to his wife Elizabeth, and thus
received the name of Dvur Kralove (the court of the queen).
During the Hussite wars, Dvur Kralove was several times taken
and retaken by the contending parties. In a battle fought partly
within the streets of the town, the Austrian army was totally
defeated by the Prussians on the 20th of June 1866. Intbeioth
century Dvur Kralove became widely known as the spot where a
MS. was found that was long believed to be one of the oldest
written documents in the Czech langnngr In 1817 Wenceslas
Hanka, afterwards for a long period Ebrarian of the Bohemian
museum, declared that he had found in the church tower in the
town of Dvur Kralove when on a visit there, a very ancient MS.
containing epic and lyric poems. Though Dobrovsky, the
greatest Czech p hil o logist of the time, from the first expressed
suspicions, the MS. known as the Krslodvonky Rukopis manu-
script of Koniginhof was long accepted as genuine, frequently
printed and translated into most European languages. Doubts
as to the genuineness of the document never, h owever , ceased,
and they became stronger when Hanka was convicted of having
fabricated other false Bohemian documents. A series of works
and articles written by Professors GoU, Gebauer, Masoryk, and
others have recently proved that the MS. b a forgery, and hardly
any Bohemian scholars of the present day believe in its genuine-
atioa of the authenticity of the MS. of Dtvlnhm
short interruptions about seventy yean, mad tat
rorks written on the subject would au a ronairtmhli
Ths<
lasted with
Bohemian works written on the subject <
library. Count Lutzow's History of Bohemia* IMcnt&o gr*ts a
brief account of the controversy.
KftMIMBEM (Polish KroUwiec), a town of Germany, capital
of the province of East Prussia and a fortress of the first rank
Pop. (1880), 140,800; (1890), 161,666; (1005), 219,862 (indudmg
the incorporated suburbs). It is situated on rising ground, oa
both sides of the Pregei, 4} m. from its mouth in the Frische
Haff, 397 no. N. E. of Berlin, oa the railway to Eydtknhnen and
at the junction of lines to Pillau, TOsit and Kranz. It consists
of three parts, which were formerly independent admimstratwt
units, the Altstadt (old town), to the west, Lobenicht to the
east, and the island Kneiphof , together with numerous suburbs.
all embraced in a circuit of 9} miles. The PregeJ, spanned by
many bridges, flows through the town in two branches, wkkk
unite below the Grfine Brucke. Its greatest breadth mvkhsa the
town is from 80 to 00 yards, and it is usually frozen from Novem-
ber to March. Konigsberg does not retain many marks of
antiquity. The Altstadt has long and narrow streets, but the
Kneiphof quarter is roomier. Of the seven market -places only
that in the Altstadt retains something of its former appearance.
Among the more interesting buildings are the Sc likes, a lost
rectangle begun in 1255 and added to htter, with a Gothic
tower 277 ft. high and a chapel built in 1592, in which Frederick
L in 1701 and William L in i86t dow ned them s elv e s king* of
Prussia; and the cathedral, begun in 1333 and restored in 1*5*,
a Gothic building with a tower 164 ft. high, adjoining which is
the tomb of Kant. The Schloss was originally the residence oi
the Grand Masters of the Teutonic order and later of the dukes
of Prussia. Behind is the parade-ground, with the statues of
Albert L and of Frederick William IIL by August Kiss, and the
grounds also contain monuments to Frederick L and WQKass L
To the east is the SchJosstekh, a long narrow ornamental butt
covering 12 acres. The north-west side of the pasmc h>giu s uMl n
occupied by the new university buildings, completed in 1865;
these and the new exchange on the south side of the Pregei an
the finest architectural features of the town. The a mve i siij
(Collegium Albertinum) was founded in 1544 by Albert L, duke
of Prussia, as a ** purely Lutheran " place of learning. It a
chiefly distinguished for its mathematical and p*" 1 -— yfrr ^
studies, and possesses a famous observatory, established is
x8ix by Frederick William Bessd, a library of about 240,000
volumes, a zoological museum, a botanical garden, laboratories
and valuable mathematical and other scientific collections.
Among its famous professors have been Kant (who was bora
here in 1724 and-to whom a monument was erec t ed in 1864).
J. G. von Herder, Bessel, F. Neumann and J. F. Hcrhan.
It is attended by about xooo students and has a
staff of over 100. Among other educational
Konigsberg numbers four classical schools (gymnasia) and three
commercial schools, an academy of painting and a irhnnl of
music The hospitals and benevolent institutions are nonmerows.
The town is less well equipped with nunemmvand sunOar insti-
tutions, the most noteworthy being the Prussia hiiim ism of
antiquities, which is especially rich in East P i ussian fines
from the Stone age to the Viking period. Besides the cathedral
the town has fourteen c hurches .
Konigsberg is a naval and mu'tary fortress of the first order.
The fortifications were begun in 1843 and were only fntnphfrd
in 1005, although the place was surrounded by walls in early
times. The works consist of an inner wall, brought into con-
nexkra with an outlying system of works, and of twelve detached
forts, of which six are on the right and six on the left bank of the
Pregei Between them lie two great forts, that of Friedrichfiburs
on an island in the Pregei and that of the Kaserne Kronpcina oa
the east of the town, both within the environing ramparts. The
protected position of its harbour has made K6nigsberg one of thr
most important commercial cities of Germany. A new channel
has recently been made between it and its port, Pillau, so tmlrs
distant, on the outer side of the Frische Haff, so as to acum*
vessels drawing 20 feet of water right up to the ounys oi
KGNIGSBORN— KONIGSSEE
«95
Konigsberg, and the malt his been to stimulate? the trade of
the city. It is protected for a long distance by moles, in which a
break has been left in the Fischhauser Wiek, to permit of freer
circulation of the water and to prevent damage to the mainland.
The industries of Konigsberg have made great advances
within recent years, notable among them are printing-works and
manufactures of machinery, locomotives, carriages, chemicals,
toys, sugar, cellulose, beer, tobacco and cigars, pianos and
amber wares: The principal exports are cereals and flour,
cattle, horses, hemp, flax, timber, sugar and oilcake* There are
two pretty public parks, one in the Hufen, with a zoological
garden attached, another the Luisenwahl which commemorates
the sojourn of Queen. Louisa of Prussia hi the town in the
disastrous year 1806.
. The Altstadt of Kdnigsberg grew up around the castle buflt*
in 1355 by the Teutonic Order, on the advice of Ottaker IL
King of Bohemia, after whom the place was named. Its first
site was near the fishing village of Steindamm, but after its
destruction by the Prussians in 1363 it was rebuilt in its present
position. It received civic privileges in 1286, the two other
parts of the present town — L&benicht and Kneiphof— receiving
them a few years later. In 134a Kdnigsberg entered the
Hanseatic League. From 1457 it was the residence of the grand
master of the Teutonic Order, and from 1525 till 161 8 of the
dukes of Prussia. The trade of Kdnigsberg was much hindered
by the constant shifting and silting up of the channels leading
to its harbour; and the great northern wars did it immense
harm, but before the end of the 17th century it had almost
recovered.
In 1724 the three independent parts were united into a .single
town by Frederick William I.
Konigsberg suffered severely during the war of liberation
and was occupied by the French in 1807. In 18x3 the town was
the scene of the deliberations which led to the successful uprising
of Prussia against Napoleon. During the 19th century the
opening of a railway system in East Prussia and Russia gave a
new impetus to its commerce, making it the principal outlet
for the Russian staples— grain, -seeds, flax and hemp. It has
now regular steam co mmun ication with Memel, Stettin, Kiel,
Amsterdam and HulL
See Faber, Die Haupt- und Rcsidenzstadt Kdnigsberg in Pmssen
"*" ' ' srg, 1840) ;SchubcTt,Zur6oo^dhnrenJubdfacrKdniesbirgs
rrg. 1855) ! 3eckherrn, Ceschtchte der Befestigungeu Kfinigs-
krgs (Kdnigsberg, 1800); H. O. Prutz, Die Unigliche Alberlus-
UntversiUtl tu Konigsberg im 10 Jakrkundert (Konigsberg, 1894):
Armstedl, Geschickte der kdnwlichen Haupt- und Rendenutadt
Konigsberg (Stuttgart, i999)',M.Schu\tze, K6nigsbergundOslprcusuit
tu Anfang J 8 13 (Berlin, 1901); and Gordak, Wigwdur durch
Kdnigsberg (Konigsberg, 1904).
KOKIGSBORN, a spa of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Westphalia, immediately to the N. of the town of Unna, of
which it practically forms a suburb. It has large saltworks,
producing annually over 15,000 tons. The brine springs, in
connexion with which there is a hydropathic establishment,
have a temperature of 93° ?•> and are efficacious in skin
diseases, rheumatism and scrofula.
See Wegelc, Bad Kdnigsborn und seine HtUmitUl (Essen, 1902)^
K&NI&SHOTTK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, situated in the middle of the Upper Silesian coal and
iron district, 3 m. S. of Beuthen and 122 m. by rail S.E. of
Bresku. Pop, (1852), 4405; (1875), 26,040; (1000), 57,010.
In- 1869 it was incorporated with various neighbouring villages,
and raised to the dignity of & town. It has two Protestant
and three Roman Catholic churches and several schools and
benevolent institutions. The largest iron-works in Silesia is
situated at Konigshfitte, and includes puddling works, rolling-
mills, and zinc-works. Founded in 1797, it was formerly in
the hands of government, but is now carried on by a company.
There are also manufactures of bricks and glass and a trade in
wood and coal. Nearly one-half of the population of the town
consists of Poles.
See Mohr, GtKhithU der Siadt KOnigskWe (Komgshutte, 1890).
ben
KONlGSUJfnR, atownof Germany, in the duchy of Bruns-
wick, on the Lutter 36 m. E. of Brunswick by the railway to
Eisleben and Magdeburg. Pop. (1005), 3260. It possesses an
Evangelical church, a castle and tome interesting old houses.
Its chief man uf actures are sugar, machinery, paper and beer.
Near the town are the ruins of a Benedictine abbey founded in
1 13 5. In its beautiful church, which has not been destroyed,
are the tombs of the emperor Lothair II., his wife Richtnsa, and
of his son-in-law, Duke Henry the Proud of Saxony and Bavaria*
KOmOSMARK, MARIA AURORA, Countess or (1662-1728),
mistress of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of
Poland, belonged to a noble Swedish family, and was born on
the 8th of May 1002. Having passed some years at Hamburg,
where she attracted attention both by her beauty and her talents,
Aurora went in 1604 to Dresden to make inquiries about her
brother Philipp Christoph, count of KOnigsmark, who had
suddenly and mysteriously disappeared from Hanover. Here
she was noticed by Augustus, who made her his mistress; and
in October 1696 she gave birth to a son Maurice, afterwards the
famous marshal de Saxe. The elector however quickly tired
of Aurora, who then spent her time in efforts to secure the
position of abbess of Quedlinburg, an office which carried with
it the dignity of a princess of the Empire, and to recover the
lost inheritance of her family in Sweden. She was made
coadjutor abbess and lady-provost (Prdpsiin) of Quedlinburg,
but lived mainly in Berlin, Dresden and Hamburg. In 1703
»he went on a diplomatic errand to Charles XII. of Sweden on
behalf of Augustus, but her adventurous journey ended in
failure. The countess, who was described by Voltaire as " the
most famous woman of two centuries," died at Quedlinburg on
the 1 6th of February 1728.
See F. Cramer, DenheOrdigkeiten der CrSfin M. A. Kdnigsmarh
(Leipzig, 1836) ; and Biograpktscke Naehrichten von der CrSfin AT. A.
Konigswuuk (Quedlinburg, 1833); W. F. Palmbiad^itttrora Kouig*.
prig,i848~i8M):CL.dePdluut!,
La Saxe galante (Amsterdam, 1734): and O. J. B. von Corvw-
Wiersbttzki, Maria Aurora , Crdfin von KOnigsmark (Rudolstadt.
1902).
KdNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH, Count of (1665-'
1694), was a member of a noble Swedish family, and is chiefly
known as the lover of Sophia Dorothea, wife of the English king;
George I. then electoral prince of Hanover. Born on the 14th of
March 1665, KOnigsmark was a brother of the countess noticed
above. After wandering and fighting in various parts of Europe
he entered the service of Ernest Augustus, elector of Hanover.
Here he made the acquaintance of Sophia Dorothea, and assisted
her in one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover,
Regarded, rightly or wrongly, as the lover of the princess, be
was seized, and disappeared from history, probably by assas-
sination, on the 1st of July 1694. One authority states that
George I. was accustomed to boast about this deed; but this
statement is doubted, and the Hanoverian court resolutely
opposed all efforts to clear up the mystery. It is not absolutely
certain that Sophia Dorothea was guilty of a criminal intrigue
with Konigsmark, as it is probable that the letters which
purport to have passed between the pair are forgeries. The
question of her guilt or innocence, however, has been and still
remains a fruitful and popular subject for romance and
speculation.
See Briefipeekset des Graf en KOnigsmark und der Printessin Sophie
Dorothea von CeUe, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847);
A. Kdcber. " Die Prinzcasin von Ahlden," In the Historische Zeit-
sekrifl (Munich. 1882): and W. H. Willrins, The Love of an
Uncrowned Queen (London, 1900).
KdRieSSEB, or Lake of St Bartholomew, a lake of Germany,
in the kingdom of Bavaria, province of Upper Bavaria, about
2} m. S. from Berchtesgaden, 1850 ft. above sea-level. It has a
length of 5 m., and a breadth varying from 500 yards to a little
over a mile, and attains a maximum depth of 600 ft. The
Kdnigssee is the most beautiful of all the lakes in the German
Alps, pent in by limestone mountains rising to an altitude of
6500 ft., the flanks of which descend precipitously to the green
waters below. . The lake abounds in trout, and the surrounding
..^cT«JJ*
^ZOtUL* 1 *
..vW&^Zvit*
IS *
bis
X »»
f to
d to
r I
ROOM
oftce.
73)-
Hi* 5 *!
bay
*d
Sri
*****
• • ••
KONTAGORA— KOPRULU
897
had the pirates become in the 18th century, that" all ihipa
suffered which did not receive a' pass from their chiefs. The
Great Mogul maintained a fleet for the express purpose of
checking them, and they were frequently attacked by the
Portuguese. British commerce was protected by occasional
expeditions from Bombay; but the piratical system was not
finally extinguished until 18x2. The southern Konkan has
given its name to a dialect of Marathi, which is the vernacular
of the Roman Catholics of Goa.
KONTAGORA* a province in the British protectorate of
Northern Nigeria, on the east bank of the Niger to the north
of Nupe and opposite Borgu. % It is bounded W. by the Niger,
S. by the province of Nupe, E. by that of Zaria, and N. by that
of Sokoto. It has an area of 14,500 sq. m. and a population
estimated at about 80,000. At the time of the British occupa-
tion of Northern Nigeria the province formed a Fula emirate.
Before the Fula domination, which was established in 1864,
the ancient pagan kingdom of Yauri was the most important
of the lesser kingdoms which occupied this territory. The
Fula conquest was made from Nupe on the south and a' tribe
of independent and warlike pagans continued to .hold the
country between Kontagora and Sokoto on the north. The
province was brought under British domination in xoox as the
result of a military expedition sent to prevent audacious slave-
raiding in British protected territory and of threats directed
against the British military station of Jebba on the Niger. The
town of Kontagora was taken in January of xoox. The emir
Ibrahim fled, and was not captured till early in 1902. The
province, after having been held for a time in military occupa-
tion, was organized for administration on the same system' as
the rest of the protectorate. In 1003 Ibrahim, after agreeing
to take the oath of allegiance to the British crown and to accept
the usual conditions of appointment, which include the abolition
of the slave trade within the province, was reinstated as emir
and the British garrison was withdrawn. Since then the de-
velopment of the province has progressed favourably. Roads
have been opened and Kontagora connected by telegraph with
headquarters at Zungeru. British courts of justice have been
established at the British headquarters, and native courts in
every district. In 1004 an expedition reduced to submission
the hitherto independent tribes in the northern belt, who had
up to that time blocked the road to Sokoto. Their arms were
confiscated and their country organized as a district of the
province under a chief and a British assistant resident.
. KOORINOA [Bukra], a town of Buna county, South Australia
on Burra Creek, iox m. by rail N. by E.of Adelaide. Pop. (xooi),
1004. It is the centre of a mining and agricultural district in
which large areas are devoted to wheat-growing. The famous
Burra Burra copper mine, discovered by a shepherd in 1844, is
close to the town, while silver and lead ore is also found in the
vicinity.
K&PENICK (COfenick), a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, on an island in the Spree, 9 m. S.E.
from Berlin by the railway to Furstenwalde, Pop. (1005), 27,721.
It contains a royal residence, which was built on the site of a
palace which belonged to the great elector, Frederick William.
This is surrounded by gardens and contains a fine banqueting
hall and a chapel Other buildings are a Roman Catholic and a
Protestant church and a teachers' seminary. The varied in-
dustries embrace the manufacture of glass, linoleum, sealing-wax
and ink. In the vicinity is Spindlcrsfeld, with important dye-
works.,
Kdpenick, which dates from the 12th century, received
municipal rights in 1225. Shortly afterwards, it became the
bone of contention between Brandenburg and Meissen, but, at
the issue of the feud, remained with the former, becoming a
favourite residence of the electors of Brandenburg. In the
palace the famous court martial was held in 1730, which con-
demned the crown-prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the
Great, to death. In 1006 the place derived ephemeral fame
from the daring feat of a cobbler, one Wilhelm Voigt, who,
attired as a captain in the army, accompanied by soldiers, whom
xv 16
his apparent rank deceived, took the mayor prisoner, on a
fictitious charge of having falsified accounts and absconded with
a considerable sum of municipal money. The "captain of
Kdpenick " was arrested, tried, and sentenced to a term of
imprisonment.
See Graf to Dohna, KmrfOrsttkhe SchUsser in der Math Branden-
burg (Berlin, 1890).
K0P1SCH, AUGUST (1799-1853), German poet, was born at
Breslau on the 26th of May 1709. In 181 5 he began the study
of painting at the Prague academy, but an injury to his hand
precluded the prospects of any great success in this profession,
and he turned to literature. After a residence in Dresden
Kopisch proceeded, in 1822, to Italy, where, at Naples, he
formed an intimate friendship *with the poet August, count of
Platen Halle rraund. He was an expert swimmer, a quality
which enabled him in company with Ernst Fries to discover the
blue grotto of Capri. In 1828 he settled at Berlin and was
granted a pension by Frederick William IV., who in 1838 con-
ferred upon him the title of professor. He died at Berlin on the
3rd of February 1853. Kopisch produced some very original
poetry, light in language and in form. He especially treated
legends and popular subjects, and among his Cedichte (Berlin,
1836) are some naive and humorous little pieces such as Die
Historic von Noah, Die HeinxdmUnnchen, Das grUne Tier and
Der Scheiderjunge von Krippstedi, which became widely
popular. He also published a translation of Dante's Divine
Comedy (Berlin, 1840), and under the title Agrutni (Berlin, 1838)
a collection of translations of Italian folk songs.
Kopisch's collected works were published in 5 vols. (Berlin, 1856.)
KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ (1817-1892), German
chemist, was born on the 30th of October 1817 at Hanau, where
his father, Jobann Heinrich Kopp (177 7-1858), a physician, was
professor of chemistry, physics and natural history at the
Lyceum.
After attending the gymnasium of his native town, he studied
at Marburg and Heidelberg, and then, attracted by the fame of
Liebig, went in 1839 to Giessen, where he became a privatdozeni
in 1841, and professor of chemistry twelve years later. In 1864
he was called to Heidelberg' in the same capacity, and he re-
mained there till his death on the 20th of February 1892. Kopp
devoted himself especially to physico-chemical inquiries, and in
the history of chemical theory his name is associated with several
of the most important correlations of the physical properties of
substances with their chemical constitution. Much of his work
was concerned with specific volumes, the conception of which he
set forth in a paper published when he was only twenty-two
years of age; and the principles he established have formed the
basis of subsequent investigations in that subject, although his
results have in some cases undergone modification. Another
question to which he gave much attention was the connexion of
the boiling-point of compounds, organic ones in particular, with
their composition. In addition to these and other laborious
researches, Kopp was a prolific writer. In 1843-184 7 he published
a comprehensive History of Chemistry, in four volumes, to which
three supplements were added in 1809-1875. The Development
of Chemistry in Recent Times appeared in 1871-1874, and in 1886
he published a work in two volumes on Alchemy in Ancient and
Modern Times. In addition he wrote (1863) on theoretical and
physical chemistry for the Graham-Otto Lehrbuch der Chemie,
and for many years assisted Liebig in editing the Annaien der
Chemie and the Jahresbericht.
He must not be confused with Emu, Kopp (18x7-1875), who,
born at Warselnheim, Alsace, became in 1847 professor of
toxicology and chemistry at the £cole supeneure de Pharmacie
at Strasburg, in 1849 professor of physics and chemistry at
Lausanne, in 185a chemist to a Turkey-red factory near Man-
chester, in 1868 professor of technology at Turin, and finally, in
1871, professor of technical chemistry at the Polytechnic of
ZUrich, where he died in 1875.
KOPRttU). or Kupiili (Bulgarian VaUsa, Greek Vilissa), a
town of Macedonia, European Turkey, in the vilayet of Salonicm,
2a
898
KORA— KORAN
I too ft.
aboat xz^co.
__ tie ewer Tafdar, and on the
xsnvSJE.siCshnsv t\m.(ioos),
Kof*whiknsa — -_*...«. ^ ^
.- A lUUna ~— ** of the t*W* >«?" he COtlWpt foOBS of tbc
^t^^=w * ***- - * ** *' <*
P a gfMtA or Co**, an aadent ww* «f Xortkern India, in the
Patehw <Baict of ike Ci**S Fbrroces Pop. (iooi), 2806.
JrSf«piul of * ********** jec^it gave ^ name to
r^tftheuact (wftli AB*ha!*c jraatedbyLordClivetothe
J^,!.r If ami emperor, Shal Alut a i;o>
^Sr-S^SL ttaVii the sacred Book of IsUn,
oawhicb tbc relipoa * «*.*- two hundred nulbons of
Sakimmedans is f »M **=« regarded by them as the
tom^uT-Sdof^i A^ *^ tl* use of the Koran m
noblic wotsbn. ir schwa *n£ Jcberwtse, ts much more extensive
^fer^Spfc *t -**** * tke Bible in most Christian
Srt.-S.khl *« "^ >S«cribed as the most widely-read
boot n exss«ct-
Tfes oxtanwsttnce alone is sufficient to give
?t . - -Rt; ca.» re jut aeration, whether it suit our taste and
«,**,V ^^-V'^'v^saac philosophical views or not. Besides,
' ^"7^ ^s. <v V-twoatt *»i *s soch is fitted to afford a due
f**hr st^u Awwaaea* of that most successful of aO pro-
**■ .4 *-^ ~' ^ v *° ^cs»iis«. It must be owned that the
r^'-v-wo.* «»*<:**« * European an impression of chaotic
v-~ J^-JT ^w .t« **»? ^°* » 5° very ^tensive, for it b not
*> a.3* **
,Sr N\-w Testament. - This impression can in
>.v
jvs^* ** "^ ^ ^^ by the *PP Iication °* * critical
f .^ >«.»••> K*je**>£ i-st of Arabian tradition.
* f »V K *U ^ <X >i-*lems, *s has been said, the Koran is the
vJ x so;, *m «^ also is the daim which the book itself
r^vs l^^^^w^—^chb a prayer for men— sad
wv *«• *ttst*X* wk» Mahomet (vi 104, 114; xxviL 03; xffi.8)
1 v » v^ vX *" ,xrvfi - l6 * sqq ^ speak m *** fifSt P * 00
»;v^-K tt^^wi^oftkeiw^impenaiv« M say ,, (siiig.or
w **«bie jJa wn g h o u t is God, either in the first person
r^-a. *^sV«monry the plural of majesty "we." The
t|v ^ v >N *&*«$* is familiar to as from the prophets of the
"* K .^, ltv V .wVuman personality disappears, in the moment
k .T *. v* *»>•«** the God by whom it is filled. But all the
_ v>l jv w Hcfceew prophets fall back speedily upon the
** V ""^T»~i*t >*K*a ** I *; w hile in the Koran the divine ** I " is
*v*^v*«v**" sv **"* ^ ** Wrca ?- kfahomet, however, really fdt
' * /V -. vmp<4 5* he the instrument of God; this con-
^ " ^ r ^^^wmjv** was no doubt brighter at his first appear-
4. irti ^.^^ .vmi it afterwards became, but it never
v x vx^v< V<» Nevertheless we cannot doubt his good-
**** ^ V », x ^*w •» t** cmse$ m 'hkh the moral quality of his
* ^ x.. ** • sW4 ' " v ^ < * esim *- ^ *P ite o* *Dt the dominant
* " ^^" -^ v . .v ib* end he was zealous for his God and for
* v \. vJA Wx ^p*|>*t. na/f °* the whole of humanity, and
x ^ C**.* *** -** '» con< I ueraUe certainty of his divine
* ^ ,N * ^^^ A ***&:>oa b explained in the Koran itself as
^ ""» wv» * * w original text (** the mother of the
* ^ a ^>Mvx*htd book," lv. 77; * a well-guarded
x -» — ^ ^ ^n iie process of " sending down "*(te«iO,
*** W% " ^^ x \«*v>««»n>cated to the Prophet. The
■ *~ v " x% "^ ,^^ «V> » called sometimes the " Spirit "
* *"* „ *..- WN- Spirit "(xvi 104), and at a later
[). This angel dictates
i it after him, and after-
>, *c). It is plain that
Nf the Prophet to repre-
us process by which his
in his mind. It is no
details are not always
1 heavenly archetype b
ribes" (box. 13 sqq.),
at »-* »* :J — '- *»*mely,
which arelduaDy found in the Koran. It is to be ofcserved, at
aO events, that Mahomet's transcendental idea of God, as a Bdaj
exalted altogether above the world, e xclu de s the th **»e w of
direct inter co u rse between the Prophet and God.
It is an explicit statemer of the Koran that the sacred book
was revealed (" sent down ") by God, not all at once, bat piece-
meal and gradually (axv. 34). This is evident c«^m«
from the actual composition of the book, and xsta****
confirmed by Moslem tradition. That is to say. rmnm -
Mahomet issued his revdatjoos in fly-leaves of greater or less
extent. A single piece of this kind was called cither, hike the
entire coDectioo, kar'iu, Lt. " recitation," " reading," or, better
still, is the equivalent of Aramaic gtrydmd " lectiooary "; or falci,
" writing "; or aw-o, which is perhaps the late-Hebrew aawrs,
and means literally M series." The last became, in the hsetoae
of Mahomet, the regular designation of the in di i idaa l sectioas
as distinguished from the whole co ll ect io n ; and a ccotdiugly it it
the name given to the separate chapters of the raistmg Koraa.
These chapters are of very unequal length. Since nanny of the
shorter ones are undoubtedly complete in themselves, it is natural
to assume that the longer, which are sometimes very compre-
hensive, have arisen from the amalgamation of varices original j
distinct revelations. This supposition h favoured by the numer-
ous traditions which give us the circumstances under which its
or that short piece, now incorporated in a larger section, was
revealed; and abo by the fact that the connexion of thought ii
the present suras often seems to be interrupted. And in realty
many pieces of the long suras have to be sev e r e d out as originairf
independent; even in the short ones parts are often found wtjck
cannot have been there at first. At the same time we brsx
beware of carrying this sifting operation too far, — as Xoadeke
now believes hrnwrif to have done in his earlier works, and as
Sprenger also sometimes seems to do. That some suras were of
considerable length from the first is seen, for rramplr, from xiL,
which contains a short introduction, then the history of Joseph, ',
and then a few concluding observations, and is therefore per-
fectly no nw g en eous. In like manner, xt, which is mainly
occupied with the history of Moses, forms a complete whole.
The same is true of xviiL, which at first sight seems to fall ix£»
several pieces; the history of the seven sleepers, the grotesque
narrative about Moses, and that about Alexander " the Horned "
are all connected together, and the same rhyme through the
whole sftra. Even in the separate narrations we may observe
bow readily the Koran passes from one subject to another, bow
little care is taken to express all the transitions of thought, ari
bow frequently clauses are omitted, winch are almost indispens-
able. We are not at liberty, therefore, in every case where the
connexion in the Koran is o bscur e, to say that it is really brokea.
and set it down as the dumsy patchwork of a later band. Eves
in the old Arabic poetry such abrupt transitions are of very
frequent occurrence. It is not uncommon for the Koran, after
a new subject has been entered on, to return gradually or sci-
denly to the former theme,— a proof that there at least separa-
tion b not to be thought of. In short, however imperfectly tk
Koran may have been redacted, in the majority of cases the
present suras are identical with the originals.
How these revelations actually arose in Mahomet's mind a a
question which it is almost as idle to discuss as it would be »
analyse the workings of the mind of a poet. In fats early career,
sometimes perhaps in its later stages abo, many revelations most
have burst from him in uncontrollable exritcment, so that he
could not possibly regard them otherwise than as divine xnspin-
tions. We must bear in mind that be was no cold system* t<
thinker, but an Oriental visionary, brought up in crass supeaa-
tioa, and without intellectual discipline; a man whose nervoes
temperament had been powerfully worked on by ascetic austeri-
ties, and who was all the more irritated by the ofynrtitirw k
encountered, because be had little of the heroic in has naram.
Filled with ms religious ideas and visions, he might well laacj
he heard the angd bidding him recite what was said to km
There may have been many a revelation of this kind which no ok
ever heard but himself, as he repeated it to himself in the nuenz
KORAN
899
of the night (IzzHi. 4). Indeed the Koran itself admits that he
forgot some revelations (lxxxvn. 7). But by far the greatest
part of the book is undoubtedly the result of deliberation, touched
more or less with emotion, and animated by a certain rhetorical
rather than poetical glow. Many passages are based upon purely
intellectual reflection. It is said that Mahomet occasionally
uttered such a passage immediately after one of those epileptic
fits which not only his followers, but (for a time at least) he him-
self also, regarded as tokens of intercourse with the higher powers.
If that is the case, it is impossible to say whether the trick was
in the utterance of the revelation or in the fit itself.
^ How the various pieces of the Koran took literary form Is
uncertain. Mahomet himself, so far as we can discover, never
wrote down anything. The question whether he
JJJJjJj™* could read and write has been much debated
t among Moslems, unfortunately more with dog-
matic arguments and spurious traditions than authentic proofe.
At present one is inclined to say that he was not altogether
ignorant oi these arts, but that from want of practice he found
it convenient to employ some one else whenever he had anything
to write. After the migration to Medina (a.d. 622) we are told
that short pieces — chiefly legal decisions— were taken down
immediately after they were revealed, by an adherent whom he
summoned for the purpose; so that nothing stood in the way of
their publication. Hence it is probable that in Mecca, where
the art of writing was commoner than in Medina, he had already
begun to have his oracles committed to writing. That even long
portions of the Koran existed in written form from an early date
may be pretty safely inferred from various indications; especially
from the fact that in Mecca the Prophet had caused insertions
to be made, and pieces to be erased in his previous revelations.
For we cannot suppose that he knew the longer suras by heart so
perfectly that he was able after a time to lay his finger upon any
particular passage. In some instances, indeed, he may have
relied too much on his memory. < For example, he seems to have
occasionally dictated the same sQra to different persons in slightly
different terms. In such cases, no doubt, he may have partly
intended to introduce improvements; and so long as the differ-
ence was merely in expression, without affecting the sense, it
could occasion no perplexity to his followers. None of them had
literary pedantry enough to question the consistency of the divine
rcyelation on that ground. In particular instances, however,
the difference of reading was too important to be overlooked.
Thus the Koran itself confesses that the unbelievers cast it up
as a reproach to the Prophet that God sometimes substituted one
verse for another (xvi. 103). On one occasion, when a dispute
arose between two of his own followers as to the true reading of
a passage which both had received from the Prophet himself,
Mahomet is said to have explained that the Koran was revealed
in seven forms. In this apparently genuine dictum seven stands,
of course, as in many other cases, for an indefinite but limited
number. But one may imagine what a world of trouble it has
cost the Moslem theologians to explain the saying in accordance
with their dogmatic beliefs. A great number of explanations
are current, some of which claim the authority of the Prophet
himself; as, indeed, fictitious utterances of Mahomet play
throughout a conspicuous part in the exegesis of the Koran.
One very favourite, but utterly untenable interpretation is that
the " seven forms," are seven different Arabic dialects.
When such discrepancies came to the cognizance of Mahomet
it was doubtless his desire that only one of the conflicting texts
should be considered authentic; only he never gave
j?«25f* himself much trouble to have his wish carried into
effect. Although in theory he was an upholder
of verbal inspiration, he did not push the doctrine to its extreme
consequences; his practical good sense did not take these things
so strictly as the theologians of later centuries. Sometimes,
however, he did suppress whole sections or verses, enjoining
his followers to efface or forget them, and declaring them to be
" abrogated." A very remarkable case is that of the two verses
in Hit., when he had recognised three heathen goddesses as
exalted beings, possessing influence with God. This had occurred
in a moment of weakness, in order that by such a promise, which
yet left Allah in his lofty position, he might gain over his fellow-
countrymen. • This object he achieved, but soon his conscience
smote him, and he declared these words to have been an inspira-
tion of Satan.
So much for abrogated readings; the case is somewhat different
when we come to the abrogation of laws and directions to the
Moslems, which often occurs in the Koran. There
is nothing in this at variance with Mahomet's idea £J2J* '*
of God.* God is to him an absolute despot, who "4
declares a thing right or wrong from no inherent necessity but
by his arbitrary fiat. This God varies his commands at pleasure,
prescribes one law for the Christians, another for the Jews, and
a third for the Moslems; nay, he even changes his instructions
to the Moslems when it pleases him. Thus, for example, the
Koran contains very different directions, suited to varying
circumstances, as to the treatment which idolaters are to receive
at the hands of believers. But Mahomet showed no anxiety to
have these superseded enactments destroyed. Believers could
be fn no uncertainty as to which of two contradictory passages
remained in force; and they might, still find edification in that
which had become obsolete. That later generations might not
so easily distinguish the " abrogated ° from the " abrogating "
did not occur to Mahomet, whose vision, naturally enough,
seldom extended to the future of his religious community.
Current events were invariably kept in view in the revelations.
In Medina it called forth the admiration of the Faithful to observe
how often God gave them the answer to a question whose settle-
ment was urgently required at the moment. The same niivete"
appears in a remark of the Caliph Othman about a doubtful
case: " If the Apostle of God were still alive, methinks there had
been a Koran passage revealed on this point." Not infrequently
the divine word was found to coincide with the advice which
Mahomet had received from his most intimate disdples. " Omar
was many a time of a certain opinion," says one tradition, " and
the Koran was then revealed accordingly."
The contents of the different parts of the Koran are extremely
varied. Many passages consist of theological or moral reflec-
tions. We are reminded of the greatness, the co*t*at§
goodness, the righteousness of God as manifested •<<*•
in Nature, in history, and in revelation through *"■*
the prophets, especially through Mahomet. God is magnified
as the One, the All-powerful. Idolatry and all deification of
created beings, such as the worship of Christ as the Son of
God, are unsparingly condemned. The joys of heaven and
the pains of hell are depicted in vivid sensuous imagery, as is also
the terror of the whole creation at the advent of the last day and
the judgment of the world. Believers receive general moral
instruction, as well as directions for special circumstances. The
lukewarm are rebuked, the enemies threatened with terrible
punishment, both temporal and eternal. To the sceptical the
truth of Islam is held forth; and a certain, not very cogent,
method of demonstration predominates. In many passages the
sacred book falls into a diffuse preaching style, others seem more
like proclamations or general orders. A great number contain
ceremonial or civil laws, or even special commands to individuals
down to such matters as the regulation of Mahomet's harem.
In not a few definite questions are answered which had actually
been propounded to the Prophet by believers or infidels.
Mahomet himself, too, repeatedly receives direct injunctions,
and does not escape an occasional rebuke. One sura (i.) is a
prayer, two (cxiii. cxiv.) are magical formulas. Many sQras treat
of a single topic, others embrace several.
From the mass of material comprised in the Koran — and the
account we have given is far from exhaustive — we should select
the histories of the ancient prophets and saints Nmnth99m
as possessing a peculiar interest. The purpose of
Mahomet is to show from these histories how God in former
times had rewarded the righteous and punished their enemies.
For the most part the old prophets only serve to introduce
a little variety in point of form, for they are almost m every
case facsimiles of Mahomet himself. They preach exactly like
goo
KORAN
him, they have to bring the very nae charges against their
opponents, who on their part behave exactly as the unbeliev-
ing inhabitants of Mecca. The Koran even goes so Car as to make
Noah contend against the worshipof certain lake gods, mentioned
by name, who were worshipped by the Arabs of Mahomet's time.
In an address which ispot in the mouth oiAhtaham (xxvL 75 *»).
the reader quite forgets that it is Abraham, and not M a homet
(orCodhiiiMelO,"boisspeaking, Other narratives are intended
rather for amusement, although they are always wefl seasoned
with edifying phrases. It is no wonder that the godless Kor-
mhrtes thought these stories of the Koran not nearly so enter-
taining as those of Rostam and Ispandiar, related by Nadr the
son of tfaritb, who had learned in the course of his trade journeys
on the Euphrates the heroic mythology of the Persians. But
the Prophet was so exasperated by this rivalry that when Nadr
fell into his power after the battle of Badr, he caused him to be
executed; although in all other cases he readily pardoned his
fellow-countrymen.
These histories are chiefly about Scripture cha ract e rs , espe-
cially those of the Old Testament. But the deviations from the
IMitimo Biblical narratives are very marked. Many of the
ih$(M4 alterations are found in the legendary anecdotes
»*4N*w of the Jewish Haggada and the New T es tamen t
T#^««w»fc. Apocrypha; but many more are due perhaps to
misconceptions such as only a listener (not the reader of a book)
could fall into. One would suppose that the most ignorant Jew
could never have mistaken Hainan, the minister of Ahasuerus,
for l he minister of Pharaoh, as happens in the Koran, or identified
Miriam, the sister of Moses, with Mary («Mariam), the mother
of Christ. So long, however, as we have no closer acquaintance
with Arab Judaism and Christianity, we must always reckon
with the possibility that many of these mistakes were due to
adherents of these religions who were his authorities, or were a
salve reproduction of versions already widely accepted by his
csotrmporaries. In addition to his misconceptions there are
sundry capricious alterations, some of them very grotesque, due
to ttahomet himself. For instance, in his ignorance of every-
thing out of Arabia, he makes the fertility of Egypt— where rain
u iluMjst never seen and never missed— -depend on rain instead
gi tbc inundations of the Nile (xii. 49).
U » uncertain whether his account of Alexander was borrowed
. k^, or Chrbtians, since the romance of Alexander be-
i^Lftn the stereotyped literature of that age. The description
y^Ly^W as M the Horned " in the Koran is, however, in
^ISZTwilh the result of recent researches, to be traced to a
^T^Tlpj datifi* from A.o. 514-515 (Th. Naldeke, " BeitrSge
^fJwTo» Akxiaderromanes " in DcnkschrifUn Akad. Wien,
*" yfa j, pu 17, &c). According to this, God caused
, lb-Tinder's head to enable him to overthrow
f traceable, as
oins on which
t of Arnmon. 1
few about old
e handled his
Mahomet did
tid divergences
nications from
ext to nothing,
t resemblances
Ps. xxxvii. 29;
48 with Luke
ing more than
1 with any Jew
>rtunity of bc-
i learned some
lmost word for
an co«*»« ■»«• **»
kAUX*--*
word with Mishna YiaafsWn iv. 5; cumpai e aba u. igj via
Mishua B<7aJt'k*k L a. That these are only cases of oral coo-
nmmrafion wiH be admitted by any one with the ^Sgfcr^ kaav-
kdge of the circumstances. Otherwise we might even ™— «*-»*f
that Mahomet had studied the Talmud; eg. the regulation as to
ablution by rubbing with sand, where water cannot be ^tf«^H
(iv. 46), imi npu i MH to a talmudic ordinance {Bcra&'ketk 15 <).
Of Christianity he can have been able to leazn very fittfe, erea
in Medina; as may be seen from the absurd travesty of the instka-
tion of the Eucharist in v. 112 sqq. For the rest, it is bghrjr
improbable that before the Koran any real Eterary production
— anything that could be strictly caBed a book — existed in the
Arabic language.
In point of style and artistic effect, the different parts of the
Koran are of very unequal value. An unprejudiced and cxkicai
reader wiB certainly find very few passages where
his aesthetic susceptibilities are thoroughly satis-
fied. But he wul often be struck, especially in the older pieces,
hy a wflH forrg of passion, and a vignmn*, if not rit~K i Jm^mf^
Descriptions of heaven and hell, and allusions to God's waring
in Nature, not unfrequently show a certain amount of poetic
power. In other places also the style is sometimes Every and
impressive; though it is rarely indeed that we come across suck
strains of touching simplicity as in the middle of xciiL The
greater part of the Koran is decidedly prosaic; much of it Indeed
is stiff in style. Of course, with such a variety of material, we
cannot expect every part to be equally vivacious, or imaginative,
or poetic A decree about the right of inheritance, or a point
of ritual, must necessarily be expressed in prose, if it is to be
intelligible. No one complains of the civil laws in Exodus or the
sacrificial ritual in Leviticus, because they want the fire of Isaiah
or the tenderness of Deuteronomy. But Mahomet's mistake
consists in persistent and slavish adherence to the semi-poetic
form which he had at first adopted in accordance with his ova
taste and that of his hearers. For instance, he employs rhyme
in dealing with the most prosaic subjects, and thus products
the disagreeable effect of incongruity between style and matter.
It has to be considered, however, that many of those senxronizntf.
pieces which are so tedious to us, especially when we read two
or three in succession (perhaps in a very inadequate translation),
must have had a quite different effect when recited under the
burning sky and on the barren soil of Mecca. There, thoughts
about God's greatness and man's duty, which are familiar to cs
from childhood, were all new to the hearers — it is hearers *t
have to think of in the first instance, not readers — to whom, at
the same time, every allusion had a meaning which often escapes
our notice. When Mahomet spoke of the goodness of the Lord
in creating the clouds, and bringing them across the cheerless
desert, and pouring them out on the earth to restore its rich
vegetation, that must have been a picture of thrilling interest
to the Arabs, who are accustomed to see from three to fire
years elapse before a copious shower comes to dot be the wilder-
ness once more with luxuriant pastures. It requires an effort
for us, under our clouded skies, to realize in some degree the
intensity of that impression.
The fact that scraps of poetical phraseology are spedafy
numerous in the earlier suras, enables us to understand why the
prosaic mercantile community of Mecca regarded
their eccentric townsman as a "poet," or even a
"possessed poet." Mahomet himself had to
disclaim such titles, because he fdt himself to be a divinely
inspired prophet; but we too, from our standpoint, shall rofiy
acquit him of poetic genius. Like many other predominantly
religious characters, he had no appreciation of poetic beauty;
and if we may believe one anecdote related of him, at a time whet
every one made verses, he affected ignorance of the most element-
ary rules of prosody. Hence the style of the Koran is not poetkal
but rhetorical; and the powerful effect which some portions pro-
J — • on us is gained by rhetorical means. Accordingly the
book has not even the artistic form of poetry; wakn,
be Arabs, includes a stringent metre, as well as rhyme.
ran is never metrical, and only a few except jonaSy
KORAN
QOt
eloquent portions fall into a tort of spontaneous rhythm. On
the other hand, the rhyme is regularly maintained; although,
especially in the later pieces, after a very slovenly fashion.
Rhymed prose was a favourite form of composition among the
Arabs of that day, and Mahomet adopted it; but if it imparts a
certain sprigbtliness to some passages, it proves on the whole
a burdensome yoke. The Moslems themselves have observed
that the tyranny of the rhyme often makes itself apparent in
derangement of the order of words, and in the choice of verbal
forms which would not otherwise have been employed; e.g. an
imperfect instead of a perfect. In one place, to save the rhyme,
he calls Mount Sinai Sinin (xcv. a) instead of Sbtd (xxiii. ao);
in another Elijah is called Ilydsin (xxxvii. 130) instead of Ilyds
(vi. 85; xxxvii. 123). The substance even is modified to suit
exigencies of rhyme. Thus the Prophet would scarcely have
fixed on the unusual number of tight angels round the throne of
God (lxix. 17) if the word tkamimyek, " eight," had not happened
to fall in so well with the rhyme. And when lv. speaks of two
heavenly gardens, each with two fountains and two kinds of
fruit, and again of two similar gardens, all this is simply
because the dual termination (in) corresponds to the syllable
that controls the rhyme in that whole sura. In the later
pieces, Mahomet often inserts edifying remarks, entirely out of
keeping with the context, merely to complete his rhyme. In
Arabic it is such an easy thing to accumulate masses of .words
with the same termination, that the gross negligence of the
rhyme in the Koran is doubly remarkable. One may say that
this is another mark- of the Prophet's want of mental training,
and incapacity for introspective criticism.
On the whole, while many parts of the Koran undoubtedly.
have considerable rhetorical power, even over an unbelieving
reader, the book, aesthetically considered, is by
no means a first-rate performance. To begin with
what we are most competent to criticize, let us look
at some of the more extended narratives. It has already been
noticed how vehement and abrupt they are where they ought to
be characterized by epic repose. Indispensable links, both in
expression and in the sequence of events, are often omitted, so
that to understand these histories is sometimes far easier for us
than for tboss who heard them first, because we know most of
them from better sources. Along with this, there is a great deal
of superfluous verbiage; and nowhere do we find a steady advance
in the narration. Contrast in these respects the history of
Joseph (xii.) and its glaring improprieties with the admirably
conceived and admirably executed story in Genesis. Similar
faults are found in the non-narrative portions of the Koran.
The connexion of ideas is extremely loose, and even the syntax
betrays great awkwardness. Anacolutha are of frequent occur-
rence, and cannot be explained as conscious literary devices.
Many sentences begin with a " when " or " on the day when' 1
which seems to hover in the air, so that the commentators are
driven to supply a " think of this " or some such ellipsis. Again,
there is no great literary skill evinced in the frequent and needless
harping on the same words and phrases; in xviii., for example* " till
that " (haUA idAd) occurs no fewer than eight times. Mahomet,
in short, is not in any sense a master of style. This opinion will
be endorsed by any European who reads through the book with
an impartial spirit and some knowledge of the language, without
taking into account the tiresome effect of its endless iterations.
But in the ears of every pious Moslem such a judgment will sound
almost as shocking as downright atheism or polytheism. Among
D fma 0f the Moslems, the Koran has always been looked on
«a»so4Miras the most perfect model of style and language. This
feature of it is in their dogmatic the greatest of all
miracles, the incontestable proof of its divine origin.
Such a view on the part of men who knew Arabic
infinitely better than the most accomplished European Arabist
will ever do, may well startle us. In fact, the Koran boldly
challenged its opponents to produce ten suras, or even a single
one, like those of the sacred book, and they never did so. That,
to be sure, on calm reflection, is not so very surprising. Revela-
tions of the kind which Mahomet uttered, no unbeliever could
produce without making himself a laughing-stock. However
little real originality there is in Mahomet's doctrines, as against
his own countrymen he was thoroughly original, even in the form
of his oracles. To compose such revelations at will was beyond
the power of the most expert literary artist; it would have
required either a prophet or a s ha m eless impostor. And if such
a character appeared after Mahomet, still he could never be
anything but an imitator, like the false prophets who arose about
the time of his death and afterwards. That the adversaries
should produce any sample whatsoever of poetry or rhetoric
equal to the Koran is not at all what the Prophet demands. In
that case he would have been put to shame, even in the eyes of
many of his own followers, by the first poem that came to hand.
Nevertheless, it is on a false interpretation of this challenge that
the dogma of the incomparable excellence of the style and diction
of the Koran is based. The rest has been accomplished by
dogmatic prejudice, which is quite capable of working other
miracles besides turning A defective literary production into an
unrivalled masterpiece in the eyes of believers. This view once
accepted, the next step was to find everywhere evidence of the
perfection of the style and language. And if here and there, as
one can scarcely doubt, there was among the old Moslems a lover
of poetry who had his difficulties about this dogma, he had to
beware of uttering an opinion which might have cost him his
head. We know of at least one rationalistic theologian who de-
fined the dogma in such a way that we can see he did not believe
it (ShahrastinI, p. 39). The truth is, it would have been a
miracle indeed if the style of the Koran had been perfect. For
although there was at that time a recognized poetical, style,
already degenerating to mannerism, a developed prose style did
not exist. All beginnings are difficult; and it can never be
esteemed a serious charge against Mahomet that his book, the
first prose work of a high order in the language, testifies to the
awkwardness of the beginner. And further, we must always
remember that entertainment and aesthetic effect were at most
subsidiary objects. The great aim was persuasion and conver-
sion; and, say what we will, that aim has been realized on the
most imposing scale.
Mahomet repeatedly calls attention to the fact that the Koran
is not written, like other sacred books, in a strange language, but
in Arabic, and therefore as intelligible to all. At
that time, along with foreign ideas, many foreign
words bad crept into the language; especially
Aramaic terms for religious conceptions of Jewish or Christian
origin. Some of these had already passed into general use,
while others were confined to a more limited circle. Mahomet,
who could not fully express his new ideas in the common language
of his countrymen, but had frequently to find out new terms for
himself, made free use of such Jewish and Christian words, as was
done, though perhaps to a smaller extent, by certain thinkers
and poets of that age who had more or less risen above the level
of heathenism. In Mahomet's case this is the less wonderful
because he was indebted to the instruction of Jews and Christians, '
whose Arabic— as the Koran pretty clearly intimates with regard
to one of them— was very defective. On the other hand, it is
yet more remarkable that several of such borrowed words in the
Koran have a sense which they do not possess in the original
language. It is not necessary that this phenomenon should in
every case be due to the same cause. Just as the prophet often
misunderstood traditional traits of the sacred history, he may,
as an unlearned man, likewise have often employed foreign
expressions wrongly. Other remarkable senses of words were
possibly already acclimatized in the language of Arabian Jews
or Christians. Thus, forq&n means really " redemption," but
Mahomet uses it for " revelation. 11 The widespread opinion that
this sense first asserted itself in reference to the Arab root Jji
(faraqa), " sever," or " decide," is open to considerable doubt.
There is, for instance, no difficulty in deriving the Arab meaning
of " revelation " from the common Aramaic " salvation," and
this transference must have taken place in a communky for
which salvation formed the central object of faith, ix. either
amongst those Jews who looked to the coming of a Messiah or.
go 2
KORAN
<k*
more probably, among Christians, since Christianity is in a very
peculiar sense the religion of salvation. MUla is properly
" word " (-Aramaic mdUhi) t but in the Koran " religion.** It
is actually used of the religion of the Jews and Christians (once),
of the heathen (5 times), but mostly (8 times) of the religion
of Abraham, which Mahomet in the Medina period places on the
same level with Islam. Although of the Aramaic dialects none
employs the term Mdiika in the sense of religion, it appears that
the prophet found such a use. IlliyAn, which Mahomet uses of
a heavenly book (Sura 83; x8, 19), is dearly the Hebrew dydn,
" high " or ** exalted." It is, however, doubtful in what sense
this word appeared to him, either as a name of God. as in the Old
Testament it often occurs and regularly without the article, or
actually as the epithet of a heavenly book, although this use
«a«aot be substantiated from Jewish literature. So again the
tfocw. ■aTttwi is, as Geiger has conjectured, the regular plural
^t ike Aramaic ■Mfaafftnf, which is the same as the Hebrew
jj-^im'k, and denotes in Jewish usage a legal decision of some
^t the aaoeat Rabbins. But in the Koran Mahomet appears
c ,a have waderstood it in the sense of " saying " or " sentence "
_t mix. *4>- Qa the other hand, it is by no means certain
fc tsaefcy* the Seven Malhani"(xv. 87) the seven verses of Sara i.
^x awar Words of undoubtedly Christian origin are less
^^-^tasat is the Koran. It is an interesting fact that of these a
+ hare caw* over from the Abyssinian; such as kawdriy&n
* _ s ^ssties. , *' a*£»£j * table," mu*&fig " doubter, sceptic," rag**
^ ^rfsec** as-itr^ " temple "; the first three of these make their
_^ ynmrs-noc m saras of the Medina period. The word
*^j*n * Sa£ax % ' which was likewise borrowed, at least in the
--**!_ scssance. rwaea the Abyssinian, had probably been already
**"* ^cwoc -*'«> the language. Sprenger has rightly observed
«•** . * Viitiir snakes a certain parade of these foreign terms, as
* **"_ -*r necu-xriy constructed expressions; in this he followed
+- I ' ^ tx acactjee of contemporary poets. It is the tendency
» ^ v-^«r»^ ? eAacated to delight in out-of-the-way expres-
+ '"_ *>c «m swdt aaiads they readily produce a remarkably
*^^ T - *-c arsctrkws iaapression. This was exactly the kind
** «■ -. Vjjvc&cc desired, and to secure it he seems even
. - ■*•*»* * *» odd vocables, as gkidim (brix. 36), sijjln
* •"* - > *»■*» "ixxxii t?) t and salsabU (IxxvL 18). But,
^ x a« «s^ r of enabling his hearers to understand
* * ^ tu ^ «*c »aa have found sufficiently novel in them-
. *■ n ^«t MweaXy sorrow limits on such eccentricities.
^ ~ ,&. •»'» * «■* present Koran belong partly to the
"* ^,«»<r Vf^a e *A o^j> t partly to the period commencing
»*•- ~- -* * ** » s yn«i wi to Medina (from the autumn
^^^ .» *** * & * -E»* 632). Mahomet's position in
^0^* .***<*** was «acfcehr different from that which he
•*■* mmf » 1 w*-w**we ?^«%. In the former he was from the
». - ~ ....- • «^-* ?*«▼, and gradually became the
•^ •" ^a • » <«*i. a t** latter he was only the despised
r*. - -*** ~«V«5Sa«wav This difference, as was to be
_ .**> » -* 5-«wav The Medina pieces, whether
j9rm ' -<*•' • *«mw?5S interpolated in Meccan suras,
^ . — **". < - «• * «*** afctinct, as to their contents,
"■»-,*- *«■*» ^* *** great majority of cases there
***f* a piece first saw the light in
rnal evidence
ie revelations
out which we
1 are at least
fix their date
ain tradition
► the Medina
tartly because
are generally
e occasion of
auating, and
tjecture. An
ich individual
Meccan suras, interpolated in Medina revelations, arose (&£.
Sir. xvi. 124, vi. 162) is provided by the Ibrahim legend, the
great importance of which, as throwing light on the cvohitioa
of Mahomet's doctrine in its relation to older revealed religions,
has been convincingly set forth by Dr Snouck Hurgronje in his
dissertation for the doctor's degree and in later essays.* Accord-
ing to this, Ibrahim, after the controversy with the Jews, first
of all became Mahomet's special forerunner in Medina, then the
first Moslem, and finally the founder of the Ka'ba. But at all
events it is far easier to arrange in some sort of chronological order
the Medina suras than those composed in Mecca. There is,
indeed, one tradition which professes to furnish a ch r o nol og i cal
list of all the suras. But not to mention that it occurs in several
divergent forms, and that it takes no account of the fact that oer
present suras are partly composed of pieces of different dates, H
contains so many suspicious or undoubtedly false statements,
that it is impossible to attach any great importance to it. Be-
sides, it is a priori unlikely that a contemporary of Mahomet
should have drawn up such a list; and if any one had made the
attempt he would have found it almost impossible to obtain
reliable information as to the order of the earlier Meccan suras.
We have in this list no genuine tradition, but rather the lucubra-
tions of an undoubtedly conscientious Moslem critic, who may
have lived about a century after the Flight.
Among the revelations put forth in Mecca there is a consider-
able number of (for the most part) short suras, which strike e
attentive reader as being the oldest. They are in .
an altogether different strain from many others, ,
and in their whole composition they show least *
resemblance to the Medina pieces. It is no doubt conceivable —
as Sprenger supposes— that Mahomet might have returned at
intervals to his earlier manner; but since this group possesses
a remarkable similarity of style, and since the gradual formation
of a different style is on the whole an unmistakable fact, the
assumption has little probability; and we shall' therefore abide
by the opinion that these form a distinct group. At the opposite
extreme from them stands another cluster, showing quite obvious
affinities with the style of the Medina suras, which must therefore
be assigned to the later part of the Prophet's work in Mecca.
Between these two groups stand a number of other Meccan suras,
which in every respect mark the transition from the first period
to the third. It need hardly be said that the three pe r iod s
which were first distinguished by Professor Weil— are not
separated by sharp lines of division. With regard to some sure,
it may be doubtful whether they ought to be reckoned amongst
the middle group, or with one or other of the extremes. And it
is altogether impossible, within these groups, to establish even
a probable chronological arrangement of the individual revela-
tions. In default of clear allusions to well-known events, or
events whose date can be determined, we might indeed ende av o u r
to trace the psychological development of the Prophet by means
of the Koran, and arrange its parts accordingly. But in such
an undertaking one is always apt to take subjective assumptions
or mere fancies for established data. Good traditions abovt the
origin of the Meccan revelations are not very numerous. In fact
the whole history of Mahomet previous to the Flight is so
imperfectly related that we are not even sure in what wear he
appeared as a prophet. Probably it was in aj>. 610; it may have
been somewhat earlier, but scarcely later. If, as one tradition
says, xxx. x seq. (" The Romans are overcome in the nearest
neighbouring land ") refers to the defeat of the Byzantines by
the Persians, not far from Damascus, about the spring of 614, it
would follow that the third group, to which this passage belongs,
covers the greater part of the Meccan period. And it is not a
itself unlikely that the passionate vehemence which characterizes
the first group was of short duration. Nor is the aasamptaoa
contradicted by the tolerably well attested, though far from
incontestable statement, that when Omar was converted (jlh
615 or 616), xx., which belongs to the second group, already
existed in writing. But the reference of xxx. x seq. to this par-
ticular battle is by no means so certain that positive coocrusJca
* See Bibliography at end.
KORAN
903
can be drawn from it. It is the same with other allusions
in the Meccan sQras to occurrences whose chronology can be
partially ascertained. It is better, therefore, to rest satisfied
with a merely relative determination of the order of even the
three great clusters of Meccan revelations.
In the pieces of the first period the convulsive excitement of
the Prophet often expresses itself with the utmost vehemence.
<M*s* He is so carried away by his emotion that he cannot
Mtccma choose his words; they seem rather to burst from
sant * him.* Many of these pieces remind us of the oracles
of the old heathen soothsayers, whose style is known to us from
imitations, although we have perhaps not a single genuine
specimen. Like those other oracles, the suras of this period,
which are never very long, are composed of short sentences with
tolerably pure but rapidly changing rhymes. The oaths,, too,
with which many of them begin were largely used by the sooth-
sayers. Some of these oaths are very uncouth and hard to
understand, some of them perhaps were not meant to be under-
stood, for indeed all sorts of strange things are met with in these
chapters. Here and t here Mahomet speaks of visions, and appears
even to see angels before him in bodily form. There are some
intensely vivid descriptions of the resurrection and the last day
which must have exercised a demonic power over men who were
quite unfamiliar with such pictures. Other pieces paint in
glowing colours the joys of heaven and the pains of hell. How-
eycr,the suras of this period are not all so wild as these; and those
which are conceived in a calmer mood appear to be the oldest.
Yet, one must repeat, it is exceedingly difficult to make out any
strict chronological sequence. For instance, it is by no means
certain whether the beginning of xcvi. is really, what a widely
circulated tradition calls it, the oldest part of the whole Koran.
That tradition goes back to the Prophet's favourite wife Ayesha;
but as she was not born at the time when the revelation is said
to have been made, it can only contain at the best what Mahomet
told her years afterwards, from his own not very clear recollec-
tion, with or without fictitious additions, and this woman is little
trustworthy. Moreover, there are other pieces mentioned by
others as the oldest. In any case xcvi. z sqq. is certainly very
early. According to the traditional view, which appears to be
correct, it treats of a vision in which the Prophet receives an
injunction to recite a revelation conveyed to him by the angel.
It is interesting to observe that here already two things are
brought forward as proofs of the omnipotence and care of Cod:
one is the creation of man out of a seminal drop — an idea to
which Mahomet often recurs; the other is the then recently
introduced art of writing, which the Prophet instinctively seizes
on as a means of propagating his doctrines. It was only after
Mahomet encountered obstinate resistance that the tone of the
revelations became thoroughly passionate. In such cases be was
not slow to utter terrible threats against those who ridiculed the
preaching of the unity of God, of the resurrection, and of the
judgment. His own uncle Abu Lahab had rudely repelled him,and
in a brief special sura (cxi.) he and his wife are consigned to heJL
The suras of this period form almost exclusively the concluding
portions of the present text. One is disposed to assume, how-
ever, that they were at one time more numerous, and that many
of them were lost at an early period.
Since Mahomet's strength lay in his enthusiastic and fiery
imagination rather than m the wealth of ideas and clearness of
abstract thought on which exact reasoning depends, it follows
that the older suras, in which the former qualities have free
scope, must be more attractive to us than the later. In the
suras of the second period the imaginative glow perceptibly
diminishes; there is still fire and animation, but the tone becomes
gradually more prosaic As the feverish restlessness subsides,
the periods are drawn out, and the revelations as a whole become
longer. The truth of the new doctrine b proved by accumulated
instances of God's working in nature and in history; the objec-
tions of opponents, whether advanced in good faith or in jest,
are controverted by arguments; but the demonstration is often
confused or even weak. The histories of the earlier prophets,
which had occasionally been briefly touched on in the first period,
are now related, sometimes at great length. On the whole, the
charm of the style is passing away.
There is one piece of the Koran, belonging to the beginning of
this period, if not to the close of the former, which claims par-
ticular notice. This is Sura i., the Lord's Prayer of ^ ^^
the Moslems, a vigorous hymn of praise to God,
the Lord of both worlds, which ends in a petition for aid and
true guidance (kudA). The words of this sOra, which is known
as d-f&tika (" the opening one "), are as follows: —
(1) In the name of God, the compassionate compassioncr. (2)
Praise be [literally " is '*) to God, the Lord of the worlds, (3) the
compassionate compassioner, (4) the Sovereign of the day of
judgment. ($) Thee do we worship and of Thee do we beg -assist'
ance. (6) Direct us in the right way: (7) in the way of those to
whom Thou hast been gracious, on whom there is no wrath, and
who go not astray.
The thoughts are so simple as to need no explanation; and yet
the prayer is full of meaning. It is true that there is not a single
original idea of Mahomet's in it. Of the seven verses of the sura
no less than five (verses 1, 2, 3, 4, 6) have an extremely suspicious
relationship with the stereotyped formulae of Jewish and Chris-
tian liturgies. Verse 6 agrees, word for word, with Ps. xxvii.
iz. On the other hand, the question must remain open whether
Mahomet only gave free renderings of the several borrowed
formulae, or whether in actually composing them he kept
existing models. The designation of God as the " Compas-
sioner," Rabmdn, is simply the Jewish Rafym&ni, which was a
favourite name for God in the Talmudic period. The word had
long before Mahomet's time been used for God in southern
Arabia (cf. e.g. the Sabaean Inscriptions, GJaser, 554, line 32;
618, line 2).
Mahomet seems for a while to have entertained the thought of
adopting al-Ra^mdn as a proper name of God, in place of AUdk,
which was already used by the heathens. 1 This purpose he
ultimately relinquished, but it is just in the suras. of the second
period that the use of Rafmdn is specially frequent. If , for this
reason, it is to a certain extent certain, that Sura i. belongs to this
period, yet we can neither prove that it belongs to the beginning
of the Mecca period nor that the present introductory formula
" In the name of God," &c, belonged to it from the first. It may
therefore even be doubted whether Mahomet at the outset looked
upon the latter as revealed. Tradition, of course, knows in
this connexion no doubt, and looks upon the F&tiha precisely
as the most exalted portion of the Koran. Every Moslem who
says his five prayers' regularly— as the most of them do— repeats
it not less than twenty times a day.
' The suras of the third Meccan period, which form a fairly large
pert of our present Koran, are almost entirely prosaic Some
of the revelations are of considerable extent, and the Lmt**
single verses also are much longer than in the older Mkxbo
suras. Only now and then a gleam of poetic power stnt.
flashes out. A sermonizing tone predominates. The suras are
very edifying for one who is already reconciled to their import,
but to us at least they do not seem very well fitted to carry con-
viction to the minds of unbelievers. That impression, however,
is not correct, for in reality the demonstrations of these longer
Meccan suras appear to have been peculiarly influential for the
propagation of Islam. Mahomet's mission was not to Euro-
peans, but to a people who, though quick-witted and receptive,
were not accustomed to logical thinking, while they had out-
grown their ancient religion.
When we reach the Medina period it becomes, as has been
indicated, much easier to understand the revelations in their
historical relations, since our knowledge of the history of
1 Since in Arabic also the root *>} signifies " to have pity," the
Arabs must have at once perceived the force of the new name.
While the foreign word Rahmdn is, in accordance with its origin,
everywhere in the Koran to be understood as " Merciful," there is
some doubt as to Raiim. The close connexion of the two expres-
sions, it is true, makes it probable that Mahomet only added the
adjective Ra^im to the substantive RabmAn in order to strengthen
the conception. But the genuine Arab meaning of Rahlm »
" gracious," and thus, the old Mahommedan Arab papyri render this
word by ^tXd^punroj.
KORAN
2a Medina is tolerably complete. In many cases the
occasion is perfectly dear, in others we can at least
recognise the general situation from which they
jLXOse, and thus approximately fix their time. There
txs . t however* a remnant, of which we can only say that
___ to Medina.
t ^^^t3 ric of **"* P^ 00 " DeaTS *''*Mx dose resemblance to
^V i»e Utcst Meccan period. It is for the most part pure
* wma-icbed by occasional rhetorical embellishments. Yet
^T-j^ there are many bright and impressive passages,
^^^mZ^ln those sections which may be regarded as proclama-
■-* "^fie army of the faithful. For the Moslems Mahomet
^ * v different messages. At one time it is a summons to do
^^*-^ C hc faith; at another, a series of reflections on recently
"^^^^fd success or misfortune, or a rebuke, for their weak
- m * — x» exhortation to virtue, and so on. He often addresses
^*" <> the " doubters/' some of whom vacillate between
£ • unbelief, others make a pretence of faith, while others
^^fce the trouble even to do that. Jney are no con-
. ^arty, but to Mahomet they are all equally vexatious,
^gsoon as danger has to be encountered, or a contribu-
ted, they all alike fall away. There arc frequent out-
^^_-^r increasing in bitterness, against the Jews, who were
- er oUS in Medina and its neighbourhood when Mahomet
«j c has much less to say against the Christians, with
jj^ver came closely in contact; and as for the idolaters,
ijttle occasion in Medina to have many words with
part of the Medina pieces consists of formal laws
t o the ceremonial, civil and criminal codes; or direc-
ts certain temporary complications. The most objec-
^^xts of the whole Koran are those which treat of
^Trelations Wltn women.. The laws and regulations
jly very concise revelations, but most of them have
r*» Isolated with other pieces of similar or dissimilar
&**jk are now found in very long suras.
* 9 *& a „ imperfect sketch of the composition and the
o<>*~\^ *^tory °* ^ Korai, » out ft » probably sufficient to show
S*»^pJ *Sok * a ytsrf helero 8 en «>« s collection. If only those
^tet^^r **°& been P rescrv,wJ which had a permanent value for
■ X
I 1
D
PL
ha
pr
au
pre
car
enu
are
from
can I
Meet
is bo.
given
have l
appro*
with a
renders
passage
theallui
rather o
the reve
often re
importai
•For
Rklicio
fc^, t he ethics, or the jurisprudence of the Moslems, a
Id have been amply sufficient. Fortunately
ect for the sacredness of the letter has led to
ill the revelations that could possibly be
tmpriftg " along with the "abrogated,"
to r*sw*f circumstances as well as those of
. Every «sw who takes up the book in the
pt «f aM, Hke most of the Moslems, reads
ggse In^thMtte absurd customs of Mecca
* tit wfrteicst moral precepts— perhaps
^ tasoi* W does not understand them so
« mv *ih» ** the suras stand certain initial
t ' m ^Mi **** **» be obtained. Thus, before
ted
xt,
igh
nal
ire
ere
;nt
Uy
E?ly
(in
if"
als
significant than to us who have been initiated into the mysteries
of this art from our childhood. The Prophet himself can hint?
have attached any particular meaning to these symbols: they served
their purpose if they conveyed an impression of solemnity u4
enigmatical obscurity. In fact, the Koran admits that it contains
many things which neither can be, nor were intended to be, under-
stood (iu. 5). To regard these letters as ciphers is a precarioa
hypothesis, for the simple reason that cryptography is not to be
looked for in the very infancy of Arabic writing. If they are actually
ciphers, the multiplicity of possible explanations at once precludes
the hope of a plausible interpretation. None of the efforts in this
direction, whether by Moslem scholars or by Europeans, has led
to convincing results. This remark applies even to the ingenious
conjecture of Sprcngcr, that the letters v ^aa ev £» (K&fHi ttAinSad)
before xix. (which treats of John and Jesus, and, according to tradi-
tidn, was sent to the Christian king of Abyssinia) stand for Jfcsu
Nazarenus Rex Judaeorum. Sprengcr arrives at this explanation by a
very artificial method: and besides, Mahomet was not so simple as
the Moslem traditionalists, who imagined that the Abyssimans coyld
read a piece of the Arabic Koran. It need hardly be said that the
Moslems have from of old applied themselves with great assiduity
to the decipherment of these initials, and have sometimes found the
deepest mysteries in them. Generally,, however, they are content
with the prudent conclusion that God alone knows the "^^ of
these letters. *
It is probable (see above) that Mahomet had already caused
revelations to be written down at Mecca, and that this began
from the moment when he felt certain that he was the trans-
mitter of the actual text of a heavenly book to mankind. It a
even true that he may at some time or another have formed the
intention of collecting these revelations. The idea of a heavenly
model would in itself have suggested such a course and, only
in an inferior degree to this, the necessity of setting a new and
uncorrupted document of the divine will over against the sacred
scriptures of the Jews and Christians, the people of the Book,
as the Koran calls them. In any case, when Mahomet died, the
separate pieces of the Koran, notwithstanding their theoretical
sacredness, existed only in scattered copies; they Ttma»-
were consequently in great danger of being partially miatimm *
or entirely destroyed. Many Moslems knew large < * > r > — L
portions by heart, but certainly no one knew the whole;
and a merely oral propagation would have Jeft the door
open to all kinds of deliberate and inadvertent alterations. But
now, after the death of the Prophet, most of the Arabs revolted
against his successor, and had to be reduced to submission by
force. Especially sanguinary was the struggle against the pro-
phet Maslama (Mubarrad, Kdmil 443, 5), commonly known by
the derisive diminutive Mosailima. At that time (aj>. 6jj)
many of the most devoted Moslems fell, the very men who knew
most Koran pieces by heart. Omar then began to fear that the
Koran might be entirely forgotten, and he induced the Caliph
Aba Bekr to undertake the collection of all its parts. The
Caliph laid the duty on Zaid ibn Thabit, a native of Medina,
then about twenty-two years of age, who had often
acted as amanuensis to the Prophet, in whose service Sj?£, f * a *
he is even said to have learned the Jewish letters.
The account of this collection of the Koran has reached us m
several substantially identical forms, and goes back to Zaid him-
self. According to it, he collected the revelations from copies
written on flat stones, pieces of leather, ribs of palm-leaves
(not palm-leaves themselves), and such-like material, but chiefly
" from the breasts of men," i.e. from their memory. From these
he wrote a fair copy, which he gave to Abu Bekr, from whom it
came to his successor Omar, who again bequeathed it to his
daughter rjafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet. This redac-
tion, commonly called al-fofaf (" the leaves "), had from the
first no canonical authority; and its internal arrangement can
only be conjectured.
The Moslems were as far as ever from possessing a uniform text
of the Koran. The bravest of their warriors sometimes knew
deplorably little about it; distinction on that field they cheerfully
accorded to pious men like Ibn Mas'Qd. It was inevitable, bow-
ever, that discrepancies should emerge between the texts of pro-
fessed scholars, and as these men in thtir several localities were
authorities on the reading of the Koran, quarrels began to break
out between the levies from different districts about the true font
KORAN
905
of the sacred hook. Daring a campaign in a.h. 30 (aj>. 650-651),
KJodhaifa, the victor in the great and decisive battle of
Nehiveand (see Caliphate; and Persia: History) perceived
that such disputes might become dangerous, and therefore
urged on the caliph Othmln the necessity for a universally
binding text. The matter was entrusted to Zaid,
gtra* * who had made the former collection, with three lead-
ing Koreisbites. These brought together as many
copies as they could lay their hands on, and prepared an edition
which was to be canonical for all Moslems. To prevent any
further disputes, they burned all the other codices except that of
Hals*, which, however, was soon afterwards destroyed by Merwan
the governor of Medina. The destruction of the earlier codices
was an irreparable loss to criticism; but, for the essentially
political object of putting an end to controversies by admitting
only one form of the common book of religion and of law, this
measure was necessary.
The result of these labours Is in our hands; as to how they were
conducted we have no trustworthy information, tradition being
here too much under the influence of dogmatic -presuppositions.
The critical methods of a modern scientific commission will not
be expected of an age when the highest literary education for an
Arab consisted in ability to read and write. It now appears
highly probable that this second redaction took this simple form:
Zaid read off from the codex which he had previously written,
and his associates, simultaneously or successively, wrote one copy
each to his dictation. These three manuscripts will therefore be
those which the caliph, according to trustworthy tradition, sent
in the first instance as standard copies to Damascus, Basra and
Kufa to the warriors of the provinces of which these were the
capitals, while he retained one at Medina. Be that as it may, it is
impossible now to distinguish in the present form of the book
what belongs to the first redaction from what is due to the second.
In the arrangement of the separate sections, a classification
according to contents was impracticable because of the variety of
subjects often dealt with in one sura. A chronological arrange-
ment was out of the question, because the chronology of the older
pieces must have been imperfectly known, and because in some
cases passages of different dates had been joined together.
Indeed, systematic principles of this kind were altogether dis-
regarded at that period. The pieces were accordingly arranged
in indiscriminate order, the only rule observed being to place the
long suras first and the shorter towards the end, and even that
was far from strictly adhered to. The two magk formulae,
suras cxiH., adv. owe their position at the end of the collection
to their peculiar contents, which differ from all the other suras;
they are protecting spells for the faithful. Similarly it is by
reason of its conteuts that sura i. stands at the beginning: not
only because it is in praise of Allah, as Psalm i. is in praise of the
righteous man, but because it gives classical expression to im-
portant articles of the faith. These are the only special traces of
design. The combination of pieces of different origin may pro-
ceed partly from the possessors of the codices from which Zaid
compiled his first complete copy, partly from Zaid himself. The
individual suras are separated simply by the superscription:
" In the name of God, the compassionate Compassioner," which
is wanting only in the ninth. The additional headings found in
our texts (the name of the suras, the number of verses, &c)
were not in the original codices, and form no integral part of the
Koran.
It is said that Othmln directed Zaid and his associates, in
cases of 'disagreement, to follow the &oreish dialect; but, though
well attested, thisaccouot can scarcely be correct. The extremely
primitive writing of those days was quite incapable of rendering
such minute differences as can have existed between the pro-
nunciation of Mecca and that of Medina.
Othman's Koran was not complete. Some passages are
evidently fragmentary; and a few detached pieces are still extant
ThtKfmm which were originally parts of the Koran, although
mot com* they have been omitted by Zaid. Amongst these are
***** some which there is no reason to suppose Mahomet
desired to suppress. Zaid may easily have overlooked a few stray
fragments, but that he purposely omitted anything which he
believed to belong to the Koran is very unlikely. It has been con-
jectured that in deference to his superiors he kept out of the book
the names of Mahomet's enemies, if they or their families came*
afterwards to be respected. But it must be remembered that it
was never Mahomet's practice to refer explicitly to contemporary
persons and affairs in the Koran. Oaly a single friend, his
adopted son Zaid (xxxiii. 37), and a single enemy, his uncle Aba
Lahab (cxi.)— and these for very special reasons— are mentioned
by name; and the name of the latter has been left in the Koran
with a fearful curse annexed to it, although his son had embraced
Islam before the death of Mahomet, and his descendants be-
longed to the noblest families. So, on the other hand, there is no
single verse or clause which can be plausibly made out to be an
interpolation by Zaid at the instance of Abu Bekr, Omar, or
Othman. Slight clerical errors there may have been, but the
Koran of Othman contains none but genuine elements— though
sometimes in very strange order. All efforts of European scholars
to prove the existence of later interpolations in the Koran have
failed.
Of the four exemplars of Othman's Koran, one was kept in
Medina, and one was sent to each of the three metropolitan cities,
Kufa, Basra, and Damascus. It can still be pretty clearly shown
in detail that these four codices deviated from one another in
points of orthography, in the insertion or omission of a to (" and")
and such-like minutiae; but these variations nowhere affect the
sense. All later manuscripts are derived from these four originals.
At the same time, the other forms of the Koran did not at
once become extinct. In particular we have some information
about the codex of Ubay ibn Ka'b. If the list which
giyes the order of its suras is correct, it must have
contained substantially the same materials as our
text; in that case Ubay ibn Ka'b must have used the original
collection of Zaid. The same is true of the codex of Ibn Mas'Qd,
of which we have also a catalogue. It appears that the principle
of putting the longer suras before the shorter was more con-
sistently carried out by him than by Zaid. He omits i. and the
magical formulae of cxiii., ariv. Ubay, on the other hand, had
embodied two additional short prayers, which we may regard
as Mahomet's. One can easily understand that differences of
opinion may have existed as to whether and how far formularies
of this kind belonged to the Koran. Some of the divergent
readings of both these texts have been preserved as well as a
considerable number of other ancient variants. Most of them
are decidedly inferior to the received readings, but some are quite
as good, and a few deserve preference.
The only man who appears to have seriously opposed the
general introduction of Othman's text is Ibn. Mas'ud. He .was
one of the oldest disciples of the Prophet, and had often rendered
him personal service; but he was a man of contracted
views, although he is one of the pillars of Moslem 5u»'i*
theology. His opposition had no effect. Now when
we consider that at that time there were many Moslems who had
heard the Koran from the mouth of the Prophet, that other
measures of the imbecile Othman met with the most vehement
resistance on the part of the bigoted champions of the faith,
that these were still further incited against him by some of his
ambitious old comrades until at last they murdered him, and
finally that in the civil wars after his death the several parties
were glad of any pretext for branding their opponents as infidels;
— when we consider all this, we must regard it as a strong
testimony in favour of Othman's Koran that no party found
fault with his conduct" in this matter, or repudiated the text
formed by Zaid, who was one of the most devoted adherents
of Othman and his family, and that even among theShiites
criticism of the caliph's action is only met with as a rare
exception.
But this redaction is not the close of the textual history of the
Koran. The ancient Arabic alphabet was Very imperfect; it not
only wanted marks for the short and in part even for the long
vowels, but it often expressed several consonants by the same sign,
*./. one and the same character could mean B, T, Th at the begin-
ning and N and J (I) in the middle of words. Hence there were
o:6 KORAT
wever. the ritual use of Che Koru is ant a
_ the acred "unh being niwlf i stood bat
ae property recited. NctirrJaesesBt, a pot
■pushed by European scaosarstBap far tat
the Koran. We want, tor « s i sa g d f . u
and disnrrano of all the Jewish dkaan
thy beginning was made hi Gearer's yamta-
kumu* «» dem Jwientkam mmfttmwmmmmt
d revised edition." I riawig. loos, is ©ary a
sources of modem science. No
oold seem, can eves boast of a SlZZI
etefy sstisnes modem leqtuie-
i English; where we have the umimli
time admira hip tranwarion of George Sale
X of Rodwefl (1861). which seeks to give
al order, and that of Palmer (18S0). mho
itaonal arrangements. The introdaction
■era translation is not in aJI respects
scent scholarship. Co ns id er able e nuact*
II translated in E. W. Lane's SWrrrwart
much can be said in praise of the com-
be German language, neither of that of
Msared in several editions, nor of that of
riguu (Halle). aJJ of them shallow aaaatenn
t difficulties to be met arith in the task, and
ident on Sale. Friedrich Ruckcrt's es*et-
by August MuMer, Frankfort-oti-Maine.
is. M. lOaawoth s translation of the fifty
oltcstem Sure* (Hamburg, 1890) »■ "■ ! "
1 the rhymed form of the originals. The
ation ol the Koran by the great Leipzig
riacher (d. 1888) has so far unfortnnatefy
«~i~_ _j:»c^— - - - -- • •_ _
\i Bibliography).
on the whole Koran, or on special parts
posses s a whole literature bearing An their
works on the spelling and right ,
rks 00 the beauty of its language, oa the
eds and letters, Ac. ; nay. there are even
radays be called " historical and critical
er. the origin of Arabic philology is inti-
the recitation and exegesis of the Koran.
x of the sacred book for the whole mental
Id be simply to write the history of that
department in which its all- pervading,
ways salutary, influence has not been feh.
nee of the Moslems for the Koran reaches
1 that this book, as the divine word. Lt.
God, and consequently eternal _ ^ .
gma, which was doubtless due ™"J""J "
rhristian doctrine of the eternal ■■•»•■■•
xepted by almost all Mabommedans since
d century. Some theologians did indeed
great energy; it was in fact too pre-
t a book composed of unstable words and
iants, was absolutely divine. But what
d sophisms of the theologians for. if they
mtradictions, and convict their 4
following works may be especially eoa-
m den Kordn (2nd ed.. 1878) ;Th. Noldefce.
(G6ttingen, i860; and ed. by Friedndb
es of Mahomet by William Muir and Aloys
rlin, 1 861-1865; 2nd ed., i860): C. Sooner.
the Fetst (Leiden, 1880). De Islam <de Gids,
8, iii. 90-1x4; " Une nouveue biographie de
Vhistoire its religions, tome 29, p. 48 L,
Annali ddTJslam.i. (Milan. 190O. if (Mflaa.
ammeds Ln (Copenhagen, 1903}.
(Th.N.;F*-St.)
of the provincial division {MonUu) of
or " the frontier country," in Siam; in
Pop. about 7000, mixed Cambodian and
dquarters of a high commissioner and of
> the terminus of a railway from Bangkok,
\ distributing centre for the whole of the
forms the eastern part of Siam. There
puted wealth in the neighbourhood. It
rowing district and is the headquarters
icultural department, instituted in 1904
Japanese experts for the purpose of urn-
Siamese silk. The government is that of
division of Siam. A French vice-consul
founding of Ayuthia in the 14th century,
KORDOFAN
907
Korst hat been tributary to. or part of, Siam, with occasional
lapses into independence or temporary tubjeotion to Cambodia.
Before that period it was probably part of Cam b odia, as appears
from the nature of the ruins still to be seen in its neighbour-
hood. In 1806 the last vestige of Hs tributary condition
vanished with the introduction of the present system of Siamese
rural administration.
KORDOFAN, a country of north-east Africa, forming a
mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It lies
mainly between 12° and 16 W. and ao° and 32I £., and has
an area of about 130,000 sq. m., being bounded W. by Darfur,
N. by the Bayuda steppes, E. by the White Nile mudiria and
S. by the country of the Shilluks and other negro tribes, forming
part of the Upper Nile mudiria.
The greater part of Kordofan consists of undulating plains,
riverless, barren, monotonous, with an average altitude of
1500 ft. Thickets and small acadas dot the steppes, which,
green during the kkarij or rainy season, at other times present
a duH brown burnt-up aspect. In the west, isolated peaks,
such as Jebel Abu Senum and Jebel Kordofan, rise from 150
to 600 ft. above the plain. North-west are the mountain
groups of Kaja and Katul (2000 to 3000 ft.), in the east are
the Jebel Daier and Jebel Tagale (Togale), ragged granitic
ranges with precipitous sides. In the south are flat, fertile
and thickly wooded plains, which give place to jungle at the
foot of the hills of Dar Nuba, the district forming the south-
east part of Kordofan. Dar Nuba is well-watered, the scenery
is diversified and pretty, affording a welcome contrast to that
of the rest of the country. Some of the Nuba hills exceed
3000 ft. in height. The south-western part of the country, a
vast and almost level plain, is known as Dar Momr. A granitic
sand with abundance of mica and feldspar forms the upper
stratum throughout the greater part of Kordofan; but an
admixture of clay, which is observable in the north, becomes
[ strongly marked in the south, where there are also stretches
of black vegetable mould. Beneath there appears to be an
unbroken surface of mica schist. Though there are no perennial
rivers, there are watercourses (kkors or mufti) in the rainy season ;
the chief being the Khor Abu Habl, which traverses the south-
central region. In Dar Homr the Wadi el Ghalla and the Khor
Shalango drain towards the Homr affluent of the Bahr el Ghazal.
During the rainy season there is a considerable body of water in
these channels, but owing partly to rapid evaporation and partly
to the porous character of the soil the surface of the country dries
rapidly. The water which has found its way through the
granitic sand flows over the surface of the mica schist and
settles in the hollows, and by sinking wells to the solid rock a
supply of water can generally be obtained. It is estimated that
(apart from those in a few areas where the sand stratum is thin
I and water is reached at the depth of a few feet) there are about
I 900 of these wells. They are narrow shafts going down usually
I 30 to 50 ft., but some are over 200 ft. deep. The water is raised
I by rope and bucket at the cost of enormous labour, and in few
cases is any available for irrigation. The very cattle are trained
, to go a long time without drinking. Entire villages migrate
; after the harvest to the neighbourhood of some plentiful well.
' In a few localities the surface depressions hold water for the
, greater part of the year but there is only one permanent lake—
Keilat, which is some four miles by two. As there is no highland
area draining into Kordofan, the underground reservoirs are
dependent on the local rainfall, and a large number of the wells
are dry during many months. The rainy season lasts from mid-
June to the end of September, rain usually falling every three
or four days in brief but violent showers. In general the climate
is healthy except in the rainy season, when large tracts are
converted into swamps and fever is very prevalent. In the
ihila or cold weather (October to February inclusive) there is a
cold wind from the north. The scif or hot weather lasts from
March to mid-June; the temperature rarely exceeds 105 F.
The chief constituent of the low scrub which covers the northern
part of the country is the grey gum acacia (kaskob). In the south
the red gum acacias {talk) are abundant. In Dar Hamid, in the
N.W. of Kordofan. date, dom and other palms grow. The basbab
or calabash tree, known in the eastern Sudan as the kbddi and
locally Homr, is fairly common and being naturally hollow the trees
collect water, which the natives regularly tap. Another common
source of water supply is a small kind of water melon which grow*
wild and is also cultivated. In the dense jungles of the south are
immense creepers, some of them rubber-vines. The cotton plant
is also found. The fauna includes the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo,
giraffe, lion, leopard, cheetah, roan-antelope, hartebeeste, kudu and
many other kinds of antelope, wart-hog, hares, quail, partridge,
jungle-fowl, bastard and guinea-fowl. Nearly all the kinds of
Same mentioned are found chiefly in the western and southern
istricts. The ril or addra gazelle found in N. and N.W. Kordo-
fan are not known elsewhere in the eastern Sudan. Reptiles,
sand-flies end mosquitoes are common. Obtrkhes are found in the
northern steppes. The chkf wealth of the people consists in the
J;nm obtained from the grey acacias, in oxen, camels and ostrich
eathcrs, The finest cattle are of the humped variety, the bulls of
the Baggara being trained to the saddle and to carry burdens.
There are Urge herds of camel, the camel-owning Arabs usually
owning also large numbers of sheep and goats. Dukhn, a species
of millet which can grow in the and northern districts is there the
chief grain crop, its place in the south being taken by durra. Dukhn
is, however, the only crop cultivated in Dar Homr. From this
grain a beer called mtrisso is brewed. Barley and cotton are culti-
vated in some districts* A little gold dust a obtained, but the old
gold and other mines in the Tagale country have been, apparently,
worked out. Iron is found in many districts and is smelted in a
few places. In the absence of fuel the industry is necessarily a small
one. There are large beds of hematite some 60 m. N.W. and the
same distance N.E. of El Obeid.
Inhabitants.— Tht population of Kordofan was officially
estimated in 1003 to be 550,000. The inhabitants are roughly
divisible into two types— Arabs in the plains and Nubas in the
hills. Many of the villagers of the plains are however of very
mixed blood— Arab, Egyptian, Turkish, Levantine and Negro.
It is said that some village communities are descended from the
original negro inhabitants. They all speak Arable. Hie most
important village tribe is the Gowama, who own most of the
gum-produdng country. Other large tribes are the Dar Hamid
and the Bcderia— the last-named living round El Obeid. The
nomad Arabs are of two classes, camel owners {Stat El libit) and
cattle owners (Baggara), the first-named dwelling in the dry
northern regions, the Baggara in southern Kordofan/ Of the
camel-owning tribes the chief are the Hamar and the Kabba-
bish. Many of the Hamar have settled down in villages. The
Baggara are great hunters, and formerly were noted slave
raiders. They possess many horses, but when journeying
place their baggage on their oxen. They use a stabbing spear,
small throwing spears, and a broad-bladed short sword. Some
of the richer men possess suits of chain armour. The principal
Baggara tribes are the Hawazma, Meseria, Kenana, Habbania,
and Homr. The Homr are said to have entered Kordofan
from Wadai about the end of the 18th century and to have
come from North Africa. They speak a purer Arabic than the
riverain tribes. The Nubas are split into many tribes, each
under a mek or king, who is not uncommonly of Arab descent.
The Nubas have their own language, though the inhabitants of
each hill have usually a different dialect. They are a primitive
race, very black, of small build but distinctive negro features.
They have feuds with one another and with the Baggara. During
the mahdia they maintained their independence. The Nubas
appear to have been the aboriginal inhabitants of the country
and arc believed to be the original stock of the Nubians of the
Nile Valley (see Nubia). In the northern hills are communities
of black people with woolly hair but of non-negro features.
They speak Arabic and are called Nuba Arabs. Some of the
southern hills are occupied by Arab-speaking negroes, escaped
slaves and their descendants, who called themselves after the
tribe they formerly served and who have little intercourse with
the Nubas.
The capital, El Obeid (?.*.), is centrally situated. On it
converge various trade routes, notably from Darfur and from
Dueim, a town on the White Nile 125 m. above Khartum,
which served as port for the province. Thence was despatched
the gum for the Omdurman market. But the railway from
Khartum to El Obeid, via Sennar, built in jqoo-ioii, crosses
the Nile some 60 m. farther south above Abba Island. Nahud .
KOREA
tbcfalof tae
A2 tic =a4r wti Dorasr pas tbrocajb tbe low*,
cbicf "
Trad* e> haajd» s =br kn4 of Geeeksv Syraaat, Dm^ji
T«x «l ziesme betvcex H Obdd sad tike Mlc,
"destrayed by ;br ierc&ftes bat bas beem cebch Bad is a
iaa? tbe ram Bad*. EI Odaaiya or Eddaiya k tbe
■ oi A* a» i iiij. haiknbktk
*J*^*Dariar-
^^ B .s»l««»t^..>LNidObtit Takdi
^jTcaaek *■* 1 ' h i il ■■' i m m tbe Xejbe ui—tij.
a **Tl aiabas baae *» b*aje aaaaov Taey Iw a Tables oa the
'^^csasKnmi^ Tie «m babicadoe be* botb by Arabs
f^P^^MS»At<M»L*rMii'tfi laaaa d bat aaade of got, mod,
^j!piM>aBK. TWXaiaitaifeaae tbe better beak.
^*\L d»ei *■■» »■■■* « «* •* ■■* fcodfcs aatb in roofs.
**>ira»*~ < * *" "^ *■***? * *•***■» tkn is fittk
-^~L It aroar firait a* nfr pro Aril stale. Aboat tbe
f oi tbe seta aottr fear aaaa Seaaaa? settled ia tbe
i Sac csx of zbat centery Kordofaa aaa coa-
7 to* SAnnaa Stan, sctu «f I>xrfar. Aboat 1775 it
re fc? zbe Fia^ ami daaoe >n"«itJ a ooasadcrabk
m Asa* rrJao- am* tbe rainy. Tbe Scaaari
: at iiii aad tberearter coder
w tjirrea prosperity. Ia 1&11
^ri^J ^«aaeaa-* *? V i ^ w n aiiii Bey tae defteroar.
V^^Tl^altwr J^ aaaoa < Ectc U reaaaiacd aader
ZZ^^r^ taVattsafce* Vift — n t Abated, tbe anbdi,
\ZcP*** ojbbcq ataraeaV * «a&- ia Kordoiaa tbat Hkks
**^~ ***, a^ancv. «K w oct ;b* amok, were lambihted
^\a- a 1 *" ^bc Sajppfc ac ILaaiacaa final tkat tiaae oavard
^T '**l,r j^inm*J« -■»*» —a bis sacoesaot, tae
-*T s^^^aarb aae a Sajpm. la Fnrdntia ia 1&99 tbe
^L*~ ^i**ii a* «aurc? b*xaaj abeady passed into
*^_Le- ** „ 1_lll pu iiiiiwat Tae caaef di£»cahy
***^ ^* y » •**ja B «mm «as aa la^eate tbe Arabs
' »ta aatanfr aajzaat. a» % state of peace. Ia
A 11 ibwb aaulae; amaiam adopted, tbe
m>: tl»r wt ^aaAewsiy a aa asaaed tae
: ^^ « a«at « =bc Salary rry.rprd
iSee
so to 36 ft.
by drift ke for s
axe Ira'l S
Kak-«aaf, oa tbe 1
snootb of tbe Ta*4am& aad <
Haa, tbe port of tbe a
aJrvkjamtbei
itdntiacdy 1
tbeaasae. Ia tbe aortb tbetc j
tbe autt aatable bdaf P»i-ta Saa «
aftbeYanaadlnvjeav Fr
a lofty j
two naeqaal parts. Oa ks cast, betveca it 1
it faaoas at a aiiiaiuli distaaoe, is a fertile strip
access, aad oa tbe vest it t
as to break ap tbe m a l ii iaao a da
preripctoas bsfc aad steep sided vafieys. <
Fartber sasab tae axial
dadestbel
»ap-
fc <s»*~*%|^' <w--fcW< aK>Ci[aMaeicaea(Loadoa,
o* — " "f _ W« • *>«*^^ Lc«l».
»» - - ^^J^a«^3c%3ia tbe C«t.
Bortbera groupB aad tbe
tiaOKred.bcttbckass
aad oak aad cbesta
aad are aiaifly oary 1
Aaaoaf tbe eaceptioas are tbe Yabi CAsamak>, 1
Xakiootv Mok-po, aad Haa. Tbe last, asias
30 bl froai tbe east coast, cats Korea Beady ia baJtf. 1
sea oa tbe vest coast aearCbemrsspi
rapids, is a nbstbk bifBmxy far caaaaacsce far o*er 153 aaics.
C w fa gr.— Tbe pdbfr of Kacea m wry F aaji rfu i lj baon.
Crrtftl-ry acbnrs ooraoy a hvae pan of tae 1 ■— i i j . iaraaac ^
1 W I %,hi 1 aww ■ ■■■ 1 ■ in Tbry are alaaji n 1 i— jj i j ioaaed aari
k b ia tbem tkit tbe mi ill weaik of Korea b sicTiaeii. T^var^D
tbe Maact-rua frooder tbey *rr umitd i^cnoronaaably by icor
1600 ft- of q i'^iwv efar> * J i w 1 aad aaantoars. vaicb c«ca
Caadvita fosak aa d are tbe ij b i I i l 1 of a pare of e be S— a
proriacea. Tbey coe=xa a frr r ia n of caai, bt tbe aaaat iaa)o>
«, fivr '5a***, ' tars coal-beariac deposes of tbe cocatry betoac a* fjar Tcrtarv
perkd. Rfcesa erspcrwe aad icacaaK aacaa aae aaer aaab ai sat
■aenorof Korm aaa a3ao ia tae ataad of Qilyn. Tbe aeianw
•xt-xi ta tbe bner. Ha^a-fiaa «or Uooat Ai HiiQ, arxarc^
to O =eae ftcnrv aas ia erspeka ia tbe year wcy. Vkfc '^
poss^de ea «po aa cbese a«e ao actjpe _ n db aari 1 ia Koaaa. aad At
Rfv« kuabobeeai
m -* ^~*-* tbaax?at«Ct>. Its
for.;
of tr-
of B*W
«brtW
■act
tae Karaa ^
a.mjJt.— Tbe cfiaate b aaperb for aiae 1
tbe rirw ocstis at taia. beat aad dna? aee
jm bamll fioai ■ Krreaas s«jf cr fr^*a aaalana. b
^ ^ - - ^ «. —m £s_r"v irre i- jbx c^^bcjc aad>^e^ aad cvjoy 1
, *V«C *co m . «o- ^^^"^^ ta=prrM ^ ^ Se*- » ^STiS* F, tJaar of «ir
^'^ **. *i tr^t" 1 *^«-"* 33 ' . tat av^ra^r a.---.a^ y>^ ^ ^ ^* T«». *** of rbe a-*
™" ~^_ , 4 - -*' » t*ar 4T E- Us I jeiicc 51 <<e ia. TV ra=s ccrac =s ' J> aad Aaa^aat oa tbe wi
^- " * * ' V— oa aad Yait m«s; ' aad aenv-rz* coasea. aad frw« Aer* t» Jt> «• tae aaaab oaat.
_ ^^ * * ^IJrtbe soctbera ' «»* awr.i-.Tmr -ea- acaaal rascal of tbeae facabaaes beaaj ?k
•^ — ■»* * :«a a ^*^ fc.rbi^tT ' » *^ ^ "■ •«*««-* ier >- T** ' " "J " •*» •*-* aa da
^^ - •**' « «**»* wBaasary oy tae ocaefn^ijerA di xvn jcarj oe>r.
•*• ^ .a-"*' * .^a* idbr Taaaea tmr K.-*.— TV rii=^ aad rn«i a*a* stady aaal rftaabir ■
^j*- " w • — T * I« SSasaa vSibena*; ' Aaxea; rV iec wwa twes aie dat Jlfcier caaaba, ^laan aaw
1*' »•— * _ . ^^a«al*aaaSaBV vraT v^^-L, * -w. burz^eisL. ia*-J>orx f*rr , pear, peacbw Jcaac »-«-
p*^*" ^.- ■■ - " "" *^^ »" **- "*' it* ^-* v^ »crarJ7 .<jOi»<in neBa^aWjEakaaaau Tai -
-^ ? ^"SiS- ^«rf dead-=a» « wet- 5^^-rad, as a^« aa otber i
r ^ (t*aDA<d- tooct a^caeprn.^»*ew-*jai«a*^beiBfr
.^j, ^«was* « oca- ■ « ■
KOREA
909
MdcrocifcneareiitmMrow. Thes^~frulU,«sxef*weJaucsand
chestnuts, are worthless. The persimmon attains perfection,
and experiment has proved the suitability of the climate to many
foreign fruits. The indigenous economic plants are few, and are
of no commercial value, excepting wild ginseng, bamboo, which is
applied to countless uses, and " tak-pul n (Hibiscus Momkot), used
in the manufacture of paper.
Fauna.— The tiger takes the first place among wild animals. He
is of great size, his skin is magnificent, and he is so widely distributed
as to be a peril to man and beast. Tiger-hunting is a profession
with special privileges. Leopards are numerous, and have even
been shot within the walls of SeouL There are deer (at least five
species), boars, bears, antelopes, beavers, otters, badgers, tigercats,
marten, an inferior sable, stnped squirrels, &c. Among birds there
are black eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially
protected by law, turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants,
swans, gesse, common and spectacled teal, m a ll a rd s, mandarin ducks
white and pink ibis, cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons,
doves, nightjars, common and blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles,
halcyon and blue kingfishers, Jays, nut-hatches, redstarts, snipe, grey
shrikes, hawks, kites, ftc But, pending further observations, it is
not possible to say which of the smaller birds actually breed in Korea
and which only make it a halting-place in their annual mig r ations.
Area and Population.— The estimated area is 83,000 sq. m.—
somewhat under that of Great Britain. The first complete
census was taken in 1897, and returned the population in round
numbers at 17,000,000, females being in the majority. It was
subsequently, however, estimated at a maximum of 12,000,000.
There is a foreign population of about 65,000, of whom 60,000
axe Japanese. It is estimated that little more than half the
arable land is under cultivation, and that the soil could support
an additional 7,000,000. The native population is absolutely
homogeneous. Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly
peopled, while the rich and warm provinces of the south and west
are populous. A large majority of the people arc engaged in
agriculture. There is little emigration, except into Russian
and Chinese territory, but some Koreans have emigrated to
Hawaii and Mexico.
1 The capital is the Inland city of Seoul, with a population of
' nearly 200,000. Among other towns, Songdo (Kaisdng), the
capital from about 910 to 1392, is a walled city of the first rank,
35 m. N.W. of Seoul, with a population of 60,000. It possesses
the stately remains of the palace of the Korean kings of the
Wang dynasty, is a great centre of the grain trade and the sole
centre of the ginseng manufacture, makes wooden shoes, coarse
pottery and fine matting, and manufactures with sesamum oil
the stout oiled paper for which Korea is famous. Phyong-yang,
a city on the Tai-dong, had a population of 60,000 before the war
of 1894, in which it was nearly destroyed; but it fast regained
its population. It lies on rocky heights above a region of stoneless
alluvium on the east, and with the largest and richest plain In
Korea on the west. It has five coal-mines within ten miles, and
the district is rich in iron, silk, cotton, and grain. It has easy
communication with the sea (its port being Chin-nampo), and
is important historically and commercially. Auriferous quarts
is worked by a foreign company in its neighbourhood. Near
the city is the illustrated standard of land measurement cut by
Ki-tzein 1-124 B.C.
With the exceptions of Kang-hwa, Chong-ju, TNmg-naf,
Fusan, and W6n-san, It is very doubtful if any other Korean
towns reach a population of 15,000. The provincial capitals
and many other cities are walled. Most of the larger towns are
in the warm and fertile southern provinces. One is very much
like another, and nearly all their streets are replicas of the better
alleys of Seoul. The actual antiquities of Korea are dolmens,
sepulchral pottery, and Korean and Japanese fortifications.
Race.— The origin of the Korean people is unknown. They are
of the Mongol family; their language belongs to the so-called
Turanian group, is polysyllabic, possesses an alphabet of xx
vowels and 14 consonants, and a script named En-mun. Lite-
rature of the higher class and official and upper class corre-
spondence are exclusively in Chinese characters, but since 1895
official documents have contained an admixture of En-mun.
The Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in
physiognomy, though dark straight hair, dark oblique eyes,
and a tinge of bronze in the skin are always present. The
cheek-bones are high; the nose inclined to flatness; the mouth
thin-lipped and refined among patricians, and wide and full-
lipped among plebeians; the ears are small, and the brow fairly
well developed. The expression indicates quick intelligence
rather than force and mental calibre. The male height averages
5 ft. 4$ in. The hands and feet are small and well-formed.
The physique is good, and porters carry on journeys from
zoo to aoo lb. Men marry at from 18 to so years, girls at 16,
and have large families, in which a strumous taint is nearly
universal. Women are secluded and occupy a very inferior
position. The Koreans are rigid monogamists, but concubinage
has a recognized status.
Production and Industries. L Minerals. — Extensive coal-
fields, producing coal of fair quality, as yet undeveloped, occur
in Hwang-hai Do and elsewhere. Iron is abundant, especially
in Phyong-an Do, and rich copper ore, silver and galena are
round. Crystal is a noted product of Korea, and talc of good
quality is also present. In 1885 the rudest process of " placer "
washing produced an export of gold dust amounting to £1 20,000;
quartz-mining methods were subsequently introduced, and the
annual declared value of gold produced rose to about £450,000;
but much is believed to have been sent out of the country
clandestinely. The reels were left untouched till 1897, when
an American company, which htd obtained a concession in
Phyong-an Do in 1895, introduced the latest mining appliances,
and raised the declared export of 1808 to £240,047, believed to
represent a yield for that year of £600,000. Russian, German,
English, French and Japanese applicants subsequently obtained
concessions. The concessionnaires regard Korean labour as docile
and intelligent. The privilege of owning mines in Korea was
extended to aliens under the Mining Regulations of 1906.
ii. Agriculture. — Korean soil consists largely of light sandy
loam, disintegrated lava, and rich, stoneless alluvium, from 3 to
xo ft. deep. The rainfall is abundant during the necessitous
months of the year, facilities for the irrigation of the rice crop
are ample, and drought and floods are seldom known. Land is
held from the proprietors on the terms of receiving seed from
them and returning half the produce, the landlord paying the
taxes. Any Korean can become a landowner by reclaiming
and cultivating unoccupied crown land for three years free of
taxation, after which he pays taxes annually. Good land
produces two crops a year. The implements used are two
makes of iron-shod wooden ploughs; a large shovel, worked by
three or five men, one working the handle, the others jerking
the blade by ropes -attached to it; a short sharp-pointed hoe,
a bamboo rake, and a wooden barrow, all of rude construction.
Rice is threshed by beating the ears on a log; other grains, with
flails on mud threshing-floors. Winnowing is performed by
throwing up the grain on windy days. Rice is hulled and grain
coarsely ground in stone querns or by water pestles. There
are provincial horse-breeding stations, where pony stallions,
from xo to 12 hands high, are bred for carrying burdens. Mag-
nificent red bulls are bred by the farmers for ploughing and
other farming operations, and for the transport of goods. Sheep
and goats are bred on the imperial farms, but only for sacrifice.
Small, hairy, black pigs, and fowls, are universal. The culti-
vation does not compare in neatness and thoroughness with
that of China and Japan. There are no trustworthy estimates
of the yield of any given measurement of land. The fanners
put the average yield of rice at thirty-fold, and of other grain
at twenty-fold. Korea produces all cereals and root crops
except the tropical, along with cotton, tobacco, a species of the
Rhea plant used for making grass-doth, and the BrousoneUia
papyri/era. The articles chiefly cultivated are rice, millet,
beans, ginseng (at Songdo), cotton, hemp, oil-seeds, bearded
wheat, oats, barley, sorghum, and sweet and Irish potatoes.
Korean agriculture suffers from infamous roads, the want of
the exchange of seed, and the insecurity of the gains of labour.
It occupies about three-fourths of the population.
iii. Other Industries.— The industries of Korea, apart from
supplying the actual necessaries of a poor population, are few
and rarely collective. They consist chiefly in the manufacture
9io
KOREA
•f sea-salt, of varied and admirable paper, thin and poor silk,
fcorse~hair crinoline for hats,. fine split bamboo bunds, hats and
nuts, coarse pottery, hemp doth Cor mourners, brass bowls
aad grass-doth. Won-san and Fusan are large fishing centres,
and salt fish and fish manure are important exports; but the
praline fishing-grounds axe worked chiefly by Japanese labour
aad capital. Paper and fmseng are the only manufactured
articles on the list of Korean exports. The arts are niL
Commerce. — A commercial treaty was concluded with Japan
in 1876, and treaties with the European countries and the
United Stales of America were concluded subsequently. An
imperial edict of the 20th of May 1904 annulled all Korean
treaties with Russia. After the opening of certain Korean ports
to foresga trade, the rust oms were placed under the management
of European coxaaassuoers nominated by Sir Robert Hart from
Peking. The pons aad other towns open are Seoul, Chemulpo,
Fusan, Woa-saa. Chin-nampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po,
Song-chin, Wys. Yoag-ampo, and Phyong-yang. The value
of foreign trade of the open ports has fluctuated considerably,
but has sbovBL a tendency to increase on the whole. For
example, in iS&t imports were valued at £170,113 and exports
at £q5*377- By 1S90 imports had risen to £700,261, and there-
after fluctuated greatly, landing at only £473, S9 8 hi 1893, but
at £i|0*7» 2 38 hi 189,7, and £1,382,352 in 1001, but under ab-
normal conditions in 1004 tab last amount was nearly doubled.
Exports in 1S90 were raked at £501,746; they also fluctuated
crC aUy, falling to £316, 072 in 1803, but standing at £863,828 in
fj-oi, and having a further increase in some subsequent years.
Jfcese figures exclude the vahae of gold dust- The principal
T^orts are cotton goods, railway materials, mining supplies
^Jnjctals, tobacco, kerosene, timber, and clothing. Japanese
*^Ln yarns are r"*pord to be woven into a strong doth on
2^n hand-looms. Beans and peas, rice, cowhides, and
\Zp*i are the chief exports, apart from gold.
*^ railway from Cho-
line a branch of the
^ncession for which
rard rapidly on the
whole was opened
was planned under
he Korean govcrn-
t by the Japanese
ouen early in 1905,
hole of the Korean
ltring in Seoul are
he secondary roads
ito " rock ladders."
:ed under Japanese
^ __ _. ^^^ xawnw « »•— J * t ent *rdy on the
^^Ji^J^^imm *S» 9 •*• •* on Ponies carrying 200 lb,
s^-^onrviainaa »»»**-; — -rH ^e exists, with
\ ■ ig a framework
j I earth. They
(, , and are not
( ( . Abridged, but
j ous roads and
ur ade. Japanese
uL
wen gradually
The Japanese,
skgraphic and
Chinese and
Chemulpo via
between Seoul
be open ports,
torts in Japan,
utile marine is
cd her claims
peror) was in
guaranteeing
oder a treaty
apan directed
tplomatic and
subjects and
emaint
1
poi
Ma
tren
frorr.
sortl
the t
bounc
Yam*
the nc
otherwi
Nearly
map, se
The i
fexdusr
tbemar
Dare ma
Korea agreed that her future foreign treaties :
duded through the medium of Japan. A 1
resented Japan at Seoul, to direct diplomatic affairs, the first
being the Marquis Ito. Under a further convention of Jury 190;,
the resident -general's powers were enormously increased. la ad-
ministrative reforms the Korean government followed lbs guid-
ance; laws could not be enacted nor administrative measures
undertaken without his consent; the appotntxoent aad dis-
missal of high officials, and the engagement of foreigners ia
government employ, were subject to his pleasure. Each depart-
ment of state has a Japanese vice-minister, and a large propor-
tion of Japanese officials were introduced into these departments
as well as Japanese chiefs of the bureaus of police aad custcaas,
By a treaty dated August 22nd 1010, which came rate e£ecx
seven days later the emperor of Korea made " complete and per-
manent cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of sover-
eignty over the whole of Korea." The entire direction of the
administration was then taken over by the Japanese ressdeat-
general, who was given the title of governor-general. The
jurisdiction of the consular courts was abolished bsst Japaa
guaranteed the continuance of the f listing Korean tariff for
ten years.
Local Administrator*. — Korea for administrative purposes »
divided into provinces and prefec tu res or magistracies. Japanev
reforms in this department have been complete. Each provvaotl
government has a Japanese secretary, police inspector aad ckrka,
The secretary may represent the governor ia his absence.
Law. — A criminal code, scarcely equalled for barbarity, thoogb
appeal, eight local courts, and 115 district coons,
■ Japanese judges, and the codification of the km*
u The prison system was also reformed.
twice mitigated by royal edict since 1785, remained in force ia its
main provtsioas ufl 1895. Subsequently, a mixed cfmnun s w m d
revision carried out some good work. Elaborate legal f^»^ 7
was devised, though its provisions were constantly violated by cat
imperial will and the gross corruption of officials. Five classes d
law courts were established, and provision was made for appeals a
both civil and criminal cases. Abuses ia legal administrarioa and ia
tax-collecting were the chief grievances which led to local iasamx-
lions. Oppression by the throne and the official and noble daaes
prevailed extensively; but the weak protected themselves by the
use of the Kyei, or principle of association, which developed amoor
Koreans into powerful trading gilds, trades-unions, mutual benefa
associations, money-lending olds, Ac Nearly all traders* ponen
and artisans were members of gilds, powerfully bound together aad
strong by combined action and mutual helpfulness in time of need.
Under the Japanese regime the judiciary and the executive wee
rigidly separated. The law courts, including the court of c
three courts of ap
were put under „
was undertaken. The prison a ,
Finance and Money. — Until 1904 the finances of Korea woe
completely disorganized; the currency was chaotic, and the budget
was an official formality making little or no attempt at accuracy.
By agreement of the 22nd of August 1004, Korea acc epted a Japaaea
financial adviser, and valuable reforms were quickly eatcredancw
under the direction of the first Japanese official, Mr T. Megata. He
had to contend against corrupt officialdom, indiscriminate expendi-
ture, and absence of organization in the collection of revenue, apart
from the confusion with regard to the currency. This last was
nominally on a silver standard. The coins chiefly ia use were U)
copper com, which were strung in hundreds on strings of straw, and,
as about 9ft weight was equal to one shilling, were excessKehr
cumbrous, but were nevertheless valued at their face value; t&J
nickel coins, which, being profitable to mint, were issued ia eaornwa
quantities, quickly depreciated, and were moreover ex ten sr v e i y
forged. ( The Dai Ichi Ginko (First Bank of Japan), which has *
branch in Seoul and agencies in other towns, was made the cover*-
ment central treasury, and its notes were recognized as legnltendtr
in Korea. The currency of Korea being thus fixed, the first step
was to reorganize the nickel coinage. From the 1st of August 1905
the old nickels paid into the treasury were remitted and tbe
issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash, which was retained
as a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary coinage was ismd
of silver 10-sen pieces and bronze i-«en and half-sen racers. To aid
the free circulation of money and facilitate trade, tne goveraavat
grants subsidies for the establishment of co-operative wareboo*
companies with bonded warehouses. Regulations have abo bees
promulgated with respect to promissory notes, which have loef
existed in Korea. They took the form of a piece of paper abo*
an inch broad and five to eight inches long, on which was written
the sum, the date of payment and the name of the payer and pa>«,
with their seals; the paper was then torn down its length, and oe
half given to each party. The debtor was obliged to pay the asacam
' * e debt to any person who presented the missing half of the b&
nadiiiMM with wkirh th^v ww*» accented led to av**r-t«»»w» aa«4
KOREA
911
. financial crtsea The new regulations Mounre the
amount of the note* to be expressed in yen, not to be payable in old
nickel coins or cash. The notes can only be issued by members of
a note association, a body constituted under government regulations,
whose members must uphold the credit and validity of their notes.
The notes must also be made payable to a definite person and require
endorsement, safeguards which were previously lacking. Adminis-
trative reform was also taken in band; the lane number of super-
fluous and badly paid officials was considerably reduced, and the
status and salary of all existing government officials considerably
improved. An endeavour was made to publish an annual budget,
in which the revenue and expenditure should accurately represent
the sums actually received and expended. Regulations were framed
for the purpose of establishing adequate supervision over the
revenue and expenditure for the abolition of irregular taxation and
extortions, as well as the practice of farming out the collection of
the revenue to individuals, and, generally, to adapt the whole
collection and expenditure of the national revenue to modern ideas
of public finance. Down to 19 10 the sum expended by Japan on
Korean reforms was estimated to approach fifteen millions sterling.
Among reforms not specifically referred to may be mentioned the
improvement of coastwise navigation, the provision of posts, roads,
railways, public buildings, hospitals and sanitary works, and the
official advancement of industries.
Religion. — Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the 10th to the
14th century, has been discredited for three centuries, and its
priests are ignorant, immoral and despised. Confucianism is the
official cult, and all officials offer sacrifices and homage at stated
seasons in the Confucian temples. Confucian ethics are the basis
of morality and social order. Ancestor-worship is universal. The
popular cult is, however, the propitiation of demons, a modification
of the Shamanism of northern Asia. The belief in demons, mostly
malignant, keeps the Koreans in constant terror, and much of their
substance is spent on propitiations. Sorceresses and blind sorcerers
are the intermediaries. At the close of the 19th century the fees
annually paid to these persons were estimated at £150,000; there
were in Seoul 1000 sorceresses, and very large sums are paid to the
male sorcerers and geomancers.
Putting aside the temporary Christian work of a Jesuit chaplain
to the Japanese Christian General Konishe, in 1594 during the
Japanese invasion, as well as that on a larger scale by students who
received the evangel in the Roman form from Peking in 179a, and
had made 4000 converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt
at the conversion of Korea was made by the French SocilU (Us
Mission * % * "- ' * ' * ' ;,
there w 1
year th« t
emperoi t
beheadc t
So missi 1
eing es
terian a e
followed 1
English >.
Hospita 1
have be i
English] s
and mu i
periodic. >
circulate r
some ye
Educe t
held in i ,
being at
In Seou »
foreign e
under a t
and Ft /
schools, 1
with th I
patrons I
educatk 1
attentio t
made lil s
boys lea „__„.-.,_„, ,
"with the outlines of the governmental systems of other civilized
countries. The education department has been entirely reorganised
under the Japanese regime, Japanese models being followed
History.— By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-txe— a
councillor of the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a sage,
and the reputed author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the
Shu-King— is represented as entering Korea in 1122 B.C. with
several thousand Chinese emigrants, who made him their king.
The peninsula was. then peopled by savages living in caves and
subterranean holes. By both learned and popular belief in Korea
Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean social order, and is
greatly reverenced. He called the new kingdom Ch'oo-HsicnX
pacified and policed its borders, and introduced laws and Chinese
etiquette and polky. Korean ancient history is far from satisfy-
ing the rigid demands of modern criticism, but it appears that
Ki-tze's dynasty ruled the peninsula until the 4th century B.C.,
from which period until the 10th century a.d. civil wars and
foreign aggressions are prominent. Nevertheless, Hiaksai,
which with Korai and Shinra then constituted Korea, was a
centre of literary culture in* the 4th century, through which the
Chinese classics and the art of writing reached the other two
kingdoms. Buddism, a forceful civilizing element, reached
Hiaksai in a.d. 384, and from it the sutras and images of northern
Buddhism were carried to Japan, as well as Chinese letters and
ethics. Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang
the Founder, who unified the peninsula under the name Korai,
made Song-do its capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state
religion. In the xxth century Korea was stripped of her
territory west of the Yalu by a warlike horde of Tungus stock,
since which time her frontiers have been stationary. The Wang
dynasty perished in 1392, an important epoch in the peninsula,
when Ni Taijo, or Litan, the founder of the present dynasty,
ascended the throne, after his country had suffered severely from
Jenghiz and Khublai Khan. He tendered his homage to the
first Ming emperor of China, received from him his investiture as
sovereign, and accepted from him the Chinese calendar and
chronology, in itself a declarationof fealty. Hcrevived the name
Ck'ao-Hsicn, changed the capital from Song-do to Seoul, organ-
ized an administrative system, which with some modifications
continued till 189s, and exists partially still, carried out vigorous
reforms, disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary
examinations the basis of appointment to office, made Confucian-
ism the state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the
burying of old men alive, and introduced that Confucian system
of education, polity, and social order which has dominated Korea
for five centuries. Either this king or an immediate successor
introduced the present national costume, the dress worn by the
Chinese before the Manchu conquest. The early heirs of this
vigorous and capable monarch used their power, like him, for
the good of the people; but later decay set in, and Japanese
buccaneers ravaged the coasts, though for two centuries under
Chinese protection Korea was free from actual foreign invasion.
In 1592 occurred the epoch-making invasion of Korea by a
Japanese army of 300,000 men, by order of the great regent
Hideyoshi. China came to the rescue with 60,000 men, and six
years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in which Japan
used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe. Seoul and
several of the oldest cities were captured, and in some instances
destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures and
the artists were carried to Japan. The Japanese troops were
recalled in 1598 at Hideyoshi's death. The port and fishing
privileges of Fusan remained in Japanese possession, a heavy
tribute was exacted, and until 1790 the Korean king stood in
humiliating relations towards Japan. Korea never recovered
from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to all
Koreans an intense hatred of the Japanese.
» In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and American punitive
expeditions attacked parts of Korea in which French missionaries
and American adventurers had been put to death, and inflicted
much loss of life, but retired without securing any diplomatic
successes, and Korea continued to preserve her complete
isolation. The first indirect step towards breaking it down had
been taken in i860, when Russia obtained from China the cession
of the Usuri province, thus bringing a European power down
to the Tumen. A large emigration of famine-stricken Koreans
and persecuted Christians into Russian territory followed. The
emigrants were very kindly received, and many of them became
thrifty and prosperous farmers. In 1876 Japan, with the consent
of China, wrung a treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully
opened to Japanese settlement and trade, and Won-san (Gensan)
and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to her in 1880. In 1882
China promulgated her " Trade and Frontier Regulations,"
and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by
Germany and Great Britain in 1883, Italy and Russia in 188a.
912
KOREA
France in 1886, and Austria in 1892. A " Trade Convention "
was also concluded with Russia. Seoul was opened in 1884 to
foreign residence, and the provinces to foreign travel, and the
diplomatic agents of the contracting powers obtained a recognized
status at the capital. These treaties terminated the absolute
isolation which Korea had effectually preserved. During the
negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was
treated. with as an independent state. Between 1897 and
1899, under diplomatic pressure, a number of ports were opened
to foreign trade and residence. From 1882 to 1894 the chief
event in the newly opened kingdom was a plot by the Tai-won-
Kun, the father of the emperor, to seize on power, which
led to an attack on the Japanese legation, the members of
which were compelled to fight their way, and that not blood-
lessly, to the sea. Japan secured ample compensation; and
the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops, deported the
Tai-won-Kun to Tientsin. In 1884 at an official banquet the
leaders of the progressive party assassinated six leading Korean
statesmen, and the intrigues in Korea of the banished or escaped
conspirators created difficulties which were very slow to sub-
side. In spite of a constant struggle for ascendancy between
the queen and the returned Tai-won-Kun, the next decade
was one of quiet. China, always esteemed in Korea, con-
solidated her influence under the new conditions through a
powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms
were projected by foreign " advisers." In May 1804 a more
important insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask
armed aid from China. She landed 2000 troops on the 10th of
June, having previously, in accordance with treaty provisions,
notified Japan of her intention. Soon after this Japan had
12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital and the treaty
ports. ' Then Japan made three sensible proposals for Korean
reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China. China
replied that Korea must be left to reform herself, and that the
withdrawal of the Japanese troops must precede negotiations.
Japan rejected this suggestion, and on the 23rd of July attacked
and occupied the royal palace. After some further negotia-
tions and fights by land and sea between Japan and China war
was declared formally by Japan, and Korea was for some time
the battle-ground of the belligerents. The Japanese victories
resulted for Korea in the solemn renunciation of Chinese suze-
rainty by the Korean king, the substitution of Japanese for
Chinese influence, the introduction of many important reforms
under Japanese advisers, and of checks on the absolutism of
the throne. Everything promised well. The finances flour-
ished under the capable control of Mr (afterwards Sir) M'Leavy
Brown, C.M.G. Large and judicious retrenchments were car-
ried out in most of the government departments. A measure
of judicial and prison reform was granted. Taxation was placed
on an equable basis. The pressure of the trade gilds was
relaxed. Postal and educational systems were introduced.
An approach to a constitution was made. The distinction
between patrician and plebeian, domestic slavery, and beating
and slicing to death were abolished. The age for marriage of
both sexes was raised. Chinese literary examinations ceased
to be a passport to office. Classes previously degraded were
enfranchised, and the alliance between two essentially corrupt
systems of government was severed. For about eighteen
months all the departments were practically under Japanese
control. On the 8th of October- 1895 the Tai-won-Kun, with
Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the orders of
Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace,
assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who,
however, four months later, escaped to the Russian legation,
where he remained till the spring of 1897. Japanese influence
waned. The engagements of the advisers were not renewed.
A strong retrograde movement set in. Reforms were dropped.
The king, with the checks upon his absolutism removed, reverted
to the worst traditions of his dynasty, and the control and
arrangements of finance were upset by Russia.
At the close of 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor,
and changed the official designation of the empire to Dai Han—
Great Han. By 1898 the imperial will, working under partiafiy
new conditions, produced continual chaos, and by 1900 suc-
ceeded in practically overriding all constitutional restraints.
Meanwhile Russian intrigue was constantly active. At last
Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia in the
war of 1004-5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea.
On the 23rd of February 1004 an agreement was determined
whereby Japan resumed her position as administrative adviser
to Korea, guaranteed the integrity of the country, and bound
herself to maintain the imperial house in its position. Her
interests were recognized by Russia in the treaty of peace
(September 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the Anglo-
Japanese agreement of the 12th of August 1905. The Koreans
did not accept the restoration of Japanese influence without
demur. In August 1905 disturbances arose owing to an attempt
by some merchants to obtain special assistance from the trea-
sury on the pretext of embarrassment caused by Japaaese
financial reforms; these disturbances spread to some of the
provinces, and the Japanese were compelled to make a show
of force. Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the com-
pletion of the treaty of the 17 th of November 1005, whereby
Japan obtained the control of Korea's foreign affairs aad
relations, and the confirmation of previous agreements, the
far-reaching results of which have been indicated. Nor was
opposition to Japanese reforms confined to popular demon-
stration. In 1907 a Korean delegacy, headed by Prince Yong.
a member of the imperial family, was sent out to lay before
the Hague conference of that year, and before all the principal
governments, a protest against the treatment of Korea by
Japan. While this was of course fruitless from the Koreaa
point of view, it indicated that the Japanese must take strong
measures to suppress the intrigues of the Korean court.
At the instigation of the Korean ministry the emperor abdi-
cated on the 19th of July 1907, handing over the crown to his
son. Somewhat serious hneutes followed in Seoul and else-
where, and the Japanese proposals for a new convention,
increasing the powers of the resident general, had to be pre-
sented to the cabinet under a strong guard. The convent**
was signed on the 25th of July. One of the reforms imme-
diately undertaken was the disbanding of the Korean standee
army, which led to an insurrection and an intermittent guerriSa
warfare which, owing to the nature of the country, was as
easy to subdue. Under the direction of Prince I to (f.a) the
work of reform was vigorously prosecuted. In July iooq. General
Teranchi, Japanese minister of war, became resident -gcnctV
with the mission to bring about annexation. This was eflccicJ
peacefully in August 19x0, the emperor of Korea by fornul
treaty surrendering his country and crown. (See Japan.)
Authorities. — The first Asiatic notice of Korea is by Kbordst'-
beh, an Arab geographer of the 9U1 century A.D., in his Book ofRsa-
and Provinces, quoted by Baron Richthofen in his great work cs
China, \
tive by rf. Hamcl, a Dutchman, who was shipwrecked on the <
of Quelpart in 1654, and held in captivity in Korea for thtrteea ]
The amount of papers on Korea scattered through English, C
French and Russian magazines, and the proceedings of |
societies, is very great, and for the last three centun ^_.
writers have contributed largely to the sum of general knowaedft
of the peninsula. The list which foHows includes) some of the on
recent works which illustrate the history, manners and customs, sad
awakening of Korea: British Foreign Omca Reports on Kormam Trmmt
Annual Series (London); Bibliographic kerioune (3 vols*. Paris
1897) ; Mrs. I. L. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (a vols.. » ~^f»
1897) ; M. von Brandt, OstasiaHsche Fragen (Leipzig, 1 807) ; A. E I
Cavendish and H. E. Goold Adams, Korea, and Ike Smered mYhm
Mountain (London* 1894): Stewart Culin, Korean Gamut (Phib*t
895); Curzon, Problems of the Far East (Londe
Hwtoire de Viglise de Korte (a vols., Paris, 1&74) ; 1. S. CaV
phia, 1895); Curzon, Problems of the Far East (London, ttgfc .
Dallet, Htstoire de Viglise de Korie (a vols., Paris, 1&74) ; J. S ~
Korean Sketches (Edinburgh, 1898); W. E. Grim*. The
Nation (8th and revised edition. New York, 1907); H. Ham%
Relation' du naufrage d'un vaisseau Halindois. '6*"c'. tradmt* U
M. Min -••*-• - ~
Japanese by Professor von Pfiemaier (2 vols., Viei
Flatnond par M". Minuloli (Paris, 1670); Okoji Hidemoto. Dr
Feldsug der Japanir gegen Korea im Jakre i$p
translated >e*
»«». i*75i; *
Jametel. " La Korce : ses ressources. son avenir commercial." f Ti —
miste francaise (Paris, July 1881); Percival Lowell, Ckasom: Tn
Land of the Morning Calm " n '
(London, Boston. 1886); L. J.
KOREA— KOROCHA
913
k
Qmadut Korea (Har
Its History, Manne
The Korean Govern
period ajrd July 16
ton, Korea (Londoi
don, 1904) ; E. Bou
Lb Code penal de la
Marquis ltd (Lon<k
Myers (English ace t-
anes, and others, 1 d
volume by the Ki
devoted some yeai »,
" Geologische Skin i,
Jahrg. 1886, pp. 8* a
reproduction of tb i.
Paris, 5tb aeries, v< )
KOREA* a tributary state of India, transferred from Bengal
to the Central Provinces in 1005; area, 1631 sq. m.; pop. (1901),
3S,i 13, or only 22 persons per sq. m.; estimated revenue, £1200.
It consists of an elevated table-land, with hills rising to above
3000 ft. Such traffic as there is is carried by means of pack-
bullocks.
KORESHAlf ECCLE8IA, THE, or Chuich Akcrtriuicpsant,
a communistic body, -founded by Cyrus R. Teed, a medical
practitioner, who was born at Utica, New York, in 1839. Teed
was regarded by his adherents as " the new Messiah now in the
World," and many other extravagant views both in science and
economics are held by them. Two communities were founded:
in Chicago (1886) and at Estero, in Lee county, Florida (1804),
where in 1903 the Chicago community removed. Their name is
derived from Koresh, the Hebrew form of Cyrus, and they have
a journal, The Flaming Sword.
KORIN, OGATA {c 1657-1716), Japanese painter and lac-
querer, was born at K6t6, the son of a wealthy merchant who
had a taste for the arts and is said to have given his son some
elementary instruction therein. K6rin also studied under
Sokcn Yamamoto, Kan5, Tsunenobu and Gukei Sumiyoshi;
and he was greatly influenced by his predecessors KOyetsu
and Sdtatsu. On arriving at maturity, however, he broke
away from* all tradition, and developed a very original and
quite distinctive style of his own, both in. painting and in the
decoration of lacquer. The characteristic of this is a bold
impressionism, which is expressed in few and simple highly
idealized forms, with an absolute disregard either of realism or
of the usual conventions. In lacquer Korin's use of white
metals and of mother-of-pearl is notable; but herein he followed
Kdyetsu. Kdrin died on the 2nd of June 1716, at the age of
fifty-nine. His chief pupils were Kagei Tatebashi and Shiko
Watanable; but the present knowledge and appreciation of
his work are largely due to the efforts of HOitsu Sakai, who
brought about a revival of Korin's style.
See A. Morrison, The Painters of Japan (1003); S. Tajima, Master-
pieces selected from the Kdrin School (1903); S. Hoitsu, The 100
Designs by K6rin\(\Z\$) and More Designs by Kdrin (1826).
KORKUff, an aboriginal tribe of India, dwelling on the Satpura
hills in the Central Provinces. They are of interest as being the
westernmost representatives of the Munda family of speech.
They are rapidly becoming hinduized, as may be gathered from
the figures of the census of 1901, which show 140,000 Korkus by
race, but only 88,000 speakers of the Korku language.
KORMttCZBANYA (German, Kremnitz), an old mining town,
in the county of Bars, in Hungary, 158 m. N. of Budapest by
rail. Pop. (1900), 4299- It is situated in a deep valley in the
Hungarian Ore Mountains region. Among its principal build-
ings are the castle, several Roman Catholic (from the 13th and
14th centuries) and Lutheran churches, a Franciscan monastery
(founded 1634), the town-hall, and the mint where the celebrated
Kremnitz gold ducats were formerly struck. The bulk of the
inhabitants find employment in connexion with the gold and
silver mines. By means of a tunnel 9 m. in length, con-
structed in 1851-1852, the water is drained off from the mines
into the river Gran. According to tradition, Kdrmdczbanya was
founded in the 8th century by Saxons. The place is mentioned
in documents in 1317, and became a royal free town in 1328,
being; therefore one of the oldest free towns in Hungary.
KORNER. KARL THBODOR (1791-1813), German poet and
patriot, often called the German "Tyrtaeus," was born at
Dresden on the 33rd of September 1791. His father, Christian
Gottfried Korner (1 756-1831), a distinguished Saxon jurist, was
Schiller's most intimate friend. He was educated at the Kreuz-
Bchule in Dresden and entered at the age of seventeen the min-
ing academy at Freiburg in Saxony, where be remained two years.
Here he occupied himself less with science than with verse, a
collection of which appeared under the title Knsspen in 1810.
In this year he went to the university of Leipzig, in order to
study law; but he became involved in a serious conflict with the
police and was obliged to continue his studies in Berlin. In
August 1811 Korner went to Vienna, where he devoted himself
entirely to literary pursuits; he became engaged to the actress
Antonie Adamberger, and, after the success of seveial plays pro-
duced in 181 2, he was appointed poet to the Hofburgtheater.
When the German nation rose against the French yoke, in 1813,
Korner gave up all his prospects at Vienna and joined Lutzow's
famous corps of volunteers at Breslau. On his march to Leipzig
he passed through Dresden, where he issued his spirited Aufruf
an die Sachseu, in which he called upon his countrymen to rise
against their oppressors. He became lieutenant towards the
end of April, and took part in a skirmish at Kitzen near Leipzig
on the 7th of June, when he was severely wounded. After being
nursed by friends at Leipzig and Carlsbad, he rejoined his corps
and fell in an engagement outside a wood near Gadebusch in
Mecklenburg on the 26th of August 18x3. He was buried by his
comrades under an oak close to the village of Wdbbclio, where
there is a monument to him.
The abiding interest in Kdrner is patriotic and political rather
than literary. His fame as a poet rests upon his patriotic lyrics,
which were published by his father under the title Leier und
Schwert in 18x4. These songs, which fired the poet's comrades
to deeds of heroism in 18x3, bear eloquent testimony to the
intensity of the national feeling against Napoleon, but judged
as literature they contain more bombast than poetry. Among
the best known are " Lfrtzow's wilde verwegene Jagd," " Gebet
wahrend der Schlacht " (set to music by Weber) and " Das
Schwertlied." This last was written immediately before his
death, and the last stanza added on the fatal morning. As a
dramatist Kdrner was remarkably prolific, but his comedies
hardly touch the level of Kotzebue's and his tragedies, of which
the best is Zriny (1814), are rhetorical imitations of Schiller's.
His works have passed through many editions. Among the more
recent are: Samtltche Werke (Stuttgart, 1890), edited by Adolf
Stern; by H. Zimmer (2 vols., Leipzig, 1893) and by E. Goetze
(Berlin, 1900). The most valuable contributions to our knowledge
of the poet have been furnished by E. Peschcl, the foander and direc-
tor of the Korner Museum in Dresden, in Theedor Kdrners Tagebuch
nnd Kriegslieder, aus dem John 18 ij (Freiburg, 1893) and. in
conjunction with E. Wildenow, Theodor Kdrner una die Setnen
(Leipzig, 1898).
KORNEUBURG, a town of Austria, in Lower Austria, 9 m.
N.W. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900), 8298. It is situated on
the left bank of the Danube, opposite Klosterneuburg. It is a
steamship station and an important emporium of the salt and
corn trade. The industry comprises the manufacture of coarse
textiles, pasteboard, &c. Its charter as a town dates from x 298,
and it was a much frequented market in the preceding century.
At the beginning of the 15th century it was surrounded by walls,
and in 1450 a fortress was erected. It was frequently involved
in the conflict between the Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus
and the emperor Frederick William III., and also during the
Thirty Years' War.
KOROCHA, a town of central Russia, in the government of
Kursk, 75 m. S.S.E. of the city of Kursk, on the Korocha river.
Pop. (1897), 14,405. Its inhabitants live by gardening, export-
ing large quantities of dried cherries, by making candles and
leather, and by trade; the merchants purchase cattle, grain and
salt in the south and send them to Moscow. Founded fn 1638,
Korocha was formerly a small fort intended to check the Tatar
invasions.
914
KORSOR— KOSCIUSZKO
KORfftR, a seaport of Denmark, in the «mf (county) of the
island of Zealand, 69 m. by rail W.S. W. of Copenhagen, on the
east shore of the Great Belt. Pop. (1001 ), 6054. The harbour,
which is formed by a bay of the Baltic, has a depth throughout
of 20 ft. It is the point of departure and arrival of the steam
ferry to Nyborg on Fflnen, lying on the Hamburg, Schleswig,
Fredericia. and Copenhagen route. There b also regular com-
munication by water with Kid. The chief exports are fish,
cereals, bacon; imports, petroleum and coaL A market town
since the 14th century, Korsor has ruins of an old fortified castle,
on the south side of the channel, dating from the 14th and 17th
centuries.
KORTCHA (Slavonic, Gar&m or Karitu), a dty of Albania,
European Turkey, in the vilayet of larmina, in a wide plain
watered by the Devol and Dunavitza rivers, and surrounded by
mountains on every side except the north, where Lake Malik
constitutes the boundary. Pop. (1005), about 10,000, inc m dmg
Greeks, Albanians and Slavs. Kortcha b the see of an Orthodox
Greek metropolitan, whose large cathedral b richly decorated in
the interior with paintings and statues. The Kortcha school
for girls, conducted by American missionaries, b the only educa-
tional establishment in which the Turkish government permits
the use of Albanian as the language of i nst r u ct ion. The local
trade b chiefly agricultural.
KORYAKS, a Mongoloid people of north-eastern Siberia, in-
habiting the coast-lands of the Bering Sea to the south of the
Anadyr basin and the country to the immediate north of the
Kamchatka Peninsula, the southernmost limit of their range
bewgTtgQsk. They arc akin to the Chokchw, whom they closely
resemble in physique and in manner of life. Thus they are
divided into the settled fishing tribes and the nomad reindeer
breeders and hunters. The former are described as being more
morally and physically degraded even than the Chukchb, and
hopelessly poor. The Koryaks of the interior, on the other hand,
still own enormous reindeer herds, to which they are so attached
that they refuse to part with an animal to a stranger at any price.
They are in disposition brave, jntrfligrnt and self-reliant, and
recognize no master. They have ever tenaciously resisted
Russian aggression, and in their fights with the Cossacks have
proved themselves recklessly brave. When outnumbered they
would kill their women and children, set fire to their homes, and
die fighting. Families usually gather in groups of sixes or sevens,
forming miniature states, in which the nominal chief has no
predominating authority, but all are equal. The Koryaks are
polygamous, earning their wives by working for their fathers-in-
law. The women and children are treated well, and Koryak
courtesy and hospitality are proverbial. The chief wedding
ceremony b a forcible abduction of the bride. They kill the
aged and,infirm, in the belief that thus to save them from pro-
tracted sufferings b the highest proof of affection. The victims
choose their mode of death, and young Koryaks practise the
art of giving the fatal blow quickly and mercifully. Infanticide
was formerly common, and one of twins was always sacrificed.
They burn their dead. The prevailing religion b Shamanism;
sacrifices are made to evil spirits, the heads of the victims being
placed on stones facing east.
See G. Kennaa. Temt Lift t* Siberia (1871); "Cber die Koriaken
u. ihnen nahe verwaadtea Tchouktchen. ' in Btd. Ac a d , Sc SL
PeStTibmri, xii. 99.
KOSCITJSCO, the highest mountain in Australia, in the range
of the Australian Alps, towards the south-eastern extremity of
New South Wales. Its height b 73*8 ft. An adjacent peak to
the south, Mueller's Peak, long considered the highest in the con-
tinent, b 7268 ft. high. A meteorological station was established
on Kosciusco in 1897.
KOSCIUSZKO. TABEUSZ AtfDRZBJ BOHAWEVTURA
(1746-1817), Polish soldier and statesman, the son of Ludwik
Kosciuszko, sword-bearer of the palatinate of Brxesc, and Tekla
Ratomska, was born in the village of Mereczowsscsyno. After
being educated at home he entered the corps of cadets at Warsaw,
where his unusual ability and energy attracted the notice of
Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski, by whose influence in 1769 he
was sent abroad at the expense of the state to complete his ssAarv
education. In Germany, Italy and France he studied cfifisjeaCy,
completing his course at Brest, where he learnt fortification aad
naval tactics, returning to Poland in 1774 with the rank el cants*
of artillery. While engaged in teaching the daughters of tat
Grand Hetman, Sosnowski of Sosnowica, drawing nod mathe-
matics, he fell in love with the youngest of them, Ludwika, aad
not venturing to hope (or the consent of her father, the mvers
resolved to fly and be married privately. Before they cmid
accomplish their design, however, the wooer was attacked by
Sosnowski's retainers, but defended himself valiantly till, covered
with wounds, he was ejected from the bouse. This was in 177&
Equally unfortunate was Kosriuszko's wooing of Tekla Zvrowska
in 1791 , the father of the lady in thb case also refusing Iris consent.
In the interval between these amorous f j* wh* a-*^;-. ^»
won hb spurs in the New World. In 1776 he entered the army
of the United States as a volunteer, and brilliantly 'f ^JTy^*^
himself, especially during the operations about New York and at
Yorktown. Washington promoted Kosriustko to the rank of a col
onel of artillery and made him hb adjutant. Hb humanity and
charm of manner made him moreover one the most popular of the
American officers. In 1783 Kosciuszko was r e w arded for ks
services and hb devotion to the cause of American independexct
with the thanks of Congress, the privilege of American rit;*-™*^
a considerable annual pension with landed estates, and the rank
of brigadier-general, which he retained in the Polish service.
In the war following upon the proclamation of the constiratioa
of the 3rd of May 1791 and the formation of the reactionary Con-
federation of Targowica (see Polaxd: History), Kosciusako took
a leading part. As the commander of a division under Prince
Joseph Poniatowski he distinguished himself at the batik of
Zidence in 1702, and at Dubienka (July *S) with 4000 snea aad
10 guns defended the line of the Bug for five days * g»if*^ the
Russians with 18,000 men and 60 guns, subsequently retire*;
upon Warsaw unmolested. When the king acceded to the Targo-
wicians, Kosciuszko with many other Polish generals threw up
hb commission and retired to Leipzig, which speedily became the
centre of the Polish emigration. In January 1793, provided with
letters of introduction from the French agent Perandicr, Koscb-
szko went on a political mission to Paris to induce the revolution-
ary government to espouse the cause of Poland. In return for
assistance he promised to make the future government of Poland
as dose a copy of the French government as possible; but tie
Jacobins, already intent on detaching Prussia from the asn-
French coalition, had no serious intention of fig*»»"»g Pblandi
battles. The fact that Kosduszko's visit synchronized with the
execution of Louis XVI. subsequently gave the enemies of Poland
a plausible pretext for accusing her of Jacobinism, and thus pre-
judicing Europe against her. On hb return to '^«p»^ Koscn-
szko was invited by the Polish insurgents to take the ryn*w*
of the national armies, with dictatorial power. He hrwt itt d at
first, well aware that a rising in the circumstances was premature.
" I will have nothing to do with Cossack raiding,** he replied; " i
war we have, it must be a regular war." He also inuiml that
the war must be conducted on the model of the American War oi
Independence, and settled down in the neighbourhood of Crnco*
to await events. When, however, he heard that the i nsm ieuioa
had already broken out, and that the Russian armies we** con-
centrating to crush it, Kosciuszko hesitated no longer, bet
hastened to Cracow, which he reached on the 33rd of March 1704.
On the following day hb arms were consecrated accordicg »
ancient custom at the church of the Captions, by way of giving
the insurrection a religious sanction incompatible with Jacobin-
ism. The same day, amidst a vast concourse of people in the
market-place, Kosciuszko took an oath of fidelity to the Poh&a
nation; swore to wage war against the enemies of his covntrjr,
but protested at the same time that he would fight only for the
independence and territorial integrity of Poland.
The insurrection had from the first a purely popular character.
We find none of the great historic names of Poland in the tsa
of the original confederates. For the most part the confederal*
of Koschruko were small squires, traders, peasants and men of
k6sen
4*5
low degree generally. Yet the comparatively few gentlemen
who joined the movement sacrificed everything to it. Thus, to
take but a single instance, Karol Prozor sold the whole of hb
ancestral estates and thus contributed 1,000,000 thalers to the
cause. From the 94th of March to the 1st of April Kosriuszko
remained at Cracow organizing bis forces. On the 3rd of April
at Raclawice, with 4000 regulars, and 2000 peasants armed only
with scythes and pikes, and next to no artillery, he defeated the
Russians, who had 5000 veterans and 30 guns. This victory had
an immense moral effect, and brought into the Polish camp crowds
of waverers to what had at first seemed a desperate cause. For
the next two months Kosciuszko remained on the defensive near
Sandomir. He durst not risk another engagement with the only
army which Poland so far possessed, and he had neither money,
Officers nor artillery. The country, harried incessantly during
the last two years, was in a pitiable condition. There was nothing
to feed the troops in the very provinces they occupied, and pro-
visions had to be imported from Galicia. Money could only be
obtained by such desperate expedients as the melting of the plate
of the churches and monasteries, which was brought in to Kos-
ciuszko's camp at Pinczow and subsequently coined at Warsaw,
minus the royal effigy, with the inscription: " Freedom, Integrity
and Independence of the Republic, 1794." Moreover, Poland
was unprepared. Most of the regular troops were incorporated
in the Russian army, from which it was very difficult to break
away, and until these soldiers came in Kosciuszko had principally
to depend on the valour of his scytbemen. But in the month of
April the whole situation improved. On the 17th of that month
the 2000 Polish troops in Warsaw expelled the Russian garrison
after days of street fighting, chiefly through the ability of General
Mokronowski, and a provisional government was formed. Five
days later Jakob Jasinski drove the Russians from Wilna.
By this time Kosciuszko 's forces had risen to 14,000, of whom
10,000 were regulars, and he was thus able to resume the offensive.
He had carefully avoided doing anything to provoke Austria or
Prussia. The former was described in his manifestoes as a
potential friend; the latter he never alluded to as an enemy.
•* Remember," he wrote, " that the only war we have upon our
hands is war to the death against the Muscovite tyranny."
Nevertheless Austria remained suspicious and obstructive; and
the Prussians, while professing neutrality, very speedily effected
a junction with the Russian forces. This Kosciuszko, misled by
the treacherous assurances of Frederick William's ministers,
never anticipated, when on the 4th of June he marched
against General Denisov. He encountered the enemy on
the 5th of June at Szczekociny, and then discovered that his
14,000 men had to do not merely with a Russian division but
with the combined forces of Russia and Prussia, numbering
95,000 men. Nevertheless, the Poles acquitted themselves man-
fully, and at dusk retreated in perfect order upon Warsaw un-
pursued. Yet their losses had been terrible, and of the six
Polish generals present three, whose loss proved to be irreparable,
were slain, and two of the others were seriously wounded. A
week later another Polish division was defeated at Kholm;
Cracow was taken by the Prussians on the 22nd of June; and
the mob at Warsaw broke upon the gaols and murdered the
political prisoners in cold blood. Kosciuszko summarily
punished the ringleaders of the massacres and had 10,000 of
the rank and file drafted into his camp, which measures had a
quieting effect. But now dissensions broke out among the
members of the Polish government, and it required all the tact
of Kosciuszko to restore order amidst this chaos of suspicions
and recriminations. At this very time too he had need of all
his ability and resource to meet the external foes of Poland. On
the 9th of July Warsaw was invested by Frederick William of
Prussia with an army of 25,000 men and .179 guns, and the
Russian general Ferscn with 16,000 men and 74 guns, while a
third force of 11,000 occupied the right bank of the Vistula.
Kosciuszko for the defence of the city and its outlying fortifica-
tions could dispose of 35,000 men, of whom 10,000 were regulars.
But the position, defended by 200 inferior guns, was a strong
one, and the valour of the Poles and the engineering skill of
Kosciuszko, who was now in his element, frustrated all the efforts
of the enemy. Two unsuccessful assaults were made upon the
Polish positions on the 26th of August and the xst of September,
and on the 6th the Prussians, alarmed by the progress of the Polish
arms in Great Poland, where Jan Henryk Dabrowski captured
the Prussian fortress of Bydogoszcz and compelled General
Schwerin with his 20,000 men to retire upon Kalisz, raised the
siege. Elsewhere, indeed, after a brief triumph the Poles were
everywhere worsted, and Suvarov, after driving them before him
out of Lithuania was advancing by forced marches upon Warsaw.
Even now, however, the situation was not desperate, for the
Polish forces were still numerically superior to the Russian.
But the Polish generals proved unequal to carrying out the plans
of the dictator; they allowed themselves to be beaten in detail,
and could not prevent the junction of Suvarov and Ferscn.
Kosciuszko himself, relying on the support of Poninski's division
4 m. away, attacked Fersen at Maciejowice on the 10th of
October. But Ponmski never appeared, and after a bloody
encounter the Polish army of 7000 was almost annihilated by
the 16,000 Russians; and Kosciuszko, seriously wounded and
insensible, was made a prisoner on the field of battle. The long
credited story that he cried "Finis Poloniae!" as he fell is a
fiction.
Kosciuszko was conveyed to Russia, where he remained till
the accession of Paul in 1706. On his return on the 19th of
December 1706 he paid a second visit to America, and lived at
Philadelphia till May 1 798, when he went to Paris, where the First
Consul earnestly invited his co-operation against the Allies. But
he refused to draw his sword unless Napoleon undertook to give
the restoration of Poland a leading place in his plans; and to
this, as he no doubt foresaw, Bonaparte would not consent. Again
and again he received offers of high commands in the French
army, but he kept aloof from public life in his house at Berville,
near Paris, where the emperor Alexander visited him in 1814.
At the Congress of Vienna his importunities on behalf of Poland
finally wearied Alexander, who preferred to follow the counsels of
Czartoryski; and Kosciuszko retired to Solothurn, where he
lived with his friend Zeltner. Shortly before his death, on the
2nd of April 181 7, he emancipated his serfs, insisting only on the
maintenance of schools on the liberated estates. His remains
were carried to Cracow and buried in the cathedral; while the
people, reviving an ancient custom, raised a huge mound to his
memory near the city.
Kosciuszko was essentially a democrat, but a democrat of the
school of Jefferson and Lafayette. He maintained that the
republic could only be regenerated on the basis of absolute liberty
and equality before the law; but in this respect he was far in
advance of his age, and the aristocratic prejudices of his country-
men compelled him to resort to half measures. He wrote
Mancmvres of Horse Artillery (New York, 1808) and a descrip-
tion of the campaign of 1792 (in vol. xvi. of E. Raczynski's Sketch
of the Poles and Poland (Posen, 1843).
See Jozcf Zajaczek, History of the Revolution of 1 704 (Pol.) (Lem-
berg. 1881) ; Leonard Jakob Borejko Chodzko, Biographu du general
Kosciuszko (Fontaineblcau. 1837); Karol Falkenstein. Tkadddus
Kosciuszko (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1834; French ed., Pari*. 1839); Ant oni
Choloniewski, TadeuszKosauszko (Pol.) (Leroberg, 1902) ; Franciszek
Rychlicki, T. Kosciuszko and tike Partition of Poland (Pol.) (Cracow,
1*75). ' (R.N.B.)
KdSEN. a village and summer resort of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Saxony, 33 m. by rail S. by W. of Halle, on the
Saale. Pop. (1905), 2990. The town has a mineral spring, which
is used for bathing, being efficacious for rheumatism and other
complaints. KSscn, which became a town in 1869, has large
mill-works; it has a trade in wood and wine. On the adjacent
Rudelsburg, where there is a ruined castle, the German students
have erected a monument to their comrades who fell in the
Franco-German War of 1870-71 Hereon are also memorials to
Bismarck and to the emperor William I. The town is famous
as the central meeting-place of the German students' corps,
which hold an annual congress here every Whitsuntide.
See Tcchow, Fukrer dunk Kdsen und Umgegend (Kosen, 1889).
and Rosenberg. Kosen (Naumburg, 1877).
^ KOSHER— KOSSUTH, L.
r luSMZa (Hebrew dean, right, or fit), tke
. wny food or vessels for food made rituaUy fit.
c=B£r*£zstia£tioB to those ***«*, «»■*, ud tWok.
Thus the vessels used at the Passo ver are " kosher,"
" ~ — ajo at* "^ vessels bought ires a Gentile alter they
*> *~ ~<l s£CA mashed in a ritual bath. Bat the term is specially
^ '^ £ izveaf sta Hg ht rred m accordance with the law of Moses.
^^^ *. ^fr jt or barber nsust be a devout Jew and of high moral
: 3 *^^ a ^be6^BcensedbythechkfrabbL Theslattghter-
> obgxt of which is to assure the complete M~*K"g of the
LJfc j^bi V i Bi.V r 'i ii Uf Ti rn tilnni i t Innr tijTriTrinr
— - ^j^ with a kanf and raaor-sharp knife by one conimnous
'•* * ^-kwaads and forwards. No unnecessary force is per-
«-— ^ ^^j 3^ steppage must occur daring the operation. The
ae * ~"~ ~jx& cand^y rng.inl. and if there be the sTghtest flaw
*• -~ ?jje the meat cassot be eaten, as the cnt would not have
£ -* r^-jj. the uneven K±£e causing a thrill to pass through the
x-.-i ~"**_^ -^c cr.vag the blood again through the arteries.
^"^ ^jj every pcruan of the animal is thoroughly examined,
** "-" ~ StSS a. jxy frgt~*" disease the devout Jew cannot taste
^ \ lx jr£rr *o settea meat before k is salted, so as to
" gX ^ j-t ^ ?>craaa the hlood more freerr. the meat is soaked
1 , vc tX«£ hi£ «* hour. It is then covered with salt
9 ' ' xx hMf «ni afterwards washed three times. Kosher
jeicc «^h the name of the slaughterer and the date of
_ «c OsSLTs. 2 town of Germany, in the Prussian
"""^ "^-enr-wat* at the foot of the Goflrnbrtg (450 ft.),
sr J- -v- aad 10$ m. XJL of StettinbyraiL Pop.
^ The i**u has two Evangelical and a Roman
*.-*. a pTrfcishrm. a cadet academy and a deaf and
„. It -St u.:ge market place is the statue of the
^ *NNr»ci, U ^jTB L. erected in 1824, and there is
0- « .be Friednch Wubeha Piatt. The industries
,. ., _x\ ore of soap, tobacco, machinery, paper,
^ *««* *Jvi other goods. Koslia was buili about
>. t'Rv i-ivi raised to the rash of a town m 1266.
\ ^* - V doctrines of the Reformatioa. It was
x *-i.rty Years* War and ia the Seven Years'
j v i. was bcraed down. On the GnTuT.hrrg
. -v.. v ^he aacmory of the PomfnnhuT who fe£
. « ,\ a vtjvct of European Turkey, coen-
^^ J> ia Macrdoria. aad the sar.jirs of
. *- ia northern Albania. Pop. U0C5K
» ."00 sq.m. For an accent cf the
v^s^tx see Almaxzx asi Macedoxll
-. > Alb.^ri it* and SLrvs, with «bt. jut
^ uts, Ylicis and gipsies. A few good
,x s?e Usxua\ a=d the ra2way from
. -.■* at l"s*.i^?v tbe cz^itaL oee bcucb
; ^o^i^a. the other to Xai in Serria.
. . • vv wealth of the viiyct, the onhr
^•k <.W4i> chrosae Kri2£s, at Orasha and
„ ^.. «c 4t :» apicuhcril trade, however,
^ ^ »*- T*ri=s£ provuee. The exports.
. * -v ,jw kxxssock, large q=m::-Jes of
.. v^* x>ir$» oc\-2a. h eap aad skias.
v « ^v»-5^r-rcjca. aad sericvliiie zs a
>* the .Vd=£=istra*jca of the
>*vrv\W snorts is a?c^cj==i:riy
■*r-
Serrk &** 5Hr|n>. The ptam of
" Held of Blackbirds'*), a fang vaftey ryang vest of
and watered by the Sihnwri, a tributary of the Sovha Ibar. a
famous in Balkan history and legend as the scene of the boGkaf
Kossovo (13S9), in which the power of Scnria mas duuu w i aj
the Turks. (See Sam: ffunwy.)
KOSSUTH. FFJtEKZ ULKB AKX* (1841- X ITiniiiui
statrsmsn, the son of La jas IToMmh, was horn on the inth uf
November 1&41, and educated at the Pans Purytechwic and &t
London Unrversiry, where in 1S59 he won a pone for pnpr-'
economy. After working as a chrl <n g aan on the Denn Fwacft
railway he went (1661) to Italy, where he resided lor the nee
thirtyHhree years, tirin g a con s k ifi i h l r part in the n^way cn>
struction of the pe nin su l a, and at the same time liming aive
the Hungarian indepenoence qurtfirm by a whole series d
pamphlets and newspaper articles. AxCxsenahixa76hemaxrjed
EmOy Hoggins. In liSshe wasdecocaled for has services fay ihe
Italian government. His hot great ena^neering work was the
construction of the steel bridges for the Xie. Ia 1S04 he escorted
his father's remains to Hungary, and the following year naii*
to settle in his native bnd and took the oath of a akgihau. As
eady as 1S67 he had been twice elected a ntnhu of the Hav
garian diet, but on both cessions refused to accept thcananoee.
Onil«iotho<ArjriliS95hewasret«awedk«Tapokaandmiio»
for Ogled, and from that time took an active part hi Hwgarirt
politics. In the autamn of 1S0S he became the lender of the
ote tr uctiocists or " Iwirprndfa ce Party," agunst the no 11 11 i
SceO, Unaen-Hadervary, Saap&ry and Seephrn Tisan nemuas-
tntions (1S08 — 1004), r sfi ii si a g gseat ir , *Tirnce not omy a
parliament but upon the peboe at large through hesaxxjdess
the Efyttatts. The tkcli on s of 1905 hayag sent fees party fcc-i
with a large majority, he was received ia iiawni hw the Lsg
and helped to construct the Wekede r-rtrsny, of wauch he wa
one of the most distingmshed members.
See Scona. Tie A^acd ef&r Emmgmim Dub (sons-nasa', ae.
KOSSUTH. UJQ8 [Loos] v :5oj-i$^^, i
was bcra at iiocot, a small towz m the entity of 2
the xoth of Septeaher lfico. Ha lather,
from an oid cziltled nobk faacTy and pgwrwn d a 3
was by professicc aa advocale. Lwcis, who was the eldest «
four ckCdren, recesved from kzs mother a strict 1
His ech>n tion wascoca^rtedaiiJ
and at the uni ver sit y of Budapest. At the age of ■^»» he
returned bcae and began practice with his father. Hs 1
and amii V xy soon wen kl= great por; -Lirity. especiaiwj
the peasant He was abc appr.vrd steward to the 4
Szipary, a widow with Uige estates, aad as her 1
had a seat ia the coc=!y asse=bTy. TLs nmairm he hast 4
to a cr-irrd with his purcaeaw and he was auL U JuI of apon*
pcixtir^ oscey to pay a grr-Vrg debt. His i; -A casaot kit
been very seriocs. f cr he was shortly afterward (he had a iie
yjrz^v-t sett>d is Pest^ xppclsusd fcy Cou=lH=ryacVtj»hcl^
ieptty at the Xit-ccol Diet a P ie ssb uz g \ lis 5-18^7. aad ar^±
la iS\:,. It was a tlse wbec, wader able * *«<■ y a gm^
roLtiail party was brr;r'~~,g the str&ggie for seiomm agaisst *Jx
<t»£r.i~z Azstrkz gcTer—prs; As de?«y he had an vote, aai
be ur^n^y lock !::> sh?re is the «Vh>trs t bet it mas par*, d
his d~~y tc sesd -mr.v.cz. repacks of the m-winT ^ gs fte fc=s pai^a
sLare the gtverr-ryi: . wii a wtl-g^uaded Sear of all >^f —43:
pof-or fec^s. refused ta aLcw any noWrrhed zepor^
(1
Kc
Ra*
berg
where
Prince .»
* v-*>>vrt' aad other Ba==actz^d Koss^ii s k::rrs we*e so exceZ*cit that they
tM >i «vv3wctsand|KtTOir==.w*ixh
^ *v**r*s «n accent of the peo-
•v* * fr*rtJC»-T no tr*3e wii
b. . v<% «?*rw arsi i»rc--ts pas
.^^f«igV?riZirt?Servia- TV
. ^.-^ ^«L«e>.Kefrf* »» .
, V^^uar ,».-^oe» sad Prakt^a
. \,« wrmed r
. ^wstiflka*'
MS az=>:^g the LTberal g-AgTjgf\ and i
arrix-red par'.T— gu.7 gueue
v^_c£ he was ei toe. At once his name aad i
1= order tc iacrfise the cfrr-Iitxci. be vestared on Esh
the irtt«s. Tls br.-irit tbe= ea d er the <
was fartvidea. Be cc- - *-jed the paper m htS , ascl whex ^
p;\t^ac: rrf=sri tc iT:w =; t» he circafated t hj, uwgh tie^oft
se=t •: snA by hrzL 1= z*$i the Dj« was dssorvecL XjL±
-c::i^jci the tgriz m ':*z Vr rcTtr— rs -a letter km tSc de:r a
T the onaty a^srr v .^rs to wi^ he thesehj gave a | r-'--
KOSSUTH, L.
917
importance which they had not had when each was ignorant of
the proceedings of the others. The fact that he embellished with
his own great literary ability the speeches of the Liberals and
Reformers only added to the influence of his news-letters. The
government in vain attempted to suppress the letters, and other
means having failed, he was in May 1837, with Weszelenyi and
several others, arrested on a charge of high treason. After
spending a year in prison at "Ofen, he was tried and condemned
to four more years' imprisonment. His confinement was strict
and injured his health, but he was allowed the use of books. He
greatly increased his political information, and also acquired,
from the study of the Bible and Shakespeare, a wonderful know-
ledge of English. His arrest had caused great indignation. The
Diet, which met in 1839, supported the agitation for the release of
the prisoners, and refused to pass any government measures;
Metternich long remained obdurate, but the danger of war In
1846 obliged him to give way. Immediately after his release
Kossuth married Teresa Meszleny, a Catholic, who during his
prison days had shown great interest in him. Henceforward
she strongly urged him on in bis political career; and it was the
refusal of the Roman priests to bless their union that
first prompted Kossuth to take up the defence of mixed
marriages.
He bad now become a popular leader. As soon as his
health was restored he was appointed (January 1841) editor of the
Petit Hirlap, the newly founded organ of the party. Strangely
enough, the government did not refuse its consent. The success
of the paper was unprecedented. The circulation soon reached
what was then the immense figure of 7000. The attempts of
the government to counteract his influence by founding a rival
paper, the Vtiag, only increased his importance and added to
the political excitement. The warning of the great reformer
Szechenyi that by his appeal to the passions of the people he
was leading the nation to revolution was neglected. Kossuth,
indeed, was not content with advocating those reforms— the
abolition of entail, the abolition of feudal burdens, taxation of
the nobles— which were demanded by all the Liberals. £y in-
sisting on the superiority of the Magyars to the Slavonic inhabi-
tants of Hungary, by his violent attacks on Austria (he already
discussed the possibility of a breach with Austria), he raised the
national pride to a dangerous pitch. At last, in 1844, the gov-
ernment succeeded in breaking his connexion with the paper.
The proprietor, in obedience to orders from Vienna (this seems
the roost probable account), took advantage of a dispute about
salary to dismiss him. He then applied for permission to start
a paper of his own. In a personal interview Metternich offered
to take him into the government service. The offer was refused,
and for three years he was without a regular position. He con-
tinued the agitation with the object of attaining both the political
and commercial independence of Hungary. He adopted the
economic principles of List, and founded a society, the " Vede-
gylct," the members of which were to consume none but home
produce. He, advocated the creation of a Hungarian port at
Flume. With the autumn of 1847 the great opportunity of his
life came. Supported by the influence of Louis Battbyany,
after a keenly fought struggle he was elected member for Buda-
pest in the new Diet. " Now that I am a deputy, I will cease
to be an agitator," he said. He at once became chief leader of
the Extreme Liberals. Deak was absent. Batthyany, Szechenyi,
Szemere, Eotvos, his rivals, saw how his intense personal ambition
and egoism led him always to assume the chief place, and to use
his parliamentary position to establish himself as leader of the
nation; but before his eloquence and energy all apprehensions
were useless. His eloquence was of that nature, in its im-
passioned appeals to the strongest emotions, that it required for
its full effect the highest themes and the most dramatic situations.
In a time of rest, though he could never have been obscure,
he would never have attained the highest power It was there-
fore a necessity of his nature, perhaps unconsciously, always
to drive things to a crisis. The crisis came, and he used it to
the full
On the 3rd of March 1848, as soon as the news of the revolution
in Paris had arrived, in a speech of surpassing power he demanded
parliamentary government for Hungary and constitutional
government for the rest of Austria. He appealed to the hope of
the Habsburgs, "our beloved Archduke Francis Joseph," to
perpetuate the ancient glory of the dynasty by meeting half-way
the aspi r a ti ons of a free people. He at once became the leader
of the European revolution; his speech was read aloud in the
streets of Vienna to the mob by which Metternich was overthrown
(March 13), and. when a deputation from the Diet visited Vienna
to receive the assent of the emperor to their petition it was
Kossuth who received the chief ovation. Batthyany, who formed
the first responsible ministry, could not refuse to admit Kossuth,
but he gave him the ministry of finance, probably because that
seemed to open to him fewest prospects of engrossing popularity.
If that was the object, it was in vain. With wonderful energy
he began developing the internal resources of the country: he
established a separate Hungarian coinage — as always, using every
means to increase the national self-consciousness; and it was
characteristic that on the new Hungarian notes which he issued
his own name was the most prominent inscription ; hence the name
of Kossuth Nates, which was long celebrated. A new paper was
started, to which was given the name of Kossutjt Hirlapia, so tha^
from the first it was Kossuth rather than the Palatine or the
president of the ministry whose name was in the minds of the
people associated with the new government. Much more was
this the case when, in the summer, the dangers from the Croats,
Serbs and the reaction at Vienna increased. In a great speech
of nth July he asked that the nation should arm in self-defence,
and demanded 200,000 men; amid a scene of wild enthusiasm
this was granted by acclamation. When Jcllachich was march-
ing on Pesth he went from town to town rousing the people to the
defence .of the country, and the popular force of the Ronved was
his creatiori. When Batthyany resigned he was appointed with
Szemere to carry on the government provisionally, and at the
end of September he was made President of the Committee of
National Defence. From this time he was in fact, if not in name,
the dictator. With marvellous energy he kept in his own hands
the direction of the whole government. Not a soldier himself,
he had to control and direct the movements of armies; can we
be surprised if he failed, or if he was unable to keep control over
the generals or to establish that military co-operation so essential
to success? Especially it was Gorgei (9.9.) whose great abilities
he was the first to recognize, who refused obedience; the two men
were in truth the very opposite to one another: the one all feeling,
enthusiasm, sensibility; the other cold, stoical, reckless of life.
Twice Kossuth deposed him from the command; twice he had to
restore him. It would have been well if Kossuth had had some-
thing more of Gorgei's calculated ruthlessness, for, as has been
truly said, the revolutionary power he had seized could only be
held by revolutionary means; but he was by nature soft-hearted
and always merciful; though often audacious, he lacked decision
in dealing with men. It has been said that he showed a want of
personal courage; this is not improbable, the excess of feeling
which made him so great an orator could hardly be combined with
the coolness in danger required of a soldier; but no one was
able, as he was, to infuse courage into others. During all the
terrible winter which followed, his energy and spirit never failed
him. It was he who overcame the reluctance of the army to
march to the relief of Vienna; after the defeat of Schwechat,
at which he was present, he sent Bern to carry on the war in
Transylvania, At the end of the year, when the Austrians were
approaching Pesth, he asked for the mediation of Mr Stiles, the
American envoy. Windischgrltz, however, refused all terms,
and the Diet and government fled to Deb recszin, Kossuth taking
with him the regalia of St Stephen, the sacred Palladium of the
Hungarian nation. Immediately after the accession of the
Emperor Francis Joseph all the concessions of March had been
revoked and Kossuth with his colleagues outlawed. In April
1849, when the Hungarians had won many successes, after sound-
ing the army, he issued the celebrated declaration of Hungarian
independence, in which he declared that " the house of Habsburg-
Lorraine, perjured in the sight of God and man, had forfeited
G« -
ROSTER— KOSTROMA
' rthe
■ him of
r c^r feature form of
appointed
i were frus-
. at arjprafc to the western
]^-r ^V^ .3^ «rf *r ^e rrA j< Mr«st Koasoth abdicated
_^c-* ^^ = \T ^W* * :ac ff ,WB "* r * ,-t at *** aast extremity the
u - • -*-*" ^i jm« »■* tit aacsaw How Gdrgei used his
_.-c-^* *^ ^tft«a»ie^*w««taaaBa» tit- caairalation was Indeed
^ ^.f r ^ r » cnsacer aaaa sha* Kossuth would not have
c^ - -^' ~,s^c*tt^ *c«n*^ccn* the negotiations so as to get
a«?
: >.-— " _^n-: »a *» >rf V3agw Kossuth's career was at an
**> .* -^j.-* -^ .*.Ve classed the Turkish frontier. Hewas
c . * ^"" 1^^ .r^ >» ta» Taris* authorities, who, supported
o*:-*.-^? ^ — ^^ *ree*i atxwtthstanding the threats of the
^ v sr?s«aitr aaa and the other fugitives to the
or -•^"*\iic* ** * **** •*««*»*. In January 1849 he was
--* *^ V_~ w. cc. v **«* he had been kept in honourable
.— ,-xTT
jj. j5*ta *a*i thence to Katahia in Asia Minor.
~o-«<2 ** ^* c*:Mren, who had been confined at
, . v 1 xvr iM been set on her head) had joined
„ . •* ^^XNf j» disguise. In September 1851 he
*.n <:»-' u .^ i o ,<r>*.»-*.ed 00 an American man-of-war. He
%^ ?■>•• * f*^- Vj^-^ where he received an enthusiastic
a.^ ■* ^"^t* *-** ixvf^hat the prince-president refused to
•v-vws< v ^ _^ r * ^ Cai the 23rd of October he landed at
*** • v n v * J.TV* H>^ ***** weeks in England, where he was
><x. ^ ■** vV - v t^ **«? enthusiasm, equalled only by that
^V ^^Vo^^^ *** "^^ ten yea" kter. Addresses
% ;\ »^ 1 ^ v > « a: Southampton, -Birmingham and other
W4*« ^^V** ^JKvi^f entertained by the lord mayor of
»v* ^ ** -^a v^aot ** p*eaded the cause of his unhappy
u y .cs». * ' ,^.*i x t>pfch. he displayed an eloquence and
^ * . * 1** b^' 4 ** «arcely excelled by the greatest
o.* ^"^ " V J ^»« w»up** The agitation had no immediate
.•»»*.* ** v . iKV Ki - v, ° wn *h ne aroused against Russian
-»^ ^ .1 ,^»' ;i th* strong anti-Russian feeling which
— < v t ^\o W *<*< *> the United States of America:
'•^ N ^ sU *** **-*&> enthusiastic, if less dignified; an
x - **■" w ^ . . . A » <» s>>Nued in his words and acts which
- * * * "' . v> **■ >•&■-•«<*. Other Hungarian exiles pro-
* - " * * v >. *« Vt ^>peared to make that he was the
*' '\ lV > v vwiuuon. Count Casimir Batthyany
- • - ■ . «^ te^v &ad 5vH»Tn #»r<» nkn \\aA K ^ p prime
acts and
lupKcity.
years in
iving, he
narrelsof
ingarians
governor,
■e freeing
ungarian
centered
aly, and
; to make
llafranca
Italy; he
mder the
im there
or would
le would
the Diet
his of his
practical
1
all H un g ari ans who had vohmtarOy been absent ten years, vis t
bitter blow to him.
He died in Turin on the 20th of March 1804; his body was takea
to Pesth, where he was buried amid the mourning of the whole
nation, Maurus Jokai delivering the funeral oration. A bronze
statue, erected by public subscription, in the Kerepes cemetery,
commemorates Hungary's purest patriot and greatest orator.
Many points in Kossuth's career and characterwul probably ateis
remain the subject of controversy. His complete works were pob-
lished in Hungarian at Budapest is 1880-1895. The fullest acoasat
of the Revolution is given in Heliert, Cesckkkte OesUrrcuJu (Leipzig.
i860, &c), representing the Austrian view, which may be eotapYrvd
with that of C. Gracza, History of the Hungarian War of ludetn-
dent*, 1848-1849 (in Hungarian) (Budapest, 1894). See also E. 0. S,
Hummer* and its Reeelutums, warn a Memoir of Louis Kosxmik (Boba,
i85f); Horvath, 2$ Jakre aus der Cesckuhte Uutarns, I&2J-J&4
(Leipzig, 1 867) ;Maurice, Revolutions of 1848-1840 ; W.H^cfles. A usteia
%k 1848-1849 (New York, 1853) ; Sterner*, Poliitsche Ckarakterxktssa:
III. Kossuth (Hamburg, 1853); Louis Kossuth, Memoirs of mj
Exile (London, 1880); Pulscky, Meme Zeit, mein Leben (Pressburs,
1880) ; A. Somogyi, Ludwig Kflxsuth (Berlin, 1894). Q. W. Hs.)
K08TER (or Costeb), LAURENS (e. 1370-1440), Dutch printer,
whose claims to be considered at least one of the inventors of
the art (see Typography) have been recognized by many investi-
gators. £is real name was Laurens Janssoen-Koster (ix
sacristan) being merely the title which he bore as an official of
the great parish church of Haarlem. We find him mentioned
several times between 1417 and 1434 as a member of the great
council, as an assessor (scobinus), and as the city treasurer
He probably perished in the plague that visited Haarlem ia
1430-1440; his widow is mentioned in the latter year. His
descendants, through his daughter Lucia, can be traced dowa
to 1724.
See Peter Scriver, Besehtyeinge der Slad Harlem (Haark so, 162$);
Scheitctna, Leveussckets wan Laurens d. Koster (Haarlem, 1834};
Van der Linde, De Haarlemsche Costerlegende (Hague, 1870).
KOSTROMA, a government of central Russia, surrounded by
those of Vologda, Vyatka, Nizhniy-Novgorod, Vladimir and
Yaroslav, lying mostly on the left bank of the upper Volga.
It has an area of 32,480 sq. m. Its surface is generally unduk-
ting, with hilly tracts on the right hank of the Volga, and exten-
sive flat and marshy districts in the east. Rocks of the Pernuaa
system predominate, though a small tract belongs to the Jurassk,
and both are overlain by thick deposits of Quaternary days-
The soil in the east is for the most part sand or a sandy day.
a few patches, however, are fertile black earth. Forests, yield-
ing excellent timber for ship-building, and in many cases suO
untouched, occupy 61% of the area of the government. The
export of timber is greatly facilitated by the navigable tributaries
of the Volga, e.g. the Kostroma, Unaha, Neva, Vioksa and
Vetluga. The climate is severe; frosts of -3*** F. are commas
in January, and the mean temperature of the year is only 3*-x
(summer, o4°'5; winter, -i3°*3). The population, which num-
bered 1,176,000 in 1870 and 1,424,171 in 1897, is almost entirt'y
Russian. The estimated population in 1006 was 1,596,700. Out
of 20,000,000 acres, 7,861,500 acres belong to private owners,
°»379>5oo to the peasant communities, 3,660,800 to the crow*.
and 1,243,000 to the imperial family. Agriculture is at a lo*
ebb; only 4,000,000 acres are under crops (rye, oats, wheat and
barley), and the yield of corn is insufficient for the wants of the
population. Flax and hops are cultivated to an increasing
extent. But market-gardening is of some importance, Bee-
keeping was formerly an important industry. The chief ankles
of commerce are timber, fuel, pitch, tar, mushrooms, and
wooden wares for building and household purposes, which ait
largely manufactured by the peasantry and exported to the
steppe governments of the lower Volga and the Don. Boat-
building is also carried on. Some other small industries, sues
as the manufacture of silver and copper wares, leather gooOv
bast mats and sacks, lace and felt boots, are carried on ia it*
villages; but the trade in linen and towelling, formerly the staple.
» declining. There are cotton, flax and linen mills, engineeriaf
' hemical works, distilleries, tanneries and paper mills. The
-»ent of Kostroma js divided into twelve districts, tat
KOSTROMA— KOTZEBUE, A. F. F. VON
919
chief town* of wfakb, with populations in 1897, are Kottroma
(9.9.), But (a6a6) t Chukhloma (2200), Gabch (6182), Kineshma
(7564)* Kobgriv (2566), Makariev (6068), Nerekhta (3002),
SetigaHch (3420), Varnavin (1140), Vetluga (5200) and
YurieveU (4778).
KOSTROMA* a town of Russia, capital of the government of
the same name, 230 m. N.N.E. of Moscow and 57 m. E.N.E.
from Yaroslav, on the left bank of the Volga, at the mouth of the
navigable Kostroma, with suburbs on the opposite side of the
Volga. Pop. (1897), 41,2*8. Its gUttering gilded cupolas make
it a conspicuous feature in the landscape as it climbs up the
terraced river bank. It is one of the oldest towns of Russia,
having been founded in 1152. Its fort was often the refuge
of the princes of Moscow during war, but the town was plundered
more than once by the Tatars. The cathedral, built in 1230
and rebuilt in 1773, is situated in the kreml, or citadel, and is a
fine monument of old Russian architecture. In the centre of the
town is a monument to the peasant Ivan Susanin and the tsar
Michael (1851). The former sacrificed his own life in 1669 by
leading the Poles astray in the forests in order to save the life of
bis own tsar Michael Fedeorovich. On the opposite bank of the
Volga, dose to the water's edge, stands the monastery of Ipati-
yev, founded in 1330, with a cathedral built in 1586, both associ-
ated with the election of Tsar Michael (1669). Kostroma has
been renowned since the x 6th century for its linen, which was
exported to Holland, and the manufacture of linen and linen-
yarn is still kept up to some extent. The town has also cotton-
•mftls, tanneries, saw-mills, an iron-foundry and a machine
factory. It carries on an active trade— importing grain, and
exporting linen, linen yarn, leather, and especially timber and
wooden wares.
KOSZEG (Ger. GUns), a town in the county of Vas, in Hungary,
173 m. W. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900), 7422. It is
pleasantly situated in the valley of the Gttns, and is dominated
towards the west by the peaks of Altenhaus (2000 ft.) and of the
Geschriebene Stein (2900 ft.). It possesses a castle of Count
Esterhazy, a modern Roman Catholic Church in Gothic style and
two convents. It has important cloth factories and a lively trade
in fruit and wine. The town has a special historical interest
for the heroic and successful defence of the fortress by Nicolas
Jurisics against a large army of Sultan Soliman, in July-August
1532, which frustrated the advance of the Turks to Vienna for
that year.
To the south-east of KQszeg, at the confluence of the GQns with
the Raab, is situated the town of Sarvar (pop. 3158), formerly
fortified, where in 1526 the first printing press in Hungary was
established.
KOTAH, a native state of India, In the Rajputana agency,
with an area of 5684 sq. m. The country slopes gently north-
wards from the high table-land of Malwa, and is drained by
the Chambal with its tributaries, all flowing in a northerly or
north-easterly direction. The Mokandarra range, from 1200
to 1600 ft. above sea-level, runs from south-east to north-west.
The Mokandarra Pass through these hills, in the neighbourhood
of the highest peak (1671 ft.), has been rendered memorable by
the passage of Colonel Monson's army on its disastrous retreat
in 1804. There are extensive game preserves, chiefly covered
with grass. In addition to the usual Indian grains, wheat,
cotton, poppy, and a little tobacco of good quality are cultivated.
The manufactures are very limited. Cotton fabrics are woven,
but are being rapidly superseded by the cheap products of
Bombay, and Manchaster. Articles of wooden furniture are also
constructed. The chief articles of export are opium and grain;
salt, cotton and woollen cloth are imported.
Kotah is an offshoot from Bundi state, having been bestowed
upon a younger son of the Bundi raja by the emperor Shah Jahan
in return for services rendered him when the latter was in rebel-
lion against his father Jahangir. In 1897 a considerable portion
of the area taken to form Jhalawar (q.v.) in 1838 was restored to
Kotah. In toot the population was 544,879, showing a decrease
of 24% due to the results of famine. The estimated revenue
is £206,000; tribute, £28,000. The maharao Umad Singh, was
born in 1873, %nd succeeded in 1889. He was educated at the
Mayo College, Ajmere, and became a major in the British army.
A continuation of the branch line of the Indian Midland rail-
way from Goona to Baran passes through Kotah, and it is also
traversed by a new line, opened in 1009. The state suffered from
drought in 1896-1897, and again more severely in 1 800-1000,
The town of Kotah is on the right bank of the ChambaL
Pop. (1001), 33,679. It is surrounded and also divided into three
parts by massive walls, and contains an old and a new palace
of the maharao and a number of fine temples. Muslins are the
chief articles of manufacture, but the' town has no great trade,
and this and the unhealthiness of the site -may account for the
decrease in population.
K0TA8 (Kotar, Koter, Kohatur, Gauhatar), an aboriginal
tribe of the Nilgiri hills, India. They are a well-made people,
of good features, tall, and of a dull copper colour, but some of
them are among the fairest of the hill tribes. They recognize
no caste among themselves, but are divided into keris (streets),
and a man must marry outside his keri. Their villages (of
which there are seven) are large, averaging from thirty to
sixty huts. They are agriculturists and herdsmen, and the only
one of the hill tribes who practise industrial arts, being excellent
as carpenters, smiths, tanners and basket-makers. They do
menial work for the Todas, to whom they pay a tribute. They
worship ideal gods, which are not represented by any images.
Their language is an old and rude dialect of Kanarese. In 1901
they numbered 1267.
KOTKA, a seaport of Finland, in the province of Viborg,
35 m. by rail from Kuivola junction on the Helsingfors railway,
on an island of the same name at the mouth of the Kymmene
river. Pop. (1004), 7628. It is the chief port for exports from
and imports to east Finland and a centre of the timber trade.
KOTRI, a town of British India, in Karachi district, Sind,
situated on the right bank of the Indus. Pop. (1001), 7617.
.Kotri to the junction of branches of the North- Western railway,
serving each bank of the Indus, which is here crossed by a railway
bridge. It was formerly the station for Hyderabad, which lies
across the Indus, and the headquarters of the Indus steam
flotilla, now abolished in consequence of the development of
railway facilities. Besides its importance as a railway centre,
however, Kotri still has a considerable general transit trade by
river.
KOTZEBUE, AUGUST FRIBDRICH FERDINAND VON
(1761-1819), German dramatist, was born on the 3nl of May,
x 761 , at Weimar. After attending the gymnasium of his native
town, he went in his sixteenth year to the university of Jena,
and afterwards studied about a year in Duisburg. In 1780 he
completed his legal course and was admitted an advocate.
Through the influence of Graf Gdrtz, Prussian ambassador at
the Russian court, he became secretary of the governor-general
of St Petersburg, In 1783 he received the appointment of
assessor to the high court of appeal in Reval, where he married
the daughter of a Russian lieutenant-general. He was ennobled
in 1785, and became president of the magistracy of the province
of Esthonia. In Reval he acquired considerable reputation by
his novels, Die Leiden der Ortenbergiscken Familie (1785) and
Geschkhte meines Voters (1788), and still more by the plays
Addkeid von Wulfingen (1789), Mensckenhass und Reue (1700)
and Die Indiana in England (1790). The good impression
produced by these works was, however, almost effaced by a
cynical dramatic satire, Doktor Bahrdt mil der eisernen Stirn,
which appeared in 1790 with the name of Kniggc on the title-
page. After the death of his first wife Kotzebue retired from
the Russian service, and lived for a time in Paris and Mainz;
he then settled in 179s on an estate which he had acquired near
Reval and gave himself up to literary work. Within a few years
he published six volumes of miscellaneous sketches and stories
(DiejUngsten Kinder meiner Laune, 1793-1706) &"d mo 1 * tnan
twenty plays, the majority of which were translated into several
European languages. In 1798 he accepted the office of drama-
tist to the court theatre in Vienna, but owing to differences with
the actors be was soon obliged to resign. He now returned to
920
KOTZEBUE, O. VON— KOUMOUNDOUROS
his native town, but as he was not on good terms with Goethe,
and had openly attacked the Romantic school, his position in
Weimar was not a pleasant one. He had thoughts of returning
to St Petersburg, and on his journey thither be was, for some
unknown reason, arrested at the frontier and transported to
Siberia. Fortunately be had written a comedy which flattered
the vanity of the emperor Paul I.; he was consequently speedily
brought back, presented with an estate from the crown lands
of Livonia, and made director of the German theatre in
St Petersburg. He returned to Germany when the em-
peror Paul died, and again settled in Weimar; he found
it, however, as impossible as ever to gain a footing in
literary society, and turned his steps to Berlin, where in
association with GarUeb Merkel (1760-1850) he edited Der
FrctMUtige (1803-1807) and began his Almanack dromatischcr
Spiel* (1803-1810). Towards the end of 1806 he was once
more in Russia, and in the security of his estate in Esthonia
wrote many satirical articles against Napoleon in his journals
Die Biene and Die Grille. As councillor of state he was attached
in 1816 to the department for foreign affairs in St Petersburg,
and in 18 1 7 went to Germany as a kind of spy in the service of
Russia, with a salary of 15,000 roubles. In a weekly journal
(Uterarisckes Wockenblatt) which he published in Weimar he
scoffed at the pretensions of those Germans who demanded free
institutions, and became an object of such general dislike that
he was obliged to move to Mannheim. He was especially de-
tested by the young enthusiasts for liberty, and one of them, Karl
Lodwig Sand, a theological student, stabbed him, in Mannheim,
on the 23rd of March 1819. Sand was executed, and the govern-
ment made his crime an excuse for placing the universitiesimder
strict supervision.
Besides his plays, Kotsebue wrote several historical works,
which, however, are too one-sided and prejudiced to have much
value. Of more interest are his autobiographical writings,
Ueine Pluckt naeh Paris im Winter 1790 (1701), Vber meinen
Aufentkalt in Wien (1709), Das merkwurdigste Jakr ncincs
Lebens (1801), Rrinnerungen aus Paris (1804), and Eriunerungen
won meiner Reise ams Uefiand nock Sam und Neapel (1805).
As a dramatist he was extraordinarily prolific bi» pl&yt number-
ing over too; his popularity, not merely on the German, but on
the European stage, was unprecedented. His success, however,
was due less to any conspicuous literary or poetic ability than
to an extraordinary facility in the invention of effective situa-
tions; he possessed, as few German playwrights before or since,
the unerring instinct for the theatre; and his influence on the
technique of the modern drama from Scribe to Sardou and from
Bauernfeld to Sudermann is unmistakable. Kotxebue is to be
seen to best advantage in his comedies, such as Der WiUfang,
Die beiden Klingsberg and Die deutsehen KlemsUdUr, which
contain admirable genre pictures of German life. These plays
held the stage ia Germany long after the once famous Mensehen-
hass und Rene (known in England as The Stranger), Graf Ben-
/•**** or ambitious exotic tragedies like Die Sonuenjungfrau
and Die Spanier in Peru (which Sheridan adapted as Pisarro)
were forgotten.
Two collections of Kotsebue's dramas were published during
h» lifetime: Schemspiele (5 vols., 1707); Neue SchanspMe (»3 vols.,
1 w*- tSao). Hi* Samtlicke dramatiscke Werke appeared in 44 vols., in
1 W7- 1 &*>. and again, under the title Theater, in 40 volt., in 1 840-1 841 .
A tcWvtton of hit plays in 10 vols, appeared at Leipzig in 1 867-1 868.
(> H. Doring, A. •** Kotsebue* Leben (1830); W. von Kotsebue,
A «m Keembm (1881); Ch. Rabany, Kotmbne, sanest son temps
0*4.0; W. SeUier, Kotsebue in Engfand (1901).
KOTtBBUB, OTTO VOH (1787-1846), Russian navigator,
second son of the foregoing, was born at Reval on the 30th of
December 1787. After being educated at the St Petersburg
svhool of cadets, he accompanied Krusenstern on his voyage of
ifet 1 $06, After his promotion to Ueutenant Kotxebue was
placed in command of an expedition, fitted out at the expense of
the imperial chancellor, Count Rumantsoff , in the brig " Rurick."
In tht* vetsel, with only twenty-seven men, Kotxebue set out
un the ioth ol July 1815 to find a passage across the Arctic
l\**a and explore the less-known parts of Oceania. Proceeding
by Cape Horn, he discovered the Romanxov, Rurik and Krasen
stern Islands, then made for Kamchatka, and in the middle of
July proceeded northward, coasting along the north-west coast of
America, and discovering and naming Kotxebue Gulf or Sound
and Krusenstern Cape. Returning by the coast of Asia, he
again sailed to the south, sojourned for three weeks at the Sand-
wich Islands, and on the 1st of January 1817 discovered New
Year Island. After some further cruising in the Pacific be again
proceeded north, but a severe attack of illness compelling bun to
return to Europe, he reached the Neva on the 3rd of August
x8i8, bringing home a large collection of previously unknown
plants and much new ethnological information. In 1823 Kot-
xebue, now a captain, was entrusted with the command of aa
expedition in two ships of war, the main object of which was to
take reinforcements to Kamchatka, There was, however, a
staff of scientists on board, who collected much valuable in-
formation and material in geography, ethnography and natural
history. The expedition, proceeding by Cape Horn, visited the
Radak and Society Islands, and reached Petropavlovsk in July
1824. Many positions along the coast were rectified, the Naviga-
tor islands visited, and several discoveries made. The expe-
dition returned by the Marianna, Philippine, New Caledonia
and Hawaiian Islands, reaching Kronstadt on the 10th of Jury
1826. There are English translations of both Kotxcbue's
narratives: A Voyage of Discovery into the South Sen and
Beerin^s Straits for the Purpose of exploring a North- Eest
Passage, un d er tak e n in the Years 1815-1818 (3 vols. 182 1), and
A New Voyage Round the World in the Years $823-18*6 (1830).
Three years after his return from his second voyage, Kotxebue
died at Reval on the 15th of February 1846.
KOUMISS, milk-wine, or milk brandy, a fermented alco-
holic beverage prepared from milk. It is of very andent
origin, and according to Herodotus was known to the Scythians.
The name is said to be derived from an ancient Asiatic tribe,
the Kumanes or Romans. It is one of the staple articles of diet
of the Siberian and Caucasian races, but of late years it has aho
been manufactured on a considerable scale in western Europe,
on account of its valuable medicinal properties. It n generally
made from mares' or camels' milk by a process of f ermentatioa
set up by the addition, to the fresh milk of a small quantity of
the finished article. This fermentation, which appears to be
of a symbiotic nature, being dependent on the action of two dis-
tinct types of organisms, the one a fission fungus, the other a
true yeast, eventuates in the conversion of a part of the sulk
sugar into lactic add and alcohol. Koumiss generally ™«*t«i»«
x to a% of alcohol, 0-5 to 1*5% of lactic add, s to 4% of sub
sugar and z to a % of fat. Kefir is similar to koumiss, bat is
usually prepared from cows' milk, and the fermentation is brought
about by the so-called Kefir Grains (derived from a plant).
KOUMOUHDOUROS, ALBXANDR08 (1814-1883), Greek
statesman, whose name is commonly spelt Coumoundouro&,
was born in 18x4. His studies at the university of Athens were
repeatedly interrupted for lack of means, and he began to earn
his living as a clerk. He took part in the Cretan insurrectioa
of 1841, and in the demonstration of 1843* by which the Greek
constitution was obtained from King Otto, be was secretary to
General Theodoraki Grivas. He then settled down to the bar at
Kalamata in Messenia, where he married a lady belonging to
the Mavromichalis family. He was elected to the chamber ia
1851, and four years later his eloquence and ability had securfd
the president's chair for him. He became minister of finance
in 1856, and again in 1857 and 1850. He adhered to the moder-
ate wing of the Liberal party until the revolution of 1862 asd
the dethronement of King Otto, when he was minister of justice
in the provindal government. He was twice minister of the
interior under Kanaris, in 1864 and in 1865. In March x 86$ k
became prime minister, and he formed several subsequent admini-
strations in the intervals of the ascendancy o( TricoupL During
the Cretan insurrection of 1866-68 he made active warhkc
preparations against Turkey, but was dismissed by King George,
who recognized that Greece could not act without the support ol
the Powers. He was again premier at the time of the outbreak
KOUSSO— KOVNO
921
of the insurrection Is Thessaly in January 1878, and supported
by Delyanni as minister of foreign affairs he sent an army of
10,000 men to help the insurgents against Turkey. The troops
were recalled on the understanding that Greece should be repre-
sented at the Congress of Berlin. In October 1880 the fall of
the Tricoupi ministry restored him to power, when he resumed
his warlike policy, but repeated appeals to the courts of Europe
yielded little practical result, and Koumoundouros was obliged to
reduce his territorial demands and to accept the limited cessions
in Thessaly and Epirus, which were carried out in July 1881.
His ministry was overturned in 1882 by the votes of the new
Thessalian deputies, who were dissatisfied with the administra-
tive arrangements of the new province, and he died at Athena on
the oth of March 1883.
JCOUSSO (Kosso or Cusso), a drug which consists of the
panicles of the pistillate flowers of Braycra anlkdmintka, a
handsome rosaceous tree 60 ft. high, growing throughout the
table-land of Abyssinia, at an elevation of 3000 to 8000 ft.
above the sea-level. The drug as imported is in the form of
cylindrical rolls, about 18 in. in length and 2 in. in diameter,
and comprises the entire inflorescence or panicle kept in form by
a band wound transversely round it. The active principle is
koussin or kosin, C n H*Oio, which is soluble in alcohol and
alkalis, and may be given in doses of thirty grains. Kousso
is also used in the form of an unstrained infusion of J to J oz.
of the coarsely powdered flowers, which are swallowed with the
liquid. It is considered to be an effectual vermifuge fox Toaria
solium. In its anthelmintic action it is nearly allied to male
fern, but it is much inferior to that drug and is very rarely used
in Great Britain.
KOVALEVSKY, SOPHIE (1850-1891), Russian mathemati-
cian, daughter of General Corvin-Krukovsky, was born at Mos-
cow on the 15 th of January 1850. As a young girl she was fired
by the aspiration after intellectual liberty that animated so
many young Russian women at that period, and drove them to
study at foreign universities, since their own were closed to them.
This led her, in 1868, to contract one of those conventional
marriages in vogue at the time, with a young student, Walde-
mar Kovalevsky, and the two went together to Germany to
continue their studies. In 1869 she went to Heidelberg, where
she studied under H. von Hclmholtz, G.R. Kirchhoff, L. Kdnigs-
berger and P. du Bois-Reymond, and from 1871-1874 read pri-
vately with Karl Weierstrass at Berlin, as the public lectures
were not then open to women. In 1874 the university of
Got tinge n granted her a degree in absentia, excusing her from
the oral examination on account of the remarkable excellence
of the three dissertations sent in, one of which, on the theory
of partial differential equations, is one of her most remarkable
works. Another was an elucidation of P.S. Laplace's mathe-
matical theory of the form of Saturn's rings. Soon after this
she returned to Russia with her husband, who was appointed
professor of palaeontology at Moscow, where he died in 1883.
At this time Madame Kovalevsky was at Stockholm, where
Gustaf Mittag Lcfflcr, also a pupil of Weierstrass, who bad been
recently appointed to the chair of mathematics at the newly
founded university, had procured for her a post as lecturer.
She discharged her duties so successfully that in 1884 she was
appointed full professor. This post she held till her death on
the 10th of February 1S01. In 1SS8 she achieved the greatest
of her successes, gaining the Prix Bordin offered by the Paris
Academy. The problem set was " to perfect in one important
point the theory of the movement of a solid body round an im-
movable point," and her solution added a result of the highest
interest to those transmitted to us by Leonhard Eulerand J. L.
Lagrange. So remarkable was this work that the value of the
prize was doubled as a recognition of unusual merit. Unfor-
tunately Madame Kovalevsky did not live to reap the full reward
of her labours, for she died just as she had attained the height of
her fame and had won recognition even in her own country by
election to membership of the St Petersburg Academy of Science.
See E. de Kcrbcdz, "Sophie de Kowalevski," Benidiconli dtl
circoh maJkemalico di Palermo (1891); the obituary notice by
G. Mittag Letter in the A da maikematica. vol. xvi. ; and J. C. Poggen-
dorff, Bioiraphtick4itcT0Tiuhes Handwdricrbuck.
KOVNO (in Lithuanian Kauno), a government of north-
western Russia, bounded N. by the governments of Courknd
and Vitebsk, S.E. by that of Vilna, and S.and S.W. by Suwalki
and the province of East Prussia, a narrow strip touching the
Baltic near MemeL It has an area of 15,687 sq. m. The level
uniformity of its surface is broken only by two low ridges which
nowhere rise above 800 ft. The geological character is varied,
the Silurian, Devonian, Jurassic and Tertiary systems being all
represented; the Devonian is that which occurs most frequently,
and all are covered with Quaternary boulder-clays. The soil
is either a sandy clay or a more fertile kind of black earth. The
government is drained by the Niemen, Windau, Courland Aa and
Dvina, which have navigable tributaries. In the flat depressions
covered with boulder-days there are many lakes and marshes,
while forests occupy about 25} %of the surface. The climate is
comparatively mild, the mean temperature at the city of Kovno
being 44 F. The population was 1, 1 56,040 in 1870, and 1 ,553, 244
in 1897. The estimated population in 1906 was 1,683,600.
It is varied, consisting of Lithuanians proper and Zhmuds
(together 74%), Jews (14%), Germans (2|%), Poles (9%), with
Letts and Russians; 76*6% are Roman Catholics, 13*7 Jews,
4-5 Protestants, and 5% belong to the Greek Church. Of the
total 788,102 were women in 1897 and 147,878 were classed »a
urban. The principal occupation of the inhabitants is agricul-
ture, 63% of the surface being under crops; both grain (wheat,
rye, oats and barley) and potatoes arc exported. Flax is culti-
vated and the linseed exported. Dairying flourishes, and horse
and cattle breeding are attracting attention. Fishing is impor-
tant, and the navigation on the rivers is brisk. A variety of
petty domestic industries are carried on by the Jews, but only
to a slight extent in the villages. As many as 18,000 to 24,000
men are compelled every year to migrate in search of work.
The factories consist principally of distilleries, tobacco and steam
flour-mills,' and hardware manufactories^ Trade, especially the
transit trade, is brisk, from the situation of the government
on the Prussian frontier, the custom-houses of Yerburg and Tau-
roggen being amongst the most important in Russia. The chief
towns of the seven districts into which the government is divided,
with their populations in 1897, are Kovno (q.v.), (Novo-Alcxan-
drovsk (6370), Ponevyezh (13,044), Rosicny (74SS)» Shavli
(15,914), Telshi (6215) and Vilkomir (13,509).
The territory which now constitutes the government of Kovno
was formerly known as Samogitia and formed part of Lithuania.
During the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries the Livonian and Teu-
tonic Knights continually invaded and plundered it, especially
the western part, which was peopled with Zhmuds. In 1569
it was annexed, along with the rest of the principality of Lithu-
ania, to Poland; and it suffered very much from the wars of
Russia with Sweden and Poland, and from the invasion of
Charles XII. in 1701. In 1795 the principality of Lithuania
was annexed to Russia, and until 187 2, when the government of
Kovno was constituted, the territory now forming it was a part
of the government of Vilna.
KOVNO, a town and fortress of Russia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, stands at the confluence of the Niemen
with the Viliya, 550 m. S.W. of St Petersburg by rail, and 55 ra.
from the Prussian frontier. Pop. (1863), 23,937; (1903), 73.743*
nearly one-half being Jews. It consists of a cramped Old Town
and a New Town stretching up the side of the Niemen. It is a
first-class fortress, being surrounded at a mean distance of 2) m.
by a girdle of forts, eleven in number. The town lies for the most
part in the fork and is guarded by three forts in the direction
of Vilna, one covers the Vilna bridge, while the southern ap-
proaches are protected by seven. Kovno commands and bars
the railway Vilna-Eydtkuhnen. Its factories produce nails,
wire-work and other metal goods, mead and bone-meal. It is
an important entrepot for timber, cereals, flax; flour, spirits,
bone-meal, fish, coal and building-stone passing from and to
Prussia. The city possesses some 15th-century churches. It
was founded in the 1 ith century; and from 1384 to 1398 belonged
>^*
KOVROV— KRAKATOA
^ *fc» T^H*it Knouts. Ts*r Alexis of Russia plundered
*^^a b»r»t * in **$$. Here Ike Russians defeated the Poles on
* ajC©***** a tow* of Russia, in the government of Vladimir,
„ «w>- N K.of toecity of Vladimir by the railway from Moscow to
^urn****^ >^vftotwd. and on the Kryaxma River. It has railway-
^t*^^ ******* cotton mills, steam flour mills, tallow works
* ^ ^oarriea of bmestonc, and carries on an active trade in the
* ,<*« nt wooden wares and in the import of grain, salt and
** trough* from the Volga governments. Pop* (1890), 6600;
•^"^oV rotten*.
v * ^OwTTOW* or Kotoo, the Chinese ceremonial act of prostra-
.j^j* ****** of homage, submission, or worship. The word is
^*<*rd *«« **» haock, and ten, head. To the emperor, the
— n^>*rte* » performed by kneeling three times, each act
^papamed by touching (he ground with the forehead.
MOOS***: * tow » of Russia, in the government of Tambov, on
***f Uy<^Vorow^River.45ni.W.N.W.ofthecityofTambov
t*v *** P "°£l (l i°°^ 4I.555- Kodov had its origin in a small
^a*««T« founded tn the forest in 1627; nine years later, an
^rihww was raised dose by, for the protection of the Russian
« r*>»< *** v^i"* 1 T* 1 ***- Situated in a very fertile country,
^ the highway to Astrakhan and at the bead of water com-
wrtU gttC*t*on with the Don, the town soon became a centre
W W*de; « the junction of the railways leading to the Sea of
**ov. *° Tsantsyn on the lower Volga, to Saratov and to Orel,
a* imf****** *** recently been still further increased. Its
emp ort of cattle, gram, meat, eggs 01,000,000), tallow, hides, Ac,
^ steacfiry growing, and it possesses factories, flour mflh, tallow
^fc* distilleries, tanneries and gtue works.
gCRAAU abo speh cruaf, irawf, fc. (South African Dutch,
^j^ved postbly froma native African word, bat probably from
C fcc Sp*«» £"«» Portuguese carro?, an enclosure for horses,
<-*ttle »** ***■**'» m Soo^ «-d Central Africa, a native
^ til*** » f rounded by a pabsade, mud wall or other fencing
,«• icMy citt ~*f m . focBB; DT transference, the community living
m t tH n *** enclosure. Folds for »*»ii^*H and endosures made
:a i|v for defensive purposes are abo called kraals.
ItltArFT tor Ksarr>, ABAM (c. MSS-1507). German sculptor,
* tPrf Nuremberg school, was born, probably at Nuremberg,
a »*v*t the nuddle of the isth century, and died, some say in the
j^e^t J, at Schwabach. about 1507. He seems to have emerged
»< *cv.5**f. *^°°1 ,400 » d* <**te of the seven refiefs of scenes
^^ tVe S* of Christ, whkh. file xhnost every other sp e cimen
>^ work, are at Nuremberg. The date of ms last work, an
^..^ivVment, with fifteen fife-stxe figures, in the Holzschuher
^v** 4 ^ . t ae S* John^s cemetery, h 1507- Besides these.
^. % J *,N ^^ wor « are several mooumental rebers in the various
„v -v*** ** Nuremberg; he pnxhxed the great Schreyer mesu-
^^ v iK^ ** St Sei*M's at Nuremberg, a sk£iU though
^ » v***^ ;>*ceofscclpture opposite the Rathans, with reaSstk
.,-* >» tW costume of the lioe, carved in a way more suited
k* ***** ***** «<»e, aad too pictorial in effect; Christ bearing
4 v 0%^ aN*ve the altar of tire sa=« cfcarch; asd rariocs works
^^,< v* ,%N^ *=^ r^"»:e b^Jir^s. as the re-Ikf otct the door
% ^ ><sH**v **■ v'S ^^ >n; »>*r*<^es.ascoauofarms. Hsfcxster-
kvvn * ^" v v** ! ^ »ags:aoeat tahemade. 6* ft hi^K ia the
v^.x* vi S- **»**«Ke vuc5-is»^ Be also eaie the grra:
v*«*^*< vH %V,r M ^' ^ ft * ^^ covered wkh statisettes. cs
'. . vN \vt *♦ * *^ * V wv sf^-«d " Sutaosttof the Cross " on
K X^.vNffj cemetery/
t". r *« *-*r ^*w. Hr Frvdrvh Wa«3e*cr uS6(i ,1 ;
^^jiV^V'^^ ^
»V » •<.»-» KtA-mrvAii and 1jjut>
K V j^..wAa c<7an.aeai ot Ser%i»;
s ^ .. ■. vS ,v ^ccv«wtebcj^Ki^^ -^
Kraguyevats itself is the main arsenal of Servia, and pasnesse
an iron-foundry and a steam flour-mill. It is the sett oi the
district prefecture, of a tribunal, of a fine library, mud of a
large garrison. It boasts the finest college balding mad the
finest modern cathedral (in Byzantine style) in Servm. la
the first years of Servia "s autonomy under Prince Mflosh, k
was the residence of the prince and the seat of
( 1 81 S- 1839). Even later, bet we en 1868 and 1880, the 1
assembly (Narodm Skmpsktim) usually met there. In 18S5 k
was connected by a branch fine (Kraguyevats-Lapovo) with
the principal railway (Belgrade-Nish), and thenceforward the
prosperity of the town steadOy increased. Pop. (iqoo), ia,i6a
KRAKATOA (KnaKAtAO, KmaKATAO), is
in Sunda Strait, between the islands of Java and
celebrated for its eruption in 1883, one of the 1
ever recorded. At some early period a large vofcnno rone in the
centre of the tract where the Sunda StraR now run. Long
before any European had visited these waters an expAanoa took
place by which the mountain was so completely blown awaj
that only the outer por tions of its base were left as a nenirn ricf
of islands. Subsequent e mptiuus gradually buah wp n new
series of small cones within the great crater ring. Of these
the most important rose to a height of 2623 ft. above the sen and
formed the peak of the volcanic island of Krakatoa. But com-
pared with the great neighbouring volcanoes of Java and Suma-
tra, the islets of the Sunda Strait were conwjnrathrerjr ■■!—■■
Krakatoa was uninhabited, and no satisfactory map or chart of
it had been made. In 1680 it appears to have been in eruption,
when great earthquakes took place and large owantibes of punuke
were ejected. But the effects of tap disturbance had been s»
concealed by the subsequent spread of tropical vegetation tfcn
the very occurrence of the eruption had sometimes ween nlW
in question. At last, about 1877, earthquakes began to occur
frequently in the Sunda Strait and continued for the next few
years. In 18S3 the manifest it ions of subterranean cnaamotica
became more decided, for m May Krakatoa broke out is emo-
tion. For some time the efforts of the volcano apcim 10 have
consisted mainly in the discharge of pumice and dust, widb He
usual accompaniment of d et oni ti o ns and earthquakes. E~
on the aoth of August a succ e ssio n of paroxysmal 4 h ji im i w
began whkh lasted tiB the nwrning of the xfith. The four mox
violent took place on the nmrning of the rTtk. The whoTi ■
the northern and lower portion of the island oi Kraki-oa. lyae.
within the original crater ring of prehistoric liaes. was btctrx
away; the nut ht ia part of the cone of RaLata ahmost entirei
disappeared, le adin g a v ertical cmT w*»Sch Isid bare the =aer
structure of that volcano. Instead of the release island v^ri
had rjrevkwsry existed, and rose from 300 to tjoo ft. I'um *ir
sea. there was now left a submarine en ::r. the bottom of **r :a
was here and there esore than 1000 :l below t*r sea-krvei
This prodsgkes evisceration was the rescit of saccessrre viokc
exp^osioos of the sspcrhexted vapour absorbed a the sno.tc
I nv^aa withia the crust ot the earth. The vigocr xnd nepet^^n
! of Lbese ex^!osS:=s. it has been saggested. ear have beest caasK
by sc^diea isr^shes of the water of the ocean as the iSsroxt a
the vcicxao was cleared xad the crater rag was h vu.iv! z=r
rup:-nfi The access of Urge bodies of coii water ts tie xx
of the cohr^n ot rx-iea lava wocJi probabhr gr^e rise as oc=
to socae eiaor expiooaccs. aad then to a <±lVf^ of the saffwr
of the lava atkd a ccsse-^oest temporary £=.=.tiau or cm
of the vcLmj.c erac*i*inos. Bat -^:i lie pest c?
ipocf ia the Lira beicw had facui rei htf it wusad an^
gather strength u^ii k was able to bust through the &Z*z
crai i^*i c*er!>~sg water, aai to hsri a vast mass of cnofec
Uva. p^ruce a=ii i^si ir-.j the lir.
The ascwrt of aitcriil ^scharged J — rag the two nru a
pqjcjycs.il eacrgv wxs eacraocs. ti^«c% there ase no sa>a-
lactary da* a ix erts. aprr^tr:*rt-T est-^ni^ttg it- A h=pt
ci^.^ was 5-xr-oi »bers tS* s^sc Lai fervjcvK>r
.he sea-bc<:^e-; xr.-c^-i :V."s criiec trxs ±z*.uxd «-Hk » 1
•Vrk sheet af irxz^<e~?zrt SAierujs- Some of rJhe see
wxxrnec saca a u^& a—.— -'i*?-» of ejected ss
KRAKEN— KRASNOVODSK
923
dust as to bury their forests sad greatly to increase the area of
the land. So much was the sea filled up that a number of new
islands rose above its level. But a vast body of the fine dust
was carried far and wide by aerial currents, while the floating
pumice was transported for many hundreds of miles on the sur-
face of the ocean. At Batavia, 100 m. from the centre of erup-
tion, the sky was darkened by the quantity of ashes borne across
it, and lamps had to be used in the houses at midday. "The
darkness even reached as far as Bandong, a distance of nearly
150 miles. It was computed that the column of stones, dust
and ashes projected from the volcano shot up into the air for a
height of 17 m. or more. The finer particles, coroiog into the
higher layers of the atmosphere were diffused over a large part
of the surface of the earth, and showed their presence by the
brilliant sunset glows to which they gave rise. Within the
tropics they were at first borne along by air-currents at
an estimated rate of about 73 m. an hour from east to
west, until within a period of six weeks they were diffused over
nearly the whole space between the latitudes 30 N. and 45° S.
Eventually they spread northwards and southwards and were
carried over North and South America, Europe, Asia, South
Africa and Australasia. In the Old World they spread from the
north of Scandinavia to the Cape of Good Hope.
Another remarkable result of this eruption was the world-wide
disturbance of the atmosphere. The culminating paroxysm
on the morning of the 27th of August gave rise to an atmospheric
wave or oscillation, which, travelling outwards from the vol*
Cano as a centre, became a great circle at 180* from its point
of origin, whence it continued travelling onwards and contracting
tiH it reached a node at the antipodes to Krakatoa. It was then
reflected or reproduced, travelling backwards again to the
volcano, whence it once more returned in its original direction.
" In this manner its repetition was observed not fewer than
seven times at many of the stations, four passages having been
those of the wave travelling from Krakatoa, and three those
of the wave travelling from its antipodes, subsequently to which
its traces were lost " (Sir R. Strachey).
The actual sounds of the volcanic explosions were heard over a
vast area, especially towards the west. Thus they were noticed
at Rodriguez, nearly 3000 English miles away, at Bangkok
(1413 m.), in the Philippine Islands (about 1450 m), in Ceylon
(2058 m.) and in West and South Australia (from 1300 to
2250 m.). On no other occasion have sound-waves ever been
perceived at anything like the extreme distances to which the
detonations of Krakatoa reached.
Not less manifest and far more serious were the effects of the
successive explosions of the volcano upon the waters of the
ocean, A succession of waves was generated which appear to
have been of two kinds, long waves with periods of more than an
hour, and shorter but higher waves, with irregular and much
briefer intervals. The greatest disturbance, probably resulting
from a combination of both kinds of waves, reached a height of
about 50 ft. The destruction caused by the rush of such a body
of sea-water along the coasts and low islands was enormous.
All vessels lying in harbour or near the shore were stranded,
the towns, villages and settlements dose to the sea were either
at once, or by successive inundations, entirely destroyed, and
more than 36,000 human beings perished. The sea-waves
travelled to vast distances from the centre of propagation. The
long wave reached Cape Horn (7818 geographical miles) and
possibly the English Channel (11,040 m.). The shorter waves
reached Ceylon and perhaps Mauritius (2000 m.).
See R. D. M. Vcrbcck, Krokoiau (Batavia, 1886); " The Eruption
of Krakatoa and Subsequent Phenomena," Report of the Krakatoa
Committee of the Royal Society (London, 1888).
KRAKEN, in Norwegian folk-lore, a sea-monster, believed to
haunt the coasts of Norway. It was described in 1752 by the
Norwegian bishop Pontoppidan as having a back about a mile
and a half round and a 'body which showed above the sea like
an Island, and its arms were long enough to enclose the largest
ship. The further assertion that the kraken darkened the water
around it by an excretion suggests that the myth was based on
the appearance of some gigantic cuttle-fish.
See J. Gibson, Monsters of Ik* Sea (1887) ; A. S. Packard. " Colossal
Cuttle-fishes," American Naturalist (Salem, 1873), vol. viL ; A, E.
Vcrrfll, ° The Colossal Cephalopoda of the Western Atlantic, in
American Naturalist (Salem, 1875). vol. ix.; and " Gigantic Squids,"
in Trans, of Connecticut Academy (1879), vol. v.
KRALTEVO (sometimes written Kraljevo or Kkauevo), a
city of Servia, and capital of a department bearing the same
name. Kralyevo is built beside the river I bar, 4 m. W. of its con-
fluence with the Servian Morava; and in the midst of an upland
valley, between the Kotlcnik Mountains, on the north, and the
Stolovi Mountains, on the south. Formerly known as Kara no-
vats, Kralyevo received its present name, signifying " the King's
Town," from King Milan (1868-1889), who also made it a bishop-
ric, instead of Chachak, 22 ro. W. by N. Kralyevo is a garrison
town, with a prefecture, court of first instance, and an agricultural
school. But by far its most interesting feature is the Coronation
church belonging to Jicha monastery. Here six or seven kings
are said to have been crowned. The church is Byzantine in
style, and has been partially restored; but the main tower dates
from the year 12 10, when it was founded by St Sava, the patron
saint of Servia. Pop. (1900), about 3600.
The famous monastery of Studcnitsa, 24 m. S. by W. of Kral-
yevo, stands high up among the south-western mountains,
overlooking the Studenitsa, a tributary of the I bar. It consists
of a group of old-fashioned timber and plaster buildings, a tall
belfry, and a diminutive church of white marble, founded in
1 1 90 by King Stephen Nemanya, who himself turned monk and
was canonized as St Simeon. The carvings round the north,
south and west doors have been partially defaced by the Turks.
The inner walls are decorated with Byzantine frescoes, among
which only a painting of the Last Supper, and the portraits of
five saints, remain unrcstored. The dome and narthex are
modern additions. Besides the silver shrine of St Simeon, many
gold and silver ornaments, church vessels and old manuscripts,
there are a set of vestments and a reliquary, believed by the
monks to have been the property of St Sava.
KRANTZ (or Crantz), ALBERT (c. 1450-15 17), German his-
torian, was a native of Hamburg. He studied law, theology and
history at Rostock and Cologne, and after travelling through
western and southern Europe was appointed professor, first of
philosophy and subsequently of theology, in the university of
Rostock, of which he was rector in 1482. In 1493 he returned
to Hamburg as theological lecturer, canon and prebendary in
the cathedral By the senate of Hamburg be was employed on
more than one diplomatic mission abroad, and in 1500 he was
chosen by the king of Denmark and the duke of Holstein as
arbiter in their dispute regarding the province of Dithmarschen.
As dean of the cathedral chapter, to which office he was appointed
in 1508, Krantx applied himself with zeal to the reform of eccle-
siastical abuses, but, though opposed to various corruptions
connected with church discipline, he had little sympathy with
the drastic measures of Wycliffe or Huss. With Luther's pro-
test against the abuse of Indulgences he was in general sympathy,
but with the reformer's later attitude he could not agree. When,
on his death-bed, he heard of the ninety-five theses, he is said, on
good authority, to have exclaimed: " Brother, Brother, go into
thy cell and say, God have mercy upon me!" Krantz died
on the 7th of December 1517.
Krantz was the author of a number of historical works which for
the period when they were written are characterized by exceptional
impartiality and research. The principal of these are Chronica
regnorum aquilonarium Daniae, Sueciae, et Norvagiae (Strassburg,
1546); Vandalta, sive Historia de Vandalorum vera orinne, &c.
(Cologne, 1518); Saxonia (1520); and Metropolis, sive Historia de
ecdestis sub Carolo Magna in Saxonia (Basel. 1548). See life by
N. Wile kens (Hamburg, 1722).
KRASNOVODSK, a seaport of Russian Transcaspia, on the
N. shore of Balk ha n or Krasnovodsk Bay, on the S. side of the
Caspian Sea, opposite to Baku, and at 69 ft. below sea-level
Pop (1897), 6359. It is defended by a fort. Here begins the
Transcaspian railway to Merv and Bokhara. There is a fishing
9*+
KRASNOYARSK— KRAWANG
industry, and salt and sulphur are obtained. Krasnovodsk,
which is the capital of the Transcaspian province, was founded
in 1869.
KRASNOYARSK, a town of Eastern Siberia, capital of the
government of Yeniseisk, on the left bank of the Yenisei River,
at its confluence with the Kacha, and on the highway from Mos-
cow to Irkutsk, 670 m. by rail N. W. from the latter. Pop. (xooo) ,
33*337' It has a municipal museum and a railway technical
school It was founded by Cossacks in 1628, and during the
early years of its existence it was more than>once besieged by the
Tatars and the Kirghiz. Its commercial importance depends
entirely upon the gold- washings of the Yeniseisk district.
Brick-making, soap-boiling, tanning and iron-founding are
carried on. The climate is very cold, but dry. The Yenisei
River is frozen here for 160 days in the year.
KRASZEWSKI, JOSEPH IGNATIUS (18 12-1887), Polish
novelist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Warsaw on the
28th of July 181 2, of an aristocratic family. He showed a
precocious talent for authorship, beginning his literary career
with a volume of sketches from society as early as 1829, and for
more than half a century scarcely ever intermitting his literary
production, except during a period of imprisonment upon a
charge of complicity in the insurrection of 183 1. He narrowly
escaped being sent to Siberia, but, rescued by the intercession
of powerful friends, he settled upon his landed property near
Grodno, and devoted himself to literature with such industry
that a mere selection from his fiction alone, reprinted at Lemberg
from 1S7 1 to 1875, occupies 102 volumes. He was thus the most
conspicuous literary figure of his day in Poland. His extreme
fertility was suggestive of haste and carelessness, but he declared
that the contrivance of his plot gave him three times as much
tjouife as the composition of his novel. Apart from his gifts
as z story-tdler, he did not possess extraordinary mental powers;
♦W ** profound thoughts " culled from his writings by his admir-
irtbkeapber Bohdanowicz are for the most part mere truisms.
51 omens invention is nevertheless combined with real truth
«cnTe7esperiany evinced in the beautiful little story of
*f ^ r fa ptaer (1857), from which George Eliot appears to
*flr~wi ike idea of Silas Marner, though she can only have
**** fc at second hand. Compared with the exquisite art of
k* 1 *^ _ w j j. «nrK*rs rude and unskilful, but it is not
icist"
*T t re-vr Jtrmdc appears
-wit the less touching in its fidelity to the tenderest
b *~ t M turc. Kraszewski's literary activity falls
. - s
),
rr
d
il
il
rs
lack of pupils compelled Mm to move to Rudolstadt and later t»
Dresden, where he gave lessons in music. In 1805 his ideal of 1
universal world-society led him to join the Freemasons, whose
principles seemed to tend in the direction he desired. He
published two books on Freemasonry, Die irei Hiesieu Kmat-
urhunden der PreimaurerbrMderuhajr&nd Hdkere VergtuOpmt
der echt Uberlieferlen GrundsymboU der Freimanrerei, but his
opinions drew upon him the opposition of the Masons. He
lived for a time in Berlin and became a frtnaJtoenf, but was
unable to obtain a professorship. He therefore proceeded to
Gottingen and afterwards to Munich, where be died of apoplexy
at the very moment when the influence of Franz von Baader
had at last obtained a position for him.
One of the so-called " Philosophers of Identity," Kxause en-
deavoured to reconcile the ideas of a God known by Faith or
Conscience and the world as known to sense. God, imnitivety
known by Conscience, is not a personality (which implies limita-
tions), but an all-inclusive essence (Wcien), which contains the
Universe within itself. This system he called Panentheism^z com-
bination of Theism and Pantheism. His theory of the world and
of humanity is universal and idealistic The world itself and man-
kind, its highest component, constitute an organism {Gtiedhcn),
and the universe is therefore a divine organism (WcsengUedhemi.
The process of development is the formation of higher nasties,
and the last stage is the identification of the world with God.
The form which this development takes, according to Krause,
is Right or the Perfect Law. Right is not the sum of the condi-
tions of external liberty but of absolute liberty, and embraces ail
the existence of nature, reason and humanity. It is the mode, or
rationale, of all progress from the tower to the highest unity «r
identification. By its operation the reality of nature and reason
rises into the reality of humanity. God is the reality which
transcends and includes both nature and humanity. Right is,
therefore, at once the dynamic and the safeguard of progress.
Ideal society results from the widening of the organic operation
of this principle from the individual man to small groups of men,
and finally to mankind as a whole. The differences disappear
as the inherent identity of structure predominates in an ever-
increasing degree, and in the final unity Man is merged ra
God.
The comparatively small area of Krause's influence was dot
partly to the overshadowing brilliance of Hegel, and partly to
two intrinsic defects. The spirit of his thought is mystical and
by no means easy to follow, and this difficulty is accentuated,
even to German readers, by the use of artificial terminology.
He makes use of germaniaed foreign terms which are unintelli-
gible to the ordinary man. His principal works are (beside those
quoted above): Eutwurf des Systems der Philosophic (1804);
System der Siltenlehre (1810); Das Urbild der Menschheil (1811);
and Vorlesungcn iibcr das System der Philosophic ( 1 8 28) . He kf t
behind, him at his death a mass of unpublished notes, part of
which has been collected and published by his disciples,
H. Ahrens (1808-1874), Leonhardi, Tiberghicn and others.
See H. S. Lindemann, Uebtrriehtliche DarsteHtrnt des Lebeus . . .
Krauses (1839): P. Hohlfeld, Die Krausesdu Philosophie (1879):
A. Product), Krause, tin Lebensbild nock seinen Brief en (1SS0).
R. Euckcn, Zur Er inner ung an Krau.se (1881); B. Martin. Krcum
Leben und Bedeutunz (188!), and His tones of Philosophy by Zctkr.
Windclband and Hdffding.
KRAWANG, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded E. and S. by Cbaribon and the Prcanger, W. by
Batavia, and N. by the Java Sea, and comprising a few insig-
nificant islands. The natives arc Sundancse, but contain 1
large admixture of Middle Javanese and Ban tamers in the north,
where they established colonics in the 17th century. Like the
residency of Batavia, the northern half of Krawang is fiat and
occasionally marshy, while the southern half is mountainous
and volcanic. Warm and cold mineral, salt and sulphur springs
occur in the hills. Salt is extracted by the government, though
in smaller quantities now than formerly. The principal products
arc rice, coffee, sugar, vanilla, indigo and nutmeg. Fishing a
practised along the coast and forest culture in the hills, while the
KRAY VON KRAJOVA— KREUTZER, R.
industries also include the manufacture of coarse Hnen, sacks
and leather tanning. Gold and silver were formerly thought to
be hidden in the Parang mountain in the Gandasoli district
south-west of Purwakarta, and mining was begun by the Dutch
East India Company in 1722. The largest part of the residency
consists of private lands, and only the Purwakarta and Krawang
divisions forming the middle and north-west sections come
directly under government control The remainder of the
residency is divided between the Pamanukan-Chiasem lands
occupying the whole eastern half of the residency and the
Tegalwaru lands in the south-western corner. The former is
owned by a company and forms the largest estate in Java;
The Tegalwaru is chiefly owned by Chinese proprietors.
Purwakarta is the capital of the residency. Subang and
Pamanukan both lie at the junction of several roads near the
borders of Cheribon and are the chief centres of activity in the
east of the residency.
KRAY VON KRAJOVA, PAUL, FxsntBR (1 735-1804),
Austrian soldier. Entering the Austrian army at the age of
nineteen, he arrived somewhat rapidly at the grade of major,
but it was many years before he had any opportunity of distin-
guishing himself. In 1784 he suppressed a rising in Transyl-
vania, and in the Turkish wars he took an active part at Porezeny
and the Vulcan Pass. Made major-general in 1700, three years
later he commanded the advanced guard of the Allies operating
in France. He distinguished himself at Famars, Charleroi,
Fleurus, Weissenberg, and indeed at almost every encounter with
the troops of the French Republic. In the celebrated campaign
of 1796 on the Rhine and Danube he did conspicuous service as
a corps commander. At Wetzlar he defeated Kleber, and at
Amberg and Wiirzburg he was largely responsible for the victory
of the archduke Charles. In the following year he was less
successful, being twice defeated on the Lahn and the Main.
Kray commanded in Italy in 1700, and reconquered from the
French the plain of Lombardy. For his victories of Verona,
Mantua, Legnago and Magnano he was promoted Fdd*eugmeister f
and he ended the campaign by further victories at Novi and
Fossano. Next year he commanded on the Rhine against
Moreau. (For the events of this memorable campaign see
French Revolutionary Wars.) As a consequence of the
defeats he underwent at Biberach, Messkirch, &c, Kray was
driven into Ulm, but by a skilful march round Moreau's flank
succeeded in escaping to Bohemia. He was relieved of his
command by the Austrian government, and passed his remaining
years in retirement He died in 1804. Kray was one of the
best representatives of the old Austrian army. Tied to an
obsolete system and unable from habit to realize the changed
conditions of warfare, he failed, but his enemies held him in the
highest respect as a brave, skilful and chivalrous opponent. It
was he who at Altenkirchen cared for the dying Marceau, and
the white uniforms of Kray and his staff mingled with the blue
of the French in the funeral procession of the young general of
the Republic.
KREMENCHUO, a town of south-west Russia, in the govern-
ment of Poltava, on the left bank of the Dnieper (which periodi-
cally overflows its banks), 73 m. S.W. of the city of Poltava, on
the Kharkov-Nikoiayev railway. Pop. (1887), 31,000; (1807,
with Kryukov suburb), 58,648. The most notable public
buildings are the cathedral (built in 1808), the arsenal and
the town-hall. The town is supposed to have been founded in
1571. From its situation at the southern terminus of the
navigable course of the Dnieper, and on the highway from
Moscow to Odessa, it early acquired great commercial importance,
and by 1655 it was a wealthy town. From 1765 to 1789 h was
the capital of " New Russia." It has a suburb, Kryukov, on the
right bank of the Dnieper, united with the town by a railway
bridge. Nearly all commercial transactions in salt with White
Russia are effected at Kremenchug. The town is also the centre
of the tallow trade with Warsaw; considerable quantities of
timber are floated down to this place. Nearly all the trade in
the brandy manufactured in the government of Kharkov, and
destined for the governments of Ekatermoslav and Taurida,
925
is concentrated here, as also is the trade in linseed between the
districts situated on the left affluents of the Dnieper and the
southern ports. Other articles of commerce are rye, rye-flour,
wheat, oats and buckwheat, which are sent partly up the Dnieper
to Pinsk, partly by land to Odessa and Berislav, but principally
to Ekaterinoslav, on light boats floated down during the spring
floods. The Dnieper is crossed at Kremenchug by a tubular
bridge xo8i yds. long; there is also a bridge of boats. The
manufactures consist of carriages, agricultural machinery,
tobacco, steam flour-mills, steam saw-mills and forges.
KREMENETS (Polish, Krtemieniec), a town of south-west
Russia, in the government of Volhynia, 130 m. W. of Zhitomir,
and 25 m. E. of Brody railway station (Austrian Gaficia). Pop.
(1000), 16,534. It is situated in a gorge of the Kremenets Hills
The Jews, who are numerous, carry on a brisk trade in tobacco
and grain exported to Gaficia and Odessa. The picturesque
ruins of an old castle on a crag close by the town are usually
known as the castle of Queen Bona, i.e. Bona Sforsa (wife of
Sigismund L of Poland); it was built, however, in the 8th or 9th
century. The Mongols vainly besieged it in 1241 and 1255.
From that time Kremenets was under the dominion alternately
of Lithuania and Poland, till 1648, when it was taken by the
Zaporogian Cossacks. From 1805 to 1832 its Polish lyceum was
the centre of superior instruction for the western provinces
of Little Russia; but after the Polish insurrection of 183 1 the
lyceum was transferred to Kiev, and is now the university of
that town.
KREMS, a town of Austria, in lower Austria, 40 m. W.N.W.
of Vienna by rail Pop. (1900), 12,657. It is situated at the
confluence of the Krems with the Danube. The manufactures
comprise steel goods, mustard and vinegar, and a special kind of
white lead (Kremser Weiss) is prepared from deposits in the
neighbourhood. The trade is mainly in these products and in
wine and saffron. The Danube harbour of Krems is at the
adjoining town of Stein (pop., 4209).
KREMSIER, (Czech, KromiHi), a town of Austria, in Moravia,
37 m. E. by N. of Brtlna by rail. Pop. (1900), 13,991, mostly
Czech. It is situated on the March, in the fertile region of the
Hanna, and not far from the confluence of these two rivers. It
is the summer residence of the bishop of Olmfitz, whose palace,
surrounded by a fine park and gardens, and containing a picture
gallery, library and various collections, forms the chief object
of interest. Its industries include the manufacture of machi-
nery and iron-founding, brewing and corn-milling, and there is a
considerable trade in corn, cattle, fruit and manufactures. In
1 131 Kremsier was the seat of a bishopric. It suffered con-
siderably daring the Hussite war; and in 1643 it was taken and
burned by the Swedes. After the rising of 1848 the Austrian
parliament met in the palace at Kremsier from November 1848
till March 1849. In August 1885 a meeting took place here
betw een the Austrian and the Russian emperors.
KREUTZER, KONRAMN (1 780-1849), German musical
composer, was bora on the 22nd of November 1780 in Messkirch
in Baden, and died on the 14th of December 1849 in Riga. He
owes his fame almost exclusively to one opera, Das Nachilager
von Granada (1834), which kept the stage for half a century in
spite of the changes in musical taste. It was written in the style
of Weber, and is remarkable especially for its flow of genuine
melody and depth of feeling. The same qualities are found in
Kreutzer's part-songs for men's voices, which at one time were
extremely popular in Germany, and are still listened to with
pleasure. Amongst these " Der Tag des Herrn " (" The Lord's
Day") may be named as the most excellent. Kreutzer was a
prolific composer, and wrote a number of operas for the theatre
at Vienna, which have disappeared from the stage and are not
likely to be revived. He was from 1812 to 1816 Kapellmeister
to the king of WttrUemberg, and in 1840 became conductor of
the opera at Cologne. His daughter, Cecilia Kreutzer, was a
singer of some renown.
KREUTZER, RUDOLPH (1766-1831), French violinist, of
German extraction, was born at Versailles, his father being a
musician in the royal chapeL Rudolph gradually became
926
KREUZBURG— KRILOFF
famous as a violinist, playing with great success at various
continental capitals. It was to him that in 1803 Beethoven
dedicated his famous violin sonata (op. 47) known as the
" Kreutzer." Apart, however, from his fame as a violinist,
Kreutzer was also a proline composer; he wrote twenty-nine
operas, many of which were successfully produced, besides
nineteen violin concertos and chamber music He died at
Geneva in 183 1.
KREUZBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, on the Stober, 24 m. N.N.E. of Oppeln. Pop. (1905),
10,919. It has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church, a
gymnasium and a teacher's seminary. Here are flour-mills,
distilleries, iron-works, breweries, and manufactories of sugar and
of machinery. Kreuzburg, which became a town in 1252, was
the birthplace of the novelist Gustav Freytag.
KREUZNACH (Creuznach), a town and watering-place of
Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, situated on the Nahe,
a tributary of the Rhine, 9 m. by rail S. of Bingerbruck. Pop.
(1900), 21,321. It consists of the old town on the right bank of
the river, the new town on the left, and the Bade Insel (bath
island), connected {>y a fine stone bridge. The town has two
Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, a gymnasium,
a commercial school and a hospital. There is a collection of
Roman and medieval antiquities, among which is preserved a
fine Roman mosaic discovered in 1893. On the Bade Insel
is the Kurbaus (1872) and also the chief spring, the Elisabeth-
quelle, impregnated with iodine and bromine, and prescribed
for scrofulous, bronchial and rheumatic disorders. The chief
industries are marble-polishing and the manufacture of leather,
glass and tobacco. Vines are cultivated on the neighbouring
hills, and there is a trade in wine and corn.
; The earliest mention of the springs of Kreuznach occurs in
1478, but it was only in the early part of the 19th century that
Dr Prieger, to whom there is a statue in the town, brought them
into prominence. Now the annual number of visitors amounts
to several thousands. Kreuznach was evidently a Roman town,
as the ruins of a Roman fortification, the Heidenmauer, and
various antiquities have been found in its immediate neighbour-
hood. In the 9th century it was known as Cruciniacum, and it
had a palace of the Carolingian kings. In 1065 the emperor
Henry IV. presented it to the bishopric of Spires; in the 13th
century it obtained civic privileges and passed to the counts of
Sponheim; in 1416 it became part of the Palatinate. The town
was ceded to Prussia in 1814. In 1689 the French reduced the
strong castle of Kauzenberg to the ruin which now stands on a
hill above Kreuznach.
See Schneegans, Historisck-topogrnpkistki Bese kr e ib un* Krtuo-
nocks und seiner Umgebunt (7th ed., 1904) ; Eagdmann, Kreusmack
und seine HeUqueUen (8th ed.. 1890); and Stabel, Das Solbad
Kreusnaxk JUr Arzte dargtsleUl (Kreuznach, 1887).
r KRIEGSPIEL (Kjuecsspiel), the original German name,
still used to some extent in England, for the War Game (?.».).
KRIEMHILD (GeJmhild), the heroine of the Nibelungenlied
and wife of the hero Siegfried. The name (from O.H.Ger.frfma,
a mask or helm, and kilija or ktila, war) means " the masked
warrior woman, 1 ' and has been taken to prove her to have been
originally a mythical, daemonic figure, an impersonation of the
powers of darkness and of death. In the north, indeed, the name
Crimkildr continued to have a purely mythical character and
to be applied only to daemonic beings; but in Germany, the
original home of the Nibelungen myth, it certainly lost all trace
of this significance, and in the Nibelunfenlied Kriemhild is no
more than a beautiful princess, the daughter of King Dancrat
and Queen Uote, and sister of the Burgundian kings Gunther,
Giselhcr and Gernot, the masters of the Nibelungen hoard. As
she appears in the Nibelungen legend, however, Kriemhild
would seem to have an historical origin, as the wife of Attila,
king of the Huns, as well as sister of the Nibelung kings. Accord-
ing to Jordanes (c. 49), who takes his information from the con-
temporary and trustworthy account of Priscus, Attila died of
* violent hemorrhage at nigh* — *•• u - beside a girl named
Ddico (i.«. 0. H. Ger. UiK \ abroad that he
had perished by the hand of a woman in revenge for her refauieoi
shun by him; according to some (e.g. Saxo Poeta and the Qwed-
linburg chronicle) it was her father whom she re v en g ed ; bat
when the treacherous overthrow of the Burgnndians by Attila
had become a theme i or epic poets, she figured as a Burgundian
princess, and her act as done in revenge for her brothers. New
the name Hildik6 is the diminutive of Hilda or Hild, winch again
— in accordance with a custom common enough— may have
been used as an abbreviation of Gctmhild (cf. Hiidr for Brym-
kildr). It has been suggested (Symons, Heidensago, p. 55) that
when the legend of the overthrow of the Burgnndians, which
took place in 437, became attached to that of the death of Attila
(453), Hild, the supposed sister of the Burgundian kings, was
identified with the daemonic Grtmhild, the sister of the mythical
Nibelung brothers, and thus helped the process by which the
Nibelung myth became fused with the historical story of the
fall of the Burgundian kingdom. The older story, according to
which Grlmhild slays her husband Attila in revenge for her
brothers, is preserved in the Norse tradition, though GrtmhikTs
part is played by Gudrun, a change probably due to the fact,
mentioned above, that the name Grlmhild still retained in the
north its sinister significance. The name of Grlmhild is trans-
ferred to Gudrun 's mother, the " wise wife," a semi-daemonic
figure, who brews the potion that makes Sigurd forget his love
for Brunhild and his plighted troth. In the Nibelmnfcm&d,
however, the primitive supremacy of the blood-tie has given
place to the more modern idea of the supremacy of the pan km of
love, and Kriemhild marries Attila (Etxel) in order to c omp as s
the death of her brothers, in revenge for the murder of Siegfried.
Theodor Abeling, who is dis p osed to reject or m*nfrn»» the
mythical origins, further suggests a confusion of the story of
Attila's wife Udico with that of the murder of Sigimuod the
Burgundian by the sons of ChrothiWis, wife of Oovis. (See
NlBELUKGENUED.)
See B. Symons, Germonisck* Hddensote (Strassburg, tons): F.
Zarnke, Das NikdumgenHod, p. u. (Letpcig, 1875); T. Abelb«.
Einleitung in das NibdungenUod (FreSwrg-un-Breisgau, 1909).
KRILOFF (or KnuiLOv), IVAN AXDREBVICH (1768-1S44).
the great national fabulist of Russia, was born on the 14th of
February x 768, at Moscow, but has early years were spent at Oren-
burg and Tver. His father, a distinguished military officer, died
in 1 779; and young Krikrff was left with no richer patrimony then
a chest of old books, to be brought up by the exertions of a herok
mother. In the course of a few years his mother removed to
St Petersburg, in the hopeof securing a government pension; and
there Kruoff obtained a post in the civil service, but he gave it
up immediately after his mother's death in 1788. Already in
x 783 he had sold to a bookseller a comedy of his own composition,
and by this means had procured for himself tbe works of hfoliere,
Racine, Boilcau; and now, probably under the influence of these
writers, he produced Philomela and Cleopatra, which gave him
access to the dramatic circle of Knyazhin. Several attempts
he made to start a literary magazine met with little success;
but, together with his plays, they served to make the author
known in society. For about four years (1797-1801) Krilof
lived at the country seats of Prince Sergius Galitzin, and when
the prince was appointed military governor of Livonia he accom-
panied him as official secretary. Of the years which follow ms
resignation of this post tittle is known, the common opinion
being that he wandered from town to town under the influence
of a passion for card-playing. Before long he found his place
as a fabulist, the first collection of his PoMes, 23 in 1
appearing in 1800. From 181 1 to 1841 he held a
appointment in the Imperial Public Library— first as 1
and then as head of the Russian books department. He cfied
on the sxst of November 1844. His statue in the Summer
Garden is one of the finest monuments in St Pe te r sburg .
Honours were showered upon Kriloff while he yet lived: the
Academy of Sciences admitted him a member in i$xx, and be-
stowed upon him its gold medal; in 1838 a great festival wnsheU
under imperial sanction to celebrate the jubilee of his not
KRISHNA— KRONSTADT
927
appearance as an author; and the emperor assigned him a hand-
some pension. Before his death about 77,000 copies of his Fables
had found sale in Russia; and his wisdom and humour had
become the common possession of the many. He was at once
poet and sage. His fables for the most part struck root in some
actual event, and they told at once by their grip and by their
beauty. Though he began as a translator and imitator he soon
showed himself a master of invention, who found abundant
material in the life of his native land. To the Russian ear his
verse is of matchless quality; while word and phrase are direct,
simple and eminently idiomatic, colour and cadence vary with
the theme.
A collected edition of Kriloff's works appeared at St Petersburg,
1844. Of the numerous editions of hia Fables, which have been
often translated, may be mentioned that illustrated by Trutovski,
1873. The author's life has been written in Russian by Pletneff,
by Lebanon" and by Grot, Liter, whim Kruilova. " Materials " for
his life are published in vol. vi. of the Sbornik Statei of the literary
department of the Academy of Sciences. W. R. S. Ralston prefixed
an excellent sketch to his English prose version of the Fables (1868:
and ed. 187 1). Another translation, by T. H. Harrison, appeared
in 1883.
KRI8HHA (the Dark One), an incarnation of Vishnu, or
rather the form in which Vishnu himself is the most popular
object of worship throughout northern India. In origin,
Krishna, like Rama, was undoubtedly a deified hero of the
Kshatriya caste. In the older framework of the Mahtibhirota he
appears as a great chieftain and ally of the Pandava brothers;
and it is only in the interpolated episode of the Bhagavad-gita
that he is identified with Vishnu and becomes the revealer of the
doctrine of bhakti or religious devotion. Of still later date arc
the popular developments of the modern cult of Krishna
associated with Radha, as found in the Vishnu Parana. Here
he is represented as the son of a king saved from a slaughter of
the innocents, Drought up by a cowherd, sporting with the milk-
maids, and performing miraculous feats in his childhood. The
scene is laid in the neighbourhood of Muttra, on the right bank
of the Jumna, where the whole country to the present day is
holy ground. Another place associated with incidents of his
later life is Dwarka, the westernmost point in the peninsula of
Kathiawar. The two most famous preachers of Krishna- worship
and founders of sects in his honour were Vallabha and
Chaitanya, both born towards the close of the 15th century.
The followers of the former are now found chiefly in Rajputana
and Gujarat. They are known as Vallabbacharyas, and their
gosains or high priests as maharajas, to whom semi-divine
honours are paid. The licentious practices of this sect were
exposed in a lawsuit before the high court at Bombay in 1862.
Chaitanya was the Vaishnav reformer of Bengal, with bis home
at Nadiya. A third influential Krishna-preacher of the 19th
century was Swami Narayan, who was encountered by Bishop
Heber in Gujarat, where his followers at this day are numerous
and wealthy. Among the names of Krishna are Copal, the cow-
herd; Gopinath, the lord of the milkmaids; and Mathuranath,
the lord of Muttra. His legitimate consort was Rukmini,
daughter of the king of Berar; but Radha is always associated
with him in his temples. (See Hinduism.)
KRISHNAOAR, a town of British India, headquarters of
Nadia district in Bengal, situated on the left bank of the river
Jalangi and connected with Ranrfghat, on the Eastern. Bengal
railway, by a light railway. Pop. (1001), 24,547. It is the
residence of the raja of Nadia and contains a government
college. Coloured clay figures are manufactured.
KRISTIANSTAD (Christianstad), a port of Sweden, chief
town of the district (ten) of Kristianstad, on a peninsula in Lake
SjOvik, an expansion of the river Helge, 10 m. from the Baltic.
Pop. (1900), 10,318. Its harbour, custom-house, &c, are at
Ahus at the mouth of the river. It is among the first twelve
manufacturing towns of Sweden as regards value of output,
having engineering works, flour-mills, distilleries, weaving mills
and sugar factories. Granite and wood-pulp are exported, and
coal and grain imported. The town is the seat of the court of
appeal for the provinces of Skane and Blekinge. It was founded
and fortified in 1614 by Christian IV. of Denmark, who built the
fine ornate church. The town was ceded to Sweden in 1658,
retaken by Christian V. in 1676, and again acquired by Sweden
in 1678.
KRIVOT ROG, a town of south Russia, in the government of
Kherson, on the Ingulets River, near the station of the same
name on the Ekaterinoslav railway, 113 m. S.W. of the city of
Ekaterinoslav. Pop. (1000), about 10,000. It is the centre of a
district very rich in minerals, obtained from a narrow stretch of
crystalline schists underlying the Tertiary deposits. Iron ores
(60 to 70% of iron), copper ores, colours, brown coal, graphite,
slate, and lithographic stone are obtained— nearly 2,000,000
tons of iron ore annually.
KROCHMAL, NATHAN (1785-1840), Jewish scholar, was born
at Brody in Galicia in 1785. He was one of the pioneers in the
revival of Jewish learning which followed on the age of Moses
Mendelssohn. His chief work was the Morck Nebuche ha-
zernan (" Guide for the Perplexed of the Age "), a title imitated
from that of the X2th-century " Guide for the Perplexed " of
Maimonides (q.v.). This book was not published till after the
author's death, when it was edited by Zunz (1851). The book
is a philosophy of Jewish history, and has a double importance.
On the one side it was a critical examination of the Rabbinic
literature and much influenced subsequent investigators. On
the other side, Krochmal, in the words of N. Slouschz, " was the
first Jewish scholar who views Judaism, not as a distinct and
independent entity, but as a part of the whole of civilization."
Krochmal, under Hegelian influences, regarded the nationality
of Israel as consisting in its religious genius, its spiritual gifts.
Thus Krochmal may be called the originator of the idea of the
mission of the Jewish people, " cultural Zionism " as it has more
recently been termed. He died at Tarnopol in 1840.
See S. Schechter, Studies in Judaism (1896), pp. 56 seq.; N.
Slouschz, Renascence of Hebrew Literature (1909), pp. 63 seq.
(I. A.)
KRONENBERG, a town of Germany in the Prussian Rhine
Province, 6 m. S.W. from Elberfeld, with which it is connected
by railway and by an electric tramway line. Pop. (1905), 1 1,340.
It is a scattered community, consisting of an agglomeration of
seventy-three different hamlets. It has a Roman Catholic and
two Protestant churches, a handsome modern town-hall and
considerable industries, consisting mainly of steel and iron
manufactures.
KRONSTADT or Cronstadt, a strongly fortified seaport
town of Russia, the chief naval station of the Russian fleet in
the northern seas, and the seat of the Russian admiralty. Pop.
(1867), 45,115; (1897), 59,539. It is situated on the island of
Kotlin, near the head of the Gulf of Finland, 20 m. W. of
St Petersburg, of which it is the chief port, in 59 59' 30* N. and
29 46' 30' E. Kronstadt, always strong, has been thoroughly
re fortified on modern principles. The old " three-decker "
forts, five in number, which formerly constituted the principal
defences of the place, and defied the Anglo-French fleets during
the Crimean War, are now of secondary importance. From the
plans of Todleben a new fort, Constantine, and four batteries
were constructed (1856-1871) to defend the principal approach,
and seven batteries to cover the shallower northern channel.
All these modern fortifications are low and thickly armoured
earthworks, powerfully armed with heavy Krupp guns in
turrets. The town itself is surrounded with an enceinte. The
island of Kotlin, or Kettle (Finn., Retusari, or Rat Island) in
general outline forms an elongated triangle, 7} m. in length by
about x in breadth, with its base towards St Petersburg. The
eastern or broad end is occupied by the town of Kronstadt, and
shoals extend for a mile and a half from the western point of
the island to the rock on which the Tolbaaken lighthouse is
built. The* island thus divides the seaward approach to
St Petersburg into two channels; that on the northern side
is obstructed by shoals which extend across it from Kotlin to
Lisynos on the Finnish mainland, and is only passable by vessels
drawing less than 15 ft. of water; the southern channel, the high-
way to the capital, is narrowed by a spit which projects from
:S
KROONSTAD— KROTOSCHIN
freest* Oraasenbaam on the Russian mainland, and, lying
has been strongly guarded by batteries.
_ l to the capital has been greatly facilitated by the
^-jfcsr-nnioa in 1875-1885 of a canal, jj ft. deep, through the
Tj-^j*}*^ Ike town of Kronstadt is built oa level ground,
~p* 3 tbms 1 hi will to inundations, from one of which it
«j egpi aa i&as. Ob the south side of the town there are
Z^0pe0 ^ktmbs — the Urge western or merchant harbour, the
~~_ ^y gq •faijr of which is formed by a great mole joining the
k the breadth of the island on this
, used chiefly for fitting out and repairing
ami the eastern or war harbour for vessels of the
The Peter and Catherine canals, communi-
nX mtx xm* awachaat and middle harbours, traverse the
•^'^u &«£»«* ^heu stood the old Italian palace of Prince
*"* jff= jii^r*,ints&e«f which is now occupied by the pflot school.
""^^.^a* *u*cs jmfcfic hanUntas are the naval hospital, the British
-■"^^ nniiba* icstafcnshed a 1867), the avk hospital,
—=■**■ ^x? Swa&cA t?&£\ arseaaL, dockyards and foundries,
j- "~ *, * Mm in s mwri a g. the cathedral of St Andrew, and
d»-~ ""*" ^r^r ctarcV IV part is ice-bound for 140 to 160 days
. m ' A rf- ram. ^W- i igj iniag of December till April. Avery
a "** „ - ijwe.iML « the inhabitants are sailors, and large rram-
j. ^ t ^- ^ufe. Jc* i w u*Vj*d ia the dockyards. Kronstadt
» "~ -.« a :~w >? IVter the Great, who took the island
— ~ " it-m -ta* Swmaes m 1*04, when the first fortifications
- - " ^ -,-v-^ (P.A.K-;J.T.Bb.)
— " HgatfSSw*^ * «wa at CViagr River Colony, 117 m. by
w . «. >A*wowa ami 130 m. S»W. of Johannesburg.
- * ^ . . » * wA«» ^xsS were whites. Kroonstad lies
' - "\%»*«* .v st ant **. V«£t oa the banks of the Vabch
^ T^r^m :»*ahjrx «t the YaaL It is a busy town,
, . t a « *-wk agricultural district and of the
. *-••. -*.^mf oJesry of the north- western parts
t *> a** * isvourite residential place and
- ^ >a< r**» Vnawawibarg It enjoys a healthy
.*— - e -■*»<•«■•*: y» xy boating rare in Sooth Africa,
- ^ .* . -»av CW principal building is the Dutch
~~ ... ^ . ■ v .aav-w 4* the market square.
, .«, » wt*hvo£iia by the British during the
• >w -msv Krooastad was chosen by the
"^ „ ^ - ^v - ^ l* capital of the state, a dignity it
„ • 4 *.> j*xW nth of May 1000. On the
v „ •* *«ttv *Kvpmd by Lord Roberts. The
* 1 .sv mv> .V Natal system made the route
.* no,. -i>* «.i>«*y coanrrion between Cape
^ . ^ .. -^ V* uw goes N.W. from Kroonstad
^.- » «■»*.>* ; W Lace diamond mine aad
**""* ^ _ *^ * ^ -vaena.
" ^^ ■%*%** WOtmOl Pmscx (iSar- ),
■ t ' ,: * , *' * -» - • ■ • • *-» •** arvoiutionary. was bora at
.v v ^i^AxwiPeiroVach Kropotkin.
„ o ^.* **iwttc« v hb mother, the daughter
. o»»«— .*•*• Vsl remark ihte Lienry and
H-*. v. ..i^M^^acelVterlLropctiij^wbo
" ^ . . . v. t. n» <j< .at army, entered the Cocps
^ " > . >^^ ^ .v * ^ vWt * huadred aad nity
. -. • \ »^Jvlt? a«i»giag to *Jx ccurt—
^ * .. .^m ^<H»a, which conh-rfd tbe
^ *^* ,ww«««4 «^^ spec* 1 ^"«^» "^
. ^ ^^ v >t «f<ral a ous fh n; ^ Here
^ * .,. <^wt^ <• att own aocomaC aad
v *.^fe >*t the French eacjiJo
. ^. v^x»> lawrehe fctt Moscow
, .->s^ m mswet m the coccn^c of
1 " . ^ v- iKV** «**»* » »« gWW
T . ^ o^^viiAmfc-^iffihe-^Kace
r " *.* x ^i<^ »^»ch i?o«ci ^ryeiy
,r * ^ ^ v ^. V was preevried few*
Lirv
would be attached. Kropotkin had never wished for a m£ur?
career, but, as be had not the means to enter the St rVm^c-g
University, he elected to join a Siberian Cossack regiment a the
recently annexed Amur district, where there were lamim 1 tf
administrative work. For some time he was aide die as?
to the governor of Transbaikalia at Chita, svbsecjaeatry be~«
appointed attach* for Cossack affairs to the governor gjLaua l *.
East Siberia at Irkutsk. Opportunities for adnuBtstrative wsrk.
however, were scanty, and in 1S64 Kropotkm accepted rhi^y
of a geographical survey expedition, crossing North Miarfc—q
from Transbaikalia to the Amur, and shortly afterwards va>
attached to another expedition which pt occetkd up the Sucgac
River into the heart of Manchuria. Both these expedhxra
yielded most valuable geographical results. The ircposabdj
of obtaining any real administrative reforms ia Siberia s*v
induced Kropotkin to devote ramseff almost entirely to virniaV
exploration, in winch be continued to be highly successful Is
1S67 he quitted the army and returned to St Petersburg, wbere
he entered the university, becoming at the same time secxctxi?
to the physical geography section of the Russian n-^'^*^*-
Society. In 1873 he pubbshed an important contribution o
science, a map and paper m whkh he proved that theendst^
maps of Asm eatirery misrepresented the physical formalism d
the country, the main structural hoes bring in fact fan
south-west to north-east, not from north to sowth, or from east
to west as had been previously * a pp i »scd la 1871 he eapkred
the glacial deposits of Finland and Sweden lor the Rassx:
Geographical Society, and while engaged in this work was ooeied
the secretaryship of that society. Bat by this time he had
determined that it was his duty not to work at fresh cuaumiks
but to aid in diffusing existing knowledge anwmg the people x.
huge, aad he accordingly refused the oner, and it I a. an J l>
St Petersburg, where he joined the revoiwtioaary party. Im?:i
he visited Switzerland, and became a mrmhrr of the Inter-
national Working-men's Agonal km at Geneva. The «~^»""
of this body was not, however, advanced inrmi> far hm varo,
aad after studying the programme of the am iwih it Jwa
Federation at Nenchatel and yrading same tiace in the con-
pany of the leading me mb ers, he denckery adnpted the creed d
anarchism (f j.) and, 00 returning to Russia, took an acme par
in spreading the nihilist propaganda. Ia 1S74 he wcasamssai
and he prisoned, but escaped ia rS;w aad went to ^i^-
removing after a short stay to Switzerland, where he joined the
Jura Federation. In 1S77 he west to Paris, where he helped ~
start the sorbfrtf movement, 1 tunning to Switzerland ia ii;*
where he edked for the Jura Federation a 1
paper, Lt £mnV, s u b se quen t ly also pnhrnhing ^
tionary pamphlets. Shortly after the assarssinatkia of the tsr
Alexaader IL (1SS1) Kropotkia was eapcBed from SwirzerhnvUy
the Swiss government, and after a short stay at Human (Save:
went to I<nadon, where he remained for nearly a year, — •*■ ^f
to Tnoooo towards the end of xS&z. Shortly afterwards he w*>
arrested by the French government, and, after a trial at Lpma
sentenced by a pcoce-court magistrate (cacierajpecial avwpasr:
00 the fall cf the Ccnrae) to five years* iii|Bi main m. oa is
grocad that be had bekeged to the Im^ernaiioual Workingmes 1
Assodaikm uS$s>'. In iS56 h oacm, as the resmlt nf iipiaj t
a^iaiioc on hss behalf ia the French Chrarr, he 1
aad s«MLJcd near Lcadon.
Friace Krcpxkia 4 lathrriry as a writer an 1
saly ackacvJedged, and he has cantrJbnted kmjgerj to the
Ex-.ycltpztiiU Bnlrmrx- Among hss other works amy k
nascd Formes *** r*x& (tSS^; Lt CwfwV dm fmm {xS£<
V Amcr.iiz; « }±C^^s*m antaf ;iSo6 ; Far ^Safc. atx /a<
cm His^ry (iS^S ; Froij, Ft&rits awe* W~«rf raiji (:io? .
Jfenvsrr *f * Jgfa^wSjrrrf ^ijoo ; ifaaaa* Aii^ a Fmm S £»-
Ui=jm ,i9ar'; J/jta?w Sd*xct ami Amtrdkiom CK^acei^tt.
ijcj ; T*f IVc=:V--^u.-« if Ac* *ivx£\ Tit OnYc/rj «/ ±u
uoc4" : aad £unxi Lilr-atart ^1005..
KIOIQSCHDI Tm Fc^h, K-^^y* , a town oi Cersaay.a
tSc Pr^«jj». pccvL^ce « Poses. $i m. Si. of rVaeau F^. » t«x ,
:^o ^ 1: has tirre ck-rcac^ a STaagBg&K. steaaa saw-ok,
KRUDENER
929
and a steam brewery, and carries oh trade in grain and seeds.
The castle of Krotoschin is the chief place of a mediatized prin-
cipality which was formed in 1819 out of the domains of the
Prussian crown and was granted to the prince of Thurn and Taxis
in compensation for the relinquishment by him of the monopoly
of the Prussian postal system, formerly held by his family.
KRODENIR, BARBARA JULIANA, Baroness von (1764-
1824), Russian religious mystic and author, was born at Riga
in Livonia on the nth of November 1764. Her father, Otto
Hermann von Vietinghoff, who had fought as a colonel in
Catherine II. 's wars, was one of the two councillors for Livonia
and a man of immense wealth; her mother, nie Countess Anna
Ulrica von Munnich, was a grand-daughter of the celebrated
field marshal. Juliana, as she was usually called, was one of a
numerous family. Her education, according to her own account,
consisted of lessons in French spelling, deportment and sewing;
and at the age of eighteen (Sept. 29, 1782) she was married to
Baron Burckhard Alexis Constantin von Kriidener, a widower six-
teen years her senior. The baron, a diplomatist of distinction, was
cold and reserved; the baroness was frivolous, pleasure-loving,
and possessed of an insatiable thirst for attention and flattery;
and the strained relations due to this incompatibility of temper
were embittered by her limitless extravagance, which constantly
involved herself and her husband in financial difficulties. At
first indeed all went well. On the 31st of January 1784 a son
was born to them, named Paul after the grand-duke Paul (after-
wards emperor), who acted as god-father. The same year Baron
Kriidener became ambassador at Venice, 1 where he remained until
transferred to Copenhagen in 1786.
In 1787 the birth of a daughter (Juliette) aggravated the
nervous disorders from which the baroness had for some time
been suffering, and it was decided that she must go to the south
for her health; she accordingly left, with her infant daughter and
her step-daughter Sophie. In 1789 she was at Paris when the
states general met; a year later, at Montpellier, she met a young
cavalry captain, Charles Louis de Fregeville, and a passionate
attachment sprang up between them. They returned together
to Copenhagen, where the baroness told her husband that her
heart could no longer be his. The baron was coldly kind; he
refused to hear of a divorce and attempted to arrange a modus
vivendi, which was facilitated by the departure of De Fregeville
for the war. All was useless; Juliana refused to remain at Copen-
hagen, and, setting out on her travels, visited Riga, St Peters-
burg—where her father had become a senator*— Berlin, Leipzig
and Switzerland. In 1708 her husband became ambassador at
Berlin, and she joined him there. But the stiff court society of
Prussia was irksome to her; money difficulties continued; and
by way of climax, the murder of the tsar Paul, in whose favour
Baron Kriidener had stood high, made the position of the ambas-
sador extremely precarious. The baroness seized the occasion
to leave for the baths of Teplitz, whence she wrote to her husband
that the doctors had ordered her to winter in the south. He died
on the 14th of June 1802, without ever having seen her again.
Meanwhile the baroness had been revelling in the intellectual
society of Coppet and of Paris. She was now thirty-six; her
charms were fading, but her passion for admiration survived.
She had tried the effect of the shawl dance, in imitation of Emma,
Lady Hamilton; she now sought fame in literature, and in
1803, after consulting Chateaubriand and other writers of dis-
tinction, published her Valirie, a sentimental romance, of which
under a thin veil of anonymity she herself was the heroine. In
January 1804 she returned to Livonia.
At Riga occurred her " conversion.'* A gentleman of her
acquaintance when about to salute her fell dying at her feet.
The shock overset her not too well balanced mind; she sought for
consolation, and found it in the ministrations of her shoemaker,
an ardent disciple of the Moravian Brethren. Though she had
" found peace," however, the disorder of her nerves continued,
1 A portrait of Madame de KrOdener and her son as " Venus
disarming Cupid," by Angelica Kauffmana, of this period, is in the
Louvre.
* He died while she was there in J 792.
XV. 16*
and she was ordered by her doctor to the baths of Wiesbaden. At
Konigsberg she had an interview with Queen Louise, and, more
important still, with one Adam Milller, a rough peasant, to whom
the Lord had revealed a prophetic mission to King Frederick
William III. " Chiliasm " was in the air. Napoleon was
evidently Antichrist; and the " latter days " were about to be
accomplished. Under the influence of the pietistic movement the
belief was widely spread, in royal courts, in country parsonages,
in peasants' hovels: a man would be raised up " from the north
. . . from the rising of the sun " (Isa. xli. 25); Antichrist would
be overthrown, and Christ would come to reign a thousand years
upon the earth. The interview determined the direction of
the baroness's religious development. A short visit to the
Moravians at Herrcnhut followed; then she went, via Dresden,
to Karlsruhe, to sit at the feet of Hcinrich Jung-Stilling (q.v.),
the high priest of occultist pietism, whose influence was supreme
at the court of Baden and infected those of Stockholm and
St Petersburg.' By him she was instructed in the chiliastic faith
and in the mysteries of the supernatural world. Then, hearing
that a certain pastor in the Vosges, Jean FrSdcnc Fontaines, was
prophesying and working miracles, she determined to go to
him. On the 5th of June 1801, accordingly, she arrived at the
Protestant parsonage of Sainte Mar ie-aux- Mines, accompanied
by her daughter Juliette, her step-daughter Sophie and a Russian
valet.
This remained for two years her headquarters. Fontaines,
half-charlatan, half-dupe, had introduced into his household a
prophetess named Marie Gottliebin Kummer, 4 whose visions,
carefully calculated for her own- purposes, became the oracle of
the divine mysteries for the baroness. Under this influence she
believed more firmly than ever in the approaching millennium
and her own mission to proclaim it. Her rank, her reckless
charities, and her exuberant eloquence produced a great effect
on the simple country folk; and when, in 1809, it was decided to
found a colony of the " elect " in order to wait for " the coming of
the Lord," many wretched peasants sold or distributed all they
possessed and followed the baroness and Fontaines into Wiirt-
temberg, where the settlement was established at Catharinen-
plaisir and the chateau of Bttnnigheim, only to be dispersed
(May 1 ) by art unsympathetic government.* Further wanderings
followed: to Lichtenthal near Baden; to Karlsruhe and the
congenial society of pietistic princesses; to Riga, where she
was present at the deathbed of her mother (Jan. 24, 181 1);
then back to Karlsruhe. The influence of Fontaines, to whom
she had been " spiritually married " (Madame Fontaines being
content with the part of Martha in the household, so long as the
baroness's funds lasted), had now waned, and she had fallen under
that of Joharm Kaspar Wcgelin (1 766-1833), a pious linen-draper
of Strassburg, who taught her the sweetness of " complete anni-
hilation of the will and mystic death." Her preaching and her
indiscriminate charities now began to attract curious crowds from
afar; and her appearance everywhere was accompanied by an
epidemic of visions and prophesyings, which culminated in the
appearance in 181 1 of the comet, a sure sign of the approaching
end. In 181 2 she was at Strassburg, whence she paid more than
one visit to J. F. Oberlin (q.v.), the famous pastor of Waldbach in
Steinthal (Ban de la Roche), and where she had the glory of con-
verting her host, Adrien de Lazay-Marnesia, the prefect. In
18 13 she was at Geneva, where she established the faith of a
band of young pietists in revolt against the Calvinist Church
authorities — notably Henri Louis Empeytaz, afterwards destined
to be the companion of her crowning evangelistic triumph. In
September 1814 she was again at Waldbach, where Empeytaz
had preceded her; and at Strassburg, where the party was
joined by Franz Karl von Berckheim, who afterwards married
' The consorts of Alexander I. of Russia and of Gustavut Adolphus
IV. of Sweden were princesses of Baden.
4 She had been condemned some years previously in Wurttcmbere
to the pillory and three years' imprisonment as a " swindler
(Betrugerin), on her own confession. Her curious history is given
in detail by M. Muhlenbeck*
* In 1809 it was obviously inconvenient to have people proclaiming
Napoleon as " the Beast.
KRUG, W. T.
c j, c end of the year she returned with her
^fpptytaz to Baden, a fateful migration.
Elizabeth of Russia was now at Karlsruhe; and
^^ -gL ladies of her entourage hoped that the emperor
--. l ^ e Pf^+m* find al tDe na* 10 * 5 °* Madame de Kriidencr the
sbt***^ t*»*^ interview with Jung-Stilling had failed to bring
&&**\*jf;\*. **** ^css herself wrote urgent letters to Roxane dc
pea C TJSJe t>^*** f lne tsar,s Romanian secretary, begging her
fcisa- "7^ &&*-*? xfiT^W- There seemed to be no result; but the
Stoodr***^ ^o ^paved the way for the opportunity which a
to PO^^^e***^ £as to give her of realizing her ambition. In
*X*C& t j,c baroness was settled at Schluchtern, a piece
rf %& % ~y endavi in Wurttemberg, busy persuading the
s
ft-
i
ii
la
bi
wi
of
lhtS ptio» tcrr itX>^ ^a fly from the wrath to come. Near this,
^1 fljde** jtl* - c emperor Alexander established his head-
pe^^S-ro***** 4th of June. That very night the baroness
i!t &^0t* t **^iJ»« d ** intcrview - To tne tsar « wno nad I**
tie** ^£ °'* ,t *«rer *" °P cn Bible, her sudden arrival seemed an
,0ft*
^jnfh* ^^jo*^ Vay 615 *' * or tnrec nours lne prophetess preached
^oo*^**^ Is** P | while the most powerful man in Europe sat, his
s^*** tic tP^+As hands, sobbing like a child; until at last he
^s****jS| in j, a d " found peace/' At the tsar's request she
I** ^'^•tJ*** *** Heiddberg ^ kter to Paris » whcr « she wa *
ae^***^ \&& «?Atel Montchenu, next door to the imperial head-
.^we** t » J e t» £iy$ic Palace. A private door connected the
:*£e4 •*" ^ &* \q& every evening the emperor went to take
v^ttf** -^r* 115 ' ver-in^' 1 * 5 conducted by the baroness and
*^~iJfefrT' _ «>r*^— , «eemed to have found an entrance into
Cpef 1 **^!^ Hon* *° 1* re^oacd w *lh. Admission to her
*T^ii£* c^^rt w 45 s 011 ^ 1 DV a ct ^ °f People celebrated
*T^*e ^^tl^^ i jnd s 00 ^ 'ro'W; Chateaubriand came, and
j%&/& %$&* t ^sdaine Recamier. the dttchessedc Bourbon,
^%e *? Co^ nuns. The fame of the wonderful con-
\*&^*Ari& ittracted other members of the chiliastic
«2l Tttftf^'te* Fa 01 ** 1 **! •^ brought with him the
•Jet** * a* ** ffummer.
r*'
^
i
rail
Pol
448
Riv
bein
dian
of tl
resoi
clima
and I
Refor.
On
Anglo-
Orange
held frc
followin
linking «.
via K10
Town an
to Klerks
(45 miles)
KROPO
Russian g
Moscow in
belonged U
of a general
liberal taste
had been dct
of Pages at
boys— mostly -*
were educate^ -
character of a
of aCourtinsii
he remained ti
giving special
paedists and to t
Prince Kropotki
the Russian peab
older. The year
lenectualforcesof
of the new Liberal
expressed his own
the Corps of ******
the prescriptive tig
&■*?£
seemed to have found an entrance into
^Europe, and the baroness von Kriidencr had
ifc**. (nrcing-house the idea of the Holy Alliance
turitr. Oi the 26th of Septcm-
vhkn was to herald the opening
rill or earth, was signed by the
A Pntssti tsre Holy Alliance;
ship has ever been a matter
breseJE darned that she had
Bike h*i sttbmittcd the draft
iJy correct, though the tsar
atal«|«&feri um > reproved her
he nufiter. His eyes, indeed,
*h fats, aad Marie Kummcr
^^*«<"^ * ^ fi«t to the
^^stoiVw prised by the baroness
•tat ***^I ~1 •«»' a* W tnnouncc in her
^•UrtrSST-* that he shou!d
V ttJ««ce was shaken
** ^ !!h*fw* Akxtnder gave her
+ *#**** Swttr» destined to see
^ pending to travel
* ,:,,8V * rhe t*Aft however,
f • ^* ^ . , * t " r *!^ /i ridicule which
" .-^l-^»^^*^K>wed little dis-
- . • r~^ r^ **jZi in Switrerland,
^ -* "• r* ^ *~\ m unscrupulous
%~ * . , .* * , **ljb K»peyiM. an
-r V ^ **. - ^•»n' $ c* ulch es.
^~& ^.* *^ the baroness's
^^ »^ -""^ jj» »" Uliancc could
^- .» * " ,thc sun" of
Rev. xii. 1. She wandered with feline? from place topbo,
proclaiming her mission, working miracles, persuading fee? co-
verts to sell all and follow her. Crowds of beggars and rapoi-
lions of every description gathered wherever she went, supported
by the charities squandered from the common fund. She beast
a nuisance to the authorities and a menace to the peer,
Wurttemberg had expelled her, and the example was foUaved
by every Swiss canton she entered in turn. At last, ia ktpa.
181 7, she set out for her estate in Livonia, accompanied by
Kellner and a remnant of the elect.
The emperor Alexander having opened the Crimea to Gesn
and Swiss chiliasts in search of a land of promise, the blTocesi
son-in-law Berckheim and his wife now proceeded thither to btlp
establish the new colonies. In November 1820 the barcses
at last went herself to St Petersburg, where BerekhctB to
lying ill. She was there when the news arrived of Yusuatu
invasion of the Danubian principalities, 'which opened the w
of Greek independence. She at once proclaimed the dma
mission of the tsar to take up arms on behalf of Christendes.
Alexander, however,, bad long since exchanged her iafhosoe
for that of Metternich, and be was far from anxious to be fared
into even a holy war. To the baroness's overtures be repW
in a long and polite letter, the gist of which was that she met
leave St Petersburg at once. In 1823 the death of Kefiaez.
whom to the last she regarded as a saint, was a severe bio* tc
her. Her health was failing, but she allowed herself to be
persuaded by Princess Galitzin to accompany her to the Cnna,
where she had established a Swiss colony. Here, at Kara
Bazar, she died on the 25th of December 1824.
Sainte-Bcuvc said of Madame de Kriidencr: " Elle avait 11
immense besoin que le monde s'occupat d'clle . . . ; Tiror
propre, toujours l'amour propre ... 1" A kindlier epiupk
might, perhaps, be written in her own words, uttered ins
the revelation of the misery of the Crimean colonists hid n
last opened her eyes: " The good that I have done will cotter; i
the evil that I have done (for how often have I notlnistakoife:
the voice of God that which was no more than the remit of c/
imagination and my pride) the mercy of God will blot oat"
Much information about Madame de Krfldener, coloured by tfe
author's views, is to be found in H. L. Empeytaz's Nehct »
Alexandre, tmpertnr de Russie (2nd ed., Paris, 1840). The V* *
Madame de Krudetur (2 vols., Paris, 1849), by the Swiss bukc 1
and PhUhcllcne J. G. Eynard, was long the standard life and at-
tains much material, but is far from authoritative. In Eflf&
appeared the Life and Letters of Madame de. KrUdener, by Oarcw
Ford (London, 1893). The most authoritative study, based 01 »
wealth of original research, is E. Muhlenbeck's Eimd* snr Us en?*
de la Satnle-AUiotue (Parts, 1909), in which numerous rdcruKD
are given. (W.AP-)
KRUG, W1LHELM TRAUGOTT (1770-1842), German ptfr
sopher and author, was born at Radis in Prussia on the 3:odi
June 1770, and died at Leipzig on the 12th of January i*U
He studied at Wittenberg under Reinhard and Jehnkhen, £
Jena under Rcinhold, and at Gottingen. From 1801 to 1804*
was professor of philosophy at Frankfort -on-the-Oder, site
which he succeeded Kant in the chair of logic and metapfcvsis
at the university of Konigsberg. From 1800 till his drub be
was professor of philosophy at Leipzig. He was a prolific vn*£
on a great variety of subjects, in all of which he excelled u»
popularizes rather than as an original thinker. In phikso^T
his method was psychological; he attempted to explain &
Ego by examining the nature of its reflection upon the lads r
consciousness. Being is known to us only through its presc
tation in consciousness; consciousness only in its rebtios t
Being. Both Being and Consciousness, however, are imroediatr''
known to us, as also the relation existing between them. Byti-
Transcendental Synthesis he proposed to reconcile Rote"
and Idealism, and to destroy the traditional difficulty bet«c£
transcendental, or pure, thought and " things in tbemsrht*
Apart from the intrinsic value of his work, it is admitted fe
it had the effect of promoting the study of philosophy ud a
stimulating freedom of thought in religion and politics. H>
'-icipal works are: Btkje Uber den neuesten IdteH**
KRUGER
93*
<x8dx) ; Versmk itber die Principien der pkOosophischen ErkemU-
niss (x8ox); Fundamenlalpkilosopkit (1803); System der
tkecreUsthen Philosdphie (1806- 18 10), System der praktischen
Pkibsefkie (1817-1819); Handbuch der Philosophy (1820;
3rd ed., 1828); Logik odcr DenUekre (1827); Gtschichte
<Ur Phiios. alter Zeit (1815; 2nd ed., 1825); AUgemtittes
Handwdrterbuck der philoscpkisdun Wissensckoften (1827-1834;
and ect, 1832*1838); Univer sal- p kilo sopkisckc Vorlesungm jHr
Gebtidde btiderlei GeschlechU. His work BeilrOge zur Geschichte
der Phiios. des XIX. Jahrh. (1835-1837) contains interesting
criticisms of Hegel and Schelhng.
See also his autobiography, Meine Lebensreise (Leipzig, 2nd ed.,
1840).
KRUGER, STEPHANOS JOHANMES PAULUS (1825-1004),
president of the Transvaal Republic, was born in Colesberg,
Cape Colony, on the 10th of October 1825. His lather was
Caspar Jan Hendrick Kruger, who was bora in 1796, and whose
wife bore the name of Stey n. In his ancestry on both sides occur
Huguenot names. The founder of the Kruger family appears
to have been a German named Jacob Kruger, who in 1713 was
sent with others by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape.
At the age of ten Paul Kruger— as he afterwards came to be
known — accompanied his parents in the migration, known as the
Great Trek, from the Cape Colony to the territories north of the
Orange in the years 1835-1840. From boyhood his life was one
of adventure. Brought up on the borderland between civiliza-
tion and barbarism, constantly trekking, fighting and hunting,
his education was necessarily of the most primitive character.
He learnt to read and to write, and was taught the narrowest
form of Dutch Presbyterianism. His literature was almost
confined to the Bible, and the Old Testament was preferred to
the New. It is related of Kruger, as indeed it has been said
of Piet Relief and others of the early Boer leaders, that he
believed himself the object of special Divine guidance. At
about the age of twenty-five he is said to have disappeared
into the veldt, where he remained alone for several days, under
the influence of deep religious fervour. During this- sojourn in
the wilderness Kruger stated that he had been especially favoured
by God, who had communed with and inspired him. Through-
out his life he professed this faith in God's will and guidance,
and much of his influence over his followers is attributable to
their belief in his sincerity and in his enjoyment of Divine favour.
The Dutch Reformed Church in the Transvaal, pervaded by a
spirit and faith not unlike those which distinguished the Cove-
nanters, was divided in the early days into three sects. Of these
the narrowest, most puritanical, and most bigoted was the
Doppcr sect, to which Kruger belonged. His Dopper following
was always unswerving in its support, and at all critical times
in the internal quarrels of the state rallied round him. The
charge of hypocrisy, frequently made against Kruger— if by
this charge is meant the mere juggling with religion for purely
political ends — does not appear entirely just. The subordina-
tion of reason to a sense of superstitious fanaticism is the keynote
of his character, and largely the explanation of his life. Where
faith is so profound as to believe the Divine guidance all, and
the individual intelligence nil, a man is able to persuade himself
that any course he chooses to take is the one he is directed to
take. Where bigotry is so blind, reason is but dust in the
balance. At the same time there were incidents in Kruger's
life which but ill conform to any Biblical standard he might
choose to adopt or feel imposed upon him. Even van Oordt, his
eloquent historian and apologist, is cognisant of this fact.
When the lad, who had already taken part in fights with the
Matabele and the Zulus, was fourteen his family settled north
of the Vaal and were among the founders of the Transvaal state.
At the age of seventeen Paul found himself an assistant field
cornet, at twenty he was field cornet, and at twenty-seven held
a command in an expedition against the Bechuana chief Sechele
— the expedition in which David Livingstone's mission-house
was destroyed.
In 1853 he took part in another expedition against Montsioa.
When not fighting natives in those early days Kruger was
engaged in distant hunting excursions which took him as far
north as the Zambezi. In 1852 the Transvaal secured the
recognition of its independence from Great Britain in the Sand
River convention. For many years after this date the con-
dition of the country was one bordering upon anarchy, and into
the faction strife which was continually going on Kruger freely
entered. In 2856-1857 he joined M.W, Pre tonus in his attempt
to abolish the district governments in the Transvaal and to
overthrow the Orange Free State government and compel a
federation between the two countries. The raid into the Free
State failed; the blackest incident in connexion with it was
the attempt of the Pretorius and Kruger party to induce the
Basuto to harass the Free State forces behind, while they were
attacking them in front.
. From this time forward Kruger's life is so intimately bound
up with the history of his country, and even in later years of
South Africa, that a study of that history is essential to an
understanding of it (see Transvaal and South Africa). In
1864, when the. faction fighting ended and Pretorius was presi-
dent, Kruger was elected commandant-general of the forces of
the Transvaal In 1870 a boundary dispute arose with the
British government, which was settled by the Keate award
(1871). The decision caused so much discontent in the Trans-
vaal that it brought about the downfall of President Pretorius
and his party; and Thomas Francois Burgers, an educated
Dutch minister, resident in Cape Colony, was elected to succeed
him. During the term of Burgers' presidency Kruger appeared
to great disadvantage. Instead of loyally supporting the
president in the difficult task of building up a stable state,
he did everything in his power to undermine his authority,
going so far as to urge the Boers to pay no taxes while Burgers
was in office. The faction of which he was a prominent member
was chiefly responsible for bringing about that impasse in the
government of the country which drew such bitter protest from
Burgers and terminated in the annexation by the British in
April 1877. At this period of Transvaal history it is impossible
to trace any true patriotism in the action of the majority of the
inhabitants. The one idea of Kruger and his faction was to
oust Burgers from office on any pretext, and, if possible, to put
Kruger in his place. When the downfall of Burgers was assured
and annexation offered itself as the alternative resulting from
hir downfall, it is true that Kruger opposed it. But matters
had gone too far. Annexation became an accomplished fact,
and Kruger accepted paid office under the British government.
He continued, however, so openly to agitate for the retrocession
of the country, being a member of two deputations which went
to England endeavouring to get the annexation annulled, that
in 1878 Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British administrator,
dismissed him from his service. In 1880 the Boer rebellion
occurred, and Kruger was one of the famous triumvirate, of
which General Piet Joubert and Pretorius were the other
members, who, after Majuba, negotiated the terms of peace on
which the Pretoria convention of August 1881 was drafted. In
1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal, receiving 3431
votes as against 1171 recorded for Joubert.
In November 1883 President Kruger again visited England,
this time for the purpose of getting another convention. The
visit was successful, the London convention, which for years was
a subject of controversy, being granted by Lord Derby in 1884
on behalf of the British government. The government of the
Transvaal being once more in the hands of the Boers, the country
rapidly drifted towards that state of national bankruptcy from
which it had only been saved by annexation in 1877. In 1886, the
year in which the Rand mines were discovered, President Kruger
was by no means a popular man even among his own followers;
as an administrator of internal affairs he had shown himself
grossly incompetent, and it was only the specious success of
bis negotiations with the British government which had retained
him any measure of support. In 1888 he was elected president
for a second term of office. In 1889 Dr. Leyds, a young Hol-
lander, was appointed state secretary, and the system of state
monopolies around which so much corruption grew up was soon
&*
KRUGERSDORP
TW
^i»¥ciyi»txadebea«;taBsc»^basaea,
^^wrf ms attentioa to the farther seta
The
fctaaaageraaw I
af Boer pnTrril ! a
e of the
to al
la i*qj KnprbitobcEi
■ teiirriwtk
^laotd on lag lie ■ ■jin, largely by the
^ r i^deysd to the HtfhawVr party, was a* street; that it was
^^"- > air rtjartrf that tewi ai i iloaaaaealGcaeraZJjQbert,
-<*^j. * efacfed. Beawe the ekctaaa aas decided Erager
■^^*^i*e u nrnrifoif the voffcsraad — ■b i n , as wefi as to
- -f*^&£ c a! the vtflmwl rarinai, waka accaned saactlj
"" Cg-mcMflgflSavi irni a ^ ab lapiw r iM were iiU: u r d,or,
tint as aaaaaeass ace oojrrtcd to oa soone
: hue* br this aaaas areweated fnaa actcxly sittiag
^-f^L -nfcsaai mri* the ~~
*^-- HP *^ — — »-* rafF*es&AKrcger.
^ t Mga3Majrsaaaai'Mi aiiran fc Geaerai
ary daaVt whatever, rfrrtfd by a very
the agaves as a=*xaced fare
IJocben
^r**^ r ii ipw - — ^ x wih the arnras, aad xppnW,
^L ^^jaaaav rht afoeaC h ii uu. aas frcikss, aad
*** ^_j0T~ - C ~ T*r »=aat take* hy Presides! Krsger
^^p^ ,^^1-— - — - * ■* onstiag Presides!
&^Z& ^^ x aiiiMiiii _ — *-*»x the OLaadexs fawn the
a* ^^^ j ^a* :nar at aow oatv ia ab opckai. tae govera-
^ia» ayiriie. aad that atae he tired
[X^amacdt.
peacy aas comzsteaiiy
land, ia Rhodesia,
the froctiexs of the
Ia these dbpetes
aad x aas aot aatS 1S05 that he
to obtaia a seaport.
aad aascrapaioas, aad
f; say he saaaaed ap ia his ova
af CrWraVrv who denied
at the Eeaiisa becaage ia
is wf ccestiy; these are
ita obey ary laws caa leave ary
3,. Mir9 m- r K «f tbe {^ahuita —
aft: m x aae aad stable repciEc —
of the Jaaaesoa Raid ia
i a agaa* aaponusity to secare
r -„ .■' aot reform. Bet the
at cat, aad despite the iater-
jbc ^%|»^^w.' gnevaaces
^^ «f the Tnasvaal lor
betweea tbe Traas-
hyieasttactf tbe
*■ ***" 1 " W fl !£ Jimi (afterwards Lord*
n ******' - mtatajvffv. Krager
-(8- r « h» «■> hb
.aa***-*- "*__.,, njpi to come to any
hbtoryofajaaaeat
the Traasraal presad
A2£red aEaer aaaoi
katrx:
aathe
: ia the ieaa
aff tae
k shaaa. Ewny aaap
■as aaet by the ac jeci
af the TxxasaaaL T
Xracex's aZy^sg cry aLtjjtwei he a
degree piraied, rahrr anca n&aa a
ari-sj U^laajcs to the fryar^jy. la
a degree, aovU destroy the
October 1S99, after a keg aad fc
the Bdtish tj ■■r% war aih
ia hy aa chisziaai nvai the T anin'
the ajiasatgai XaLat aad tbe Cape Caiaaj
Boea both af the Tcaasaaal aad the Face State Yd <kx c
the aaost TwnSf nman ande ky Kracer at the B jcz
ic^ovoet wbat God says. 'Accaoed he he that iiawmil ii
aeigbboars hnri-mi ' As laag as yaar Tmt^tmy £m >..
w-Z see that we shal arnr be the amrfrna; party aa aac^r
Eaashad." The coarse of the war taat u&aed b descs> J
oder TmaxTrajU. Ia 190a, BkcB=$oclaa aad Prelaia aa^.-{
beea occupied by Brkish troops. Krager. too aid to go .2
coosaiaado, aiih the caaseat of
Earopc, vast he t a ifaivo a aed to UM? a rr the a^aanaaeaa poses
to tsterreae oa his besaif, bd
Frooi this taae he ceased to
He took ap his resideace at Ctncat, where he dartatrd a ax.-.
of his career, paW-sbH ia tooa aader lha tkie of Tar if£m-.
«f Pad Kngtr. Be <5ed oa the 14th af Jafy 1904 at Cans,
aear Vrrry, oa the shores af the Ukt af Gcaewa, wakbc h
bad race for the sake of he health. He aas baaed at Pre*--
oa the k£owi=*; 16th of December, DiaeaaaH Dtay, tae ai^
Tersary of the day ia 1&3S when tbe Bom crashed the l~
kiae I>j^aaa-a %bt a* wakh baaer. taea a bad of th«:
had firm part, laager was thrice amxied, aad had a ^?
faanly. IBs secoad atae died ia iSol vVaea he arc -
Earope he left has third aae ia Load Roberts a casftady at Is
toria, bat she gradsaSy faikd, aad «aed there (Jaiy 1901V -
aas in her grawe that the body of her hasbaad aas laid. 1: -
recorded that vaea a statae to rmakai Kraeer at Pre. ~.
was erected, it aas by Mrs. Krajer*s wish that the bat was ~
opea at the top, ia order that the raia- water aatght ca3ea -^*
for the bads to driak.
Se* l.F. mOank. F. Kiwyr m it 1 6I 111 tt d-Zm£d~Afrik*a- 1
JUpmixuk CAsszcniaau lS«>e.; the Mcmtirs already mezr—
F. R- Stathas, Pzml Knger *md Us Ttmts (i«9«); aad. »r- -.
w-rto with a wider scofie. G. M- Taeal. History if Sm+ A --
*f -x «**-« down to i«t? oiwy>: Sir ). P. Faiaauat.. Tar T—x- •
<r*m U.uiM (1^99); TV Tima BuXmj a/ At Wmr cm Sawa A- .
\1900~9, ; aad A- P. H-ikr. 3«ata .i/ncca Sfaa&s C1900}-
KBUwBXSDORP. a towa of the Traasvaal; ax ao. K.W :
Jobaaaesbarg by rai Pop. (1404), 20,073. of waocn 6046 *
wbhes. It is bulk oa the Urtwalersrand at
57og ft. above tbe sea, aad b a aaaiag ceatre of s
It h abo ibe staniag-poiat of a railway toZeemst aad Miii^
Krcgersdorp was iooaded ia 1&S7 at the time of the <a»cc -
of gcM oa tbe Rand aad is aaaaed after Prcsadeat Kr^:
^Vvhia the anoacipal area is tae Paardekiaal mom ii nn it ere .:
to cossavatorate the victory gaiaed by the Boers aader A^i'
Pretorias ia 183S over the Zala bag Diagaan, aad on tbe r-
Ptcsident of Dcceatber each year, kept as a poboc bofiday, large war-*
president Reita, of Boers asseirh'e at tbe m o nhtrrat to cekbeate the t* "
fvv to assist Here ia December 1 S80 a great meeting of Boers resolved iz-
l ^~J aakss the I to proclaim tbe iDdepeadeace of the Traasvaal. Tbe i- - -
* iB c part of the I pradamaiioa was made 00 DtRgaaa*s Day, aad after tbe 6c. *
**** ... A <k»««Il l «/ tK* Tt n *kk «t MimVj H : :i in lS«I thai vvlm «« *.-
KRUMAU— KRUMMACHER
933
was restored by the British authorities. It was at Doornkop,
near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his " raiders "
sarrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the and of January
1896 (see Transvaal: History). At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W.
of Krugersdorp, are • limestone caves containing beautiful
stalactites.
KRUMAU (in Czech, KrumM) , is a town in Bohemia situated
on the banks of the Moldau (Vrtava). It has about 8000
inhabitants, partly of Czech, partly of German nationality.
Krumau is principally celebrated because its ancient castle
was long the stronghold of th© Rosenberg family, known also
as pani s ruze, the lords of the rose. Henry n. of Rosenberg
(d. 13 10) was the first member of the family to reside at Krumau.
His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a city.
The last two members of the family were two brothers, William,
created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg m 1556 (d. 1502), and Peter
Vok, who played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their
librarian was Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on
the annals of the Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a
strong adherent of the Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly
before his death (16x1), because the Jesuits had established
themselves in the neighbourhood.
The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was
bought by the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius
of Austria. In 1622 the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the
lordship to his minister, Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in
162 5 raised it to the rank of an hereditary duchy in his favour.
From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1710 to Prince
Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke
of Krumau in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family
bears the title of duke of Krumau. The castle, one of the
largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves much of its ancient
character.
See W. Brezan, Zivot Viknut z Rosenberka (Life of WOIiara of
Rosenberg), 1847 ; also Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka (I ife.of Peter
Vok of Rosenberg), 1880.
KRUMBACHER, CARL (1856-1009), German Byzantine
scholar, was born at KOrnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of Sep-
tember 1856. He was educated at the universities of Munich
and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the middle age and
modern Greek language and literature in the former from 1897
to his death. His greatest work is his Gesckichle der byzantini-
schen LUteralur (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern
Empire, 1453). a second edition of which was published in 1807,
with the collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and
H. Gclzcr (general sketch of Byzantine history, a.d. 395-1453).
The value of the work is greatly enhanced by the elaborate
bibliographies contained in the body of the work and in a
special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the Bytanlini-
seke Zcilschrifl (1892) and the Bytantinisckes Archiv (1898).
He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece
appeared in his Gricckischc Rcise (1886). Other works by him
are: Casta (1897), a treatise on a 9th-century Byzantine
poetess, with the fragments; Michael Glykas (1894); " Die
griechische Litteratur des Mittelalters " in P. Hinnebcrg's.
Die Kultur der Gegenwart, i. 8 (1905); Das Problem der neu-
griechischen Sckriftsprache (1002), in which he strongly opposed
the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical style into
modern Greek literature, and Popular c Aufsdtzc (1909).
KRUMEN (Kroomen, Ksooboys, Krus, or Croos), a negro
people of the West Coast of Africa. They dwell in villages
scattered along the coast of Liberia from below Monrovia
nearly to Cape Palmas. The name has been wrongly derived
from the English word " crew/' with reference to the fact that
Krumen were the first West African people to take service in
European vessels. It is probably from Kraoh, the primitive
name of one of their tribes. Under Krumen are now grouped
many kindred tribes, the Grebo, Basa, Nifii, &c, who collec-
tively number some 40,000. The Krus proper live in the narrow
I strip of coast between the Sino river and Cape Palmas, where
I are their five chief villages, Kruber, Little Kru, Settra Kru,
I Nana Kru and King William's Town. ^ They are traditionally
from the interior, but have long been noted as skilful seamen
and daring fishermen. They are a stout, muscular, broad-
chested race, probably the most robust of African peoples.
They have true negro features— skin of a blue-black hue and
woolly and abundant hair. The women are of a lighter shade
than negro women generally, and in several respects come
much nearer to a European standard. Morally as well as
physically the Krumen are one of the most remarkable races
in Africa. They are honest, brave, proud, so passionately fond
of freedom that they will starve or drown themselves to escape
capture, and have never trafficked in slaves. Politically the
Krus are divided into small commonwealths, each with an
hereditary chief whose duty is simply to represent the people in
their dealings with strangers. The real government is vested
in the elders, who wear as insignia iron rings on their legs.
Their president, the head fetish-man, guards the national
symbols, and his house is sanctuary for offenders till their guilt
is proved. Personal property is held in common by each family.
Land also is communal, but the rights of the actual cultivator
cease only when he fails to farm it.
At 14 or 15 the Kru " boys •* eagerly contract themselves for
voyages of twelve or eighteen months. Generally they prefer
work near at home, and are to be found on almost every ship
trading on the Guinea coast. As soon as they have saved
enough to buy a wife they return home and settle down.
Krumen ornament their faces with tribal marks— black or blue
lines on the forehead and from ear to ear. They tattoo their
arms and mutilate the incisor teeth. As a race they are
singularly intelligent, and exhibit their enterprise in numerous
settlements along the coast. Sierra Leone, Grand Bassa and
Monrovia all have their Kru towns. Dr Bleek classifies the Kru
language with the Mandingo family, and in this he is followed
by Dr R. G. Latham; Dr KOUe, who published a Kru grammar
(^854), considers it as distinct.
See A. de Quatrcfages and E. T. Ham'y, Crania elhnica, ix. 363
(l 878-1 879); Schlagintwcit-Sakuntunski, in the Sittungsberichte of
the academy at Munich (1875); Nicholas, in Bull, de la Soe. d'Ah-
throp. (Paris, 1872); J, Btittikofer, Reisebilder aus Liberia (Leiden,
1890) ; Sir H. H. Johnston, Liberia (London, 1906).
KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1767-1845), German
theologian, was born on the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg,
Westphalia. Having studied theology at Lingcn and Halle,
he became successively rector of the grammar school at Mors
(*793)» professor of theology at Duisburg (1800), preacher at
CTefeld, and afterwards at Kcttwig, Consistorialrath and super-
intendent in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the
university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen
(1824). He died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He
was the author of many religious works, but is best known
by his Parabeln (1805; 9th ed. 1876; Eng. trans. 1844).
A. W. M Slier published his life and letters in 1849.
Ks brother Gottfried Daniel Krummacher (1774-1837),
who studied theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively
in BIrl (1798), Wttlfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the
leader of the " pietists " of Wupperthal, and published several
volumes of sermons, including one entitled Die Wanderungen
Israels dutch d. WUsU nock Kanaan (1834).
Friedrich Wilhelm Krummacher (i 796-1868), son of Fried-
rich Adolf, studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became
pastor successively at Frankfort (18x9), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke,
near Barmen in the Wupperthal (1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In
1847 he received an appointment to the Trinity Church in
Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at Potsdam. He
was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His
best-known works are Elias der Tkisbiler (1828-1833; 6th ed.
1874; Eng. trans. 1838); Elisa (1837) and Das Passionsbueh, der
kidende Christus (1854, in English The Suffering Saviour, 1870).
His Autobiography was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871).
Emil Wilhelm Krummacher (17Q8-1886), another son, was
born at Mors in 1708. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg.
He wrote, amongst other works. Herzcnsmanna aus Lathers
*>.H
KRUPP— KUBAN
r.^K^ (iS$i>. His ton Hermann (18*8-1890), who was ap-
^
*d C*+sist*i*lr*tk in Stettin in 1877, was the author of
;\ ****** U*** m Xtrdamerika (1874).
KRQF*% ALPRIO (1811-1887), German metallurgist, was
Km* at E»« on the toth of April 18x2. His father, Friedrich
Krupp (i;Sj-iSj6), had purchased a small forge in that town
ataut iSio, and devoted himself to the problem of manufactur-
ing cast steel; but though that product was put on the market
by aim in 1815, it commanded but little sale, and the firm was
tar from prosperous. After his death the works were carried
on by his widow, and Alfred, as the eldest son, found himself
obUged, a boy of fourteen, to leave school and undertake their
direction. For many years his efforts met with little success,
and the concern, which in 1845 employed only 122 workmen,
did scarcely more than pay its way. But in 1847 Krupp made a
3 pdr. muasle-loading gun of cast steel, and at the Great Exhi-
bition of London in 1851 he exhibited a solid flawless ingot of
cost steel weighing a tons. This exhibit caused a sensation in
the industrial world, and the Essen works sprang into tame.
Another successful invention, the manufacture of weldkss steel
tires for railway vehicles, was introduced soon afterwards.
The profits derived from these and other steel manufactures
were devoted to the expansion of the works and to the develop-
ment of the artillery with which the name of Krupp is especially
associated (see Okdnanck). The model settlement, which is
one of the best-known features of the Krupp works, was started
in the 'sixties, when difficulty began to be found in housing the
increasing number of workmen; and now there are various
"colonies," practically separate villages, dotted about to the
south and south-west of the town, with schools, libraries, recrea-
tion grounds, dubs, stores, &c .. The policy also was adopted
of acquiring iron and coal mines, so that the firm might have
command of supplies of the raw material required for its opera-
tions. Alfred Krupp, who was known as the *' Cannon King,"
died at Essen on the 14th of July 1SS7, and was succeeded by
his onry son w Fricdrich Alfred Krupp ( 1854-1002), who was born
at Essen on the 17th of February 1854. The latter devoted
himself to the financial rather than to the technical side of the
business, and under him it again underwent enormous expansion.
Among other things he in 1806 leased the " Germania " ship-
building yard at Kiel, and in 1901 it passed into the complete
ownership of the firm. In the latter year, which was also the
year of his death, on the 22nd of November, the total number
of men employed at Essen and its associated works was over
40,000* His elder daughter Bertha, who succeeded him, was
married i» October 1006 to Dr Gustav von Bohkn und Halharh,
«ho on that orrasjoq received the right to bear the name
Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. The enormous increase in the
Cxtoaa navy involved further expansioa in the operations of
tW Krupp firm as manufacturers of the armour plates and guns
recced toe the new ships, and in iqoS its capital, then starring
at .^{oxooow was augmented by £r .500.000.
KU WUmil M* AAAH IVAM (1770-1846), Russian navi-
tnN< h>\fc*«rapber and admiral, was bom at Haggod in
*>.V**u«ntsttrothof November 1770. In 1785 he entered the
vvt«* v* naval cadets, after leaving which, in 1788, with the
*• •*
V -
S-^run, he served in the war against Sweden.
t* *««« *pft*uttd to serve in the British fleet for several
,Ntjr-***»Vw* visited Aawzrka, India and China. After
*«cst*fei* a ^V« pwting out the advantages oi direct o
*„.^ va Vttwsen Russia and China by Cape Horn and the
O t s ,s v^lfcfOwwasaWoiatedbytheexnperor Alexander L
v «*« ,* a w*«s* H the east coast of Asia to endeavour to
,-.* *» *v:*v*tvt. Tw*Vj*Iish ships were bought, in wkkh
v\^i .*» fc.% kN«t>^ « August 1S03 and proceeded by
s, ,n kx-i » •* >* $***«vh l*Ua>& to Kam>-hatka and tbeoce
s ,*,.*. -C - 1.**;* N* F*-vT* by the Cape of Good Hope.
. . * » ». ..^vx, *v*s <* ciyAwatvas. Krcscas:em reached
.„ „ .* . >v «,y {V ivtii Tbe emperor cetNrrrri
v , s , fc , ss» U a>k : W vl.i-nateiv became iirural
• v . , ^' v Ns.-t t^x*: kSmI Kru*t3*era d>i =r-ci
useful work. Ha wo also a member of the sci e ntific <
of the marine department, and his contrivance
acting the influence of the iron in vessels on the <
adopted in the navy. He died at Reval on the 94th oi Angst
1846.
Krusenstern's Voj*t* Ronmd tiu World m 1801-1806 was
at St Petersburg in 1810-1814, ia 3 vohv, with folio adas of 104
plates and maps (Eng. ecU a vols. 1813; French cd-. a vok,
and atlas of 30 plates, 1820). His narrative contains a good aun
important discoveries and rectifications, especially tn tbe iixJuai of
Japan, and the contributions made by the various savants woe of
much scientific importance. A vahtabfe vorkis ak4a^«*rOcssB
Pecifame, with its accompanying Rscwml des mimeves a sow
*kques (St Petersburg, 1824-1827). See Memoir by bis <
Madame Charlotte Bernhardt, translated by Sir John Ross (1
KRU8HEVATS (or Kat&xvac), a town of Servia, lyase hi a
fertile region of hills and dales near the right bank oi the Servian
Morava. Pop. (1900), about icsooo. Krushevats is the capital
of a department bearing the name name, and has an active trade
in tobacco, hemp, flax, grain and li ve st o ck , lor the auk oi which
it possesses about a doaen markets. It was hi FrwnW mi that
the last Servian tsar, Laxar, assembled his army to anarch
against the Turks, and lose his empire, at Kosovo* na 13&0.
Tin ill nflii fislin ii misik 1 I lij ■ miiwrt rnrlrnnif 1— uini \
a fragment of the tower of Qneen MiKtsa, whiten . inwisnt *■
legend, tidings of the defeat were brought her by crows froaa the
battlefield. Within the enclosure stands a church, dating bum
the reign of Stephen Dushan (1336-1356)* with b ennlif aj mat
windows and with imperial prs/wfct , dramwii and eagks
sculptured on the wan*. Several old Turkish bouses were left
at the beginning of the 20th century, besides an afioeat Tuxfcjsa
fountain and bath. _
KSHATTRIYa, one of the four original Indian castes, the
other three being the Brahman, the Vaisya and the Sodas. The
Kshattriya was the warrior caste, and theb function was nt
protect the people and abstain from sensual pseaamres. On
the rise of Brahmin ascendancy the Kshattriyas were uptime .
and their consequent revolt gave rise to gndftmsm sad jajnessv
the founders of both these religions belonging to the g«*»— ■■ij*
caste. Though, according to tradition, the Kshattriyas went
all exterminated by Paraswraana, the rank is now convened as
the modern Rajputs, and also tn the ruling f a mi n es, of amove
st ates. (See Caste.)
KTJBAM. a river of southern Russia, rising on the W. shape of
the Elbruz, in the Caucasus, at an altitude of 13,030 #t_, xaas
down the X. face of the Caucasus as a mowatim snsscne set
upon getting down to the k>wer-fying steppe coamtay S. sf
Suvropol it turns, at 1075 ft. altitude, towards the N.W,
and eventually, assuming a westerly course, enters the Guff
of Kyzyl-tash, on the Back Sea, in the vicinity of the Straws «i
Kerch. Its lower course bea for am
where in times of ov eifl u w its breadth i
700 ft. to over half a mik. Its total length is son- saw the sues
of iubasm 2i^Soaq.m. It is narigahsesor steamers fine u as,
as far as the confluence of its tributary, the Lake ; joo an. Jang
This. Uke its other ifllnrnfs, the Byesaya (155 a*4, Ccopv ana
Great and Littk Zesenchnk. joins it from the left. Tbr Tail
b the ancient Hypams and VardaneS and the Pssasmcbe of tat
KUBAfi. a province of 1
Aaov on the W„ the territory of Dam CnstsrH on the K, the
govtrxment of Stavropol and the ptuai n ca of Terek on. the K.
aadtaeffiMrsanrnt of Kntaisand theBkckSea niitjk.t oa the
S. and S.W. It thus omuains the I
on the Sea of Aaov, the western pnromi of the 1
of northern Canrrwi, and the northern asnpti of tme <
ra=«e troea its north-west 1 immitj to the Efteunv Tbe asea
is iCiro kj. m. ^- >«- *- -* — | 1 r "^^lTbmnV
r^zges of the Black Mou£a£as (Karaangh*, 3000 un 000* £.
i^i. niici are is: ersectevi by gorges that gsow deeper aanawonr
as the maia cane: is approached. Owsng an a 1
cl-ra.*e a=d a^sgr o us sue
cjc^cJ *kh woods, c^ier tbe sbadsw ot
KUBELIK— KUBLAI KHAN
935
undergrowth of rhododendrons, "Caucasian palms" (Bmxus
sempervirens), ivy, clematis, &e., develops, so as to render the
forests almost impassable. These cover altogether nearly 20%
of the aggregate area. Wide, treeless plains, from 1000 to
2000 ft. high, stretch north of the Kubaft, and are profusely
-watered by that river and its many tributaries — the Little and
Great Zelenchuk, Urup, Laba, Byelaya, Pshish — mountain
torrents that rush through narrow gorges from the Caucasus
range. In its lower course the Kubaft forms a wide, low delta,
covered with rushes, haunted by wild boar, and very unhealthy.
The same characteristics mark the low plains on the east of the
Sea of Azov, dotted over with numerous semi-stagnant lakes.
Malaria is the enemy of these regions, and is especially deadly
on the Tamaft Peninsula, as also along the left bank of the lower
and middle Kubaft.
There is considerable mineral wealth. Coal is found on the
Kubaft and its tributaries, but its extraction is still insignificant
(less than 10,000 tons per annum). Petroleum wells exist in the
district of Maikop, but the best are in the Tamaft Peninsula,
where they range over 570 sq. m. Iron ores, silver and zinc
are found; alabaster is extracted, as also some salt, soda and
Epsom salts. "The best mineral waters are at Psekup and
Tamaft, where there arc also numbers of mud volcanoes, ranging
from small hillocks to hills 365 ft. high and more. The soil
is very fertile in the plains, parts of which consist of black earth
and are being rapidly populated.
The population reached 1,928,419 in 1897. of whom 1,788,622
were Russians, 13,926 Armenians, 20,137 Greeks and 20,778
Germans. There were at the same date 945,873 women, and
only 156,486 people lived in towns. The estimated population
in 1006 was 2,275,400. The aborigines were represented by
100,000 Circassians, 5000 Nogai Tatars and some Ossetes.
The Circassians or Adyghe, who formerly occupied the mountain
valleys, were compelled, after the Russian conquest in 1861,
either to settle on the flat land or to emigrate; those who
refused to move voluntarily were driven across the mountains
to the Black Sea coast. Most of them (nearly 200,000) emigrated
to Turkey, where tbey formed the Bashi-bazouks. 'Peasants
from the interior provinces of Russia occupied the plains of
the Kubaft, and they now number over 1,000,000, while the
Kubaft Cossacks in 1897 numbered 804,372 (405,428 women).
In point of religion 00% of the population were in 1897
members of the Orthodox Greek Church, 4% Raskolniks and
other Christians and 5*4% Mahommedans, the rest being Jews.
Wheat is by far the chief crop (nearly three-quarters of the
total area under crops are under wheat); rye, oats, barley,
millet, Indian corn, some flax and potatoes, as also tobacco, are
grown. Agricultural machinery is largely employed, and the
province is a reserve granary for Russia. Livestock, especially
sheep, is kept in large numbers on the steppes. Bee-keeping is
general, and gardening and vine-growing are spreading rapidly.
Fishing in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov, as also in the Kubaft, is
important.
Two main lines of railway intersect the province, one running
N.W. to S.E., from Rostov to Vladikavkaz, and another starting
from the former south-westwards to Novorossiysk on the north
coast of the Black Sea. The province is divided into seven
districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in
1897, are Ekaterinodar, capital of the province (65,697), Anapa
(6676), Labinsk (6388), Batalpashinsk (8x00), Maikop (34,191),
Tcmryuk (14,476) and Yeisk (35*446).
The history of the original settlements of the various native
tribes, and their language and worship before the introduction
of Mahommedanism, remain a blank page in the legends of the
Caucasus. The peninsula of Tamaft, a land teeming with relics
of ancient Greek colonists, has been occupied successively by the
Cimmerians, Sarmatians, Khaxars, Mongols and other nations.
The Genoese, who established an extensive trade in the 13th
century, were expelled by the Turks in 1484, and in 1784 Russia
obtained by treaty the entire peninsula and the territory on
the right bank of the Kubaft, the latter being granted by Cathe-
rine II. in x 793 to the Cossacks of the Dnieper. Then commenced
the bloody struggle with the Circassians, which continued for
more than half a century. Not only domestic, but even field
work, is conducted mostly by the women, who are remarkable
for their physical strength and endurance. The native moun-
taineers, known under the general name of Circassians, but
locally . distinguished as the Karachai, Abadsikh, Khakuchy,
Shapsugh, have greatly altered their mode of life since the
pacification of the Caucasus, still, however, maintaining Mahom-
medanism, speaking their vernacular, and strictly observing the
customs of their ancestors. Exports include wheat, tobacco,
leather, wool, petroleum, timber, fish, salt and live cattle;
imports, dry goods, grocery and hardware. Local industry is
limited to a few tanneries, petroleum refineries and spirit
distilleries. " (P. A. K.; J. T. B«.)
KUBELIK, JAN (x88o^ ), Bohemian violinist, was born
near Prague, of humble parentage. He learnt the violin from
childhood , and appeared in public at Prague in x 883, subsequently
being trained at the Conservatorium by the famous teacher
Ottakar Sevcik. From him he learnt an extraordinary tech-
nique, and from 1898 onwards his genius was acclaimed at
concerts throughout Europe. He first appeared in London in
1000, and in America in 1901, creating a furore everywhere.
In 1903 be married the Countess Czaky Szcll.
KUBERA (or Ku vera), in Hindu mythology, the god of wealth.'
Originally he appears as king of the powers of evil, a kind of
Pluto. His home is Alaka in Mount Kailasa, and his garden,'
the world's treasure-house, is Chaitraratha, on Mount Mandara.
Kubera is half-brother to the demon Ravana, and was driven
from Ceylon by the latter. •
KUBLAI KHAN (or &aan, as' the supreme ruler descended
from Jenghiz was usually distinctively termed in the 13th century)
(x 2X6-X 294), the most eminent of the successors of Jenghiz
(Chinghiz), and the founder of the Mongol dynasty in China. 1
He was the second son of Tula, youngest of the four sons of
Jenghiz by his favourite wife. Jenghiz was succeeded in the
khanship by his third son Okkodai, or Ogdai (1229), he by his
son Kuyuk (1246), and Kuyuk by Mangu, eldest son of Tide*
(1252). Kublai was born in 1216, and, young as he was, took
part with his younger brother Hulagu (afterwards conqueror
of the caliph and founder of the Mongol dynasty in Persia)
in the last campaign of Jenghiz (1226-27). The Mongol poetical
chronicler, Sanang Setzen, records a tradition that Jenghiz
himself on his deathbed discerned young Kublai's promise
and predicted his distinction. .
Northern China, Cathay as it was called, had been partially
conquered by Jenghiz himself, and the conquest had been
followed up till the Kin or " golden " dynasty of Tatars, reigning
at K'ai-fSng Fu on the Yellow River, were completely subju-
gated (1234). But China south of the Yangtsze-kiang remained
many years later subject to the native dynasty of Sung, reigning
at the great city of Lingan, or Kinsai (King-sz\ "capital"),
now known as Hang-chow Fu. Operations to subdue this
region had commenced in 1235, Dut languished till Mangu's
accession. Kublai was then named his brother's lieutenant in
Cathay, and operations were resumed. By what seems a vast
and risky strategy, of which the motives are not quite clear,
the first campaign of Kublai was directed to the subjugation
of the remote western province of Yunnan. After the capture
of Tali Fu (well known in recent years as the capital of a Mahom-
medan insurgent sultan), Kublai returned north, leaving the
war in Yunnan to a trusted general. Some years later (1257)
the khan Mangu himself entered on a campaign in west China,
and died there, before Ho-chow in Szech'uen (1259).
Kublai assumed the succession, but it was disputed by his
brother Arikbugha and by his cousin Kaidu, and wars with
these retarded the prosecution of the southern conquest. Doubt-
less, however, this was constantly before Kublai as a great task
to be accomplished, and its fulfilment was in his mind when
he selected as the future capital of his empire the Chinese city
that we now know as Peking. Here, in 1264, to the north-east
of the old city, which under the name of Yenking had been an
occasional residence of the Kin sovereigns, he founded his new
93*
KUBUS— KUCHAN
ca^taL a pe*t urtinguhr plot of 18 m. in circuit. The (so-
caJed) ** Tatar city ** of modern Peking is the dty of KubUi,
with about one-third at the north cut off, but Kublai's walls are
aiso on this retrenched portion still traceable.
The new city, officially termed T'ai-tu ("great court"),
but known among the Mongols and western people as Kaan-
batigh C city of the khan ") was finished in 1267. The next
year war against the Sung Empire was resumed, but was long
retarded by the strenuous defence of the twin cities of Siang-yang
and Fan-cheng, on opposite sides of the river Han, and command-
ing two great lines of approach to the basin of the Yangtsze-
kiang. The siege occupied nearly five years. After this
Bayan, Kublai's best lieutenant, a man of high military genius
and noble character, took command. It was not, however,
till 1*76 that the Sung capital surrendered, and Bayan rode
into the city (then probably the greatest in the world) as its
conqueror. The young emperor, with his mother, was sent
prisoner to Kaan-baligh; but two younger princes had been
despatched to the south before the fall of the city, and these
successively were proclaimed emperor by the adherents of the
native throne. An attempt to maintain their cause was made
in Fu~kien, and afterwards in the province of Kwang-tung;
but in 1279 these efforts were finally extinguished, and the
faithful minister who had inspired them terminated the struggle
by jumping with his young lord into the sea.
Even under the degenerate Sung dynasty the conquest of
southern China had occupied the Mongols during half a century
of intermittent campaigns. But at last Kublai was ruler of all
China, and probably the sovereign (at least nominally) of a
greater population than had ever acknowledged one man's
supremacy. For, though his rule was disputed by the princes
of his house in Turkestan, it was acknowledged by those on the
Volga, whose rule reached to the frontier of Poland, and by the
family of his brother Hulagu, whose dominion extended from
the Oxus to the Arabian desert. For the first time in history
the name and character of an emperor of China were familiar
a_< far west as the Black Sea and not unknown in Europe.
The Chinese seals which Kublai conferred on his kinsmen
mining at Tabriz are stamped upon their letters to the kings
oJ France, and survive in the archives of Paris. Adventurers
trwn Turkestan, Persia, Armenia, Byzantium, even from
\<-v,v*v served him as ministers, generals, governors, envoys,
a^rctoomers or physicians; soldiers from all Asia to the Cau-
casus fought his battles in the south of China. Once in his old
age v»*$;) Kublai was compelled to take the field in person
a^junit a serious revolt, raised by Nayan, a prince of his family,
« V> WM a vast domain on the borders of Manchuria. Nayan
*** taken and executed. The revolt had been stirred up by
Kaixtu* *ho survived his imperial rival, and died in 1301.
KuMai himself died in 1 204, at the age of seventy-eight.
Though a great figure in Asiatic history; and far from deserving
a nkhe in the long gallery of Asiatic tyrants, Kublai misses a
revwvi in the short list of the good rulers. His historical locus
«at a h*W one, for, whilst he was the first of his race to rise
*tv\x the innate btrb*""" of the Mongols, he retained the force
ami narfcke character of his ancestors, which vanished utterly
in iV cftcvunacy of those who came after Mm. He had great
ii*tv;>^«K* and a keen desire for knowledge, with apparently
a f>wl dial of natural benevolence and magnanimity. But his
k*\« of splendour, and his fruitless expeditions beyond sea,
vtwsttd e*>rw«ow demands for money, and he shut his eyes
h> tSe character and methods of those whom he employed to
m^ it, A reanarkabk narrative of the oppressions of one
W ;W \H**d of Fenlket, and of the revolt which they pro-
\olw* w *v*n by Marco Pote, in substantial accordance with
tV v'S 's-** an*v*K
KuK ** tMt?v«u«4 Cmnese Eterature and culture generally.
TV rv^t Avi-vwnkal instruments which he caused to be made
V<v W V^scfvcd st feking, but were carried off to Berlin
u ..*>* fV^N fce put hardly any Chinese into the first
•* A* w Hi* wn. ^.mivh. he attached many to his confidence,
* . %** ixJ^-A..^ fcv,--Ur among them. Had W r
to procure European priests for the instruction of his |_
of which we know through Marco Polo, prospered, the Roman
Catholic church, which gained some ground under his gm-r****^
might have taken stronger root in China. Failing this momen-
tary effort, Kublai probably saw in the organized force of Tibetan
Buddhism the readiest instrument in the dvilizatioa of ha
countrymen, and that system received his special countenance.
An early act of his reign had been to constitute a young lama of
intelligence and learning the head of the Lamaite Church, and
eventually also prince of Tibet, an act which may be regarded
as a precursory form of the rule of the " grand lamas " of Lassa.
The same ecclesiastic, Mati Dhwaja, was employed by Kublai
to devise a special alphabet for use with the Mongol language.
It was chiefly based on Tibetan forms of Nagari; some coins
and inscriptions in it are extant; but it had no great vogue,
and soon perished. Of the splendour of his court and enter-
tainments, of his palaces, summer and winter, of his great
hunting expeditions, of his revenues and extraordinary paper
currency, of his elaborate system of posts and much else, aa
account is given in the book of Marco Polo, who passed many
years in Kublai's service.
We have alluded to his foreign expeditions, which were
almost all disastrous. Nearly all arose out of a hankering
for the nominal extension of his empire by claiming submission
and tribute. Expeditions against Japan were several times
repeated; the last, in 1281, on an immense scale, met with
huge discomfiture. Kublai's preparations to avenge it were
abandoned owing to the intense discontent which they created.
In 1278 he made a claim of submission upon Champa, an ancient
state representing what we now call Cochin China. This
eventually led to an attempt to invade the country through
Tongking, and to a war with the latter state, in which the
Mongols had much the worst of it. War with Burma (or Mica,
as the Chinese called it) was provoked in very similar fashion, but
the result was more favourable to Kublai's arms. The country
was overrun as far as the Irrawaddy delta, the ancient capital
Pagan, with its magnificent temples, destroyed, and the old royal
dynasty overthrown. The last attempt of the kind was against
Java, and occurred in the last year of the old khan's reign.
The envoy whom he had commissioned to claim homage was
sent back with ignominy. A great armament was equipped
in the ports of Fu-kien to avenge this insult; but after some
temporary success the force was compelled to re-embark with
a loss of 3000 men. _The death of Kublai prevented further
action.
Some other expeditions, in which force was not used, gratified
the khan's vanity by bringing back professions of homage, with
presents, and with the curious reports of foreign countries in
which Kublai delighted. Such .expeditions extended to the
states of southern India, to eastern Africa, and even to Mada-
gascar.
Of Kublai's twelve legitimate sons, Chingkim, die fa v ourit e
and designated successor, died in 1284/5; and Timor, the son
of Chingkim, took his place. No great king arose in the dynasty
after Kublai. He had in all nine successors of his bouse on the
throne of Kaan-baligh, but the long and imbecile reign of the
ninth, Toghon Timur, ended (1368) in disgrace and expulsion,
a nd the native dynasty of Ming reigned in their stead. (EL Y.)
KUBUS, a tribe inhabiting the central parts of Sumatra.
They are nomadic savages living entirely in the forests in shelters
of branches and leaves built on platforms. It has been suggested
that they represent a Sumatran aboriginal race; but Dr J. G
Garson, reporting on Kubu skulls and skeletons submitted to
him by Mr. H. O. Forbes, declared them decidedly Malay,
though the frizzle in the hair might indicate a certain mixture
of negrito blood {Jour. Antkrof. instil., April 1884). They are
of a rich olive-brown tint, their hair jet black and inclined to
curl, and, though not dwarfs, are below the average height.
KUCHAN. a fertile and populous district of the province
Khorasan in Persia, bounded N. by the Russian Transcaspiaa
territory, W. by Bujnurd, S. by Is/araln, and extending in the
n near Radkan. Its area is about 3000 sq. a. and its
KUCH BEHAR— KUENEN
937
population, principally composed of Zafaranlu Kurds, descen-
dants of tribes settled there by Shah Abbas I. in the 17 th
century, is estimated at 100,000. About 3000 families are
nomads and live in tents. The district produces much grain,
25,000 to 30,000 tons yearly, and contains two towns, Kuchan
and Shirvan (pop. 6000), and many villages.
Kuchan, the capital of the district, has suffered much from
the effects of earthquakes, notably in 1875, 1804 and 1895.
The last earthquake laid the whole town in ruins and caused
considerable loss of life. About 8000 of the survivors removed
to a site 7$ m. £. and there built a new town named Nasseriyeh
after Nasr-ud-din Shah, but known better as Kuchan i jadid,
i.e. New Kuchan, and about xooo remained in the ruined city
in order to be near their vineyards and gardens. The geo-
graphical position of the old town is 37 8' N., 58 25' E.,
elevation 4100 ft. The new town has been regularly laid out
with broad streets and spacious bazaars, and, situated as it is
half-way between Meshed and Askabad on the cart-road con-
necting those two places, has much trade. Its population is
estimated at 10,000. There are telegraph and post offices.
KUCH BEHAR, or Cooch Behas, a native state of India,
in Bengal, consisting of a submontane tract, not far from
Darjccling, entirely surrounded by British territory. Area,
1307 sq. m. Pop. (1001), 566,974; estimated revenue, £140,000.
The state forms a level plain of triangular shape, intersected
by numerous rivers. The greater portion is fertile and well
cultivated, but tracts of jungle are to be seen in the north-east
corner, which abuts upon Assam. The soil is uniform in char-
acter throughout, consisting of a light, friable loam, varying in
depth from 6 in. to 3 ft., superimposed upon a deep bed of sand.
The whole is detritus, washed down by torrents from the- neigh-
bouring Himalayas. The rivers all pass through the state from
north to south, to join the main stream of the Brahmaputra.
Some half-dozen are navigable for small trading boats throughout
the year, and are nowhere fordablc; and there are about twenty
minor streams which become navigable only during the rainy
season. The streams have a tendency to cut new channels for
themselves after every annual flood, and they communicate
with one another by cross-country watercourses. Rice is
grown on three-fourths of the cultivated area. Jute and tobacco
are also largely grown for export. The only special industries
are the weaving of a strong silk obtained from worms fed on the
castor-oil plant, and of a coarse jute cloth used for screens
and bedding. The external trade is chiefly in the hands of
Marwari immigrants from Rajputana. Among other improve-
ments a railway has been constructed, with the assistance of a
loan from the British government. The earthquake of the
1 2th of June 1897 caused damage to public buildings, roads, &c,
in the state to the estimated amount of £100,000.
The Koch or Rajbansi, from which the name of the state
is derived, are a widely spread tribe, evidently of aboriginal
descent, found throughout all northern Bengal, from Purnea
district to the Assam valley. They are akin to the Indo-Chinese
races of the north-east frontier; but they have now become
largely hinduized, especially in their own home, where the
appellation " Koch " has come to be used as a term of reproach.
Their total number in all India was returned in 1901 as nearly
a I millions.
1 As in the case of many other small native states, the royal
family of Kuch Behar lays claim to a divine origin in order to
conceal an impure aboriginal descent. The greatest monarch
of the dynasty was Nar Narayan, the son of Visu Singh, who
began to reign about 1550. He conquered the whole of Kamrup,
built temples in Assam, of which ruins still exist bearing inscrip-
tions with his name, and extended his power southwards over
what is now part of the British districts of Rangpur and Purnea.
His son, Lakshrai Narayan, who succeeded him in Kuch Behar,
became tributary to the Mogul Empire. In 1772 a competitor
for the throne, having been driven out of the country by his
rivals, applied for assistance to Warren Hastings. A detach-
ment of sepoys was accordingly marched into the state; the
Bhutias, whose interference had led to this intervention, were
expelled, and forced to sue for peace through the mediation of
the lama of Tibet. By the treaty made on this occasion, April
*773» the raja acknowledged subjection to the Company, and
made over to it one-half of his annual revenues. In 1863, on the
death of the raja, leaving a son and heir only ten months old,
a British commissioner was appointed to undertake the direct
management of affairs during the minority of the prince, and
many important reforms were successfully introduced. The
maharaja Sir Nripendra Narayan, G.CJ.E., born in 1862, was
educated under British guardianship at Patna and Calcutta, and
became hon. lieutenant-colonel of the 6th Bengal Cavalry. In
1897-98 he served in the Tirah campaign on the staff of General
Yeatman-Biggs, and received the distinction of a C.B. He was
present at the Jubilee in 1887, the Diamond Jubilee of 1897,
and King Edward's Coronation in 1002, and became a well-known
figure in London society. In 1878 he married a daughter of
Kcshub Chunder Sen, the Brahmo leader. His eldest son was
educated in England.
The town of Kuch Behar is situated on the river Tuna, and
has a railway station. Pop. (1001), 10,458. It contains a college
affiliated .to the Calcutta University.
KUDU (koodoo), the native name for a large species of African
antelope (q.v), with large corkscrew-like horns in the male,
Male Kudu,
and the body marked with narrow vertical white lines in both
sexes. The female is hornless. Strepsiceros capensis (or S.
strepsiceros) is the scientific name of the true kudu, which ranges
from the Cape to Somaliland; but there is also- a much smaller
species (5. imberbis) in East and North-East Africa.
KUENEN, ABRAHAM (1828-1891), Dutch Protestant theo-
logian, the son of an apothecary, was born on the xoth of Sep*
tember 1828, at Haarlem, North Holland. On his father's
death it became necessary for him to leave school and take a
humble place in the business. By the generosity of friends he
was educated at the gymnasium at Haarlem and afterwards
at the university of Leiden. He studied theology, and won his
doctor's degree by an edition of thirty-four chapters of Genesis
from the Arabic version of the Samaritan Pentateuch. In 1853
he became professor extraordinarius of theology at Leiden,
and in 1855 full professor. He married a daughter of W.
Muurling, one of the founders of the Groningen school, which
made the first pronounced breach with Calvinistic theology
in the Reformed Church of Holland. Kuenen himself soon
became one of the main supports of the modern theology, of
which J. N. Scholten (18x1-1885) and Karel Willera Opzoomer
(b. 1821) were the chief founders, and of which Leiden became
the headquarters. His first great work, an historico-crilical
introduction to the Old Testament, Historisch-kritisch onder-
zock naar Met onslaan en de verzamcling van de boeken des Ouden
Verbonds (3 vols., 1861-1865; and ed., 1885-1893; German by
T. Weber and C. T. Miiller, 1885-1894), followed the lines of the
040
KUEN-LUN
„ •„ ,|.» ttiMMtOit m »♦♦.♦»♦ Milt *h»I «wlK, lis suifai* slop* from
in. I iMi-i t» nodi im Ik **■•!, whtHMmfy Uketa Iiihi-
"" ' •'- |ht m»i, lit fcliMHlHmlUmU continue*
Uin or flat basin
i4 Ak*t\> tag h.
on the iu*p of
t I. ,,| in |«(»-I|MMIHI» iiiiii^i-m.wimvwiimi
, ,, ,|hu M" ,, <' »•! ♦ *<* nM»,i« * l»»» InlUwt wn
. , ,|, \im«|«I t»»»ln tiU !•»♦ Ul»»w) *twl thw |iUin
(i,,, , \{ >,,„- »,l > mm . i« \\h midi' h» itai whnh oi
|\„ ,i| , \\ -mil l«%.*i« itt» »»*»«»' I U»«W« »A$h.
„\, |» io t. )»• »»>*.*»»U Ih* I. N I. , **t, l»W >*- **>»**» to
i
j -I
, w
I ike the
^1 », lu.u but tl» »«*** ♦* t»\-*iK overfed,
yyl luv* il^Au^ ^mns.. *■**.■*. *N>x* Vi* >ittf>
V .
. . ■» *.-* the
'* "
^ ^ ,« the
-j« Caunea-
. \
s * ^ »v*. ' t> *e<cm parts
^ H .w. *ith tbeTsai-
. >. ',v .iutti westwards
x ^ , . k. YL^cow Range or
v * l ^ i xtiii, accordingto
* „ » • v 1 .kuz-davan. The
^ -s M.rac rounded, some
^. , .» ^ic *. though the snow
. , i • bicak water/* to the
. tl *. *luch is caryied north-
> v > .ue not » arid as those
. u S»*>w falls all the year
, • I>. and water is abundant
. v in. -lage is gentle but short,
N v'.i i>» is able to grow, and
k a* ^ >* crossed by passes at
_ .^. luuiik-tagh by a pass at an
. .n^ 'south, is the Kalta-alaiban,
' s i. k .u sky's Columbus Range and
\ > ^ .ju\J (f-<- by Pyevtsov) as the
N . \ia-tagh. This last is, however,
. „J.uy range which rises along the
v . v » between the Chimen-tagh and
\ \ - >t of lower elevation than them
» ,k *e*t, the valleys on each side of
v . .. ofin one broad, ooen valley, with
v t. The Ara-tagh is crossed by a
v u In the Kalta-alagban, which b
v..t of the Kucn-lun, and is over-
v^^n the passes climb to consider-
x % ^-o. 14470, »4.43<> and 14..190 ft.,
\ **.4kl*. to 15.700 ft. This range
v > so* davan by the Muzluk-tagh,
■ s>.o and 15^50 ft. It is possible
^ x sv \ 'xl».'.»is more intimately to the
v v» . v Moscow or Achik-lcol ranges.
, „ v k . vhc Tokuz-davan, the Muzluk-
\ x ^ 'v Cbimcn-tagh form one single
* y » « * s <"> W *lso places Przhevabky's
\, * v „ .. *\.\V5 ft.). Sven Hedin, whilst
\ , \ V • V true conception, inclines to
J v v x^ K . *<■ stwti away towards the E., and
x k \ ' * ja<H«n merge westwards into
s ^, \ ,•» . V M Jiluk-Ugn and the Tokuz-
/ v sV» ,s*-V>l ranges of N. Tibet, the
* .^ vxnxv k^ V*.t it increases in elevation
" s "^ \ yv Viu<«4agh, it abuts upon and
" V ,W fv»KU't» 00 the south.
v v > » %lij:K*o comes a relatively deep
x ^ . -i a \tr>' w ^* mar k«J feature in
, ■* » t^K^n. It is crossed transversely
s t * » , ■» « xi t..^* th* basin of the twin-lakes
, v. • o „ ,v N»*mi of Tsaidara, some 5500 ft.
, v. v ^ v x ,v««^tteiitrv slopes away in both
\ v"n -^. .« s-i *\ between the Ak»*
, . .. » ^. «« « «V\w« weMwardV
kol lakes it differs from nearly all the other great latitudinal vaBeyi
that run parallel with it. because they slone generally towards the east.
Not far from the Kura-kol lakes there is a drift-sand area, though
the dunes are stationary. The upper lake of Kum-kol (Choa-kaav
kol> (ia.730 ft.), which contains fresh water, is of small area (8 ea. ca.)
and in depth nowhere exceeds 13 ft. ; but the lower lake (Avak-knm-
kol) (U.6*5 ft<). which is salt, is much bigger (283 sq. m.) and goes
down to depths of 64 and 79 ft. Farther west, lying between the
MttsWk-Uch and the Arka-tagh, is the lake of AchOc-kol (13^40 ftO.
Ifeim. broad and 50 m. in circuit.
The wtxt mat pan^id range is the lofty and imposing Arh&taj^
the FtafcrraWcv Ru^e of the Russian geographers, which has its
outward c— tiwuiriiw^ m the Marco Polo Range (general altitude
t^"3a>-ix^> k-J and Garbw-naiji Mountains of Przbevalsky. The
\.-ui-cj^\ t « the trwc backbone of the Kuen-lun system, and ia
C.*«c.* \*i is rsrrwinrt «= aeration only by the Tang-la. a long way
ii^.i*r wtt tas nsc bej^ probably an eastern wing of the Kara*
tunn Vcuaosis ct : V Puxas rc-pon. At the smaae tn»e the Arka-
^.1 » L*e actaai borier-caafe ef the Tibetan platena property so-
. j!«*i xr :b* south of it oone d *JSf kwg w i ccegio n of lofty paraBd
•^ ^-- »T.ch ridge the Tibetan tis^liads seeav to have any conoexioa
. 1 ix Kjen-Iun system. Of greac Tkagth. the Arka-cagh. which
l nountain-system rather than a rarny.
atry bicoangura-
xs greatly
. u in difierent parts, sometimes nrrtthfrnm: a sharplv c
cwt, with several lower flanking rajuja* sod sometimes consist inj
A oumerous parallel crests of nearty wnicrm ahitodc Amcogtt
these it is possible to distinguish in tie saddle of the system foor
predominant ranges, of which the secoad 5?m the north »probab2y
the principal range, though the fourth is t&e highest. The passes
across the first range (north) lie at artifdes af 15J675. 16*420, 17,320
and 18.300 ft.; across the second at rt 8>x iTjcco, 17/570 and
17,220 ft.; across the third at 16,800, 16.600, 17^65, 17.830 and
17.880 ft.; and across the fourth at i6>5#o, 16.765. 16.780, 18,100
and 18,1 to ft. The crests of the ranges he oonsparatrveiy Bttle
higher than the valleys which separate them, the al ti tudes m the
latter running at 14,040 to 16,700 ft. H not higher, and being onrjr
500 to 1000 ft. lower than the crests of the accompanying ranges.
The Arka-tagh ranges do not culminate in lofty jagged, pinnacled
peaks, bat m broad rounded, flattened domes, a citaracteristic
feature of the system throughout. These Arka-tagh mountains are
built up, at all events superficially, of sand and powdery, finely
sifted disintegrated material. Where the hard rock does crop out
on the surface, it is so excessively weathered as to be with <
recognized as rock at all The culminating summits of the ranges
generally present the appearance of a fiat, ro un de d swelling, and
when they are crowned with glaciers, as many of them are. these
shape themselves into what may be described as a mantle, a breast*
plate, or a flat cap, from which lappets and fringes project at inter-
vals; nowhere do there exist any ol the long, narrow, winding glacier
tongues which are so characteristic of the Alps of Europe. Bat not
the slightest indication has been di s co v e r ed that these mountains
were ever panoplied with ice. The process of disintegration and
levelling down has reached such an advanced stage that, if ever
there did exist evidences of former glaciation, they have now becosw
entirely obliterated, even to the complete pulverization of the
erratic blocks, supposing there were any. The view that meets the
eye southwards from the heights of the Kalta-alaghan b the pscture
of a chaos of mountain chains, ridges, crests, peaks, spt
masses, in fact, montane conformations of every posstbl
and in every possible arrangement. Immediately north of the J
tagh the country is studded with three or four exceptionally cor
uous and imposing detached mountain masses, all capped with 1
and some of them carrying small glaciers, Arnonigst then are
Shapka Mcnomakha or the Monk's Cap; the Chulak-aklcaa. which
may however be only Shapka Monoroakha seen from a different
point of view; Tdmuriik-tagh * (/.#. the Iron Mountain) ; and Carther
west, miugh-muz-tagh, which, according to Grenard, reaches an
altitude of 24,140 ft. But the relations in which these detached
mountain-masses stand to one another and to the Arka-tagh behind
them have not yet been elucidated. In the vicinity of the Uttwgh-
muz-tagh there exist numerous indications of former volcanic
activity, the eminences and summits frequently being capped wua
tuff, and smaller fragments of tuff are scattered over other parts of
the Arka-tagh ranges.
The next succeeding parallel range, the J T sao-f fctTt , wrbich ■
continued eastwards by the Bayan-khara-ula, b et we en the upper
headstreams of the Hwang-ho or Yellow River and the '
kiang. belongs orographieaily to the plateau ol Tibet.
The succession of ranges which follow one another frown thr
deserts of Takla-makan and Gobi up to the plateau proper of Tibet
rise in steps or terraces, each range being higher than the range to the
north of it and lower than the range to the south of it. The difference
in altitude between the lowest, most northerly range, the Lower
Astin-tagh, and the most southerly of the Arka-tagh ranges mawii
to nearly 7500 ft. With one exception, namely the climb out of
the Kum-kol valley to the Arka-tagh, the first three steps ate
'This is the correct form, Arka-tagh meaning the Farther or
Remoter Mountains. The form Akka-tagh ia incorrect.
* The form Tumenlik-tagh is c
KUFA— KUHN 941
942
KUHNE— KU KLUX KLAtf
K0HNB. WILLY (1837-1900), German physiologist, was bora
at Hamburg on the 28th of March 1837. After attending the
gymnasium at Liineburg, he went to Gdttingen, where his master
in chemistry was F. Wdhler and in physiology R. Wagner.
Having graduated in 1836, he studied under various famous
physiologists, including E. Du Bois-Reymond at Berlin, Claude
Bernard in Paris, and K. F. W. Ludwig and £. W. Briicke in
Vienna. At the end of 1863 he was put in charge of the chemical
department of the pathological laboratory at Berlin, under
R. von Virchow; in 1868 he was appointed professor of physiology
at Amsterdam; and in 1871 he was chosen to succeed H. von
HelmhoHz in the same capacity at Heidelberg, where he died on
the xoth of June 1900. His original wort falls into two main
groups — the physiology of muscle and nerve, which occupied the
earlier years of his life, and the chemistry of digestion, which
he began to investigate while at Berlin with Virchow. He was
also known for his researches on vision and the chemical changes
occurring in the retina under the influence of light. The
visual purple, described by Franz Boll in 1876, he attempted to
make the basis of a photochemical theory of vision, but though
he was able to establish its importance in connexion with vision
in light of low intensity, its absence from the retinal area of most
distinct vision detracted from the completeness of the theory and
precluded its general acceptance.
KUKA, or Kukawa, a town of Bornu, a Mahommedan state
of the central Sudan, incorporated in the British protectorate of
Nigeria (see Bornu). Kuka is situated in 12° 55* N. and 13
34' E., 4} m. from the western shores of Lake Chad, in the midst
of an extensive plain. It is the headquarters of the British
administration in Bornu, and was formerly the residence of the
native sovereign, who in Bornu bears the title of shehu.
The modern town of Kuka was founded c. 18 10 by Sheikh
Mahommed al Amin al Kanemi, the deliverer of Bornu from the
Fula invaders. It is supposed to have received its name from
the kuka or monkey bread tree (Adansonia digitate), of which
there are extensive plantations in the neighbourhood. Kuka
or Kaoukaou was a common name in the Sudan in the middle
ages. The number of towns of this name gave occasion for
much geographical confusion, but Idriai writing in the 12th
century, and Ibn Khaldun in the 14th century, both mention
two important towns called Kaou Kaou, of which one would
seem to have occupied a position very near to that of the modern
Kuka. Ibn Khaldun speaks of it as the capital of Bornu and as
situated on the meridian of Tripoli. In 1840 the present town
was laid waste by Mahommed Sherif, the sultan of Wadai; and
when it was restored by Sheikh Omar he built two towns separ-
ated by more than half a mile of open country, each town being
surrounded by walls of white day. It was probably owing to there
being two towns that the plural Kukawa became the ordinary
designation of the town in Kano and throughout the Sudan,
though theinhabitants used the singular JC**a. The town became
wealthyaml populous (containing some 60,000 inhabitants), being
a centre for caravans to Tripoli and a stopping-place of pilgrims
from the Hausa countries going across Africa to Mecca. The
chief building was the great palace of the sheikh. Between 1823
and 1872 Kuka was visited by several English and German
travellers. In 1893 Bornu was seized by the ex-slave Rabah
(q.t.), an adventurer from the Bahr-el-Ghazal, who chose a new
capital, Dikwa, Kuka falling into complete decay. The town
was found in ruins in 1002 by the British expedition which
replaced on the throne of Bornu a descendant of the ancient
rulers. In the same year the rebuilding of Kuka was begun
and the town speedily regained part of its former importance.
It is now one of the principal British stations of eastern Bornu.
Owing, however, to the increasing importance of Maidugari, a
town 80 m. S. S. W. of Kuka, the court of the shahu was removed
thither in 1008.
For an account of Kuka before its destruction by Rabah, see the
Travels of Hemrich Barth (new ed., London, 1890) ; and Sahara und
Sudan, by Guttav Nachtigal (Berlin, 1879), L 581-748.
KU KLUX KLAM, the name of an American secret association
of Southern whites united for self-protection and to oppose
the Reconstruction measures of the United States ^«yti.
1865-1876. The name is generally applied not only to the
order of Ku Klux Klan, but to other similar wWw that
existed at the same time, such as the Knights of the White
Camelia, a larger order than the Klan; the White Brotherhood;
the White League; Pale Faces; Constitutional Union Guards;
Black Cavalry; White Rose; The '76 Association; and bondreds
of smaller societies that sprang up in the South after the CM
War. The object was to protect the whites during the disorders
that followed the Civil War, and to oppose the policy of the
North towards the South, and the result •( the whole mo v e men t
was a more or less successful revolution against the Reconstruc-
tion and an overthrow of the governments based on negro
suffrage. It may be compared in some degree to such Euro-
pean societies as the Carbonara, Young Italy, the Tugendbrad,
the Confrenes of France, the Freemasons in Catholic countries,
and the Vehmgericht.
The most important orders were the Ku Klux Klan and the
Knights of the White Camelia. The former began in 1805 m
Pulaski, Tennessee, as a social club of young men. It had aa
absurd ritual and a strange uniform. The members accidentally
discovered that the fear of it bad a great influence over the
lawless but superstitions blacks, and soon the dob expanded
into a great federation of regulators, absorbing numerous local
bodies that had been formed in the absence of civil law and
partaking of the nature of the old English neighbourhood
police and the ante-bellum slave patrol. The White Camelia
was formed in 1867 in Louisiana and rapidly spread over the
states of the late Confederacy. The period of organization and
development of the Ku Klux movement was from 1865 to 1868;
the period of greatest activity was from 1868 to 1870, after which
came the decline.
The various causes assigned for the origin and development
of this movement were: the absence of stable government
in the South for several years after the Civil War; the corrupt
and tyrannical rule of the alien, renegade and negro, and the
belief that it was supported by the Federal troops which con-
trolled elections and legislative bodies; the disfranchisement of
whites; the spread of ideas of social and political equality
among the negroes; fear of negro insurrections; the arming of
negro militia and the disarming of the whites; outrages upoa
white women by black men; the influence of Northern adven-
turers in the Freedmen's Bureau (?.».) and the Union League
(q.v.) in alienating the races; the humiliation of Confederate
soldiers after they had been paroled— in general, the insecurity
felt by Southern whites during the decade after the col la par of
the Confederacy.
In organization the Klan was modelled after the Federal
Union. Its Prescript or constitution, adopted in 1867, and
revised in 1868, provided for the following organization: The
entire South was the Invisible Empire under a Grand Wizard,
General N. B. Forrest; each state was a Realm under a Grand
Dragon; several counties formed a Dominion under a Grand
Titan; each county was a Province under a Grand Giant; the
smallest division being a Den under a Grand Cyclops. The
staff officers bore similar titles, relics of the time when the order
existed only for amusement: Genii, Hydras, Furies, Gobfiss,
Night Hawks, Magi, Monks and Turks. The private "*—»*»—«
were called Ghouls. The Klan was twice reorganized, in xSt;
and in 1868, each time being more centralized; in i860 the
central organization was disbanded and the order then gradu-
ally declined. The White Camelia with a similar history had a
similar organization, without the queer titles. Its members wen
called Brothers and Knights, and its officials Commanders.
The constitutions and rituals of these secret orders have declara-
tions of principles, of which the following are characteristic: to
protect and succour the weak and unfortunate, especially the
widows and orphans of Confederate soldiers; to protect membeB
of the white race in life, honour and property from the encroach-
ments of the blacks; to oppose the Radical Republican parr;
and the Union League; to defend constitutional liberty, »
prevent usurpation, emancipate the whites, maintain peace
KUKU KHOTO— KULJA
and order, the laws of God, the principles of 1776, and the
political and social supremacy of the white race— in short, to
oppose African influence in government and society, and to
prevent any intermingling of the races.
During the Reconstruction the* people of the South were
divided thus: nearly all native whites (the most prominent of
whom were disfranchised) on one side irrespective of former
political faith, and on the other side the ex-slaves organized
and led by a few native and Northern whites called respectively
scalawags and carpet-baggers, who were supported by the
United States government and who controlled the Southern
state governments. The Ku Klux movement in its wider
aspects was the effort of the first class to destroy the control
of the second class. To control the negro the Klan played
upon his superstitious fears by having night patrols, parades
and drills of silent horsemen covered with white sheets, carry-
ing skulls with coals of fire for eyes, sacks of bones to rattle, and
wearing hideous masks. In calling upon dangerous blacks at
night they pretended to be the spirits of dead Confederates,
" just from Hell," and to quench their thirst would pretend to
drink gallons of water which was poured into rubber sacks con-
cealed under their robes. Mysterious signs and warnings were
sent to disorderly negro politicians. The whites who were re-
sponsible for the conduct of the blacks were warned or driven
away by social and business os tra cism or by violence. Nearly
all southern whites (except " scalawags"), whether members of
the secret societies or not, in some way took part in the Ku Klux
movement. As the work of the societies succeeded, they gradu-
ally passed out of existence. In some communities they fell into
the control of violent men and became simply bands of outlaws,
dangerous even to the former members; and the anarchical
aspects of the movement excited the North to vigorous con-
demnation. 1 The United States Congress in 1871-1872 enacted
a series of " Force Laws " intended to break up the secret
societies and to control the Southern elections. Several hundred
arrests were made, and a few convictions were secured. The
elections were controlled for a few years, and violence was
checked, but the Ku Klux movement went on until it accom-
plished its object by giving protection to the whites, reducing
the blacks to order,. replacing the whites in control of society
and state* expelling the worst of the carpet-baggers and scala-
wags, and nullifying those laws of Congress which had resulted
in placing the Southern whites under the control of a party
i composed principally of ex-slaves.
I Authoritibs.— J. C. Lester and D. L. Wilson, Ku Klux Klan
(New York, 1905) ; W. L. Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in
Alabama (New York, 1005), and Documentary History of Rtcon-
„ *y"d/» •»■- , w „
struction (Cleveland, 1906) ; T. W. Garner, Reconstruction in Missis-
sippi (New York, 1901); W. G. Brown, Lower South in American
History (New York, 1901); J. M. Beard. Ku Klux Sketches (Phila-
£1Jit9TJ \1^VW IWKi lyUl/t J. JVt. UWU| AS A4M* .JJVCKrNC* \S HIM"
delphia, 1876); J. W. Burgess, Reconstruction and the Constitution
J (New Vork. 1901). (W. L. F.)
| KUKU KHOTO (Chinese Kvei-hwa), a city of the Chinese
, province of Shan-si, situated to the north of the Great Wall, in
, 40 50* N. and xn a 45* E., about 160 m. W. of Kalgan. It lies
| in the valley of a small river which joins the Hwang-ho 50 m. to
, the south. There are two distinct walled towns in Kuku Khoto,
I at an interval of a mile and a half; the one is the seat of the civil
, governor and is surrounded by the trading town, and the other
1 The judgment of the historian William Garrott Brown, himself
I a Southerner, is worth quoting: "That violence was often used
cannot be denied. Negroes were often whipped, and so were carpet-
baggers. The incidents related in such stories as Tourgee's A
Poors Errand all have their counterparts in the testimony before
congressional committees and courts of law. In some cases, after
repeated warnings, men were dragged from their beds and slain by
persons in disguise, and the courts were unable to find or to convict
the murderers. Survivors of the orders affirm that such work was
done in most cases by persons not connected with them or acting
under their authority. It is impossible to prove or disprove their
statements. When such outrages were committed, not on worthless
adventurers, who had no station in the Northern communities from
which they came, but on cultivated persons who had gone South
from genuinely philanthropic motives— no matter how unwisely
or tactlessly they went about their work— the natural effect was to
horrify and enrage the North."
943
is the seat of the military governor, and stands in the open
country. In the first or old town more especially there are
strong traces of western Asiatic influence; the houses are not
in the Chinese style, being built all round with brick or stone
and having flat roofs, while a large number of the people are
still Mabommedans and, there is little doubt, descended from
western settlers. The town at the same time is a great seat of
Buddhism — the lamaseries containing, it is said, no less than
30,000 persons devoted to a religious life. As the southern
terminus of the routes across the desert of Gobi from Ulyasutai
and the Tian Shan, Kuku Khoto is a great mart for the exchange
of flour, millet and manufactured goods for the raw products
of Mongolia. A Catholic and a Protestant mission are main-
tained in the town. Lieut. Watts-Jones, R.E., was murdered
at Kwei-hwa during the Boxer outbreak in- 1900.
Early notices of Kuku Khoto will be found in Gerbfflon (1688-1698,
in Du Halde (voL it., Eng. ed.), and in Astley's Collection (vol. iv.)
KULJA (Chinese, Ili-ko), a territory in north-west China;
bounded, according to the treaty of St Petersburg of i88z, on
the W. by the Semiryechensk province of Russian Turkestan,
on the N. by the Boro-khoro Mountains, and on the S. by the
mountains Khan-tengri, Muz-art, Terskei, Eshik-bashi and
Narat. It comprises the valleys of the Tekez (middle and
lower portion), Kunghez, the Hi as far as the Russian frontier
and its tributary, the Kash, with the slopes of the mountains
turned towards these rivers. Its area occupies about 19,000
sq. m. (Grum-Grzimailo). The valley of the Kash is
about 160 m. long, and is cultivated in its lower parts, while
the Boro-khoro Mountains are snow-dad in their eastern
portion, and fall with very steep slopes to the valley* The
Avral Mountains, which separate the Kash from the Kunghez,
are lower, but rocky, naked and difficult of access. The
valley of the Kunghez is about 120 m. long; the river flows
first in a gorge, then amidst thickets of rushes, and very small
portions of its valley are fit for cultivation. The Narat Moun-
tains in the south are also very wild, but are covered with
forests of deciduous trees (apple tree, apricot tree, birch,
poplar, &c.) and pine trees. The Tekez flows in the mountains,
and pierces narrow gorges. The mountains which separate
it from the Kunghez are also snow-clad, while those to the
south of it reach 24,000 ft. of altitude in Khan-tengri, and are
covered with snow and glaciers — the only pass through them
being the Muzart. Forests and alpine meadows cover their
northern slopes. Agriculture was formerly developed on the
Tekez, as is testified by old irrigation canals. The lli is formed
by the junction of the Kunghez with the Tekez, and for 120 m.
it flows through Kulja, its valley reaching a width of 50 m. at
Horgos-koljat. This valley is famed for its fertility, and is
admirably irrigated by canals, part of which, however, fell
into decay after 55,000 of the inhabitants migrated to Russian
territory in 1881. The climate of this part of the valley is,
of course, continental— frosts of - 22 F. and heats of 170° F.
being experienced — but snow lasts only for one and a half
months, and the summer heat is tempered by the proximity
of the high mountains. Apricots, peaches, pears and some
vines are grown, as also some cotton-trees near the town of
Kulja, where the average yearly temperature is 48°* 5 F.
(January 25°, July 77 ). Barley is grown up to an altitude of
6500 ft.
The .population may number about 125,000, of whom
7 j,ooo are settled and about 50,000 nomads (Grum-Grzimailo).
The Taranchis from East Turkestan represent about 40 %
of the population*, about 40,000 of them left Kulja when the
Russian troops evacuated the territory, and the Chinese govern-
ment sent some 8000 families from different towns of Kashgaria
to take their place. There are, besides, about 20,000 Sibos
and Solons, 3500 Kara-kidans, a few Dungans, and more than
10,000 Chinese. The nomads are represented by about i8 t ooo
Kalmucks, and the remainder by Kirghiz. Agriculture is
insufficient to satisfy the needs of the population, and food is
imported from Semiryechensk. Excellent beds of coal are
944
KULM—KULU
found in different places, especially about Kulja, but the
fairly rich copper ores and silver ores have ceased to be
worked.
The chief towns are Suidun, capital of the province, and
Kulja. The latter (Old Kulja) is on the Di river. It is one
of the chief cities of the region, owing to the importance of its
bazaars, and is the seat of the Russian consul and a telegraph
Station. The walled town is nearly square, each side being
about a mile in length; and the waDs are not only 30 ft. high but
broad enough on the top to serve as a carriage drive. Two broad
streets cut the enclosed area into four nearly equal sections.
Since 1870 a Russian suburb has been laid out on a wide scale.
The houses of Kulja are almost all day-built and flat-roofed,
and except in the special Chinese quarter in the eastern end of
the town only a few public buildings show the influence of
Chinese architecture. Of these the most noteworthy are the
Taranchi and Dungan mosques, both with turned-up roofs,
and the latter with a pagoda-looking minaret. The population
is mainly Mabommedan, and there are only two Buddhist
pagodas. A small Chinese Roman Catholic church has main-
tained its existence through all the vicissitudes of modern
times. Paper and vermicelli are manufactured with rude
appliances in the town. The outskirts are richly cultivated
with wheat, barley, lucerne and poppies. Schuyler estimated
the population, which includes Taranchis, Dungans, Sarts,
Chinese, Kalmucks and Russians, at 10,000 in 1873; it has
since increased.
New Kulja, Manchu Kulja, or Di, which lies lower down
the valley on the same side of the stream, has been a pile
of ruins since the terrible massacre of all its inhabitants by the
insurgent Dungans in 1868. It was previously the seat of
the Chinese government for the province, with a large penal
establishment and strong garrison; its population was about
70,000.
History.— Two centuries B.C. the region was occupied by
the fair and blue-eyed Ussuns, who were driven away in the
6th century of our era by the northern Huns. Later the Kulja
territory became a dependency of Dzungaria. The Uighurs,
and in the 12th century the Kara-Khitai, took possession of
it in turn. Jenghiz Khan conquered Kulja in the 13th century,
and the Mongol Khans resided in the valley of the I1L It is
supposed (Grum-GrzimaOo) that the Oirads conquered it at the
end of the 16th or the beginning of the 17th century; they
kept it till 1755, when the Chinese annexed H. During the
insurrection of 1864 the Dungans and the Taranchis formed
here the Taranchi sultanate, and this led to the occupation of
Kulja by the Russians in 1871. Ten years later the territory
was restored to China.
KUUf (Culm), (i) A town of Germany, in the province of
West Prussia, 33 m. by rail N.W. of Thorn, on an elevation
above the plain, and 1 m. E. of the Vistula. Pop. (1905),
11,665. It is surrounded by old walls, dating from the 13th
century, and contains some interesting buildings, notably its
churches, of which two are Roman Catholic and two Protestant,
and its medieval town-hall. The cadet school, founded here
in 1776 by Frederick the Great, was removed to Koslin
in 1800. There are large oil milk, also iron foundries and
machine shops, as wefl as an important trade in agricultural
produce, including fruit and vegetables. Kulm gives name
to the oldest bishopric in Prussia, although the bishop resides
at Pclplin. It was presented about 1220 by Duke Conrad of
Masovia to the bishop of Prussia. Frederick n. pledged it
in 1226 to the Teutonic order, to whom it owes its early develop-
ment. By the second peace of Thorn in 1466 it passed to
Poland, and it was annexed to Prussia in 1772. It joined
the Hanseatic League, and used to carry on very extensive
manufactures of doth.
(2) A village of Bohemia about 3 m. N.E. of Tepfitz, at the
foot of the Erzgebirge, celebrated as the scene of a battle in
which the French were defeated by the Auslrians, Prussians
and Russians on the 29th and 30th of August 1813 (see
Napoleonic Campaigns).
See F. Stein, Kulmback tmi die Plassenbnrt i* alter wmi kw
ft* (Kulmbach, 1903); Huther, Ktdmhack mrf Uwtrdm*9 (IUa-
irh iftflfi) - nni T Mrytr, Oirffnt iwr fTrrrfcirhfr rfrr TaWf ttJmkmk
KULMBACH, or Culmbacb, a town of Germany, in the
Bavarian province of Upper Ftanconia, pktwresqoerjr sfcaafted
on the Weisser Main, and the Munkh-Bamberg-Hof nxtway,
n m. N.W. from Bayreuth. Pop. (1000), 94*8. It *— *«»«
a Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches* a wyF "m
and several schools. The town has several hnen naarnnfactorks
and a large cotton spinnery, but is chiefly famed for its many
extensive breweries, which mainly produce a black beer, not
unlike English porter, which is largely exported. Connected
with these are malting and bottling works. On a rocky ennnence.
1300 ft, in height, to the south-east of the town stands the forwjer
fortress of Plassenburg, during the 14th and 15th centuries
the residence of the margraves of Bayreuth, catted abo mar-
graves of Brandenburg-Kulmbach. It was dismantled hi 1807.
and is now used as a prison. Kulmbach and Plasnenbnrg
bdonged to the dukes of Meran, and then to the counts
of Orlamunde, from whom they passed in the 14th cental?
to the Hohenxollerns, b m gi aves of Nuremberg, and thus to the
margraves of Bayreuth.
SeeF.
Zeit{
bach,
(Munich, 1895).
KULMSBB, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
West Prussia, on a lake, 14 m. by rail N. of Thorn and at the
junction of railways to Broraberg and ifarfgwfrmg pop.
(1000), 8087. It has a fine Roman Catholic cathedral, which
was built in the 13th, and restored in the 15th century, and aa
Evangelical church. Until 1S23 the. town was the seat of the
bishops of Kulm.
KIJLP, a town of Russian Transcaucasia, in the government
of Erivan, 60 m. W.S.W. from the town of Erivan and a m. &.
of the Aras river. Pop. (1897), 3074. Close by is the Ktrip
salt mountain, about 1000 ft. high, consisting of beds of day
mtenningled with thick deposits of rock salt, which has beta
worked from time immemorial. Regular galleries are cut in
the transparent, horizontal salt layers, from which cubes of
about 70 lb weight are extracted, to the amount of 27,500 tons
e very y ear.
KTJUJ, a subdivision of Kangra district, Pun jab, British India,
which nominally indudes the two Himalayan cantons or woxmj
of Lahul and SpitL The Jdbtf of Kulu has an area of x054sq.au
of which only 60 sq. m, are cultivated; pop, (1001), 68,954. The
Sainj, which joins the Beas at Largi, divides the tract into two
portions, Kulu proper and Soraj. Kultt proper, north of the
Sainj, together with inner Soraj, forms a great basin or depre ss ion
in the midst of the Himalayan system, having the narrow gorjc
of the Beas at Largi as the only outlet for its waters. North and
east the Bars Bangahal and mid-Himalayan ranges rise to a
mean elevation of 18,000 ft, while southward the Jalori and
Dhaoladhar ridges attain a height of 11,000 ft. The higher
villages stand 0000 ft. above the sea; and even the cultivated
tracts have probably an average elevation of 5000 ft. The houses
consist of four-storeyed chalets in little groups, huddled dosdy
together on the ledges or slopes of the valleys, picturesquely bu&
with projecting eaves and carved wooden verandas. The Bos,
which, with its tributaries, drains the entire basin, rues at the
crest of the Rohtang pass, 13,326 ft. above the sea, and has aa
average fall of 125 ft. per rnfle. Its course presents a s a ccesstoa
of magnificent scenery, induding cataracts, gorges, precipkoBS
cliffs, and mountains dad with forests of deodar, towering aborr
the tiers of pine on the lower rocky ledges. It is crossed by
several suspension bridges. Great mineral wealth exists, km
the difficulty of transport and labour prevents its development.
Hot springs occur at three localities, much resorted to as places
of pilgrimage. The character of the hillmen resembles that of
most other mountaineers in its mixture of simplicity, independ-
ence and superstition. Tibetan polyandry still prevails in Soraj,
but has almost died out elsewhere. The temples are dedicated
rather to local deities than to the greater gods of the H'V 11
pantheon. Kulu is an ancient Rajput principality, which was
conquered by Ran jit Singh about 181 ». Its hereditary ruler,
KUM— KUMISHAH
94S
iHththetitkolrii,biK)wrecogriiedbyth6BrfUAgo»veniiamt
iM Japr dor of RupL
KUM, a small province in Persia, between Teheran on the N.
and Keshan on the S< It is divided into seven ***** (districts):
(i) Humeh, wflh town; (a) Kumrud; (3) Vaakerod; (4) KinarRad
Khaneh; (5) Kuhistan; (6) Jasb; (7) Ardahal; has a population of
45,000 to 50,000, and pay* a yearly revenue of about £8000.
The province produces much grain and a fine quality of cotton
with a very long staple.
Kum, the capital, in 34° W N. and 50° 55* E., on the Aaarbar
river, which rises near Khunsar, has an elevation of 3100 ft.
It owes much of its importance to the fact that it contains the
tomb of Imam Resa's sister Fatmeh, who died there jld. 8x6,
and large numbers of pilgrims visit the dty daring six or seven
months of the year. The fixed population is between 35,000 and
30,000. A carriage road 02 m~ in length, constructed in 1890-*
1893, connects the dty with Teheran. It has post and telegraph
offices.
See E&stwu Perriom Ink, R. C. S. sappL (London, 1896).
KUVAIT IBM ZaUD (670-743), Arabian poet, was born in the
reign of the first Omayyad caliph and lived in the reigns of nine
others. He was, however, a strong supporter of the house of
Hishim and an enemy of the South Arabians. He was imprisoned
by the caHpb Hishim tor his verse in praise of the Hashimites,
but escaped by the help of his wife and was pardoned by the
intercession of the caliph's son Maslama. Taking part in a
rebellion, he was killed by the troops of KhlKd ul-Qasrl.
Hb poems, the H&sMmMyylU, have been edited by J. Horovits
(Leiden, 1904). An accouot of him is confainrd in the Kitab W-
Atkd-i* xv. 113-130. (G. W. T.)
KUMAON, or Kumaun, an administrative division of British
India, in the United Provinces, with headquarters at Nairn TaL
It consists of a large Himalayan tract, together with two sub*
montane strips called the Tarai and the Bhabhar; area 13,725
sq, m.; pop. (1001), 1,207,030, showing an increase of less than
9% in the decade. The submontane strips were up to 1850 an
almost impenetrable forest, given up to wild animals; but since
then the numerous clearings have attracted a large population
from the hills, who cultivate the rich soil during the hot and cold
seasons, returning to the hills in the rains. The rest of Kumaon
is a mare of mountains, some of which are among the loftiest
known. In a tract not more than 140 m. in length and 40 m. in
breadth there are over thirty peaks rising to elevations exceed-
ing 18,000 ft. (see Himalaya). The rivers rise chiefly in the
southern slope of the Tibetan watershed north of the loftiest
peaks, amongst which they make their way down valleys of rapid
declivity and extraordinary depth. The principal are the Sarda
(Kali), the Pindar and ir " 1 ir ,> iP) whose waters join the Alak-
nanda. 'The valuable timber of the yet uncleared forest tracts
is now under official supervision. The chief trees are the ckir,
or three-leaved Himalayan pine, the cypress, fir, alder, til or
iron-wood, and soindo*. limestone, sandstone, slate, gneiss
and granite constitute the principal geological formations.
Mines of iron, copper, gypsum, lead and asbestos exist; but
they are not thoroughly worked. Except in the submontane
strips and deep valleys the climate is mild. The rainfall of the
outer Himalayan range, which is first struck by the monsoon,
is double that of the central mils, in the average proportion
of 80 in. to 40. No winter passes without snow on the higher
ridges, and in some years it is universal throughout the moun-
tain tract. Frosts, especially in the valleys, are often severe.
Kumaon is occasionally visited by epidemic cholera. Leprosy is
most prevalent in the east of the district. Goitre and cretinism
afflict a small proportion of the inhabitant*. The hill fevers at
times exhibit the rapid and malignant features of plague.
In i8ox the division was composed of the three districts of
Kumaon, Garhwal and the Tarai; but thetwodistrictsof Kumaon
and the Tarai were subsequently redistributed and renamed after
their- headquarters, Naini Tal and Almora. Kumaon proper
constituted an old Rajput principality, which became extinct
at the beginning of the 19th century. The country was annexed
after the Gurkha war of 1815, *Bd was governed for seventy
years on the nonrregulation system by three most successful
administrators— Mr Traill, Mr J. H. Batten and Sir Henry
Ramsay.
KUMASI, or Cookassje, the capital of Ashanti, British West
Africa, in 6° 34' 50' N., a° is' W., 168 m. by rail N. of Sekondi
and iso m. by road N.N.W. of Cape Coast. Pop. (1006), 6280;
including suburbs, over 12,000. Kumlsi is situated on a low
rocky eminence, from which it extends across a valley to the hill
opposite, It lies in a clearing of the dense forest which covers
the greater part of Ashanti, and occupies an area about 1} m.
in length and over 3 m.mdrcnmference. The land immediately
around the town,once marshy, has been drained. Qnthenortb-
west is the small river Pah, one of the hradstreams of the Prah.
The name Kum-asi, more correctly Kum-ase (under the okum
tree) was given to the town because of the number of those trees
in iu streets. The most imposing building in Kumasi is the fort,
built in 1806. It is the residence of the chief commissioner and
is capable of holding a garrison of several hundred men. There
are also officers' quarters and cantonments outside the fort,
European and native hospitals, and stations of the Basel and
Wesleyan missions. The native houses are built with red clay
in the style universal throughout Ashanti They are somewhat
richly ornamented, and those of the better class are enclosed in
compounds within which are several separate buildings. Near
the railway station are the leading mercantile houses. The
principal Ashanti chiefs own large houses, built in European
style, and these are leased to strangers.
Before its dest r u c tion by the British in 1874 the city presented
a h a n ds ome appearance and bore many marks of a comparatively
high state of culture. The king's palace, built of red sandstone,
had been modelled, it is believed, on Dutch buildings at Elmina.
It was blown up by Sir Garnet (su b sequ e ntly Viscount) Wolseley 's
forces on the 0th of February 1874, and but scanty vestiges of it
remain. The town was only partially rebuilt on the withdrawal
of the British troops, and it is difficult from the meagre accounts
of early travellers to obtain an adequate idea of the capital of the
Ashanti kingdom when at the height of its prosperity (middle of
the 18th to middle of the 19th century). The streets were
numerous, broad and regular; the main avenue was 70 yds.
wide. A large market-place existed on the south-east, and
behind it in a grove of trees was the Spirit House. This was the
place of execution. Of its population before the British occupa-
tion there is no trustworthy information. It appears not to
have eaoeeded 30,000 in the first quarter of the 19th century.
This is owing partly to the fact that the commercial capital
of Ashanti, and the meeting-place of several caravan routes
from the north and east, was Kintampo, a town farther north.
The decline of Kumasi after 1874 was marked. A new royal
palace was built, but it was of day, not brick, and within the
limits of the former town were wide stretches of grass-grown
country. In 1806 the town again suffered at the bands of the
British, when several of -the largest and most ancient houses in
the royal and priestly suburb of Bantama were destroyed by fire.
In the revolt of 1000 Kumasi was once more injured. The rail-
way from the coast, which passes through the Tarawa and Obuossi
gold-fields, reached Kumasi in September 1003. Many merchants
at the Gold Coast ports thereupon opened branches in Kumasi
A marked revival in trade followed, leading to the rapid expan-
sion of the town. By 1006 Kumasi had supplanted the coast
towns and had become the distributing centre for the whole of
Ashanti
KUMISHAH, a district and town in the province of Isfahan,
Persia. The district, which has a length of 50 and a breadth
of 16 m., and contains about 40 villages, produces much grain.
The town is situated on the high road from Isfahan to Shirax,
52 m. S. of the former. It was a flourishing city several miles
in circuit when it was destroyed by the Afghans in 1722, but is
now a decayed place, with crumbled walls and mouldering towers
and a population of barely 15,000. It has post and telegraph
offices. South of the city and extending to the village Maksud-
beggi, 16 m. away, is a level plain, which in 1835 (February 28)
was the scene of a battle in which the army (2000 men, 16 guns)
94$
KUMQUAT— KUNENE
of MwIkw""^ Shah, commtnrfftirby Sfr H. Lindsay-Bethune,
routed the much superior combined forces (6000 men) of the
shah's two rebellious uncles, Firman-Firma and Shuja ea
Saltans.
KUMQUAT {Citrus jaf arnica), a much-branched shrub from
8 to 1 a ft. high, the branches sometimes bearing small thorns,
with dark green glossy leaves and pure white orange-like flowers
standing singly or clustered in the leaf-aaOs. The bright orange-
yellow fruit is round or ellipsoidsl, about x in. in diameter,
with a thick minutely tuberculate rind, the inner lining of which
is sweet, and a watery acidulous pulp. It has long been culti-
vated in China and Japan, and was introduced to Europe in 1846
by Mr Fortune, collector for the London Horticultural Society,
and shortly after into North America. It is much hardier than
most plants of the orange tribe, and succeeds well when grafted
on the wild species, Citrus trijoUaia. It is largely used by the
C hines e as a sweetmeat preserved in sugar.
KUsfTA, or Coompta, a sea-coast town of British India, in the
North Kanara district of Bombay, 40 m. S. of Karwar. Pop.
(1001), 10,818. It has an open roadstead, with a considera bl e
trade. Carving in sandal-wood b a speciality. The commercial
importance of Kumta has declined since the opening of the
Southern Mahratta railway system.
KUMYKS, a people of Turkish stock in Caucasia, occupying
the Kumyk plateau in north Dagbestan and south Terek, and
the lands bordering the Caspian. It is supposed that Ptolemy
knew them under the name of Kami and Kamaks. Various
explorers see in them descendants of the Khazars. A. Vambery
supposes that they settled in their present quarters during the
nourishing period of the Khazar kingdom in the 8th century.
It is certain that some Kabardians also settled later. The
Russians built forts in their territory in 1 559 and under Peter I.
Having long been more civilized than the surrounding Caucasian
mountaineers, the Kumyks have always enjoyed some respect
among them. The upper terraces of the Kumyk plateau, which
the Kumyks occupy, leaving its lower parts to the Nogai Tatars,
ar c very fertile.
KUMAR, a river and valley of Afghanistan, on the north-west
frontier of British India. The Kunar valley (Khoaspes in the
classics) is the southern section of that great river system which
reaches from the Hindu Rush to the Kabul river near Jalalabad,
and which, under the names of Yarkhun, Chitral, Kaahkar, &c,
fa more extensive than the Kabul basin itself. The lower reaches
of the Kunar are wide and comparatively shallow, the river
meandering in a multitude of channels through a broad and fairly
open valley, well cultivated and fertile, with large flourishing
villages and a mixed population of Mohmand and other tribes
of Afghan origin. Here the hills to the eastward are compara-
tively low, though they shut in the valley closely. Beyond them
are the Bajour uplands. To the west are the great mountains
of Kafiristan, called Kashmund, snow-capped, and running to
14,000 ft. of altitude. Amongst them are many wild but
beautiful valleys occupied by Kafirs, who are rapidly submitting
to Afghan rule. From 20 to 30 mfles up the river on its left
bank, under the Bajour hills, are thick clusters of villages,
amongst which are the ancient towns of Kunar and Pashat.
The chief tributary from the Kafiristan hills is the Pechdara,
which joins the river close to Chagan Sarai. It is a fine, broad,
swift-flowing stream, with an excellent bridge over it (part of
Abdur Rahman's military road developments), and has been
largely utilized for irrigation. The Pechdara finds its sources
in the Kafir hills, amongst forests of pine and deodar and thick
tangles of wfld vine and ivy, wild figs, pomegranates, olives
and oaks, and dense masses of sweet-scented shrubs. Above
Chagan Sarai, as far as Arnawai, where the Afghan boundary
crosses the river, and above which the valley belongs to
Chitral, the river narrows to a swift mountain stream obstructed
by boulders and hedged in with steep cliffs and difficult " parris "
or slopes of rocky hill-side. Wild almond here sheds its blossoms
into the stream, and in the dawn of summer much of the floral
beauty of Kashmir is to be found. At Asmar there is a slight
widening of the valley, and the opportunity for a large Afghan
military encampment, spreading to both sides of the river and
connected by a very creditable bridge built on the cantilever
system. There are no apparent relics of Buddhism in the Kunar,
such as are common about Jalalabad or Chitral, or throughout
Swat and Dir. This is probably due to the late occupation of the
valley by Kafirs, who spread eastwards into Bajour within com-
paratively recent historical times, and who still adhere to their
fastnesses in the Kashmund hills. The Kunar valley route to
Chitral and to Kafiristan is being developed by Afghan engineer-
ing. It may possibly extend ultimately unto Bariahshan, in
which case it will form the most direct connexion beUreen the
Oxus and India, and become an important feature in the strate-
gical geography of Asia. (T. H. H.*)
KUMB1S, the great agricultural caste of Western India, corre-
sponding to the Kurmis in the north and the Kapus in the Tetagn
country. Ethnically they cannot be distinguished from the
Mahrattas, though the latter name is sometimes confined to the
class who claim higher rank as representing the descendants of
Sivaji's soldiers. In some districts of the Deccan they form an
actual majority of the population, which is not the case with
any other Indian caste. In 1001 the total number of both
Kunbis and Mahrattas in all India was returned at nearly 8}
KUMDT, AUQ0ST ADOLPH EDUARD RBKBHARD (1830-
1894)1 German physicist, was born at Schwerin in Mecklenburg
on the 1 8th of November 1839. He began his srifntific studies
at Leipzig, but afterwards went to Berlin. At first he devoted
himself to astronomy, but coming under the influence of H. G.
Magnus, he turned his attention to physics, and graduated in
1864 with a thesis on the depolarization of light. In 1S67 he
became prnaidrntnt in Berlin University, and in the following
year was chosen professor of physics at the Zurich Polytechnic;
then, after a year or two at Wurzburg, he was called in 187a to
Strassburg, where he took a great part in the organization of the
new university, and was largely concerned in the erection of the
Physical Institute. Finally in 1888 he went to Berlin as successor
to H. von Helmholtz in the chair of experimental physics and
directorship of the Berlin Physical Institute. He died after a
protracted illness at Israelsdorf, near Lflbeck, on the 21st of
May 1804. As an original worker Kundt was especially man
fulin the domains of sound and light. In the fonner he developed
a valuable method for the investigation of aerial waves within
pipes, based on the fact that a finely divided powder — lycope-
dium, for example — when dusted over the interior of a tube in
which is established a vibrating column of air, tends to collect
In heaps at the nodes, the distance between which can thus be
ascertained. An extension of the method renders possible the
determination of the velocity of sound indifferent gases. In light
Kundt's name is widely known for his inquiries in anomalous
dispersion, not only in liquids and vapours, but even an metals,
which he obtained in very thin films by means of a laborious
process of electrolytic deposition upon platmiicrd glass. He also
carried out many experiments in magneto-optics^ and succeeded
in showing, what Faraday bad failed to detect, the rotation under
the influence of magnetic force of the plane of polarisation in
ce rtain g ases and vapours.
• KUMDUZ, a khanate and town of Afghan Turkestan. The
khanate is bounded on the £. by Badakahan, on the W. by
Taahkurghan, on the N. by the Oxus and on the S. by the Hindu
Kush. It b inhabited mainly by Uzbegs. Very little n known
about the town, which is the trade centre of a considerable
district, including Kataghan, where the best horses m Afghan-
ist an are b red.
KUMBNB, formerly known also as Kourse, a river of Socth-
West Africa, with a length of over 700 m., mainly within Portu-
guese territory, but in its lower course forming the boundary
between Angola and German South-West Africa. The upper
basin of the river lies on the inner versant of the high plateau
region which runs southwards from Bine parallel to the coast,
forming in places ranges of mountains which give rise to many
streams running south to swell the Kunene. The main stream
rises in ia° 30' S. and about 160 m. in a direct line from the sea
KUNERSDORF— KUOPIO
9+7
at BengueOa, runs generally from north to tooth through lour
degases of latitude, bat finally flows west to the sea through a
break In the outer highlands, A little south of z6° S. it receives
the Kutonga from the east, and in about i6° so' the Kakulovar
from the west. The Kakulovar has its sources in the Serra da
CheUa and other ranges of the Humpata district behind Mossa-
xnedes, but, though the longest tributary of the Kunene, is but
a small river in its lower course, which traverses the arid region
comprised within the lower basin of the Kunene. Between the
mouths of the Kulonga and Kakulovar the Kunene traverses
a swampy plain, inundated during high water, and containing
several small lakes at other parts of the year. From this swampy
region divergent branches run S.B. They are mainly inter-
mittent, but the Kwamatuo, which leaves the main stream In
about xs° Sf E., 17° 15* S., flows into a large marsh or lake called
Etosha, which occupies a depression in the inner table-land about
3400 ft above sea-level From the S.E. end of the Etosha lake
streams issue in the direction of the Okavango, to which in times
of great flood they contribute some water. From the existence
of this divergent system it is conjectured that at one time the
Kunene formed part of the Okavango, and thus of the Zambezi
basin. (See Ngami.)
On leaving the swampy region the Kunene turns decidedly
| to the west, and descends to the coast plain by a number of
cataracts, of which the chief (in 17 25* S., 14° so' E.) has a fall
of 330 ft. The river becomes smaller in volume as it passes
through an almost desert region with little or no vegetation.
The stream is sometimes shallow and fordable, at others confined
to a narrow rocky channel. Near the sea the Kunene traverses
a region of sand-hills, its mouth being completely blocked at low
water. The river enters the Atlantic in 17 x8' S., n° 4c/ E.
There are indications that a former branch of the river once
entered a bay to the south.
' K.UNERSDORF, a village of Prussia, 4 m. E. of Frankfurt-
on-Oder, the scene of a great battle, fought on the xath of August
1 7 59, between the Prussian army commanded by Frederick the
Great and the allied Russians under Soltykov and Austrian*
under Loudon, in which Frederick was defeated with enormous
losses and his army temporarily ruined. (See Seven Yiaes'
Wa*.)
KUMGRAD, a trading town of Asiatic Russia, in the province
of Syr-darya, in the delta of the Amu-darya, 50 m. S. of Lake
Aral; altitude 260 ft. It is the centre of caravan routes leading
to the Caspian Sea and the Uralsk province.
KUHGUR, a town of eastern Russia, in the government of
Perm, on the highway to Siberia, 58 m. S.S.E. of the city of
Perm. Pop. (1892), 12,400; (1897), X4424. Tanneries and the
manufacture of boots, gloves, leather, overcoats, iron castings
and machinery are the chief industries. It has trade in boots,
iron wares, cereals, tallow and linseed exported, and in tea
imported direct from China.
KUMKEL (or Kumckkl) VON LOWEHSTJBRN, JOHANN
(1630-1703), German chemist, was born in 1630 (or 1638), near
Readsburg, his father being alchemist to the court of HoUtein.
He became chemist and apothecary to the dukes of Lauenburg,
and then to the elector of Saxony, Johann Georg JX, who put
4im in charge of the royal laboratory at Dresden. Intrigues
engineered against him caused him to resign this position in 1677,
and for a time he lectured on chemistry at Annaberg and Witten-
berg- Invited to Berlin by Frederick William, in 1670 he be-
came director of the laboratory and glass works of Brandenburg,
and in x688 Charles XL brought him to Stockholm, giving him
the title of Baron von Lowenstjern in 1693 and making him a
member of the council of mines. He died on the 20th of March
1703 (others say 1702) at Dreissighufen, his country house near
Pernau. Kunkel shares with Boyle the honour of having dis-
covered the secret of the process by which Brand of Hamburg
bad prepared phosphorus in 1669, and he found how to make
artificial ruby (red glass) by the incorporation of purple of Cassius.
His work also included observations on putrefaction and fer-
mentation, which he spoke of as sisters, on the nature of salts,
and on the preparation of pure metals. Though he lived in an
a t mosp h fre of alchemy, he derided the notion of the •nm^ff
or universal solvent, and denounced the deceptions of the adepts
who pretended to effect the transmutation of metals; but he
believed mercury to be a constituent of all metals and heavy
minerals, though he held there was no proof of the presence of
" sulphur comburens."
His chief works were CkffmtlicM* Ztuchnp *»» iem Phtphor
Mirabil (1678) ; Art wUnanagxptrimnOaHs (1689) and Laboratorium
(kymicmn (1716).
KUNLONG, the name of a district and ferry on the Salween,
in the northern Shan States of Burma. Both are insignificant,
but the place has gained notoriety from being the pnminal
terminus in British territory of the railway across the northern
Shan States to the borders of Yunnan, with its present terminus
atLashio. In point of fact, however, this terminus will be 7 m.
below the ferry and outside of Kunlong circle. At present
Kunlong ferry is little used, and the village was burnt by Kachins
in 1893. It is served by dug-outs, three in number in 1809, and
capable of carrying about fifteen men on a trip. Formerly the
trade was very considerable, and the Burmese had a customs
station on the island, from which the place takes its name; but
the rebellion in the great state of Theinni, and the southward
movement of the Kachins, as wefl as the Mahommedan rebellion
in Yunnan, diverted the caravans to the northern route to Bbamo,
which is still chiefly followed. The Wa, who inhabit the hills
imm e di a t ely overlooking the Nam Ting valley, now make the
route dangerous for traders. The great majority of these Wa
live injunadministered British territory.
KUNZITB, a transparent lilac-coloured variety of spodumene,
used as a gem-stone. It was discoverecj in 1902 near Pala, in
SanDiego county, California, not far from the locality which yields
the fine specimens of rubellite and lepidolite, well known to
mineralogists. The mineral was named by Dr C. Baskerville
after Dr George F. Kuns, the gem expert of New York, who
first described it. Analysis by R. O. E. Davis showed it to be
a spodumene. Kunzite occurs in large crystals, some weighing
as much as 1000 grams each, and presents delicate hues from
rosy lilac to deep pink. It is strongly dkhroic Near the
surface it may lose colour by exposure. Kunzite becomes
strongly phosphorescent under the Rdntgen rays, or by the
action of radium or on exposure to ultra-violet rays. (See
Spodumene.) —
KUOPIO, a province of Finland, which includes northern
Karelia^Jxwnded on the N.W. and N. by Uleiborg, on the E. by
Olonets, on the S.E. by Viborg, on the a by St Michel and on the
W. by Vasa. Its area covers 16,500 sq. m., and the population
(xooo) was 3x3,951, of whom 312,875 were Finnish-speaking,
The surface is hilly, reaching from 600 to 800 ft. of altitude in
the north (Suomense lka hills), and from 300 to 400 ft. in the south.
It is built up of gneisso-granites, which are covered, especially
in the middle and east, with younger granites, and partly of
gneisses, quartxite, and talc schists and augitic rocks. The
whole is covered with glacial and later lacustrine deposits*
The soil is of moderate fertility, but often full of boulders.
Large lakes cover 16% of surface, marshes and peat bogs
over 29% of the area, and forests occupy 2,672,240 hectares.
Steamers ply along the lakes as far as Joensuu. The climate
is severe, the average temperature being for the year 36 F.,
for January 13° and for July 63 . Only 2-3% of the whole
surface is under cultivation. Rye, barley, oats and potatoes
are the chief crops, and in good years these meet the needs
of the population. Dairy farming and cattle breeding are of
rapidly increasing importance. Nearly 38,800 tons of iron ore
are extracted every year, and nearly x 2,000 tons of pig iron
and 6420 tons of iron and steel are obtained in ten iron-
works. Engineering and chemical works, tanneries, saw-mills,
paper-mills and .distilleries are the chief industrial establish-
ments. The preparation of carts, sledges and other wooden
goods is an important domestic industry. Timber, iron,
butter, furs and game are exported. The chief towns of the
government are Kuopio (13*5x9), Joensuu (3954) and Iisalmi
(1871).
.3
KUOPIO— KUPRILI
<»** St P^bwg-HehiiigtwB ""to line. Pop. (.gi) it <io
*^**>^S^L$ nd .T en ? P'? fe «'»»«l "booh. Tttee is
&1 **£ rfiSt^? * Uv "^ ?°* **" Kuopio, to COOK-
«***f *** £? &UD * ° U,,,1) ' to a vnii ^ ««"»« of considerable
* i ^er * V£?£L* a £ a ' «? d *>> by wit and favour, rose to be
t ^S* r /? ^J^L: PM ^ a o! two tafls »° ^ «° veraor of •
^^^jrojwr^dteandsMJaks. In 1656 he was appointed
i^ef* * • ?2 > r \ ut ^^ nehadsetouttohis new post
K\r»* iWJBunated to the grand viaerate at the instance of power-
Xll iri* 1148 : *? •f ce l*«l office only on condition of being
^J^^red * free "??• He signalized his accession to power by
zZaoressfat an *?*** <* orthodox Mussulman fanatics in
w^^ntinople (Sept. 22), and by putting to death certain
\Z^ritcs of the powerful ValMe Sultana, by whose corruption
lad ixitri**** the administration had been confused. A little
Uter (January 1657) he suppressed with ruthless severity a rising
of the spabis; a certain Sheik Salim, leader of the fanatical mob
of the capital, was drowned in the Bosporus; and the Greek
Patriarch wno had written to the voivode of Wallachia to
announce the approaching downfall of Islam, was hanged. This
impartial severity was a foretaste of Kuprili's rule, which was
characterised throughout by a vigour which belied the expecta-
tions based upon his advanced years, and by a ruthlessness
which in time grew to be almost blood-lust. His justification
was the new Hfe which he breathed into the decaying bones of
the Ottoman empire.
Having cowed the disaffected elements in the state, he turned
his attention to foreign enemies. The victory of the Venetians
off Chios (May 2, 1657) was a severe blow to the Turkish sea-
power, which Kuprfli set himself energetically to repair. A
second battle, fought in the Dardanelles (July 17-19), ended by
a lucky shot blowing up the Venetian flag-ship; the losses of the
Ottoman fleet were repaired, and in the middle of August
Kuprili appeared off Tencdos, which was captured on the 31st
and re in co r porated permanently in the Turkish empire. Thus the
Ottoman prestige was restored at sea, while Kuprili's ruthless
enforcement of discipline in the army and suppression of revolts,
whether in Europe or Asia, restored it also on land. It was,
however, due to his haughty and violent temper that the tradi-
tional friendly relations between Turkey and France were broken.
The French ambassador, de la Haye, had delayed bringing him
the customary gifts, with the idea that be would, like his prede-
cessors, speedily give place to a new grand vizier; Kuprili was
bitterly offended, and, on pretext of an abuse of the immunities
of diplomatic correspondence, bastinadoed the ambassador's
son and cast him and the ambassador himself into prison. A
special envoy, sent by Louis XTV., to make inquiries and demand
reparation, was treated with studied insult; and the result was
that Mazarin abandoned the Turkish alliance and threw the
power of France on to the side of Venice, openly assisting the
Venetians in the defence of Crete.
( Kuprili's restless energy continued to the last, exhibiting itself
on one side in wholesale executions, on the other in vast building
operations. By his orders castles were built at the mouth of
the Don and on the bank of the Dnieper, outworks against the
, ever-aggressive Tatars, as well as on either shore of the Dar-
danelles. His last activity as a statesman was to spur the sultan
on to press the war against Hungary. He died on the 31st of
October 1661. The advice which, on his death-bed. he is said
to have given to the sultan is character^ -llian
statecraft. This was: never to pay of
women, to allow nobody to grow too rich, to keep ha tjttsvy
well filled, and himself and his troops constantly ocenpied. Bad
be so desired, KupriH might have taken advantage of there***
of the Janissaries to place himself on the throw; instead, kt
recommended the sultan to appoint his son as his successor, aid
so founded a dynasty of able statesmen who occupied the good
vizierate almost without interruption for half a century.
2. Fazzl Ahmed Kcpuli (1635-1676), ton of the prtoxfinj,
succeeded his father as grand vizier in 1661 (ths being the-fast
instance of a son succeeding Ins father in that office since the
time of the Chendereiis). He began life in the dericsl career,
which he left, at the age of twenty-three, when he had attained
the rank of muierris . Usually humane and generous, he sought
to relieve the people of the excessive taxation and to secure thea
against unlawful exactions. Three yean after ha ■**— ■ s^ to
office Turkey suffered a crushing defeat at the battkof St Gofhara
and was obliged to make peace with the Empire. But Kupcfl? %
influence with the sultan remained unshaken, and five years later
Crete fell to his arms (1660). The next war in which he was catted
upon to take part was with Poland, in defence of the r *-rKVi,
who had appealed to Turkey for protection. At first successful,
Kuprili was defeated by the Poles under John Sobieski at I
and Lemberg; the Turks, however, continued to hold their own,
and finally in October 1676 consented to honourable terms d
peace by the treaty of Zurawno (October 16, 1676), retaining
Kaminiec, Podoha and the greater part of the Ukraine. Three
days later Ahmed KupriH died. His military capacity was far
inferior to his administrative qualities. He was a liberal pro-
tector of art and literature, and the kindliness of his ^y^H
formed a marked contrast to the cruelty of his father; bat he
was given to intemperance, and the cause of his death was dropsy
brought on by alcoholic abuse.
3. Zade Mustafa Kupkilx (1637-1601), surnamed FaxO, son I
of Mahommed Kuprili, became grand vizier to Suleiman IL in •
1689. Called to office after disaster had driven Turkey's forces
from Hungary and Poland and her fleets from the Mediterranean, I
he began by ordering strict economy and reform in the taxation;
himself setting the example, which was widely followed, of
voluntary contributions for the army, which with the navy he
reorganized as quickly as he could. His wisdom is shown by
the prudent measures which he took by enacting the JVhai i
jedid, or new regulations for the improvement of the conditio*
of the Christian rayas, and for affording them security fox fife
and property; a conciliatory attitude which at once bore front
in Greece, where the people abandoned the Venetian cause and
returned to their allegiance to the Porte, He met han deal* at
the battle of Salankamen in 1601, when the total defeat of the
Turks by the Austrian* under Prince Louis of Baden led to their
expulsion from Hungary.
4. Hussein Kuranj (surnamed Amuja-Zade) was the son
of Hassan, a younger brother of Mahommed KuprflL After
occupying various important posts he became grand vizier in
1607, and owing to his ability and energy the Turks were able
to drive the Austrians back over the Save, and Turkish fleets
were sent into the Black Sea and the Mediterranean- The efforts
of European diplomacy succeeded in inducing Austria, and
Turkey to come to terms by the treaty of Carlowitz, wberebf
Turkey was shorn of her chief conquests (1600). After this event
Hussein Kuprili, surnamed " the Wise," devoted rrim^rtr to the
suppression of the revolts which had broken out in Arabia
Egypt and the Crimea, to the reduction of the Janissaries, an*
to the institution of administrative and financial reform. Un-
fortunately the intrigues against him drove him from office n
1703, and soon afterwards be died.
5. NtTMAic Kuparxi, son of Mustafa Fazfl, became grauwd wisac
in 17x0. The expectations formed of him were not fulfilled, a
although he was tolerant, wise and fust like his father, he is
judiciously sought to take upon himself all the details of axdxnixti
tration, a task which proved to be beyond his powers. H
failed to introduce order into the administration mx*A wa
dismissed from office in less than fourteen months aaf ter hi
appoi n t me nt «
KURAKIN— KURDISTAN
9+9
6. Abdullah Kupriu, a son of Mustafa Fazil Kuprili, was
appointed Kaimmakam or locum Uncus of the grand vizier in
1703. He commanded the Persian expedition in 1723 and
captured Tabriz in 1725, resigning his office in 1726. In 1735
he again commanded against the Persians, but fell at the disas-
trous battle of Bagaverd, thus emulating his father's heroic death
at Selankamen.
KURAKIN, BORIS IVAMOVICS > PuMCE(i676-x727)tRussian
diplomatist, was the brother-in-law of Peter the Great, their
wives being sisters. He was one of the earliest of Peter's pupils.
In 1697 he was sent to Italy to learn navigation. His long and
honourable diplomatic career began in 1707, when he was sent
to Rome to induce the pope not to recognize Charles XII. 's
candidate, Stanislaus Lcszczynski, as king of Poland. From
1708 to 1 71 2 he represented Russia at London, Hanover, and
the Hague successively, and, in 17x3, was the principal Russian
plenipotentiary at the peace congress of Utrecht, From 1716
to 1722 he held the post of ambassador at Paris, and when, in
1724, Peter set forth on his Persian campaign, Kurakin was
appointed the supervisor of all the Russian ambassadors ac-
credited to the various European courts. " The father of Russian
diplomacy/' as he has justly been called, was remarkable
throughout his career for infinite tact and insight, and a wonder-
fully correct appreciation of men and events. He was most
useful to Russia perhaps when the Great Northern war (see
Sweden, History) was drawing to a dose. Notably he prevented
Great Britain from declaring war against Peter's'close ally,
Denmark, at the crisis of the struggle. Kurakin was one of the
best-educated Russians of his day, and his autobiography,
carried down to 1709, is an historical document of the first im-
portance. He intended to write a history of his own times with
Peter the Great as the central figure, but got no further than
the summary, entitled History of Tsar Peter Alcksievich and the
People Nearest to Him (1 682-1 694) (Rus.).
See Archives of Prince A. Tk. Kurakin (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1890);
A. Bruckner, A Russian Tourist in Western Europe in the beginning
of the X VUIlk Century (Rus.) (St Petersburg, 1892). (R. N. B.)
KURBASH, or Kourbash (from the Arabic qurbask, a whip;
Turkish qirbach; and French courbache), a whip or strap about
a yard in length, made of the hide of the hippopotamus or
rhinoceros. It is an instrument of punishment and torture used
in various Mahommedan countries, especially in the Turkish
empire. " Government by kurbash " denotes the oppression
of a people by the constant abuse of the kurbash to maintain
authority, to collect taxes, or to pervert justice. The use of the
kurbash for such purposes, once common in Egypt, has been
abolished by the British authorities.
KORDISTAN, in its wider sense, the " country of the KQrds"
(Koords), including that part of Mount Taurus which buttresses
the Armenian table-land (see Armenia), and is intersected by the
Batman Su, the Bohtan Su, and other tributaries of the Tigris;
and the wild mountain district, watered by the Great and Little
Zab, which marks the western termination of the great Iranian
plateau.
Population. — The total Kurd population probably exceeds two
and a half millions, namely, Turkish KQrds 1,650,000, Persian
800,000, Russian 50,000, but there are no trustworthy statistics.
The great mass of the population has its home in Kurdistan.
But KQrds are scattered irregularly over the country from the
river Sakarla on the west to Lake Urmia on the east, and from
Kara on the north to Jebcl Sinjar on the south. There is also
an isolated settlement in Khorasan. The tribes, ashirct, into
which the KQrds are divided, resemble in some respects the
Highland clans of Scotland. Very few of them number more
than 10,000 souls, and the average is about 3000. The sedentary
and pastoral Kurds, Yerli, who live in villages in winter and
encamp 00 their own pasture-grounds in summer, form an in-
creasing majority of the population. The nomad KQrds, Kocher,
who always dwell in tents, are the wealthiest and most inde-
pendent. They spend the summer on the mountains and high
plateaus, which they enter in May and leave in October; and pass
the winter on the banks of the Tigris and on the great plain north
of Jebel Sinjar, where they purchase right of pasturage from the
Shammar Arabs. Each tribe has its own pasture-grounds, and
trespass by other tribes is a fertile source of quarrel. During
the periodical migrations Moslem and Christian alike suffer from
the predatory instincts of the Kurd, and disturbances are
frequent in the districts traversed. In Turkey the sedentary
Kurds pay taxes; but the nomads only pay the sheep tax, which
is collected as they cross the Tigris on their way to their summer
pastures.
Character. — The Kurd delights in the bracing air and un-
restricted liberty of the mountains. He is rarely a muleteer or
camel-man, and does not take kindly to handicrafts. The KQrds
generally bear a very indifferent reputation, a worse reputation
perhaps, than they really deserve. Being aliens to the Turks
in language and to the Persians in religion, they are everywhere
treated with mistrust, and live as it were in a state of chronic
warfare with the powers that be. Such a condition is not of
course favourable to the development of the better qualities of
human nature. The KQrds are thus wild and lawless; they are
much given to brigandage; they oppress and frequently maltreat
the Christian populations with whom they are brought in contact,
— these populations being the Armenians in Diarbekr, Eraerum
and Van, the Jacobites and Syrians in the Jebel-Tur, and the
Nestorians.and Chaldaeans in the Hakkari country.
Perhaps the most distinguishing characteristic of the KQrdish
chief is pride of ancestry. This feeling is in many cases exagger-
ated, for in reality the present tribal organization does not date
from any great antiquity. In the list indeed of eighteen principal
tribes of the nation which was drawn up by the Arabian historian
Masudi, in the xoth century, only two or three names arc to be
recognized at the present day. A 14th-century list, however,
translated by Quatrem&rc, 1 presents a great number of identical
names, and there seems no reason to doubt that certain KQrdish
families can trace their descent from, the Omayyad caliphs, while
only in recent years the Baban chief of Suleimania, representing
the old Sohrans, and the Ardelan chief of Sinna,' representing
an elder branch of the Gurans, each claimed an ancestry of at
least five hundred years. There was up to a recent period no
more picturesque or interesting scene to be witnessed in the east
than the court of one of these great Kurdish chiefs, where, like
another Saladin, the bey ruled in partriarchal state, surrounded
by an hereditary nobility, regarded by his clansmen with
reverence and affection, and attended by a bodyguard of young
KQrdish warriors, clad in chain armour, with flaunting silken
scarfs, and bearing javelin, lance and sword as in the time of the
crusades.
Though ignorant and unsophisticated the Kurd is not wanting
in natural intelligence. In recent years educated KQrds have
held high office under the sultan, including that of grand vizier,
have assisted in translating the Bible into Turkish, and in editing
a newspaper. The men are lithe, active and strong, but rarely
of unusual stature. The women do not veil, and are allowed
traced down to the Saffavid period.
95°
KURDISTAN
great freedom. The KOrds as a race are proud, faithful and
hospitable, and have rude but strict feelings of honour. They
are, however, much under the influence of dervishes, and when
their fanaticism is aroused their habitual lawlessness is apt to
degenerate into savage barbarity. They are not deficient in
martial spirit, but have an innate dislike to the restraints of
military service. The country is rich in traditions and legends,
and in lyric and in epic poems, which have been handed down
from earlier times and are recited in a weird melancholy tone.
Antiquities. — Kurdistan abounds in antiquities of the most
varied and interesting character. But it has been very httk
opened up to modern research. A series of rock-cut cuneiform
inscriptions extend from Malatia on the west to Miandoab
<in Persia) on the east, and from the banks of the Aras on the
north to Rowanduz on the south, which record the glories of
a Turanian dynasty, who ruled the country of Nairi daring
the 8th and 7tb centuries, B.C., contemporaneously with the
lower Assyrian empire. Intermingled with these are t few
genuine Assyrian inscriptions of an earlier date; and in one
instance, at Van, a later tablet of Xerxes brings the record down
to the period of Grecian history. The most ancient monuments
of this class, however, are to be found at Holwftn and in the
neighbourhood, where the sculptures and inscriptions belong
probably to the Guti and Luli tribes, and date from the early
Babylonian period.
In the northern Kurdish districts which represent the
Araanene, Intilene, Anaitene, Zabdicene, and Moxuene of the
ancients, there are many interesting remains of Roman cities,
e.g. at Araen, Miyaf arikin (anc. Mortyropolis) , Sisauronon, and the
ruins of Dunisir near Dara, which Sachau identified with the
Armenian capital of Tigranocerta. Of the Macedonian and
Parthian periods there are remains both sculptured and in-
scribed at several points in Kurdistan; at Bisitun or Behistun
(g.t.), in a cave at Amadla, at the Mithrak temple of Keref tu,
on the rocks at Sir Pul-o-Zohab near the ruins of Holwtn,
and probably in some other localities, such as the Bftlik country
between Lahijfin and Koi-Sanjftk; but the most interesting
site in all Kurdistan, perhaps in all western Asia, is the ruined
fire temple of PftI KQlI on the southern frontier of SuleimanTa.
Among the debris of this temple, which is scattered over a
bare hillside, are to be found above one hundred slabs, inscribed
with Parthian and Pahlavi characters, the fragments of a wall
which formerly supported the eastern face of the edifice, and
bore a bilingual legend of great length, dating from the Sassanian
period. There are also remarkable Sassanian remains in other
parts of Kurdistan— at Salmus to the north, and at Kerman-
shah and Kasr-i-Shlrln on the Turkish frontier to the south.
Language. — The Kflrdish language, Kermanji, is an oM Persian
patois, intermixed to the north with Chaldaean words and to. the
south with a certain Turanian element which may not improbably
have come down from Babylonian times. Several peculiar dialects
are spoken in secluded districts in the mountains, but. the only
varieties which, from their extensive use, require to be specified are
the Zaza and the Guran. The Zaza is spoken throughout the
western portion of the Dersim country, and is said to be unintelligible
to the Kerm&nji-speaking Kurds. It is largely intermingled with
Armenian, and may contain some trace of the old Cappadocian, but
is no doubt of the same Aryan stock as the standard Kurdish. The
Gur&n dialect again, which is spoken throughout Ardelln and
Kcrmanshah 1 chiefly differs from the northern Kflrdish in being
entirely free from any Semitic intermixture. It is thus somewhat
nearer to the Persian than the Kerinlnji dialect, but is essentially
the same language. It is a mistake to suppose that there is no
1 The Guran are mentioned in the Mesalik-tl-Absdrasthedcminant
tribe in southern Kurdist&n in the I4th*century, occupying very much
the same seats as at present, from the Hamadan frontier to Shah-
rizor. Their name probably signifies merely " the mountaineers,"
being derived from gur or girt, T * a mountain,** which is also found
in Zagros, i*. ta-giri, *' beyond the mountain," or Puskt-i-koh, as
the name is translated in Persian. They are a fine, active and hardy
race, individually brave, and make excellent soldiers, though in
appearance very inferior to the tribal KOrds of the northern dis-
tricts. These latter indeed delight in gay colours, while the Gurans
dress in the most homely costume, wearing coarse blue cotton
vests, with felt caps and coats. In a great part of Kurdistan the
name Gur&n has become synonymou* »»»*> ■« ••"cultural peasantry,
as opposed to the migratory she'
Kf
tra
rel
thi
N«
Th
Ha
au
die
coi
of
pagan <
kuju-b
, communities, who are called indifferently Ali-IUaLi and
tjU-basb, and who hold tenets of some obscurity, but of consider-
able interest. Outwardly professing to be Shi'ites or " fouowets of
AH," they observe secret ceremonies and bold esoteric doc trin e
which have probably descended to them from very early ages, and
of which the essential condition is that there must always be upon the
earth a visible manifestation of the Deity. While paying revexeocr
to the supposed incarnations of ancient days, to Moses, David,
Christ, All and his tutor Salm&n-ul-Farisi, and several of the Shife
imams and saints, they have thus usually some recent local uekbrnj
at whose shrine they worship and make vows; and there is, moreover,
in every community of Ali-lUahis some living personage, not neces-
sarily ascetic, to whom, as representing the godhead, the superstitiocs
tribesmen pay almost idolatrous honours. Among the Gorans of the
south the shrine of Baba Yadgftr, in a gorge of the hills abwvc tat
old city of Holwin, is thus regarded with a supreme veneration.
Similar institutions are also found in other parts of the mountains.
which maybe compared with the tenets of the Druses and Nosains
in Syria and the lsmailites in Persia.
History, — With regard to the origin of the Kurds, it was for-
merly considered sufficient to describe them as the descendant*
of the Carduchi, who opposed the retreat of the Ten Thousand
through the mountains, but modern research traces tbes
far beyond the period of the Greeks. At the dawn of history
the mountains overhanging Assyria were held by a people
named Got*, a title which signified "a warrior," and wbick
was rendered in Assyrian by the synonym of Cardu or Kardu,
the precise term quoted by Strabo to explain the name of the
Cardaces (Kdp8o«rf). These Gfl/fl were a Turanian tribe of
such power as to be placed. in the early cuneiform records on as
equality with the other nations of western Asia, that is, wki
the Syrians and Hittites, the Susians, Elamitcs, and Akkadiaa
of Babylonia; and during the whole period of the Assyriu
empire they seem to have preserved a more or less independent
political position. After the fall of Nineveh tbey coalesced
with the Medes, and, in common with all the nations inhabiting
the high plateaus of Asia Minor, Armenia and Persia, became
gradually Aryanized, owing to the immigration at this period
of history of tribes in overwhelming numbers which, from
whatever quarter they may have sprung, belonged certainly to
the Aryan family.
• The Gata or KQrdu were reduced to subjection by Cyras
before he descended upon Babylon, and furnished a contingent
of fighting. men fo his successors, being thus mentioned under
the names of Saspirians and Alarodians in the muster roll of
thearmy of Xerxes which was preserved by Herodotus.
In later times they passed successively under the sway of
the Macedonians, the Parthians, and Sassanians, being especially
befriended, if we may judge from tradition as well a*
from the remains still existing in the country, by the Arsarisa
monarchs, who were probably of a cognate race. Gotaraa
indeed, whose name may perhaps be translated " chief of
the G&tu\" was traditionally believed to be the founder of the
Gurins, the principal tribe of southern Kurdistan,' and bis
name and titles are still preserved in a Greek inscription at
•"The Kalhur .tribe are traditionally descended from Gudar*
ibn-Gio, whose son Roham was sent by Bahraan Kculni to de*ro»
Jerusalem and bring the lews into captivity. This Roham i» ite
individual usually called Bokht-t-nasser (Nebuchadrezzar) and be
ultimately succeeded to the throne. The neighbouring/ country hat
ever since remained in the hands of his descendants, who are calks*
Gurins " (Sktref-Nama, Persian MS). The same popular tradkk*
still exists in the country, and FQTAPZHO rBODOSFOZ is farad
on the rock at Behistun, showing that Gudarz-ibn-Oio was rtafy
an historic personage. See Joum. Roy. Gtog. .Ssc ix. 1 14.
KURDISTAN— KURILES
95«
Behistun near the Kurdish capital of Kermanshah. Under
"the caliphs of Bagdad the Kurds were always giving trouble
in one quarter or another. In aj>. 838, and again in 005,
there were formidable insurrections in northern Kurdistan;
the amir, Adod-addaula, was obliged to lead the forces of the
caliphate against the southern Kurds, capturing the famous
fortress of Senna j, of which the ruins are to be seen at the
present day near Behistun, and reducing the province of
Shahrizor with its capital city now marked by the great mound
of Yassin Teppeh. The most flourishing period of Kurdish
power was probably during the 12th century of our era, when
the great Saladin, who belonged to the Rawendi branch of
the Hadabani tribe, founded the Ayyubite dynasty of Syria,
and Kurdish chiefships were established, not only to the east
and west of the Kurdistan mountains, but as far as Khorasan
upon one side and Egypt and Yemen on the other. During
the Mongol and Tatar domination of western Asia the Kurds
in the mountains remained for the most part passive, yielding
a reluctant obedience to the provincial governors of the plains.
When Sultan Selim I., after defeating Shah Ismail, 1514*
annexed Armenia and Kurdistan, he entrusted the organiza-
tion of the conquered territories to Idris, the historian, who
was a Kurd of Bitlis. Idris found Kurdistan bristling with
castles, held by hereditary tribal chiefs of Kurd, Arab, and
Armenian descent, who were practically independent, and
passed their time in tribal warfare or in raiding the agricultural
population. He divided the territory into sanjaks or districts,
and, making no attempt to interfere with the principle of
Heredity, installed the local chiefs as governors. He also
resettled the rich pastoral country between Erzcrum and
Erivan, which had lain waste since the passage of Timor, with
Kurds from the Hakkiari and Bohtan districts, The system
of administration introduced by Idris remained unchanged
until the close of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828-29. But
the Kurds, owing to the remoteness of their country from the
capital and the decline of Turkey, had greatly increased in
influence and power, and had spread westwards over the country
as far as Angora. After the war the Kurds attempted to free
themselves from Turkish control, and in 1834 it became necessary
to reduce them to subjection. This was done by Reshid Pasha.
The principal towns were strongly garrisoned, and many of
the Kurd beys were replaced by Turkish governors. A rising
under Bedr Khan Bey in 1843 was firmly repressed, and after
the Crimean War the Turks strengthened their hold on the
country. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78 was followed
by the attempt of Sheikh Obaidullah, 1880-81, to found an
independent Kurd principality under the protection of Turkey.
The attempt, at first encouraged by the Porte, as a reply to the
projected creation of an Armenian state under the suzerainty
of Russia (see Armenia), collapsed after Obaidullah's raid into
Persia, when various circumstances led the central government
to reassert its supreme authority. Until the Russo-Turkish
War of 1828-29 there had been little hostile feeling between
the Kurds and the Armenians, and as late as 1877-1878 the
mountaineers of both races had got on fairly well together.
Both suffered from Turkey, both dreaded Russia. But the
national movement amongst the Armenians, and its encourage-
ment by Russia after the last war, gradually aroused race
hatred and fanaticism. In 1891 the activity of the Armenian
Committees induced the Porte to strengthen the position of
the Kurds by raising a body of Kurdish irregular cavalry,
which was well armed and called Hamidieh after the Sultan.
The opportunities thus offered for plunder and the grati-
fication of race hatred brought out the worst qualities of the
Kurds. Minor disturbances constantly occurred, and were
soon followed by the massacre of Armenians at Sasun and
other places, 1894-06, in which the Kurds took an active part.
Authorities. — Rich, Narrative of a Residence in Koordhtan
1830); Wagner, Reise nark Petsien und dem Lande der Kurdcn
Leipzig, 1852) ; Consul Taylor in R. G. S. Journal (1865) ; Millingcn,
'Vila Life among Ike Koords (1870); Von Luschan, "Die Wanderr
volker Kleinasiens," in V". d. G. far Anthropologic (Berlin, 1886);
Clavton. " The Mountains of Kurdistan," in Alpine Journal (1887) ;
K
KURDISTAN, in the narrower sense, a province of Persia,
situated in the hilly districts between Azerbaijan and Kcrman-
shah, and extending to the Turkish frontier on the W., and
bounded on the E. by Germs and Hamadan. In proportion
to its size and population it pays a Very small yearly revenue
— only about £14,000— due to the fact that a great part of the
population consists of wild and disorderly nomad Kurds. Some
of these nomads pass their winters in Turkish territory, and
have their summer pasture-grounds in the highlands of Kurd-
istan. This adds much to the difficulty of collecting taxation.
The province is divided into sixteen districts, and its eastern
part, in which the capital is situated, is known as Ardelan.
The capital is Senendij, usually known as Sinna (not Sihna,
or Sahna, as some writers have it), situated 60 m. N.W. of
Hamadan, in 35 15* N., 47 18' E., at an elevation of 5300 ft.
The city has a population of about 35,000 and manufactures
great quantities of carpets and felts for the supply of the province
and for export. Some of the carpets are very fine and expen-
sive, rugs 2 yards by i\ costing £15 to £20. Post and telegraph
offices have been established since 1870.
KURGAN, a town (founded 1553) of West Siberia, in the
government of Tobolsk, on the Siberian railway, 160 m. E. of
Chelyabinsk, and on the left bank of the Tobol, in a wealthy
agricultural district. Pop. (1897), 10,579. Owing to its
position at the terminus of steam navigation up the river
Tobol, it has become second only to Tyumen as a commercial
centre. It has a public library and a botanic garden. There
is a large trade in cattle with Petropavlovsk, and considerable
export of grain, tallow, meat, hides, butter, game and fish,
there being three large fairs in the year. In the vicinity are
a great number of prehistoric kurgans or burial-mounds.
KURIA MURIA ISLANDS, a group of five islands in the
Arabian Sea, close under the coast of Arabia, belonging to
Britain and forming a dependency of Aden. They are lofty
and rocky, and have a total area of 28 sq. m., that of the largest,
Hallania, being 22 sq. m. They are identified with the ancient
Jnsulae Zenobii, and were ceded by the sultan of Muscat to
Britain in 1854 for the purposes of a cable station. They are
inhabited by a few families of Arabs, who however speak a
dialect differing considerably from the ordinary Arabic: The
islands yield some guano.
KURILES (Jap. Chishima, tf thousand islands"), a chain of
small islands belonging to Japan, stretching in a north-easterly
direction from Nerauro Bay, on the extreme east of the island
of Yczo, to Chishima-kaikyo (Ku riles Strait), which separates
them from the southernmost point of Kamchatka. They extend
from 44* 4^ to 50 56' N. and from 145 25' to 156° 32' £. Their
coasts measure 1496 m.; their area is 6159 sq. m.; their total
number is 32, and the names of the eight principal islands,
counting from the south, are Kunashiri, Shikotan, Etorofu
(generally called Etorop, and known formerly to Europe as Staten
Island), Urup, Simusir, Onnekotan, Paramoshiri (Paraniusir)
and Shumshiri. From Noshapzaki (Notsu-no-sakc or Notsu
Cape), the most easterly point of Ncmuro province, to Tomari,
the most westerly point in Kunashiri, the distanre is 7i rn., and
the Kuriles Strait separating Shumshiri from Kamchatka is about
the same width. The name " Kurile " is derived from the
Russian kurit (to smoke), in allusion to the active volcanic
character of the group. The dense fogs that envelop these
islands, and the violence of the currents in their vicinity, have
greatly hindered exploration, so that little is known of their
physiography. They lie entangled in a vast net of sea-weed;
are the resort of innumerable birds, and used to be largely
frequented by seals and sea-otters, which, however, have be'St
KURISCHES HAFF— KUROPATKIN
».^-.-yH ,,l> * ' ■« «aw -Vr mws « bttd fcmtiDg. Near the
^^ -^^v* %-^ a V«UB^ss£*adsA mountain oiled Bauso-
i^t. . vn-- w *■*?>. v M»i whose base sulphur bubbles up is
j.^ J.- v^uu >M$a«iaesasweflasahotsUeamarefound.
^ * . v w.^ ,n«*< « tit same island is a boiling lake, called
* ^-v » *v* ,«s»»fci «o ks bed aod round its shores black sand,
^w^eix. •** UBMt eatsery of pure sulphur. This island has
^.„.-- tx"> ?«*&$; roaiobori-yama near the rasfroast, and
^x^'kLMO^ici aad Rurindake in the north. Chachanobori
.Aw %*** ft > is described by Messrs Chamberlain and Mason
«„ ^ ^w<oAh«n a cone, the inner and highrrof thetwo being —
** da* natives say— surrounded by a lake." The island has
,»*{«*><** forests of conifers with an undergrowth of ferns and
ife««tt&$ plants, and bears are numerous. The chief port of
j. Jospin is Tomari, on therewith coast. The island of Shikotan
fc mnarkabfe for the growth of a species of bamboo (called
SlH**4H»- r,iar "), »i»v»ng«<»rHmMHnptfti>ii »h»ra«» EtOtofU
has a coast-line broken by deep bays, of which the principal are
Kaibo-wan, Rubetsu-wan and Bettobuwan on the northern shore
and ShHokap-wan on the southern. It is covered almost com-
pletely with dense forest, and has a number of streamsabounding
with salmon. Shana, the chief port, is in Rubetsu Bay. This
island, the principal of the group, is divided into four provinces
for administrative purposes, namely, Etorofu, Furubetsu, Shana
and Shibetoro. Its mountains are Atosha-nobori (4035 ft.)
in Etorofu; ChiripnupaK (5009 ft.) m Shana; and Molu)co-oobori
(3030 ft.) and Atuiyadake (3932 ft.) m Shibetoro. Among the
other islands three only call fornoticeonaccountof theiraltiturlra,
namely, Ketoi-jima, Rashua-jimaand Mat ua-jima, which rise to
heights of 3044, 3304 and 5240 ft. respectively.
Papulation. — Not much is known about the aborigines. By
some authorities Ainu colonists are supposed to have been the first
settlers, and to have arrived there via Yeao; by others, the earliest
comers are believed to have been a hyperborean tribe travelling
southwards by way of Kamchatka. The islands themselves
have not been sufficiently explored to determine ^whether ' they
furnish any ethnological evidences. The present population
aggregates about 4400, or 0-7 per sq. m, of whom about 600 are
Ainu (?.».)• There is little disposition to emigrate thither from
Japan proper, the number of settlers bemg less than too annually.
History. — The Ktuue Islands were discovered in 1634 by the
Dutch navigator Martin de VrSes. The three southern islands,
Kunashiri, Etorofu, and Shikotan, are believed to have belonged
to Japan from a remote date, but at the beginning of the 18th
century the Russians, having conquered Kamchatka, found their
way to the northern part of the Kurfles in pursuit of fur-bearing
animals, with which the islands then abounded. Gradually these
encroachments were pushed farther south, simultaneously with
aggressions imperilling the Japanese settlements in the southern
half of Sakhalin. Japan's occupation was far from effective in
either region, and in 1875 she was not unwilling to conclude a
convention by which she agreed to withdraw altogether from
Sakhalin provided that Russia withdrew from the Kuriles.
An officer of the Japanese navy, Lieut. Gunji, left Tokyo
with about forty comrades in 1892, his intention being to form
a settlement on Shumshiri, the most northerly of the Kurile
Islands. They embarked in open boats, and for that reason, as
well as because they were going to constitute themselves their
country's extreme outpost, the enterprise attracted public
enthusiasm. After a long struggle the immigrants became fairly
prosperous.
See Capt, H. J. Snow, Notes oh tie Kurile Islands (London, 1896).
KURISCHES HAFF, a lagoon of Germany, on the Baltic coast
of East Prussia, stretching from Labiau to Memel, a distance of
*> av, has an area of nearly 680 sq. m. It is mostly shallow and
wry dose to Memel attains a depth of 23 ft. It is thus unnavig-
Vfcft txcept for small coasting and fishing boats, and sea-going
i«a«fc proceed through the Memeler Tief (Memel Deep), which
^Mtorts the Baltic with Memel and his a depth of 19 ft. and a
jssMitJi e| 800 to 1900 '• #M " v - ; «ches Haff is separated
•*m A* Wrk by a ' ti land, the so-called
^UawJst X*hwnf, a breadth of 1 to s
The latter is fringed throughout Irs whole learnt W *
chain of dunes, which rise in places to a heigh* of aearir xt l
and threaten, unless checked, to be pressed farther i
up the whole Haff.
See Berendt, Geologic ies Kurischem Bog's '
Sommer. Das Kuriscke Hef (U '
Die Knriscke Neirung mud Ore .
Liodner, Die Prenssuehe WmsU einst
Kurischen Nehrung (Qstersieck, 1898).
KURBOOL, or Kaxydx, a town and district, of British lata.
in the Madras presidency. The town is built 00 a j e cij s sis
the Junction of the Hindri and Tungabhadza rivets jjaLbue:
raflway station. The eld ffindu fort was leweflcd ha 186$.*^
the exception of one of the gates, which was preserved si
specimen of ancient architecture. Cotton, dock and carpets ot
manufacturecL Pup fiiiriO 1; jifi nfahniahilfaii ■'■■■Inn
The Dsraicr or Kt/bkool has an area, of 757S sq. at, pa
(ioox), 872,055, showing an increase of 6% in the decade. Tr.
long mountain ranges, the Nanamahris and the YeBanoks.
extend in parallel lines, north and south, thmm> its exact
The principal heights of the NaBamahu nauje awe ik^a^
f 314ft ft -)i fl wwdhiheahuMawaia m f 3055 ft-), mnA J> m i u CJ |..W^
(3086 ft.). The Yellaisalaik a low range, generally 4at-toppr
with scarped sides; the highest point is abont 2000 ft. Serai
low ridges run parallel to the Nallamalais, broken here and tse:
by gorges, through which mountain streams take their coxes
Several of these gaps were dammed across wader native mfc, c
form tanks lor purposes of irrigation. The principal rivers sr.
the Tungabhadra and Kistna, which hound the district oa it-
north. When in flood, the Tungabhadra averages 900 ym.
broad and 15 ft. deep. The Kistna here flows chiefly thmur
uninhabited jungles, sometimes in long smooth teaches, vr
intervening shingly rapids. The Bhavanasi rises on the KmU
malais, and falls into the Kistna at Sungameswaram, a pbece
pilgrimage. During the 18th century Kurnool formed tb
jogir of a semi-independent Pathan Nawab, whose A»y^»^
was dispossessed by the British government for treason in i5 ~
The principal crops are millets, cotton, ofl-seeds, sad rice, waii
little indigo and tobacco. Kurnool suffered very seve re l y front th
famine of 1876-1877, and to a slight extent in 1 896—1897. It s
the chief scene of the operations of the Madras Irrigation Cos
pany taken over by government in 1 882. The canal, whkfcsur
from the Tungabhadra river near Kurnool town, was construe:
at a total cost of two millions sterling, hut ha* not JM*-n a ftr^*^
success. A more successful work is the Cumbum tank, Jeraee
under native rule by damming a gorge of the Gumdsaaaam
river. Apart from the weaving of coarse cotton doth, the dsr
industrial establishments are cotton presses, indigo vats, a*
saltpetre refineries. The district is served by the Soutbes
M ahrat ta r ailwa y.
KUROKI+ ITEI* Count (1844- ), Japanese general, w
born in Satsums. He distinguished himself in the Qas>
Japanese War of 1804-05. He commanded the L Army ia tir
Russo-Japanese War (1004-5), when he won the opeauf
battle of the war at the Yalu river, and afterwards- advanced
through the mountains and took part with the other armies e
the battles of Liao-Yang, Shaho and Mukden (see Kcse-
Japanese Was). He was created baron for his services in Ur
former war, and count for bis services in the latter.
KUROPATKIN, ALEXEI NIKOLAIEVICH (1848- ), Est
sian general, was born in 1848 and entered the army in t&*
From 187a to 1874 he studied at the Nicholas staff r^JUy xfttr
which he spent a short time with the French troops in Alper-
In 1875 he was employed in diplomatic work in Ksshgaria tx*
in 1876 he took part in military operations in Turkistan, Kate
and Samerkand. In thewarof i877-78against Turkey becamca
a great reputation as chief of staff to the younger Skobesrv, tat
after the war he wrote a detailed and critical history of i>
operations which is still regarded as the classical work oa 1*
subject and is available for other nations in the German tn=&
lion by Major Krahmer. After the war he served again «a tb
south-eastern borders in command of the Turkestan Ride Bnc«
KURO SIWO— KURSK
953
and in 1881 he won further fame by a march of 500 miles from
Tashkent to Geok-Tepe, taking part in the storming of the latter
place. In 1882 he was promoted major-general, at the early age
of 34, and he henceforth was regarded by the army as the natural
successor of Skobelev. In 1890 he was promoted lieutenant-
general, and thirteen years later, having acquired in peace and
war the reputation of being one of the foremost soldiers in Europe,
be quitted the post of minister of war which he then held and took
command of the Russian army then gathering in Manchuria for
the contest with Japan. His ill-success in the great war of 1904-5,
astonishing as it seemed at the time, was largely attributable to
his subjection to the superior command of Admiral Alexeiev,
the tsar's viceroy in the Far East, and to internal friction amons^t
the generals, though in his history of the war (Eng. trans., 1000)
be frankly admitted his own mist akin and paid the highest
tribute to the gallantry of the troops who had been committed
to battle under conditions unfavourable to success. After the
defeat of Mukden and the retirement of the whole army toTieling
he resigned the command to General Linievich, taking the latter
officer's place at the head of one of the three armies in Manchuria.
(See Russo-Jafanxse Was.)
KURO SIWO, or Kuno Smo (literally blue .salt), a stream
current in the Pacific Ocean, easily distinguishable by the
warm temperature and blue colour of its waters, flowing north-
eastwards along the east coast of Japan, and separated from it by
a strip of cold water. The current persists as a- stream to about
40 N., between the meridians of 150° E. and 160 E., when it
merges in the general easterly drift of the North Pacific.
The Kuro Siwo is the analogue of the Gulf Stream in the
Atlantic
KURRAM, a river and district on the Kohat border of the
North-West Frontier province of India. The Kurram Tiver
drains the southern flanks of the Safed Koh, enters the plains
a few miles above Bannu, and joins the Indus near Isa-Khel after
& course of more than 300 miles. The district has an area of
1278 sq. m.; pop. (xooi), 54 ( s57« It lies between the Miransai
Valley and the Afghan border, and is inhabited by the Turis, a
tribe of Turki origin who are supposed to have subjugated the
Bangash Pathans five hundred years ago. It is highly irrigated,
well peopled, and crowded with small fortified villages, orchards
and groves, to which a fine background is afforded by the dark
pine forests and alpine snows of the Safed Koh. The beauty
and climate of the valley attracted some of the Mogul emperors of
Delhi, and the remains exist of a garden planted by Shah Jahan.
Formerly the Kurram valley was under the government of Kabul,
and every five or six years a military expedition was sent to
collect the revenue, the soldiers living meanwhile at free quarters
on the people. It was not until about 1848 that the Turis were
brought directly under the control of Kabul, when a governor was
appointed, who established himself in Kurram. The Turis,
being Shiah Mahommedans, never liked the Afghan rule. During
the second Afghan War, when Sir Frederick Roberts advanced by
way of the Kurram valley and the Peiwar Kotal to Kabul, the
Turis lent him 'every assistance in their power, and in consequence
their independence was granted them in 1880. The administra-
tion of the Kurram valley was finally undertaken by the British
government, at the request of the Turis themselves, in 1890.
Technically it ranks, not as a British district, but as an agency or
administered area. Two expeditions in the Kurram valley also
require mention: (1) The Kurram expedition of 1856 under
Brigadier Chamberlain. The Turis on the first annexation of the
Kohat district by the British had given much trouble. They had
repeatedly leagued with other tribes to harry the Miransai valley,
harbouring fugitives, encouraging resistance, and frequently
attacking Bangash and Khattak villages in the Kohat district.
Accordingly in 1856 a British force of 4806 troops traversed
their country, and the tribe entered into engagements for future
good conduct. (2) The Kohat -Kurram expedition of 1897 under
Colonel W. HilL During the frontier risings of 1897 the in-
habitants of the Kurram valley, chiefly the Massozai section of the
Orakzais, were infected by the general excitement, and attacked
the British camp at Sadda and other posts, A force of 14,230
British troops traversed the country, and the tribesmen were
severely punished. In Lord Curzon's reorganization of the
frontier in 1000-1001, the British troops were withdrawn from
the forts in the Kurram valley, and were replaced by the
Kurram militia, reorganized in two battalions, and chiefly
drawn from the Turi tribe.
KURSBONO, or Kaksiano, a sanatorium of northern India, in
the Darjeeling district of Bengal, 20 m. S. of Darjeeling and
4860 ft. above sea-level; pop. (xooi), 4469. It has a station on
the mountain railway, and is a centre of the tea trade. It also
contains boys' and girls' schools for Europeans and Eurasians.
KURSK, a government of middle Russia, bounded N. by the
government of Orel, E. by that of Voronezh, S. by Kharkov and
W. by Chernigov. Area, 1 7,932 sq. m. It belongs to the central
plateau of middle Russia, of which it mostly occupies the
southern slope, the highest parts being in Orel and Kaluga,
to the north of Kursk. Its surface is 700 to ixoo ft. high,
deeply trenched by ravines, and consequently assumes a hilly
aspect when viewed from the river valleys. Cretaceous and
Eocene rocks prevail, and chalk, iron-stone, potters' day and
phosphates are among the economic minerals. No fewer than
four hundred streams are counted within its borders, but none
of them is of any service as waterways. A layer of fertile loess
covers the whole surface, and Kursk belongs almost entirely to
the black-earth region. The flora is distinct from that of the
governments to the north, not only on account of the black-earth
flora which enters into its composition, but also of the plants of
south-western Russia which belong to it, a characteristic which
is accentuated in the southern portion of the government. The
climate is milder than that of middle Russia generally, and winds
from the south-east and the south-west prevail in winter. The
average temperatures are— -for the year 42 F., for January 14° F.
and for July 67° F. The very interesting magnetic phenomenon,
known as the Byelgorod anomaly, covering an oval area 20 m.
long and 1 2 m.wide, has been studied near the town of this name.
The population, 1,893,597 hi 1862, was 2,391,091 in 1897, of
whom 1,208,488 were women and 199,676 lived in towns. The
estimated pop. in 1906 was 2,797,000. It is thoroughly Russian
(76 % Great Russians and 24 % Little Russians), and 94 %
are peasants who own over 59% of the land, and live
mostly in large villages. Owing to the rapid increase of the
peasantry and the small size of the allotments given at the eman-
cipation of the serfs in 1861, emigration, chiefly to Siberia, is on
the increase, while 80,000 to 100,000 men leave home every
summer to work in the neighbouring governments. Three-
quarters of the available land is under crops, chiefly rye, other
crops being wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, millet, potatoes,
sugar-beets, hemp, flax, sunflowers and fruits. Grain is exported
in considerable quantities. Bees are commonly kept, as also
are large numbers of livestock. Factories (steam flour-mills,
sugar-factories, distilleries, wool-washing, tobacco factories)
give occupation to about 23,000 workers. Domestic and petty
trades are on the increase in the villages, and new ones are
being introduced, the chief products being boots, ikons (sacred
images) and shrines, toys, caps, vehicles, baskets, and pottery.
About 17 m. from the chief town is held the Korennaya fair,
formerly the greatest in South Russia, and still with an annual
trade valued at £900,000. The Kursk district contains more than
sixty old town sites; and barrows or burial mounds (Jmrgans) are
extremely abundant. Notwithstanding the active efforts of the
local councils (umstios), less than xo% of the population read
and write. The government is crossed from north to south and
from west to south by two main lines of railway. The trade in
grain, hemp, hemp-seed oil, sheepskins, hides, tallow, felt goods,
wax, honey and leather goods is very brisk. There are fifteen
districts, the chief towns of which, with their populations in 1897,
are Kursk (q.v.) Byelgorod (21,850), Dmitriev (73*5)1 Fatezfa
(4959)i Graivoron (7669), Korocha (14,405), Lgov (5376), Novyi
Oskol (2762), Oboyafi (1x872), Putivl (8965), Rylsk (11,415),
Staryi Oskol (16,662), Shchigry (3329), Suja (12,856) and Tim
(7380). There are more than twenty villages which have from
5000 to 12,000 inhabitants each. (P. A K.; J. T. Be.)
95+
KURSK— KUSHK
KURSK, a town of Russia, capital of the government of the
game name, at the junction of the railways from Moscow, Kiev
and Kharkov, 330 m. S.S.W. from Moscow. Pop. (1897), 52,806.
It is built on two hills (750 ft.), the slopes of which are planted
with orchards. The environs all round are well wooded and the
woods are famous for their nightingales. Among the public
buildings the more noticeable are a monastery with an image of
the Virgin, greatly venerated since 1295; the Orthodox Greek
cathedral (18th century); and the episcopal palace, Kursk being
a bishopric of the national church. It is essentially a provincial
town, and is revered as the birthplace of Theodosius, one of the
most venerated of Russian saints. It has a public garden, and
has become the seat of several societies (medical, musical, educa-
tional and for sport). Its factories include steam flour-mills,
distilleries, tobacco-works, hemp-crushing mills, tanneries, soap-
works and iron-works. It has a great yearly fair (Korcnmoya),
and an active trade in cereals, linen, leather, fruit, horses, cattle,
hides, sheepskins, furs, down, bristles, wax, tallow and manu-
factured goods.
Kursk was in existence in 1032. It was completely destroyed
by the Mongols in 124a The defence of the town against an
incursion of the Turkish Poiovtsi (or Comans or Cumani) is
celebrated in The Triumph of Igor, an epic which forms one of the
most valuable relics of early Russian literature. From 1586 to
the dose of the x8th century the citadel was a place of consider-
able strength; the remains are now comparatively few.
~ KURTZ, JOHANN HEWKICH (1 809-1 800), German Lutheran
theologian, was born at Montjoie near Aix la Chapelle on the
13th of December 1800, and was educated at Halle and Bonn.
Abandoning the idea of a commercial career, he gave himself to
the study of theology and became religious instructor at the
gymnasium of Mitau in 1835, and ordinary professor of theology
(church history, 2850; exegesis, 1859) at Dorpat. He resigned
his chair in 1870 and went to live at Marburg, where he died on
the 26th of April 1890. Kurtz was a proline writer, and many
of his books, especially the Lehrbuchder heiligen Geschichte (1843),
became very popular. In the field of biblical criticism he wrote
a Geschichte des Allen Bundes (1848- 1855), Zur Theohgie der
Psalmen (1865) and ErktSrung des Briefs an die Hebrder (1869).
His chief work was done in church history, among his produc-
tions being Lehrbnch der Kirchengeschichte fSr Stmdierend*
(1849), Abriss der Kirchengeschichte (1852) and Handbuch der
aUgtmeinen Kirchengesckickte (1853-2856). Several of his books
h ave be en translated Into English.
KURUMAJf, a town in the Bechuanaland division of Cape
Colony, 120 m. N.W. of Kimberiey and 85 m. S.W. of Vryburg.
It is a station of the London Missionary Society, founded in
1818, and from 1821 to 1870 was the scene of the labours
of Robert Moffat (?.?.) who here translated the Bible into the
Bechuana tongue. In the middle period of the 19th century
Kuruman was the rendezvous of aH travellers going north
or soath. Of these the best known is David Livingstone.
The trunk railway hne passing considerably to the east of
the town, Kuniman is no longer a place of much importance.
It is pleasantly situated on the upper course of the Kuniman
river, being beautified by gardens and orchards, and presents
a striking contrast to the desert conditions of the surrounding
country. Its name is that of the son and heir of Mosflikatxe,
the founder of the Matabele nation. Kuruman disappeared
during his father's lifetime and the s u c c e ssi on passed to Loben-
gula (see Rhooxsia: History). In November 1809 the town
was besieged by a Boer force. The garrison, leas than a hun-
dred strong, held out for six weeks against over 1000 of the
enemy, but was forced to surrender on the 1st of January 1900.
In June following it was re occupicd by the British.
KUROTIBAS and KURUBAS, aboriginal tribes of southern
India, by some thought to be of distinct races. There are two
types of Kurumbas, those who live on the Nilgiri plateau, speak
the Karumba dialect and are mere savages; and those who live
in the plains, speak Kanarese and are civilized. The former
are a small people, with wild matted hair and scanty beard,
«Ai>4ooking,p*-bellK-' * ' ^ with projecting jaws,
prominent teeth and thick lips. Their villages are called nutlti,
groups of four or five huts, built in mountain glens or foresU
At the 1901 census the numbers were returned at 4083.
See James W. Breeks, An Account of Primitive Tribes of tie Nigim
(1873) ; Dr John Shortt, Hill Ranges of Southern Indus. pC I 47-5}:
Rev. F. Met*. Tribes Inhabiting the Neugherry Hills (Masi "
1864).
KURUWEGALA. the chief town m the north-western province
of Ceylon. Pop. of the town, 6483; of the district, 240,429. It
was the residence of the kings of Ceylon from ajx 1319 to 1347,
and is romantically situated under the shade of Adagafla (the
rock of the Tusked Elephant), which is 600 ft. high. It was ia
1902 the terminus of the Northern railway (59 m. from Colombo,
which has since been extended 200 m. farther, to the northers-
most coast of the Jaffna Peninsula. Kunmegala is the centic
of rice, coco-nut, tea, coffee and cocoa cultivation.
KURUNTWAD, or Kueandvad, a native state of India, is
the Deccan division of Bombay, forming part of the Soutberi
Mahratta jagirs. Originally created in 1 772 by a grant from tk
peshwa, the state was divided in 181 1 into two parts, one of wh*ck
called Shedbal, lapsed to the British government in 1857. Is
1855 Kuruntwad was further divided between a senior and 2
junior branch. The territory of both is widely scattered among
other native states and British districts. Area of the senior
branch, 185 sq. m.; pop. (2002), 42,474; revenue, £13,000. Area
of junior branch, 114 sq. m.; pop. (2002), 34,003; revenue, £9000
The joint tribute is £640. The chiefs are Brahmans by caste, «f
the Patwardhan family. The town of Kuruntwad, in wfefci
both branches have their residence, is on the right bank of tfer
Panchganga river near its junction with the Kistna. Pop. (1901},
10,451.
KURZ, HERMAMlf (1823-1873), German poet and BoveOsg,
was born at Reutlingen on the 30th of November 1813. Havisf
studied at the theological seminary' at Maulbronn and at the
university of Tubingen, he was for a time assistant pastor at
Ehningen. He then entered upon a literary career, and in iSij
was appointed university librarian at Tubingen, where he <firf
on the 10th of October 2873. Kurs is less known to fame V
his poems, Cedichte (1836) and Dichtungen (1839), than by fea
historical novels, SchtTUrs Heimatjahre (1843, 3rd ed., 189-
and Der Sonnenwiri (1854, 2nd ed., 2862), and his exoriJrt
translations from English, Italian and Spanish. He ala»
published a successful modern German version of Gottfried vw
Strassburg*s Tristan tmd Isolde (1844). His collected works
were published in ten volumes (Stuttgart, 2874), also in twthv
volumes (Leipzig, 2904).
His daughter, Isolde Kusz, born on the >rst of December
2853 at Stuttgart, takes a high place among contemporary lyrx
poets in Germany with her Gedichte (Stuttgart, 2888, 3rd ed
2898) and Nene Gedichte (2903). Her short stories, Ftaremtsmm
NoveBen (2890, 2nd ed. 2893), Phonmssien und AfArdfce* (i8qc\
Ilalienische Endhtungen (2895) and Yen Danamal (2900) an
di stingu ished by a fine sense of form and dear-cot style.
KUSAN ("lake " or " inland bay "), a small group of Nortt
American Indian tribes, formerly living on the Coos river and tlx
coast of Oregon. They call themselves Anaatdi, and other
names given them have been Ka-ns or Kwo-Kwoos, Kowes aH
Cook-koo-oose. They appear to be in no way related to thrr
neighbours. The few sur viv or s , mostly of mixed blood, are m
the SHetx reservation, Oregon.
KUSHALQARH. a village in the Kohat district of tbe Nona-
West Frontier province of India. It is only notable as the postf
at which the Indus is bridged to permit of the '««-rwm of tk
strategic frontier railway from Rawalpindi to the ^^^ni sad
K nrram va lleys.
KUSHK, a river of Afghanistan, which also gives its name k
the chief town in the Afghan province of Badghts, and to a
nrtKtary post on the border of Russian Turkestan. Toe rnw
Kushk, during a portion of its course, forms the boundary bet weet
Afghan and Russian territory; but tbe town is some 10 a*, iron
the border. Kushk, or Kushkinski Post, is now a rowta-ctc*
I Russian fortress, on a Russian branch railway from *f err, tV
KUSTANAISK— KUTTENBERG
955
terrainusof which is 1 2 m. to the south, at ChahflDukteran. It is
served by both the Transcaspiaa and the Orenburg-Tashkent
railways. The terminus is only 66 m. from Herat, and in
the event of war would become an important base for a
Russian advance. Some confusion has arisen through the
popular application of the name of Kushk to this terminus,
though it is situated neither at the Russian post nor at the
old town. (T. H. H .*)
KUSTANAISK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the province of
Turgai, on the Tobol river, 410 m. E.N.E. of Orenburg, in a very
fertile part of the steppes. Pop. (1897), 14,065. The first build-
ings were erected in 1871, and it has since grown with American-
like rapidity. The immigrants from Russia built a large village,
which became the centre of the district administration in 1884,
and a town in 1893, under the name of Nicolaevsk, changed later
into Kustanaisk. It is an educational centre, and a cathedral
has been built There are tanneries, tallow works, potteries,
and a fair for cattle, while its trade makes it a rival to Orenburg
and Troitsk.
KUSTENLAND (coast-land or littoral), a common name for
the three crown-lands of Austria, G6rz and Gradisca, Istria and
Trieste. Their combined area is 3084 sq. m., and their popula-
tion in 1900 was 755,183. They are united for certain adminis-
trative purposes under the governor of Trieste, the legal and
financial authorities of which also exercise jurisdiction over the
entire littoraL
~ KUTAIAH, Kutaya, or Kitjtahta, the chief town of a sanjak
in the vilayet of Brusa (Khudavendikiar), Asia Minor, is situated
on the Pursaksu, an affluent of the Sakaria (anc. Songarius):
The town lies at an important point of the great road across Asia
Minor from Constantinople to Aleppo, and is connected by a
branch line with the main line from Eski-shehr to Afium Kara-
Hissar, of the Anatolian railway. It has a busy trade; pop.
estimated at 22,000. Kutaiah has been identified with the
ancient Cotiaeum.
See V. Cuiaet, TurquU <TAsie, vol. iv. (Paris, 1894).
KUTAIS, a government of Russian Transcaucasia, situated
between the Caucasus range on the N. and the Black Sea on the
W., the government of Tiflis on the E. and the province of Kara
on the S. Area, 14,313 sq. m. The government includes the
districts of Guria, Mingrelia, Imeretia, Abkhasia and Svanetia,
and consists of four distinct parts: (1) the lowlands, drained by.
the Rion, and continued N.W. along the shore of the Black Sea;
(2) the southern slopes of the main Caucasus range; (3) the
western slopes of the Suram mountains, which separate Kutais
from Tiflis; and (4) the slopes of the Armenian highlands, as well
as a portion of the highlands themselves, drained by the Chorokh
and its tributary, the Ajaris-tskhali, which formerly constituted
the Batum province. Generally speaking, the government is
mountainous in the north and south. Many secondary ridges
and spurs shoot off the main range, forming high, narrow valleys
(see Caucasus). The district of Batum and Artvin in the S.W.,
which in 1903 were in part separated for administration as the
semi-military district of Batum, are filled up by spurs of the
Pontic range, 9000 to 11,240 ft. high, the Arzyan ridge separating
them from the plateau of Kars. Deep gorges, through which
tributaries of the Chorokh force their passage to the main river,
intersect these highlands, forming most picturesque gorges. The
lowlands occupy over 2400 sq. m. They are mostly barren
in the littoral region, but extremely fertile higher up the
Rion.
The climate is very moist and warm. The winters are often
without frost at all in the lowlands, while the lowest temperatures
observed are 18 F. at Batum and 9 at Poti. The mountains
condense the moisture brought by the west winds, and the
yearly amount of rain varies from 50 to 120 in. The chief
rivers are the Rion, which enters the Black Sea at Poti; the
Chorokh, which enters the same sea at Batum; and the Ingur, the
Kodor and the Bzyb, also flowing into the Black Sea in Abkhasia.
The vegetation is extremely rich, its character suggesting the
sub-tropic regions of Japan (see Caucasia). The population
belongs almost entirely to the Kartvelian or Georgian group,
and is distributed as follows: Imeretians, 41*2%; Mingrelians
and Lazes, 22-5 %; Gurians, 7-3%; Ajars, 5-8%; Svane*
tians, i*3%; of other nationalities there are 6% of Abkhasians,
2*6% of Turks, 2*3% of Armenians, besides Russians, Jews,
Greeks, Persians, Kurds, Ossetes and Germans. By religion
87 % of the population are Greek Orthodox and only xo% Mus-
sulmans. The total population was 933,773 in 1897, of whom
508,468 were women and 77,702 lived in towns. The estimated
population in 1906 was 924,800. The land is excessively sub-
divided, and, owing to excellent cultivation, fetches very high
prices. The chief crops are maize, wheat, barley, beans, rye,
hemp, potatoes and tobacco. Maize, wine and timber are
largely exported. Some cotton-trees have been planted. The
vine, olive* mulberry and all sorts of fruit trees are cultivated, as
also many exotic plants (eucalyptus, cork-oak, camellia, and even
tea). Manganese ore is the chief mineral, and is extracted for
export to the extent of 160,000 to 180,000 tons annually, besides
coal, lead and silver ores, copper, naphtha, some gold, litho-
graphic stone and marble. Factories are still in infancy, but
silk is spun. A railway runs from the Caspian Sea, via Tiflis and
the Suram tunnel, to Kutais, and thence to Poti and Batum, and
from Kutais to the Tkvibuli coal and manganese mines. The
export of both local produce and goods shipped by rail from
other ports of Transcaucasia is considerable, Batum and Poti
being the two chief ports of Caucasia. Kutais is divided into
seven districts, of which the chief towns, with their popula-
tions in 1897, are Kutais, capital of the province (q.v.); Lailashi
(834), chief town of Lechgum, of which Svanetia makes a separate
administrative unit; Ozurgeti (4694); Oni, chief town of Racha;
Senaki (xoi); Kvirili, of Sharopan district; Zugdidi; and two
semi-military districts — Batum (28,512) with Artvin (7000) and
Sukhum-kaleh (7809). (P. A. K.— J. T. Be.)
KUTAIS, a town of Russian Caucasia, capital of the govern-
ment of the same name, 60 m. by rail E. of Poti and 5 m. from
the Rion station of the railway between Poti and Tiflis. Pop.
(1897), 32,492. It is one of the oldest towns of Caucasia, having
been the ancient capital (Aea or Kutaea) of Colchis, and later the
capital of Imeretia (from 792); Procopius mentions it under the
name of Kotatision. Persians, Mongols, Turks and Russians
have again and again destroyed the town and its fortress. In
1810 it became Russian. It is situated on both banks of the
Rion river, which is spanned by three bridges. Its most re-
markable building is the ruined cathedral, erected in the nth
century by the Bagratids, the ruling dynasty of Georgia, and
destroyed by the Turks in 1692; it is the most important repre-
sentative extant of Georgian architecture. The fort, mentioned
by Procopius, is now a heap of ruins, destroyed by the Russians
in 1770. The inhabitants make hats and silks, and trade in
agricultural produce and wine. On the right bank of the Rion
is a government model garden, with a model farm.
KUT-EL-AMARA, a small town in Turkish Asia, on the east
bank of the Tigris (32* 29' 19" N., 44 45' 37" E.) at the point
where the Shatt-el-Hal leaves that stream. It is a coaling
station of the steamers plying between Basra and Bagdad, and an
i mporta nt Turkish post for the control of the lower Tigris.
KTJTERAI (Kutonaga), a group of North-American Indian
tribes forming the distinct stock of Kitunahan. Their former
range was British Columbia, along the Kootenay lake and river.
They were always friendly to the whites and noted for their
honesty. In 1904 there were some 550 in British Columbia; and
in 1908 there were 606 on the Flathead Agency, Montana.
KTJTFALAM , or Couktallum, a sanatorium of southern India,
in the Tinnevelly district of Madras; pop. (1901), 1 197. Though
situated only 450 ft. above sea-level, it possesses the climate of a
much higher elevation, owing to the breezes that reach it through
a gap in the Ghats. It has long been a favourite resort for
European visitors, the season lasting from July to September;
and it has recently been made more accessible by the opening
of the railway from Tinnevelly into Travancore. The scenery
is most picturesque, including a famous waterfall.
KUTTENBERG (Czech, Kutnd Hora), a town of Bohemia,
Austria, 45 m. E. by S. oi Prague. Pop. (1900), m.***"* -«^»'"
956
KUTUSOV— KVASS
Caeca. Amongst its buildings are the Gothic five-naved church
of St Barbara, begun in 1368, the Gothic church of St Jacob (14th
century) and the Late Gothic Trinity church (end of 15th century).
The Wilscher Hoi, formerly a royal residence and mint, was
built at the end of the 13th century, and the Gothic Steinerne
Haus, which since 1849 serves as town-hall, contains one of the
richest archives in Bohemia. The industry includes sugar-
refining, brewing, the manufacture of cotton and woollen stuffs,
leather goods and agricultural implements.
The town of Kuttenberg owes its origin to the silver mines,
the existence of which can be traced back to the first part of the
13th century. The city developed with great rapidity, and at
the outbreak of the Hussite troubles, early in the 14th century,
was next to Prague the most important in Bohemia, having
become the favourite residence of several of the Bohemian kings.
It was here that, on the 18th of January 1410, Wenceslaus IV.
signed the famous decree of Kuttenberg, by which the Bohemian
nation was given three votes in the elections to the faculty of
Prague University as against one for the three other " nations. "
In the autumn of the same year Kuttenberg was the scene of
horrible atrocities. The fierce mining population of the town
was mainly German, and fanatically Catholic, in contrast with
Prague, which was Czech and utraquisL By way of reprisals
for the Hussite outrages in Prague, the miners of Kuttenberg
seiaed on any Hussites they could find, and burned, beheaded or
threw them alive into the shafts of disused mines. In this way
1600 people are said to have perished, including the magistrates
and clergy of the town of Kaufim, which the Kuttenbergers had
taken. In 1420 the emperor Sigismund made the city the base for
his unsuccessful attack on the Taborites; Kuttenberg was taken
by Ziika, and after a temporary reconciliation of the warring
parties was burned by the imperial troops in 142*, to prevent its
falling again into the hands of the Taborites. Ziika none the less
took the place, and under Bohemian auspices it awoke to a new
period of prosperity. In 1541 the richest mine was hopelessly
flooded; in the insurrection of Bohemia against Ferdinand I.
the city lost all its privileges; repeated visitations of the plague
and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War completed its ruin.
Half-hearted attempts after the peace to repair the ruined mines
failed; the town became impoverished, and in 1770 was devas-
tated by fire. The mines were abandoned at the end of the x 8th
century; one mine was again opened by the government in 1874,
b ut the w ork was discontinued in 1903.
KUTUSOV [Golenishchev-Kutusov], MIKHAIL LARIOH-
OVICH, Prince or Smolensk (i 745-18x3), Russian field marshal,
was born on the 16th of September 1745 at St Petersburg, and
entered the Russian army in 1759 or 1760, He saw active service
in Poland, 1764-69, and against the Turks, 1770-74; lost an
eye in action in the latter year; and after that travelled for some
years in central and western Europe. In 1784 he became major-
general, in 1787 governor-general of the Crimea; and under
Suvorov, whose constant companion he became, he won consider-
able distinction in the Turkish War of 1788-91, at the taking of
Ochakov, Odessa, Benda and Ismail, and the battles of Rimnik
and Mashin. He was now (1791) a lieutenant-general, and suc-
cessively occupied the positions of ambassador at Constan-
tinople, governor-general of Finland, commandant of the corps
of cadets at St Petersburg, ambassador at Berlin, and governor-
general of St Petersburg. In 1805 be commanded the Russian
corps which opposed Napoleon's advance on Vienna (see
Napoleonic Campaigns), and won the hard-fought action
of Durrenstein on the x8th-xoth of November.
On the eve of Austerlitz fa.t.) he tried to prevent the Allied
generals from fighting a batik, and when he wasoverruledtookso
little interest in the event that be fell asleep during the reading of
the orders. He was, however, present at the batik itself , and was
wounded. From 1S06 to 1811 Kutusov was governor-general
of Lithuania and Kiev, and in 1S11, being then commander-
in-chief in the war against the Turks, he was made a prince.
Shortly after this be was called by the unanimous voice of the
army and the people to command the army that was retreating
before Napoleon s advar k at Borodino (}-».),
and was defeated, but not decisively, and after retreating la the
south-west of Moscow, be forced Napoleon to begin the crirbratrt
retreat. The old general's cautious pursuit evoked much cra>
cism, but at any rate be allowed only* remnant of the Goad Aran
to regain Prussian soil. He was now field marshal and prince at
Smolensk — this title having been given him for a victory ever
part of the French army at that place in November 181 a. Early
in the following year he carried the war into Germany, took ooe>
mand of the allied Russia nt and Prussians, and prepared te
raise all central Europe in arms against Napoleons doatinxijoe,
but before the opening of the campaign he fell ui and died on the
35th of March 1813 at Bunzlau. Memorials have been esecte4
to him at that place and at St Petersburg.
Mikhailovskv-Oanilevsld's life of Kotusov (St rVtecsfanrg. t*&
was translated into French by A. Fiaeber (Pan*, 1850).
KUWtT (Kuweit, Kowxrr), a port in Arabia at the north-
western angle of the Persian Gulf in 29° to' N. and 48* E-, abac
80 m. due S. of Basra and 60 m. S.W. of the .month of ike
Shat el Arab. The name KuwCt is the diminutive form of Ksi
a common term in Irak foe a waned village; it is also shown =
some maps as Grane or Grain, a corruption of Karen, the <**>
nutive of Kara, a born. It lies en the south side of a bay so a.
long and 5 m. wide, the mouth of which is protected by tw*
islands, forming a fine natural harbour, with good arrhmnti a
from 4 to 9 fathoms of water. The town has 15,000 inhabitants
and is dean and well built; the country around being p*^-»^-«»r
desert, it depends entirely on the sea and its trade, and its saBan
have a high reputation as the most skilful and trustworthy on tie
Persian Gulf; while its position as the nearest port to Upper Keif
gives it great importance as the port of entry for rice, piece gowk
&c, and of export for horses, sheep, wool and other pro du c ts d
the interior. Knwet was recommended in 1850 by General F. 1
Chggngy ma the t^rminiK^Rkprryrt— d Ritpht^»» VfBfrniHj,
and since 1898, when the extension of the Anatolian mwmajta
Bagdad and the Gulf has been under discussion, »***vnrnt he
again been directed to it. An alternative site for the t»«w»—
has been suggested in Um Khasa, at the head of the Khar "Abo-
allah, where a branch of the Shat d Arab formerly entered tbeso.
it lies some so m. N.E. of Kuwct and separated froaa it by ik
island of Bubiin, which has for some time been in Turkish occaf*
tion. An attempt by Turkey to occupy Kuwet in 1898 was tae
by a formal protest from Great Britain against any infrhaajeswc
of the status quo, and in 1809 Sheikh Mubarak of Knwet pfcece
his interests under British protection.
The total trade passing through Kuwet in 1904-1905 wa
valued at £160,000, The imports indude arms and amsramtxa.
piece goods, rice, coffee, sugar, &c; and the exports, horn
pearls, dates, wool, &c The steamers of the British lads
Steamship Company call fortnightly. (R. A. V )
KUZNETSK, two towns of Russia. (1) A town in the nweo>
ment of Saratov, 74 m. by rail east of Penan. It has grow
rapidly since the dev el op m ent of the railway system in the Vofc
basin. It has manufactures of agricultural machioery and harfr
Ware, in a number of small factories and workshops, beads
tanneries, rope-works, boot and shoe m* icing in K^ftrs. and the?
if "»m^ki. !ra 4r ; n ^httytrmt , rrsin, mU and wnnrka gam
exported to the treeless regions of south-east Russia. F<»
(1897), 21,740. (2)AtowamWestSiberia,inlae8owefnsBesia
Tomsk, 150 m. E.XX. of Barnaul, on the Upper Toco river, at tk
head of navigation. It has trade in grain, cattle, furs^oedarwecd
nuts, wax, honey and tallow, and is the centre of a coal-inautj
district. Pop. (1897), 3141.
KVASS, or Kwass (a Russian word for M leaven "), oneaf tat
n at i o n al akohotic drinks of Russia, and popular also ineastca
Europe. It is made, by a simultaneous acid and aknfcwr
fer m en ta tion, of wheat, rye, barley and buckwheat meal m a
rye-bread, with the addition of sugar or fruit. It has beet*
universal driak in Russia since the 16th century. Taooghatst
large towns it is made commercially, ebewhere it is f- ~f— t*
an artide of domestic production. Kvassisof very low afcoW
content (0*7 to ij %). There are, beside the ot danaij tat
superior forms of the drink, such as apple or raspberry tasv
KWAKIUTL— KWANZA
957
KWAKIUTL, a tribe of North-American Indians of Wakashan
stock. They number about 2000.- Formerly the term was
need of the one tribe in the north-east of Vancouver, but now
it is the collective name for a group of Wakashan peoples.
The Kwakiutl Indians are remarkable for their conservatism
in all matters and specially their adherence to the custom of
Fotlatch, which it is sometimes suggested originated with them.
Tribal government is in the hands of secret societies. These
are three social ranks, hereditary chiefs, middle and third
estates, most of the latter being slaves or their descendants.
Entry to the societies is forbidden the latter, and can only be
obtained by the former after torture and fasting. The kamatsa
or cannibal society is only open to those who have been mem-
bers of a lower society for eight years.
KWANGCHOW BAY (Kwamgcbow Wan), a coaling station
on the south coast of China, acquired, along with other con-
cessions, by the French government in April 1898. It is situated
on the east side of the peninsula of Lienchow, in the province
of Kwangtung, and directly north of the island of Hainan.
It is held on lease for 00 years on similar terms to those by
which Kiaochow is held by Germany, Port Arthur by Japan
and Wei-hai-wei by Great Britain. The cession includes
the islands lying in the bay; these enclose a roadstead 18 m.
long by 6 m. wide, with admirable natural defences and
a depth at no part of less than 33 ft. The bay forms the
estuary of the Ma-Ts'e river, navigable by the largest men-of-
war for 1 a no. from the coast. The limits of the concession
inland were fixed in November 1800. On the left bank of the
Ma-Ts'e France gained from Kow Chow Fu a strip of territory
iz m. by 6 m., and on the right bank a strip 15 m. by xx m.
from Lei Chow Fu. The country is well populated; the capital
aad chief town is Lei Chow. The cession carries with it full
territorial jurisdiction during the continuance of the lease.
In January 1900 it was placed under the authority of the
governor-general of Indo-China, who in the same month ap-
pointed a civil administrator over the country, which was
divided into three districts. The population of the territory is
about 189,000. A mixed tribunal has been instituted, but the
local organization is maintained for purposes of administration.
In addition to the territory acquired, the right has been given
to connect the bay by railway with the city and harbour of
Ompon, situated on the west side of the peninsula, and in
consequence of difficulties which were offered by the provincial
government on the occasion of taking possession, and which
compelled the French to have recourse to arms, the latter
demanded and obtained exclusive mining rights in the three
adjoining prefectures. Two lines of French steamships call
at the bay. By reason of the great strategical importance
of the bay, and the presence of large coal-beds in the near
neighbourhood, much importance is attached by the French
to the acquirement of Kwangchow Wan.
KWANG-SI, a southern province of China, bounded N.
by Kwei-chow and Hu-nan, £. and S. by Kwang-tung, S.W.
and W. by French Indo-Chino and Yun-nan. It covers an
area of 80,000 sq. m. It is the least populous province of China,
its inhabitants numbering (1908) little over 5,000,000. The
Skias, an aboriginal race, form two-thirds of the population.
The provincial capital is Kwei-lin Fu, or City of the Forest
of Cinnamon Trees, and there are besides ten prefectural cities.
The province is largely mountainous. The principal rivers
are the Si-kiang and the Kwei-kiang, or Cinnamon River,
which takes its rise in the district of Hing-gan, in the north of
the province, and in the neighbourhood of that of the Siang
river, which flows northward through Hu-nan to the Tung-
t'ing Lake. The Kwei-kiang, on the other hand, takes a
southerly course, and passes the cities of Kwei-lin, Yang-so
Hien, P'ing-le Fu, Chao-p'ing Hicn, and so finds its way to
Wu-chow Fu, where it joins the waters of the Si-kiang. Another
considerable river is the Liu-kiang, or Willow River, which
rises in the mountains inhabited by the Miao-tsze,in Kwei-chow.
Leaving its source it takes a south-easterly direction, and enters
Kwang-si, in the district of Hwai-yuen. After encircling the
city of that name, it flows south as far as Liu-ch'eng Hien,
where it forms a junction with the Lung-kiang, or Dragon
River. Adopting the trend of this last-named stream, which
has its head-waters in Kwei-chow, the mingled flow passes
eastward, and farther on in a south-easterly direction, by
Lai-chow Fu, Wu-suan Hien, and Sin-chow Fu, where it receives
the waters of the. Si-kiang, and thenceforth changes its name
for that of its affluent. The treaty ports in Kwang-si are
Wuchow Fu, Lung-chow and Nanning Fu.
KWANG-TUNO, a southern province of China, bounded N.
by Hu-nan, Kiang-si and Fu-kien, S. and E. by the sea, and
W. by Kwang-si. It contains an area, including the island
of Hainan, of 75.500 sq. m., and is divided into nine prefectures;
and the population is estimated at about 30,000,000, Its
name, which signifies " east of Kwang," is derived, according
to Chinese writers, from the fact of its being to the east of the
old province of Hu-kwang, in the same way that Kwang-si
derives its name from its position to the west of Hu-kwang.
Kwang-tung extends for more than 600 m. from east to west,
and for about 420 from north to south. It may be described as a
hilly region, forming part as it does of the Nan Shan ranges.
These mountains, speaking generally, trend in a north-east
and south-westerly direction, and are divided by valleys of
great fertility. The principal rivers of the province are the
Si-kiang, the Pei-kiang, or North River, which rises in the
mountains to the north of the province, and after a southerly
course joins the Si-kiang at San-shui Hien; the Tung-kiang,
or 'East River, which, after flowing in a south-westerly direction
from its source in the north-east of the province, empties
itself into the estuary which separates the city of Canton from
the sea; and the Han River, which runs a north and south course
across the eastern portion of the province, taking its rise in
the mountains on the western frontier of Fu-kien and emptying
itself into the China Sea in the neighbourhood of Swatow.
Kwang-tung is one of the most productive provinces of the
empire. Its mineral wealth is very considerable, and the
soil of the valleys and plains is extremely fertile. The principal
article of export is silk, which is produced in the district forming
the river delta, extending from Canton to Macao and having
its apex at San-shui Hien. Three large coal-fields exist in the
province, namely, the Shao-chow Fu field in the north; the
Hwa Hien field, distant about 30 m. from Canton; and the
west coast field, in the south-west. The last is by far the
largest of the three and extends over the districts of Wu-ch'uen,
Tien-pai, Yang-kiang, Yang-ch'un, Gan-p'ing, K'ai-p'ing,
Sin-hing, Ho-shan, Sin-hwang, and Sin-ning. The coal from
the two first-named fields is of an inferior quality, but that in
the west coast field is of a more valuable kind. Iron ore is found
in about twenty different districts, notably in Ts'ing-yuen,
Ts'ung-hwa, Lung-men, and Lu-feng. None, however, is
exported in its raw state, as all which is produced is manu-
factured in the province, and principally at Fat-shan, which
has been called the Birmingham of China. The Kwang-tung
coast abounds with islands, the largest of which is Hainan,
which forms part of the prefecture of K'iung-chow Fu This
island extends for about 100 m. from north to south and the
same distance from cast to west The southern and eastern
portions of Hainan are mountainous, but on the north there is a
plain of some extent. Gold is found in the central part, and
sugar, coco-nuts, betel-nuts, birds' nests, and agar agar, or sea
vegetable, are among the other products of the island. , Canton,
Swatow, K'iung-chow (in Hainan), Pakhoi. San-shui are among
the treaty ports. Three ports in the province have been ceded
or leased to foreign powers — Macao to Portugal, Hong-Kong
(with Kowloon) to Great Britain, and Kwangchow to France.
KWANZA (Coanza or Qcakza), a river of West Africa,
with a course of about 700 m. entirely within the Portuguese
territory of Angola. The source lies in about 13 40' S., 17
30' E. on the Bihe plateau, at an altitude of over 5000 ft. It
runs first N.E. and soon attains fairly large dimensions. Just
north of 12° it is about 60 yds. wide and 13 to 16 ft. deep.
From this point to xo° it flows N.W., receiving many tributaries,
95 8
KWEI-CHOW— KYD
the Timdn from the cast. In about io°, and at
i during "*s westerly passage through the outer plateau
its coarse is broken by rapids, the river flowing
I valley flanked by higher ground. The lowest
fafl is that of Kara ham ha, or Livingstone, with a drop o! 70 ft.
Thence to the sea, a distance of some 160 m., it is navigable
by smal msi— 1 1. though very shallow in the dry season.
The river enters the sea in o* 15* S., ij° vf E , 40 m. S. of
loa a rh There is a shifting bar at its mouth, difficult to
crass* bn* the river as a waterway has become of less importance
since the ferine district in its middle basin has been served by
th e rairway from Luanda to Ambaca (see Angola)*
avw/aw-CBOW, a south-western province of China, bounded
N. by Sac-ch we*, E. by Hu-nan, S. by Kwang-si, and W. by
Yua-aaa. It mat aim 67,000 sq. m., and has a population
af ahowt S . noo.ooo. atwei-yang Fu is the provincial capital,
and besides this there are eleven prefecttiral cities in the pro-
vince. With the exception of plains in the neighbourhood
•* K^»- yan< Fa. Taking Fu, and Tsun-i Fu, in the central and
■nrthern regions, the province may be described as mountain-
•ua. The movataia ranges in the south are largely inhabited
by Miao-tsae, who are the original owners of the soil and have
been, constantly goaded into a state of rebellion by the oppression
*> *fc»ch they have been subjected by the Chinese officials.
T» this disturbing cause was added another in 1861 by the spread
a* the hfihuaavrUa rebellion in Yun-nan into some of the
wMth-westen districts of the province. The devastating
effects of these chnl wars were most disastrous to the trade
and the ptosp e iitj of Kwet-chow. The dimate is by nature
w&heafehy. the supply of running water being small, and that
a€ itig na nt water , from which arises a fatal malaria, being
csmih.ra hfa . The agricultural products of the province are
very ■mwrd. and its chief wealth lies in its minerals. Copper,
«her, had* and sine are found in considerable quantities,
and at Kgeros awkliJiu. Kwei-chow is probably the richest
ton&try in the warhl This has been from of old the chief
predict of the niorince. and the beh in which it occurs extends
tfctonga the whole dastrkt from south-west to north-east. One
^ theprinanal awning detracts is K'ai Chow, in the prefecture
o( tsiiyanf r\t> and this district has the advantage of being
justed near Hvang*pmg Chow, from which place the products
^n be co n tt m entry and cheaply shipped to Hankow. Cinna-
Z^ teatf** , orpiment and coal form the rest of the mineral
^wa q£ l a uthwu Vwd swk b another valuable article
^°^ott ft b chkfy — afyfrrd in the prefecture of
^^_g0tl.a wstxkt hi the Aiakan division of Lower Burma,
leasts* coast of the lay af Bengal. It consists of, first, a
08 . JaauB^ahnctaelaTof Beiu^ the
^^t: && <* tanwe and Chedaba, with many others to
^^WiMQttht coast at':awwi"iy. The mainland in the
^^^abt^hN ■■i.nnniim and forest-dad, and the
1 ^*£fr»ttoit\p«K» naawwni islands by a network
^Jw^eds. li.ini.i.n i h. nanfwi i~* p — "~ *~ « r~T
^•TwinaeA*? fce* »*»*. salt-water inlets, forming
*!?^*niU»«* * a sa»th<ast«ry direction, and
^Jpj-aWto*^ T*?ei»*al mountains are the
V** 1 >^vhAwm»*»n»ands«b^urs almost ">
ct
til
gen
corf
NaFa
oIDl
On
genera
tittle in
thcordt
^*^^^^J^phi4et and the An
*V** 1,,^-w^ w to »$ and 45 »• respec-
" 'he »»•■» wrtcntain torrents.
B vta of about 650
ygt volcanoes," from
->4 occasional issue
are also found. Area 4387 sq.nv, pop. (toot), s68jKi7.wao|
an increase in the decade of 2*3%.
The chief town, Kyaukpyu, had a population an root of vr
It has a municipal committee of twelve members, three «;> .
and nine appointed by the local government, and then astiri
class district gaoL Kyaukpyu is a port under the Indisa *aa
Act (X. of 1889), and the steamers of the British India Kara*
tkm Company call there once a week going and conning bsvss
Rangoon and Calcutta.
KYAUKSt, a district in the MeiktiU division of Upper lam
with an area of 1274 sq. m., and a population in igot -
141, 25J. It is also known as the K+4syamt, so called tarn v
original nine canals of the district. It r***Li+*+ of a geatn
level strip running north and south at the foot of the Shaa H-j
and of a billy region nsmg up these lulls to the east, and fil-
ing the Yeyaman tract, which lies be t w een 21* 36* and 2s* #0 >
and 06° 15* and 06 45/ E., with peaks rising: to between 4c
and 5000 ft. This tract is rugged and scored by ravines, sac
very sparsdy inhabited. The ftanlaung and Zawgyi riven fc- -
the Shan States flow through the district and are utilized ix •*
numerous irrigation canals. Notwithstanding this, snack u»V
is floated down, and the Panlwng is navigable for small boust.
theyearround. Rain is very scarce, but the canals supply act.
water for cultivation and all other purposes. They are sat: *
have been dug by King Nawrahti in 1002. He is alleged in kr«
completed the system of nine canals and weirs m three jur
time. Others have been constructed since the •™«>-r»*»^
Upper Burma. At that time many were in serioos disrepair, t-
most of them have been greatly improved by the construe*.*:
of proper regulators and sluices. Two-thirds of the popaU^
are dependent entirely on cultivation for their support, and 't-
is mainly rice on irrigated land. In the Yeyaman trad 1*
chief crop is rice. The great majority of the population a p=->
Burmese, but in the hills there are a good many Dana*, a c-j
between Suns and Burmese. The railway runs throngs '•-
centre of the rice-producing area, and feeder roads open ca ^
country as far as the Shan foot-hills. The greater part <* "
district consists of state land, the cultivators bang tesaat*
government, but there s a certain amount of hereditary fretV.
Kyauks£ town is situated on the Zawgyi Rjver and ea
Rangoon-Mandalay railway hue, and is well hud out in rt^J-
streets, covering an area of about a square mile IthasapofK*
tion (1001) of 5420, mostly Barmese, with a colony of 1**-
traders. Above it are some bare rocky hillocks, pactauesqa'
st udded with pagodas,
KYD, THOnTAS (1558-1504). one of the most important of -
Fi^lwh Elisabethan dramatists who preceded Shakesper
Kyd remained until the last decade of the loih century at «~
appeared likdy to be unpenetrable obsc u rity. Even his ax*
was forgotten until Thomas Hawkins about 2773 d isc o v eraf .'
conneTJon with The Spentsk Tragedy m Thomas tieyiK:
A fl g i e fm Actors. But by the industry of Enghsh and Got-
scholars a great deal of Hght has smce been thrown on ha -
and writings. He was the son of Franas Kyd, cittsen and s?
vener of London, and was ba pt is e d in the church of St if-"
Woolnoth, Lombard Street, on the 6th of November 1 55s *
mother, who survived her son, was named Agnes, or Ann*. ■
October 1 S65 Kyd entered the newly founded Merchant Ti) ** ,
School, where Edmund Spenser and perhaps Thomas Lodge » " ,
at different times his school-fellows. It is thought that K>i ,
not proceed to either of the universities, he apparently foh-f - ;
soon after leaving school, his father's business as a senw ;
But Nashe describes him as a ** shifting companion th*? - i
through every art and throve by none " He shovned a rant) •
range of reading in Latin. The author on whom he dra«» r - 1
frrdy is Seneca, but there arc many renwuscences, and ocm" i
ally mistransLitioQS of other authors, Kashe cooteirp:u.. '
id that <% English Seneca read by candlelight yeeJdes macr f
eoces,** no doubt exaggerating his indebtedness to Ti-c
00 's translation. John Lrly had a more marked isrr
manner than any of hts coo temporaries. It is beikrvev^
dnced ha famous play. The Sfiuusk rrognry. bctwect r;
J
KYFFHAUSER
959
and 1589; the quarto in the British Museum (which is probably
earlier than the Gottingen and EUesmere quartos, dated 1504
and 1509) is undated, and the play was licensed for the press in
1592. The full title runs, The Spanish Tragedie containing the
Lamentable End of Don Horatio and Bd-imperia; with the Pitiful
Death of Old Hieronimo, and the play is commonly referred to by
Henslowe and other contemporaries as Hieronimo. This drama
enjoyed all through the age of Elizabeth and even of James I.
and Charles I. so unflagging a success that it has been styled the
most popular of all old English plays. Certain expressions in
Nashe's preface to the 1589 edition of Robert Greene's Menaphon
may be said to have started a whole world of speculation with
regard to Kyd's activity. Much of this is still very puzzling; nor
is it really understood why Ben Jonson called him " sporting
Kyd. " In 1 59a there was added a sort of prologue to The Spanish
Tragedy, called The First Part of Jeronmo, or The Wanes of
Portugal, not printed till 1605? Professor Boas concludes that
Kyd had nothing to do with this melodramatic production, which
gives a different version of the story and presents Jeronimo
as little more than a buffoon. On the other hand, it becomes
more and more certain that what German criticism calls the Ur~
Hamlet, the original draft of the tragedy of the prince of Denmark,
was a lost work by Kyd, probably composed by him in 158?.
This theory has been very elaborately worked out by Professor
Sarrazin, and confirmed by Professor Boas; these scholars are
doubtless right in holding that traces of Kyd's play survive in
the first two acts of the 1603 first quarto of Hamlet, but they
probably go too far in attributing much of the actual language
of the last three acts to Kyd. Kyd's next work was in all prob-
ability the tragedy of Soliman and Perseda, written perhaps in
1588 and licensed for the press in 1592, which, although anony-
mous, is assigned to him on strong internal evidence by Mr Boas.
No copy of the first edition has come down to us; but it was re-
printed, after Kyd's death, in 1599. In the summer or autumn
of 1590 Kyd seems to have given up writing for the stage, and
to have entered the service of an unnamed lord, who employed
a troop of " players." Kyd was probably the private secretary
. of this nobleman, in whom Professor Boas sees Robert Radcliffe,
afterwards fifth earl of Sussex. To the wife of the earl (Bridget
Morison of Cassiobury) Kyd dedicated in the last year of his life
his translation of Garnier's Cornelia (1594), to the dedication of
which he attached his initials. Two prose works of the dramatist
, have survived, a treatise on domestic economy, The Householder's
Philosophy, translated from the Italian of Tasso (1588); and a
sensational account of The Most Wicked and Secret Murdering of
, John Brewer, Goldsmith (1592). His name is written on the
title-page of the unique copy of the last-named pamphlet . at
Lambeth, but probably not by his hand. That many of Kyd's
. plays and poems have been lost is proved by the fact that frag-
, ments exist, attributed to him, which are found in no surviving
' context. Towards the close of his life Kyd was brought into
: relations with Marlowe. It would seem that in 1 590, soon after
he entered the service of this nobleman, Kyd formed his acquaint-
' ance. If be is to be believed, he shrank at once from Marlowe as a
\ man " intemperate and of a cruel heart " and " irreligious." This,
\ however, was said by Kyd with the rope round his neck, and is
' scarcely consistent with a good deal of apparent intimacy between
f him and Marlowe. When, in May 1593, the " lewd libels " and
' " blasphemies " of Marlowe came before the notice of the Star
' Chamber, Kyd was immediately arrested, papers of his having
1 been found " shuffled " with some of Marlowe's, who was im-
5 prisoned awcek later. A visitation on Kyd's papers was made
' in consequence of his having attached a seditious libel to the
v wall of the Dutch churchyard in Austin Friars. Of this he was
c innocent, but there was found in his chamber a paper of " vile
heretical conceits denying the deity of Jesus Christ." Kyd was
1 arrested and put to the torture in Bridewell. He asserted that
* he knew nothing of this document and tried to shift the responsi-
bility of it upon Marlowe, but he was kept in prison until after
" the death of that poet (June x, 1593). When he was at length
' dismissed, his patron refused to take him back into his service.
He fell into utter destitution, and sank under the weight of " bitter
times and privy broken passions." He must have died late in
1594, and on the 30th of December of that year his parents re-
nounced their administration of the goods of their deceased son,
in a document of great importance discovered by Professor Schick.
The importance of Kyd, as the pioneer in the wonderful move-
ment of secular drama in England, gives great interest to his
works, and we are now able at last to assert what many critics
have long conjectured, that he takes in that movement the position
of a leader and almost of an inventor. Regarded from this point
of view, The Spanish Tragedy is a work of extraordinary value,
since it is the earliest specimen of effective stage poetry existing
in English literature. It had been preceded only by the pageant-
poems of Peek and Lyly, in which all that constitutes in the
modern sense theatrical technique and effective construction
was entirely absent. These gifts, in which the whole power of
the theatre as a place of general entertainment was to consist,
were supplied earliest among English playwrights to Kyd, and
were first exercised by him, so far as we can see, in 1586. This,
then, is a more or less definite starting date for Elizabethan drama,
and of peculiar value to its historians. Curiously enough, The
Spanish Tragedy, which was the earliest stage-play of the great
period, was also the most popular, and held its own right through
the careers of Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, and Fletcher. It was
not any shortcoming in its harrowing and exciting plot, but the
tarocness of its archaic versification, which probably led in 1602
to its receiving " additions," which have been a great stumbling-
block to the critics. It is known that Ben Jonson was paid for
these additional scenes, but they are extremely unlike all other
known writings of his, and several scholars have independently
conjectured that John Webster wrote them. Of Kyd himself it
seems needful to point out that neither the Germans nor even
Professor Boas seems to realize how little definite merit his poetry
has. He is important, not in himself, but as a pioneer. The
influence of Kyd is marked on all the immediate predecessors of
Shakespeare, and the bold way in which scenes of violent crime
were treated on the Elizabethan stage appears to be directly
owing to the example of Kyd's innovating genius. His relation
to Hamlet has already been noted, and Titus A ndronicus presents
and exaggerates so many of his characteristics that Mr Sidney
Lee and others have supposed that tragedy to be a work of Kyd's
touched up by Shakespeare. Professor Boas, however, brings
cogent objections against this theory, founding them on what he
considers the imitative inferiority of Titus Andronicus to The
Spanish, Tragedy. The German critics have pushed too far their
attempt to find indications of Kyd's influence on later plays
of Shakespeare. The extraordinary interest felt for Kyd in
Germany is explained by the fact that The Spanish Tragedy was
long the best known of all Elizabethan plays abroad. It was
acted at Frankfort in 1601, and published soon afterwards at
Nuremberg. It continued to be a stock piece in Germany until
the beginning of the x8th century; it was equally popular in
Holland, and potent in its effect upon Dutch dramatic literature.
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KYFFHAUSER, a double line of hills in Thuringia, Germany.
The northern part looks steeply down upon the valley of the
Goldene Aue, and is crowned by two ruined castles, Rothenburg
(r440 ft.) on the west, and Kyffhausen (154* ft-) on the east.
The latter, built probably in the xoth century, was frequently
the residence of the Hohenstaufen emperors, and was finally
destroyed in the i6lh century. The existing ruins are those of the
Oberburg with its tower, and of the Unterburg with its chapel
The hill is surmounted by an imposing monument to the emperor
William I., the equestrian statue of the emperor being 31 ft.
■ r --«r Hid rie hccfct of the «kk «o &- This was erected
: >* Acccclug uuoUad popular legend, the emperor
fvrixrzs. ftuaansa sts askep beside a xaarble table in the
*uer« =* the ■.■!■■■■. -r*—d W by ^^^"^
_ Gestae* fey when be snal awaken and lead the united
mtsxma of Germawr T""** ber imiia i ud » inaugurate
aHaefMenpfcds*"?- •* a Yogi has advanced cogent
, i<M1 i-ee ffat. Zcfesrs*. axii i3»-» 8 7) **" believing
t^Hhe real henaaf the legend » the other great Hohen-
rZitt eneree. F;ederick H, ■* Frederick h Around
^T^baiT cryscaiaed tbe nape ofthe <^«*»Pf^«.
^ • fcrntnerfaoked **he|» in tbe boar of their sorest need.
J£ i* * ~? Ac t3r legend of » sfambering f utare deUverer
.'_-.. mis Cnm«j Sinwtar hopes ding to tbe memory
y ^iir^Tsie^^a » b^ =*" Paderborn;to tbatoftbe
^Nteol^4 =* * bi =» Westphalia; to Siegfried, in tbe
^Ge^ecTa^ « H«y L, -* hill nearCoslar.
«•— p^-^r -to nnAtnr r*faf«Mr|r*rrfe (Etslebea, 1876);
, ^J^^JSr H^ri -* teK3f*£" (Mafdebore.
,v» .aac ; T'Sv^-*-? Rsdofstadt. 1882); A- Folda. Z>*
P* l wr - ™„ ..!^W^i4^J;aiKlAnemuUer,#:3^iw«'«'»d
__,, „ .£- 1640-1706), English actor, was
k ^'--Loodcni a»i «st afpeared in Rhodes's company, having
N^- LU Betrer:<*- a ckrt in Rhodcs's book-shop before he
KYNASTON— KYSHTYM
^r> Jt »** Cockpit in Drury Lane. Kynaston
b«5,
srt ^Lji^^ ibc he? *>i certainly the best of the male actors
Ij^ * -*• mns ** *« v "* ■** P* 1500 *! beauty admirably fined
^-^fts las: v*nak ?*** was Evadne in The Maid's Tragedy
. ^.fc v <cx**s company. In 1665 he was playing
?*** ^^fe p»— * at Covent Garden. He joined Betterton
TT-v-vV-V l-» FvaSs in 1695, after which he received less
^ - t «- ****v w*** 5 * m '699- He died in 1706, and was
r^V ^ .v -** ** J*«ttary.
CTMNK- * |w *** °* Dalhousie county, Victoria, Australia,
.V «»« var^ipe. 56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne.
** : Z^., - -«. It is the centre of a prosperous agricul-
% >- %-^wai district. Important stock sales and an
^ ^v,*.: v* of stock are held. There are, moreover,
****/^ A ^v <wartz reefs in the neighbourhood. Kyncton
wTV ** ^ ■ v> * °* l68? ft, » and the scener y oi ti* c district,
C x v :-vi>v^ i««« beautiful waterfalls, attracts visitors in
*" K ^^i |JK » F O (1831-1889), Japanese painter, was born
^ v . ;■ »v. pfovince of Shimotsuke, Japan, in 1831. After
* s ^ . >iK»rt time, as a boy, with Kuniyoshi, he received
., ...•t J Qg in tbe studio of Kan6 Dohaku, but soon
^ _ v k v«mal traditions of his master for the greater
* ,x. - > v jK?pular school. During the political ferment
"\^ ^x*.xW and followed the revolution of 1867, Kyosai
* ! ^ % v Ns*-^*rrable reputation as a caricaturist. He was
* J ^^ , *%<«Hd and imprisoned by the authorities of the
^. \vrt *fter the assumption of effective power by the
xV> \ 4 , v%v ,, vvngress of painters and men of letters was held,
' x % v yvs^o' *as present. He again expressed his opinion
v - » -«,'w»cnt »n * caricature, which had a great popular
v, . ,v«t tyvHifht him into the hands of tbe police —
,> V x^posite party. Kyosai must be considered
^ \*, wvv^y of Hokusai (of whom, however, be was
*nI a* the first political caricaturist of Japan.
.i<x W* hie— is somewhat wild and undisciplined,
t-~*
and "occasionaDy smacks of the seJd cnp." Bat H be *
not poswnt Hoknsai's dignity, power and reticence, be sb>
stitnted an exuberant fancy, which always leads interest n
draughtsmanship of very great trrhmral excellence, b
addition to his caricatures, Kyosai painted a barge necbo
of pictures and sketches, often choosing sabjects front ik
folk-lore of his country. A fine enflcnion of these works s
preserved in the British Museum; and there axe also pxc
examples in the National Art library at SovLh Kensxcrt:
and the Mnsee Gmmet at Paris. Among bis ihxstmted Ixkh
may be mentioned Y thorn, Taka-kafomn, lOustrations of Ha»k.
($ vob., 1870, ftc); Kydsn Gwafu (1880); AVsn Dcrtr:
Kytsd Rakn-gwa; Ky6sd RiaJtu-peo; Kytom, Mangw (1^1
Kydsai Snigma (1882); and Ky*s*i Gwoden (1687). The brr
b illnstrated by him under tbe name of Kawanabe Tdyofc:.
and two of its four volumes are devoted to an a c count of L:
own art and life. He died in «88o.
See Goimet (£.) and Refamey (F). Pfmtn*4nj*p+wcha (Paris
1880) ; Anderson (W.).Cct2*zm tf Japamts* Prntrnttm^ «■ tie Bni •
Museum (London, 1886) ; Mortimer Mcatpem, " A Personal VV*
Japanese Art: A Lesson from Kyosai/^ Mat/sine of Art <.!""
(E. F. S.,
KYRIE (in full hyrie dehon, or dctson, Gr. fi-pu <\bfco* d
Ps. exxii. 3, Matt. xv. 22, &c f meaning " Lord, have mcrc> *"
the words of petition used at the beginning of tbe Mass a^d _
other offices of the Eastern and Roman Churches. In '-•
Anglican Book of Common Prayer the Kyrie is introdc
into the orders for Morning and Evening Prayer, and also, v
an additional petition, as a response made by the congrega'
after the reading of each of tbe Ten Commandments at :
opening of the Communion Service. These responses ±:
usually sung, and the name Kyrie is thus also applied to tk-- '
musical setting. In the Lutheran Church the Kyrie is s^
said or sung in the original Greek. " K^elle," a shore-*-
form of Kyrie eUison, is applied to eight-syllabled four-line rersti
the last line in each verse being repeated as a refrain.
KTRLB, JOHN (1637-1724), "the Man of Ross," Ecpl"
philanthropist, was born in the parish of Dymock, Gloucer '
shire, on the 22nd of May 1637. His father was a barr>r
and M.P., and the family had lived at Ross, in Hereford^ -.
for many generations. He was educated at Bailioi Cc-Hv;
Oxford, and having succeeded to the property at Ross •-»
up his abode there. In everything that concerned the v :!--•:
of the little town in which he lived he took a lively inrerot-
in the education of the children, the distribution of ih~- '
improving and embellishing the town. He delight ed in medir -•
between those who had quarrelled and in preventing lavs.
He was generous to the poor and spent all he had in good * :^
He lived a great deal in the open air working with the labors
on his farm. He died on the 7th of November 1724, and »-
buried in the chancel of Ross Church. His memory b re-
served by the Kyrie Society, founded in 1877, to better **
lot of working people, by laying out parks, encouraging S.
decoration, window gardening and flower growing. Ross «£
eulogized by Pope in the third Moral EpislU (173*), and -
Coleridge in an early poem (1704).
KYSHTYM, a town of Russia, in the government of rV>-
56 m. by rail N.N.W. of Chelyabinsk, on a river of the si-
name which connects two lakes. Pop. (1897), 12*331. T
official name is Verkhnc-Kyshtyniskiy-Zavod, or Upper KyskT
Works, to distinguish it from the Lower (Nizhnc) Ky&>?
Works, situated two miles lower down the same river.
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